Rust is a new language that already has good textbooks. However, sometimes the textbooks are difficult to understand because they are written for native English speakers. Many companies and people in other countries now want to learn Rust, and could learn faster with a textbook that uses easy English. This textbook is for these companies and people to learn Rust without difficult English.
Maybe you don't want to install Rust yet, and that's fine. You can just go to https://play.rust-lang.org/ and start writing Rust. You can write your code and click Run to see the results fast.
* Change Debug to Release if you want your code to be faster. Debug: compiles faster, runs slower, contains debug information. Release: compiles slower, runs much faster, removes debug information.
* Click on Share to get a url. You can use that to share your code if you want help.
* Tools: Rustfmt will format your code nicely.
* Tools: Clippy will give you extra information about how to make your code better.
* Config: here you can change your theme to dark mode, and many other configurations.
If you want to install Rust, go here https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install and follow the instructions. Usually you will use ```rustup``` to install and update Rust.
Rust has simple types that are called **primitive types**. We will start with integers. Integers are whole numbers with no decimal point. There are two types of integers:
Signs are ```+``` and ```-```, so signed integers can be positive or negative (e.g. +8, -8). But unsigned integers can only be positive, because they do not have a sign.
The signed integers are: ```i8```, ```i16```, ```i32```, ```i64```, ```i128```, and ```isize```.
The unsigned integers are: ```u8```, ```u16```, ```u64```, ```u128```, and ```usize```.
The number after the i or the u means the number of bits for the number, so numbers with more bits can be larger. 8 bits = one byte, so i8 is one byte, i64 is 8 bytes, and so on. Number types with larger sizes can hold larger numbers. For example, a u8 can hold up to 255, but a u16 can hold up to 65535. And a u128 can hold up to 340282366920938463463374607431768211455.
So what is ```isize``` and ```usize```? This means the number of bits on your type of computer. (This is called the **architecture** of your computer) So ```isize``` and ```usize``` on a 32-bit computer is like ```i32``` and ```u32```, and ```isize``` and ```usize``` on a 64-bit computer is like ```i64``` and ```u64```.
There are many uses for the different types of integers. One use is computer performance: a smaller number of bytes is faster to process. But here are some other uses:
Characters in Rust are called ```char```. ```u8``` numbers only go up to 255, and Unicode and ASCII are the same for these numbers. This means that Rust can safely **cast** a ```u8``` into a ```char```, using ```as```. (Cast ```u8``` as ```char``` means "pretend ```u8``` is a ```char```")
error[E0604]: only `u8` can be cast as `char`, not `i32`
--> src\main.rs:3:20
|
3 | println!("{}", my_number as char);
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
```
One easy way to fix this is with ```as```. First we use ```as``` to make my_number a ```u8```, then one more ```as``` to make it a ```char```. Now it will compile:
A ```char``` is one character. For a ```char```, use ```''``` instead of ```""```.
All chars are 4 bytes. They are 4 bytes because some characters in a string are more than one byte. For example:
```rust
fn main() {
let slice = "Hello!";
println!("Slice is {:?} bytes.", std::mem::size_of_val(slice));
let slice2 = "안녕!"; // Korean for "hi"
println!("Slice2 is {:?} bytes.", std::mem::size_of_val(slice2));
}
```
```slice``` is six characters in length and six bytes, but ```slice2``` is three characters in length and seven bytes. ```char``` needs to fit any character in any language, so it is 4 bytes long.
Type inference means that if you don't tell the compiler the type, but it can decide by itself, it will decide. The compiler always needs to know the type of the variables, but you don’t always need to tell it. For example, for ```let my_number = 8```, ```my_number``` will be an ```i32``` (the compiler chooses i32 for integers if you don't tell it). But if you say ```let my_number: u8 = 8```, it will make ```my_number``` a ```u8```, because you told it ```u8```.
But the types are not called ```float```, they are called ```f32``` and ```f64```. It is the same as integers: the number after ```f``` shows the number of bits. If you don't write the type, Rust will choose ```f64```.
```println!``` is a **macro** that prints to the console. A **macro** is like a function, but more complicated. Macros have a ```!``` after them. We will learn about making macros later. For now, please remember that ```!``` means that it is a macro.
To learn about the ```;```, we will create another function. First, in ```main``` we will print a number 8:
```rust
fn main() {
println!("Hello, world number {}!", 8);
}
```
The ```{}``` in ```println!``` means "put the variable inside here". This prints ```Hello world number 8```.
We can put more in:
```rust
fn main() {
println!("Hello, worlds number {} and {}!", 8, 9);
}
```
This prints ```Hello, worlds number 8 and 9!```.
Now let's create the function.
```rust
fn main() {
println!("Hello, world number {}", number());
}
fn number() -> i32 {
8
}
```
This also prints ```Hello, world number 8!```. When Rust looks at ```number()``` it sees a function. This function:
- Does not take anything (because it has ```()```)
Inside the function is just ```8```. Because there is no ```;```, this is the value it returns. If it had a ```;```, it would not return anything. Rust will not compile if it has a ```;```:
```rust
fn main() {
println!("Hello, world number {}", number());
}
fn number() -> i32 {
8;
}
```
```rust
5 | fn number() -> i32 {
| ------ ^^^ expected `i32`, found `()`
| |
| implicitly returns `()` as its body has no tail or `return` expression
6 | 8;
| - help: consider removing this semicolon
```
This means "you told me that ```number()``` returns an ```i32```, but you added a ```;``` so it doesn't return anything". So the compiler suggests removing the semicolon.
Use ```let``` to declare a variable (declare a variable = tell Rust to make a variable).
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 8;
println!("Hello, number {}", my_number);
}
```
Variables start and end inside a code block ```{}```. In this example, ```my_number``` ends before we call ```println!```, because it is inside its own code block.
```rust
fn main() {
{
let my_number = 8; // my_number starts here
// my_number ends here!
}
println!("Hello, number {}", my_number); // there is no my_number and
second_number + 9 // No semicolon, so the code block returns 8 + 9
};
println!("My number is: {}", my_number);
}
```
If you add a semicolon inside the block, it will return ```()``` (nothing):
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = {
let second_number = 8; // declare second_number,
second_number + 9; // add 9 to second_number
// but we didn't return it!
// second_number dies now
};
println!("My number is: {:?}", my_number);
}
```
So why did we write ```{:?}``` and not ```{}```? We will talk about that now.
# Display and debug
Simple variables in Rust can be printed with ```{}``` inside ```println!()```. But some variables can't, and you need to **debug print**. Debug print is printing for the programmer, because it usually shows more information.
3 | println!("This will not print: {}", doesnt_print);
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `()` cannot be formatted with the default formatter
|
= help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `()`
= note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead
= note: required by `std::fmt::Display::fmt`
= note: this error originates in a macro (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info)
```
This is a lot of information. But the important part is: ```you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead```. This means that you can try ```{:?}```, and also ```{:#?}``` (```{:#?}``` prints with different formatting).
So Display means printing with ```{}```, and Debug means printing with ```{:?}```.
One more thing: you can also use print!() without ```ln``` if you don't want a new line.
```rust
fn main() {
print!("This will not print a new line");
println!(" so this will be on the same line");
}
```
This prints ```This will not print a new line so this will be on the same line```.
When you declare a variable with ```let```, it is immutable (cannot be changed).
This will not work:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 8;
my_number = 10;
}
```
The compiler says: ```error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `my_number```. This is because variables are immutable if you only write ```let```.
To change a variable, add ```mut```:
```rust
fn main() {
let mut my_number = 8;
my_number = 10;
}
```
Now there is no problem.
However, you cannot change the type even with ```mut```. This will not work:
Shadowing means using ```let``` to declare a new variable with the same name as another variable. It looks like mutability, but it is completely different. Shadowing looks like this:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 8; // This is an i32
println!("{}", my_number); // prints 8
let my_number = 9.2; // This is an f64. It is not my_number - it is completely different!
println!("{}", my_number) // Prints 9.2
}
```
Here we say that we "shadowed" ```my_number``` with a new "let binding".
So is the first ```my_number``` destroyed? No, but when we call ```my_number``` we now get ```my_number``` the ```f64```. And because they are in the same scope block, we can't see the first ```my_number``` anymore.
But if they are in different blocks, we can see both. For example:
So when you shadow a variable, you don't destroy it. You **block** it.
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 8; // This is an i32
println!("{}", my_number); // prints 8
{
let my_number = 9.2; // This is an f64. It is not my_number - it is completely different!
println!("{}", my_number) // Prints 9.2
// But the shadowed my_number only lives until here.
// The first my_number is still alive!
}
println!("{}", my_number); // prints 8
}
```
So what is the advantage of shadowing? Shadowing is good when you need to change a variable a lot.
```rust
fn main() {
let final_number = {
let y = 10;
let x = 9; // x starts at 9
let x = times_two(x); // shadow with new x: 18
let x = x + y; // shadow with new x: 28
x // return x: final_number is now the value of x
};
println!("The number is now: {}", final_number)
}
fn times_two(number: i32) -> i32 {
number * 2
}
```
Without shadowing you would have to think of different names, even though you don't care about x:
```rust
fn main() {
// Pretending we are using Rust without shadowing
let final_number = {
let y = 10;
let x = 9; // x starts at 9
let x_twice = times_two(x); // second name for x
let x_twice_and_y = x + y; // third name for x
x_twice_and_y // too bad we didn't have shadowing - we could have just used x
The stack, the heap, and pointers are very important in Rust.
The stack and the heap are two places to keep memory. The important differences are:
* The stack is very fast, but the heap is not so fast.
* The stack needs to know the size of a variable at compile time. So simple variables like i32 go on the stack, because we know their exact size.
* Some types don't know the size at compile time. But the stack needs to know the exact size. What do you do? You put the data in the heap, because the heap can have any size of data. And to find it, a pointer goes on the stack, because we always know the size of a pointer.
A pointer is like a table of contents in a book.
```
MY BOOK
Chapter Page
Chapter 1: My life 1
Chapter 2: My cat 15
Chapter 3: My job 23
Chapter 4: My family 30
Chapter 5: Future plans 43
```
So this is like five pointers. Where is the chapter "My life"? It's on page 1 (it points to page 1). Where is the chapter "My job?" It's on page 23.
A pointer in Rust is usually called a **reference**. A reference means you *borrow* the value, but you don't own it. In Rust, references have a ```&```. So ```let my_variable = 8``` makes a regular variable, but ```let my_reference = &my_variable``` makes a reference. This means that ```my_reference``` is only looking at the data of ```my_variable```. ```my_variable``` still owns its data.
We know that ```println!``` can print with ```{}``` (for Display) and ```{:?}``` (for Debug), plus ```{:#?}``` for pretty printing. But there are many other ways to print.
For example, if you have a reference, you can use {:p} to print the pointer address.
```ref
fn main() {
let number = 9;
let number_ref = &number;
println!("{:p}", number_ref);
}
```
This prints ```0xe2bc0ffcfc``` or some other address (it can be different every time).
println!("This is {1} {2}, son of {0} {2}.", father_name, son_name, family_name);
}
```
```father_name``` is in position 0, ```son_name``` is in position 1, and ```family_name``` is in position 2. So it prints ```This is Adrian Fahrenheit Țepeș, son of Vlad Țepeș```.
Maybe you have a very complex string to print and want to add names to the ```{}```. You can do that:
```rust
fn main() {
println!("{city1} is in {country} and {city2} is also in {country},
but {city3} is not in {country}.", city1 = "Seoul", city2 = "Busan", city3 = "Tokyo", country = "Korea");
* Do you want a padding character? ```{:ㅎ^11}``` Yes. ㅎ comes after the ```:``` and has a ```^```. ```<``` means padding with the character on the left, ```>``` means on the right, and ```^``` means in the middle.
Rust has two main types of strings: ```String``` and ```&str```. What is the difference?
* ```&str``` is a simple string. When you write ```let my_variable = "Hello, world!"```, you create a ```&str```. A ```&str``` is very fast.
* ```String``` is a more complicated string. It is a bit slower, and has more functions. A ```String``` is a pointer, with data on the heap.
Both ```&str``` and ```String``` are UTF-8. For example, you can write:
```rust
fn main() {
let name = "서태지"; // This is a Korean name. No problem, because a &str is UTF-8.
let other_name = String::from("Adrian Fahrenheit Țepeș"); // Ț and ș are no problem in UTF-8.
}
```
You can even write emojis thanks to UTF-8.
```rust
fn main() {
let name = "😂";
println!("My name is actually {}", name);
}
```
So why do we need a ```&``` in front of ```str```, but not for ```String```?
* ```str``` is a dynamically sized type (dynamically sized = the size can be different). For example, the names "서태지" and "Adrian Fahrenheit Țepeș" are not the same size on the stack:
```rust
fn main() {
println!("A String is always {:?} bytes. It is Sized.", std::mem::size_of::<String>()); // std::mem::size_of::<Type>() gives you the size in bytes of a type
println!("And an i8 is always {:?} bytes. It is Sized.", std::mem::size_of::<i8>());
println!("And an f64 is always {:?} bytes. It is Sized.", std::mem::size_of::<f64>());
println!("But a &str? It can be anything. '서태지' is {:?} bytes. It is not Sized.", std::mem::size_of_val("서태지")); // std::mem::size_of_val() gives you the size in bytes of a variable
println!("And 'Adrian Fahrenheit Țepeș' is {:?} bytes. It is not Sized.", std::mem::size_of_val("Adrian Fahrenheit Țepeș"));
}
```
That is why we need a &, because ```&``` makes a pointer, and Rust knows the size of the pointer. So the pointer goes on the stack. If we wrote ```str```, Rust wouldn't know what to do because it doesn't know the size.
References are very important in Rust. Rust uses references to make sure that all memory access is safe. We know that we use ```&``` to create a reference:
```rust
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Austria");
let ref_one = &country;
let ref_two = &country;
println!("{}", ref_one);
}
```
```country``` is a ```String```. We created two references to ```country```. They have the type ```&String```: a "reference to a String". We could create one hundred references to ```country``` and it would be no problem.
But this is a problem:
```rust
fn main() {
let country = return_str();
}
fn return_str() -> &str {
let country = String::from("Austria");
let country_ref = &country;
country_ref
}
```
The function ```return_str()``` creates a String, then it creates a reference to the string. Then it tries to return the reference. But ```country``` only lives inside the function. So after the function is over, ```country_ref``` is referring to memory that is already gone. Rust prevents us from making a mistake with memory.
# Mutable references
If you want to use a reference to change data, you can use a mutable reference. For a mutable reference, you write ```&mut```.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut my_number = 8; // don't forget to write mut here!
let num_ref = &mut my_number;
}
```
So what are the two types? ```my_number``` is an ```i32```, and ```num_ref``` is ```&mut i32``` (a "mutable reference to an i32).
So let's use it to add 10 to my_number. But you can't write ```num_ref += 10```, because ```num_ref``` is not the ```i32``` value. To reach the value, we use ```*```. ```*``` means "I don't want the reference, I want the value behind the reference". In other words, one ```*``` erases one ```&```.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut my_number = 8;
let num_ref = &mut my_number;
*num_ref += 10; // Use * to change the i32 value.
println!("{}", my_number);
}
```
Because using ```&``` is called "referencing", using ```*``` is called "**de**referencing".
Rust has rules for mutable and immutable references.
Rule 1: If you have only immutable references, you can have as many as you want.
Rule 2: If you have a mutable references, you can only have one. You can't have an immutable reference **and** a mutable reference.
This is because mutable references can change the data. You could get problems if you change the data when other references are reading it.
A good way to understand is to think of a Powerpoint presentation.
Situation one is about only one mutable reference.
Situation one: An employee is writing a Powerpoint presentation. He wants his manager to help him. The employee gives his login information to his manager, and asks him to help by making edits. Now the manager has a "mutable reference" to the employee's presentation. This is fine, because nobody else is looking at the presentation.
Situation two is about only immutable references.
Situation two: The employee is giving the presentation to 100 people. All 100 people can now see the employee's data. This is fine, because nobody can change the data.
Situation three is the problem situation.
Situation three: The Employee his manager his login information. Then the employee went to give the presentation to 100 people. This is not fine, because the manager can log in and do anything. Maybe his manager will log into the computer and type an email to his mother? Now the 100 people have to watch the manager write an email to his mother instead of the presentation. That's not what they expected to see.
Here is an example of a mutable borrow with an immutable borrow:
```rust
fn main() {
let mut number = 10;
let number_ref = &number;
let number_change = &mut number;
*number_change += 10;
println!("{}", number_ref);
}
```
The compiler prints a helpful message to show us the problem.
```
error[E0502]: cannot borrow `number` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immutable
--> src\main.rs:4:25
|
3 | let number_ref = &number;
| ------- immutable borrow occurs here
4 | let number_change = &mut number;
| ^^^^^^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here
5 | *number_change += 10;
6 | println!("{}", number_ref);
| ---------- immutable borrow later used here
```
However, this code will work. Why?
```rust
fn main() {
let mut number = 10;
let number_change = &mut number; // create a mutable reference
*number_change += 10; // use mutable reference to add 10
let number_ref = &number; // create an immutable reference
println!("{}", number_ref); // print the immutable reference
The compiler knows that we used ```number_change``` to change ```number```, but didn't use it again. So here there is no problem. We are not using immutable and mutable references together.
Remember when we said that shadowing doesn't **destroy** a value but **blocks** it? Now we can use references to see this.
```rust
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Austria");
let country_ref = &country;
let country = 8;
println!("{}, {}", country_ref, country);
}
```
Does this print ```Austria, 8``` or ```8, 8```? It prints ```Austria, 8```. First we declare a ```String``` called ```country```. Then we create a reference ```country_ref``` to this string. Then we shadow country with 8, which is an ```i32```. But the first ```country``` was not destroyed, so ```country_ref``` still says "Austria", not "8".
References are very useful for functions. The rule in Rust on variables is: a variable can only have one owner.
This code will not work:
```ref
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Austria");
print_country(country); // We print "Austria"
print_country(country); // That was fun, let's do it again!
}
fn print_country(country_name: String) {
println!("{}", country_name);
}
```
It does not work because ```country``` is destroyed. Here's how:
- Step 1: We create the ```String``` ```country```. ```country``` is the owner.
- Step 2: We give ```country``` to ```print_country```. ```print_country``` doesn't have an ```->```, so it doesn't return anything. After ```print_country``` finishes, our ```String``` is now dead.
- Step 3: We try to give ```country``` to ```print_country```, but we already did that. We don't have ```country``` to give anymore.
We can fix this by adding ```&```.
```ref
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Austria");
print_country(&country); // We print "Austria"
print_country(&country); // That was fun, let's do it again!
}
fn print_country(country_name: &String) {
println!("{}", country_name);
}
```
Now ```print_country()``` is a function that takes a reference to a ```String```: a ```&String```. Also, we give it a reference to country by writing ```&country```. This says "you can look at it, but I will keep it".
Here is an example of a function that uses a mutable variable.
```ref
fn main() {
let mut country = String::from("Austria");
add_hungary(&mut country);
}
fn add_hungary(country_name: &mut String) {
country_name.push_str("-Hungary"); // push_str() adds a &str to a String
* ```fn function_name(variable: String)``` takes a ```String``` and owns it. If it doesn't return anything, then the variable dies after the function is done.
* ```fn function_name(variable: &String)``` borrows a ```String``` and can look at it
* ```fn function_name(variable: &mut String)``` borrows a ```String``` and can change it
Here is an example that looks like a mutable reference, but it is different.
```rust
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Austria"); // country is not mutable
adds_hungary(country);
}
fn adds_hungary(mut country: String) { // but adds_hungary takes the string and it is mutable!
country.push_str("-Hungary");
println!("{}", country);
}
```
How is this possible? It is because ```mut hungary``` is not a reference: ```adds_hungary``` owns ```country``` now. (Remember, it takes ```String``` and not ```&String```). ```adds_hungary``` is the full owner, so it can take ```country``` as mutable.
Some types in Rust are very simple. They are called **copy types**. These simple types are all on the stack, and the compiler knows their size. That means that they are very easy to copy, so the compiler always copies when you send it to a function. So you don't need to worry about ownership.
These simple types include: integers, floats, booleans (true and false), and char.
How do you know if a type **implements** copy? (implements = can use) You can check the documentation. For example, here is the documentation for char:
https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/primitive.char.html
On the left you can see **Trait Implementations**. You can see for example **Copy**, **Debug**, and **Display**. So you know that a ```char```:
* is copied when you send it to a function (**Copy**)
* can use ```{}``` to print (**Display**)
* can use ```{:?}``` to print (**Debug**)
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 8;
prints_number(my_number); // Prints 8. prints_number gets a copy of my_number
prints_number(my_number); // Prints 8 again.
// No problem, because my_number is copy type!
}
prints_number(number: i32) { // No return with ->
// If number was not copy type, it would take it
// and we couldn't use it again
println!("{}", number);
}
```
But if you look at the documentation for String, it is not copy type.
On the left in **Trait Implementations** you can look in alphabetical order. A, B, C... there is no **Copy** in C. But there is **Clone**. **Clone** is similar to **Copy**, but needs more memory.
In this example, ```prints_country()``` prints the country name, a ```String```. We want to print it two times, but we can't:
```rust
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Kiribati");
prints_country(country);
prints_country(country);
}
fn prints_country(country_name: String) {
println!("{}", country_name);
}
```
But now we understand the message.
```
error[E0382]: use of moved value: `country`
--> src\main.rs:4:20
|
2 | let country = String::from("Kiribati");
| ------- move occurs because `country` has type `std::string::String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait
3 | prints_country(country);
| ------- value moved here
4 | prints_country(country);
| ^^^^^^^ value used here after move
```
The important part is ```which does not implement the `Copy` trait```. But in the documentation we saw that String implements the Clone trait. So we can add ```.clone()```. This creates a clone, and we send the clone to the function. ```country``` is still alive, so we can use it.
```rust
fn main() {
let country = String::from("Kiribati");
prints_country(country.clone()); // make a clone and give it to the function
prints_country(country);
}
fn prints_country(country_name: String) {
println!("{}", country_name);
}
```
Of course, if the ```String``` is very large, ```.clone()``` can use a lot of memory. For example, one ```String``` can be a whole book, and every time we call ```.clone()``` it will copy the book. So using ```&``` for a reference is faster, if you can.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut country = String::from("Kiribati"); // country is mutable
let country_ref = &country; // country_ref needs a reference
changes_country(&mut country); // changes_country needs a &mut ref
println!("{}", country_ref); // immutable and mutable borrow together
}
fn prints_country(country_name: String) {
println!("{}", country_name);
}
fn changes_country(country_name: &mut String) {
country_name.push_str(" is a country");
println!("{}", country_name);
}
```
Maybe we can change the order, but we can also just ```.clone()```.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut country = String::from("Kiribati"); // country is mutable
let country_ref = &country; // country_ref needs a reference
changes_country(&mut country.clone()); // give changes_country a clone instead
println!("{}", country_ref); // now the code works
An array is data inside square brackets: ```[]```. Arrays:
* must not change their size,
* must only contain the same type.
They are very fast, however.
The type of an array is: ```[type; number]```. For example, the type of ["One", "Two"] is [&std; 2]. This means that even these two arrays have different types:
```rust
let array1 = ["One", "Two"];
let array["One", "Two", "Five"];
```
A good tip: to know the type of a variable, you can "ask" the compiler by giving it bad instructions. For example:
```rust
fn main() {
let seasons = ["Spring", "Summer", "Autumn", "Winter"];
let seasons2 = ["Spring", "Summer", "Fall", "Autumn", "Winter"];
let () = seasons; // This will make an error
let () = seasons2; // This will also make an error
}
```
The compiler says "seasons isn't type () and seasons2 isn't type () either!" as you can see:
```
error[E0308]: mismatched types
--> src\main.rs:4:9
|
4 | let () = seasons;
| ^^ ------- this expression has type `[&str; 4]`
| |
| expected array `[&str; 4]`, found `()`
error[E0308]: mismatched types
--> src\main.rs:5:9
|
5 | let () = seasons2;
| ^^ -------- this expression has type `[&str; 5]`
This method is used a lot to create buffers. For example, ```let mut buffer = [0; 640]``` creates an array of 640 zeroes. Then we can change zero to other numbers in order to add data.
In the same way that we have &str and String, we have arrays and vectors. Arrays are faster with less functionality, and vectors are slower with more functionality. The type is written ```Vec```.
There are two main ways to declare a vector. One is like with ```String``` using ```new```:
```rust
fn main() {
let name1 = String::from("Windy");
let name2 = String::from("Gomesy");
let mut my_vec = Vec::new();
// If we run the program now, the compiler will give an error.
// It doesn't know the type of vec.
my_vec.push(name1); // Now it knows: it's Vec<String>
my_vec.push(name2);
}
```
Or you can just declare the type.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut my_vec: Vec<String> = Vec::new(); // The compiler knows the type
// so there is no error.
}
```
You can see that items in vectors must have the same type.
Another easy way to create a vector is with the ```vec!``` macro. It looks like an array declaration, but has ```vec!``` in front of it.
The type is ```Vec<i32>```. You call it a "vec of i32s". And a Vec<String> is a "vec of strings". And a Vec<Vec<String>> is a "vec of a vec of strings".
You can slice a vector too, just like in an array.
Because a vec is slower than an array, we can use some methods to make it faster. A vec has a **capacity**, which means the space given to the vector. If you add more to a vector than its capacity, it will make its capacity double and copy the items into the new space. This is called reallocation.
For example:
```rust
fn main() {
let mut num_vec = Vec::new();
num_vec.push('a'); // add one character
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 1
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 2
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 4. It has three elements, but capacity is 4
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more // Now we have 5 elements
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // Now capacity is 8
}
```
So this vector has three reallocations: 1 to 2, 2 to 4, and 4 to 8. We can make it faster:
```rust
fn main() {
let mut num_vec = Vec::with_capacity(8); // Give it capacity 8
num_vec.push('a'); // add one character
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 8
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 8
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // prints 8.
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more
num_vec.push('a'); // add one more // Now we have 5 elements
println!("{}", num_vec.capacity()); // Still 8
}
```
This vector has 0 reallocations, which is better. So if you think you know how many elements you need, you can use Vec::with_capacity() to make it faster.
# Tuples
Tuples in Rust use ```()```. We have seen many empty tuples already. ```fn do_something() {}``` has an empty tuple. Also, when you don't return anything in a function, you actually return an empty tuple.
```rust
fn main() {
}
fn just_prints() {
println!("I am printing"); // Adding ; means we return an empty tuple
}
```
But tuples can hold many things, and can hold different types too. To access the items inside of a tuple, don't use ```[]```, use ```.```.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut new_vec = Vec::new();
new_vec.push('a');
let random_tuple = ("Here is a name", 8, new_vec, 'b', [8, 9, 10], 7.7);
let (a, b, c) = (str_vec[0], str_vec[1], str_vec[2]);
println!("{:?}", b);
}
```
There are many more collection types, and many more ways to use arrays, vecs, and tuples. We will learn more about them. But first we will learn control flow.
# Control flow
Control flow means telling your code what to do in different situations. The simplest control flow is ```if```.
```
fn main() {
let my_number = 5;
if my_number == 7 {
println!("It's seven");
}
}
```
Please note that we wrote ```if my_number == 7``` and not ```if (my_number == 7)```. You don't need ```()``` with ```if``` in Rust.
```else if``` and ```else``` gives you more control:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number = 5;
if my_number == 7 {
println!("It's seven");
} else if my_number == 6 {
println!("It's six")
} else {
println!("It's a different number")
}
}
```
You can add more conditions with ```&&``` (and) and ```||``` (or).
Too much ```if```, ```else```, and ```else if``` can be difficult to read. You can use ```match``` instead. But you must match for every possible result. For example, this will not work:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number: u8 = 5;
match my_number {
0 => println!("it's zero"),
1 => println!("it's one"),
2 => println!("it's two"),
}
}
```
The compiler says:
```
error[E0004]: non-exhaustive patterns: `3u8..=std::u8::MAX` not covered
--> src\main.rs:3:11
|
3 | match my_number {
| ^^^^^^^^^ pattern `3u8..=std::u8::MAX` not covered
```
This means "you told me about 0 to 2, but u8s can go up to 255. What about 3? What about 4? What about 5?" And so on. So you can add ```_``` which means "anything else".
```rust
fn main() {
let my_number: u8 = 5;
match my_number {
0 => println!("it's zero"),
1 => println!("it's one"),
2 => println!("it's two"),
_ => println!("It's some other number"),
}
}
```
Remember this for match:
* You write ```match``` and then make a ```{}``` code block.
* Write the pattern on the left and use a ```=>``` fat arrow to say what to do when it matches.
With structs, you can create your own type. Structs are created with the keyword ```struct```. The name of a struct should be in UpperCamelCase (capital letter for each word, no spaces).
There are three types of structs. One is a "unit struct". Unit means "doesn't have anything".
```rust
struct FileDirectory;
```
The next is a ```tuple struct```, or an ```unnamed struct```. It is "unnamed" because you only need to write the types, not the variable names. Tuple structs are good when you need a simple struct and don't need to remember names.
```rust
struct Colour(u8, u8, u8);
fn main() {
let my_colour = Colour(50, 0, 50); // Make a colour out of RGB (red, green, blue)
println!("The second part of the colour is: {}", my_colour.1);
}
```
The third type is the named struct. This is probably the most common struct. In this struct you declare variable names and types inside a ```{}```code block.
struct Colour(u8, u8, u8); // Declare the same Colour tuple struct
struct SizeAndColour {
size: u32,
colour: Colour, // And we put it in our new named struct
}
fn main() {
let my_colour = Colour(50, 0, 50);
let size_and_colour = SizeAndColour {
size: 150,
colour: my_colour
};
}
```
Let's create a ```Country``` struct to give an example. The ```Country``` struct has the fields ```population```, ```capital```, and ```leader_name```.
```rust
struct Country {
population: u32,
capital: String,
leader_name: String
}
fn main() {
let population = 500_000;
let capital = String::from("Elist");
let leader_name = String::from("Batu Khasikov");
let kalmykia = Country {
population: population,
capital: capital,
leader_name: leader_name,
};
}
```
Did you notice that we wrote the same thing twice? Actually, you don't need to do that. If the field name and variable name are the same, you don't have to write it twice.
With loops you can tell Rust to continue something until you want it to stop. With ```loop``` you can start a loop that does not stop, unless you tell it when to ```break```.
```rust
fn main() { // This program will never stop
loop {
}
}
```
So let's tell the compiler when it can break.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut counter = 0; // set a counter to 0
loop {
counter +=1; // increase the counter by 1
println!("The counter is now: {}", counter);
if counter == 5 { // stop when counter == 5
break;
}
}
}
```
This will print:
```
The counter is now: 1
The counter is now: 2
The counter is now: 3
The counter is now: 4
The counter is now: 5
```
If you have a loop inside of a loop, you can give them names. With names, you can tell Rust which loop to ```break``` out of. Use ```'``` (called a "tick") and a ```:``` to give it a name:
```rust
fn main() {
let mut counter = 0;
let mut counter2 = 0;
println!("Now entering the first loop.");
'first_loop: loop { // Give the first loop a name
counter +=1;
println!("The counter is now: {}", counter);
if counter > 9 { // Starts a second loop inside this loop
println!("Now entering the second loop.");
'second_loop: loop { // now we are inside `second_loop
println!("The second counter is now: {}", counter2);
counter2 +=1;
if counter2 == 3 {
break 'first_loop; // Break out of `first_loop so we can exit the program
}
}
}
}
}
```
A ```while``` loop is a loop that continues while something is still ```true```. Each loop, Rust will check if it is still ```true```. If it becomes ```false```, Rust will stop the loop.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut counter = 0;
while counter <5{
counter +=1;
println!("The counter is now: {}", counter);
}
}
```
A ```for``` loop lets you tell Rust what to do each time. But in a ```for``` loop, the loop stops after a certain number of times. ```for``` loops use **ranges** very often. You use ```..``` and ```..=``` to create a range.
Also notice that ```number``` becomes the variable name for 0..3. We can then use that name in ```println!```.
If you don't need a variable name, use ```_```.
```rust
fn main() {
for _ in 0..3 {
println!("Printing the same thing three times");
}
}
```
Actually, if you give a variable name and don't use it, Rust will tell you:
```rust
fn main() {
for number in 0..3 {
println!("Printing the same thing three times");
}
}
```
This is not an error, but Rust will remind you that you didn't use ```number```:
```rust
warning: unused variable: `number`
--> src\main.rs:2:9
|
2 | for number in 0..3 {
| ^^^^^^ help: if this is intentional, prefix it with an underscore: `_number`
```
Rust also suggests ```_number```. Putting ```_``` in front of a variable name means "maybe I will use it later". But using just ```_``` means "I don't care about this variable at all".
To call functions on a ```struct``` or an ```enum```, use an ```impl``` block. These functions are called **methods**. There are two kinds of methods in an ```impl``` block.
* Regular methods: these take **self** (or **&self** or **&mut self**). Regular methods use a ```.```. ```.clone()``` is a regular method.
* Associated methods (or "static" methods): these do not take self. They are written differently, using ```::```. ```String::from()``` is an associated method. You usually use associated methods to create new variables.
In our example we are going to create animals and print them. For a new struct or enum, you need to give it **Debug** if you want to use ```{:?}``` to print. If you write ```#[derive(Debug)]``` above the struct or enum then you can print it with ```{:?}```.
```rust
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Animal {
age: u8,
animal_type: AnimalType,
}
impl Animal {
fn new() -> Self {
// Self means AnimalType.
//You can also write AnimalType instead of Self
Self {
// When we write Animal::new(), we always get a cat that is 10 years old
age: 10,
animal_type: AnimalType::Cat,
}
}
fn change_to_dog(&mut self) {
// use .change_to_dog() to change the cat to a dog
// with &mut self we can change it
println!("Changing animal to dog!");
self.animal_type = AnimalType::Dog;
}
fn change_to_cat(&mut self) {
// use .change_to_dog() to change the cat to a dog
// with &mut self we can change it
println!("Changing animal to cat!");
self.animal_type = AnimalType::Cat;
}
fn check_type(&self) {
// we want to read self
match self.animal_type {
AnimalType::Dog => println!("The animal is a dog"),
AnimalType::Cat => println!("The animal is a cat"),
}
}
}
#[derive(Debug)]
enum AnimalType {
Cat,
Dog,
}
fn main() {
let mut new_animal = Animal::new(); // Associated method to create a new animal
// It is a cat, 10 years old
new_animal.check_type();
new_animal.change_to_dog();
new_animal.check_type();
new_animal.change_to_cat();
new_animal.check_type();
}
```
This prints:
```
The animal is a cat
Changing animal to dog!
The animal is a dog
Changing animal to cat!
The animal is a cat
```
## Self
Remember that Self (the type Self) and self (the variable self) are abbreviations. (abbreviation = short way to write)
So in our code, Self = AnimalType. Also, ```fn change_to_dog(&mut self)``` means ```fn change_to_dog(&mut AnimalType)```
In functions, you write what type to take as input:
```rust
fn return_number(number: i32) -> i32 {
println!("Here is your number.");
number
}
fn main() {
let number = return_number(5);
}
```
But maybe you also want to input an ```i8```, or a ```u32```, and so on. You can use generics for this. Generics means "maybe one type, maybe another type".
For generics, you use angle brackets with the type inside: ```<T>``` This means "any type you put into the function". Usually, generics uses types with one capital letter (T, U, V, etc.).
This is how you change the function:
```rust
fn return_number<T>(number: T) -> T {
println!("Here is your number.");
number
}
```
The important part is the ```<T>``` after the function name. Without this, Rust will think that T is a concrete (concrete = not generic) type, like ```String``` or ```i8```.
This is easier to understand if we write out a type name:
```rust
fn return_number(number: MyType) -> MyType {
println!("Here is your number.");
number
}
```
As you can see, MyType is concrete, not generic. So we need to write this:
Now we will go back to type ```T```, because Rust code usually uses ```T```.
You will remember that some types in Rust are **Copy**, some are **Clone**, some are **Display**, some are **Debug**, and so on. With **Debug**, we can print with ```{}```. So now you can see that this is a problem:
```rust
fn print_number<T>(number: T) {
println!("Here is your number: {:?}", number);
}
fn main() {
print_number(5);
}
```
```print_number``` needs **Debug** to print ```number```, but is ```T``` a type with ```Debug```? Maybe not. The compiler doesn't know, so it gives an error:
29 | println!("Here is your number: {:?}", number);
| ^^^^^^ `T` cannot be formatted using `{:?}` because it doesn't implement `std::fmt::Debug`
```
T doesn't implement **Debug**. So do we implement Debug for T? No, because we don't know what T is. But we can tell the function: "only accept types that have Debug".
```rust
use std::fmt::Debug; // Debug is located at std::fmt::Debug. If we write this,
// then now we can just write 'Debug'.
fn print_number<T:Debug>(number: T) {
println!("Here is your number: {:?}", number);
}
fn main() {
print_number(5);
}
```
So now the compiler knows: "Okay, I will only take a type if it has Debug". Now the code works, because i32 is Debug. Now we can give it many types: String, &str, and so on.
Now we can create a struct and give it Debug, and now we can print it too. Our function can take i32, the struct Animal, and more:
```rust
use std::fmt::Debug;
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Animal {
name: String,
age: u8,
}
fn print_item<T:Debug>(item: T) {
println!("Here is your item: {:?}", item);
}
fn main() {
let charlie = Animal {
name: "Charlie".to_string(),
age: 1,
};
let number = 55;
print_item(charlie);
print_item(number);
}
```
This prints:
```
Here is your item: Animal { name: "Charlie", age: 1 }
Sometimes we need more than one type in a generic function. We have to write out each type name, and think about how we want to use it. In this example, we want two types. First we want to print a statement for type T. Printing with ```{}``` is nicer, so we will require Display for T.
Next is type U, and two variables have type U (U is some sort of number). We want to compare them, so we need PartialOrd. We want to print them too, so we require Display for U as well.
```rust
use std::fmt::Display;
use std::cmp::PartialOrd;
fn compare_and_display<T:Display,U:Display+PartialOrd>(statement: T, num_1: U, num_2: U) {
println!("{}! Is {} greater than {}? {}", statement, num_1, num_2, num_1 > num_2);
}
fn main() {
compare_and_display("Listen up!", 9, 8);
}
```
So ```fn compare_and_display<T:Display,U:Display+PartialOrd>(statement: T, num_1: U, num_2: U)``` says:
* The function name is compare_and_display,
* The first type is T, and it is generic. It must be a type that can print with {}.
* The next type is U, and it is generic. It must be a type that can print with {}. Also, it must be a type that can compare (use ```>```, ```<```, and ```==```).
Now we can give ```compare_and_display``` different types. ```statement``` can be a String, a &str, anything with Display.
To make generic functions easier to read, we can also write it like this:
```rust
use std::cmp::PartialOrd;
use std::fmt::Display;
fn compare_and_display<T,U>(statement: T, num_1: U, num_2: U)
where
T: Display,
U: Display + PartialOrd,
{
println!("{}! Is {} greater than {}? {}", statement, num_1, num_2, num_1 > num_2);
}
fn main() {
compare_and_display("Listen up!", 9, 8);
}
```
Using ```where``` is a good idea when you have many generic types.
Also note:
* If you have one type T and another type T, they must be the same.
* If you have one type T and another type U, they can be different. But they can also be the same.
For example:
```rust
use std::fmt::Display;
fn say_two<T:Display,U:Display>(statement_1: T, statement_2: U) { // Type T needs Display, type U needs Display
println!("I have two things to say: {} and {}", statement_1, statement_2);
}
fn main() {
say_two("Hello there!", String::from("I hate sand.")); // Type T is a &str. Type U is a String.
say_two(String::from("Where is Padme?"), String::from("Is she all right?")); // Both types are String.
We understand enums and generics now, so we can understand ```Option``` and ```Result```. Rust uses these two enums to make code safer. We will start with Option.
You use Option when you have a value that might exist, or might not exist. Here is an example of bad code that can be improved with Option.
```rust
fn main() {
let new_vec = vec![1, 2];
let index = take_fifth(new_vec);
}
fn take_fifth(value: Vec<i32>) -> i32 {
value[4]
}
```
When we run the code, it panics. Here is the message:
```
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 2 but the index is 4', src\main.rs:34:5
```
Panic means that the program stops before the problem happens. Rust sees that the function wants something impossible, and stops. It "unwinds the stack" (takes the values off the stack) and tells you "sorry, I can't do that".
So now we will change the return type from ```i32``` to ```Option<i32>```. This means "give me an i32 if it's there, and give me ```None``` if it's not". We say that the i32 is "wrapped" in an Option, which means that it's inside an Option.
This prints ```None, Some(5)```. This is good, because now we don't panic anymore. But how do we get the value 5?
We can get the value inside an option with ```.unwrap()```, but be careful with ```.unwrap()```. If you unwrap a value that is ```None```, the program will panic.
```rust
fn main() {
let new_vec = vec![1, 2];
let bigger_vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
println!( // with .unwrap() the code is getting longer
// so we will write on more than one line.
"{:?}, {:?}",
take_fifth(new_vec).unwrap(), // this one is None. .unwrap() will panic!
take_fifth(bigger_vec).unwrap()
);
}
fn take_fifth(value: Vec<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
if value.len() <4{
None
} else {
Some(value[4])
}
}
```
But we don't need to use ```.unwrap()```. We can use a ```match```, and print when we have ```Some```, and not print if we have ```None```. For example:
```rust
fn main() {
let new_vec = vec![1, 2];
let bigger_vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let mut option_vec = Vec::new(); // Make a new vec to hold our options
// The vec is type: Vec<Option<i32>>. That means a vec of Option<i32>.
option_vec.push(take_fifth(new_vec)); // This pushes "None" into the vec
option_vec.push(take_fifth(bigger_vec)); // This pushes "Some(5)" into the vec
handle_option(option_vec); // handle_option looks at every option in the vec.
// It prints the value if it is Some. It doesn't print if it is None.
}
fn take_fifth(value: Vec<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
if value.len() <4{
None
} else {
Some(value[4])
}
}
fn handle_option(my_option: Vec<Option<i32>>) {
for item in my_option {
match item {
Some(number) => println!("{}", number),
None => {}, // do nothing
}
}
}
```
Because we know generics, we can understand Option. It looks like this:
```rust
enum Option<T> {
None,
Some(T),
}
```
The important point to remember: with ```Some```, you have a value of type ```T``` (any type). But with ```None```, you don't have anything. So in a ```match``` statement for Option you can't say:
```rust
Some(value) => println!("The value is {}", value),
None(value) => println!("The value is {}", value),
```
because ```None``` is just ```None```.
Of course, there are easier ways to use Option. In this easier way, we don't need ```handle_option()``` anymore. We also don't need a vec for the Options.
```rust
fn main() {
let new_vec = vec![1, 2];
let bigger_vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let vec_of_vecs = vec![new_vec, bigger_vec];
for vec in vec_of_vecs {
let inside_number = take_fifth(vec);
if inside_number.is_some() { // .is_some() returns true if we get Some, false if we get None
println!("{}", inside_number.unwrap()); // now it is safe to use .unwrap() because we already checked
```Result<T,E>``` means you need to think of what you want to return for Ok, and what you want to return for Err. Actually, you can decide anything. Even this is okay:
```rust
fn main() {
check_error();
}
fn check_error() -> Result<(), ()> {
Ok(())
}
```
```check_error``` says "return () if we get Ok, and return () if we get Err". Then we return Ok with a ().
Sometimes a function with Result will use a ```String``` for the Err value. This is not the best method to use, but sometimes it is okay.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut result_vec = Vec::new(); // Create a new vec for the results
for number in 2..7 {
result_vec.push(check_if_five(number)); // push each result into the vec
_ => Err("Sorry, the number wasn't five.".to_string()), // This is our error message
}
}
```
Our vec prints:
```
[Err("Sorry, the number wasn\'t five."), Err("Sorry, the number wasn\'t five."), Err("Sorry, the number wasn\'t five."), Ok(5),
Err("Sorry, the number wasn\'t five.")]
```
Just like Option, .unwrap() on Err will panic.
```rust
fn main() {
let error_value: Result<i32,&str> = Err("There was an error"); // Create a Result that is already an Err
println!("{}", error_value.unwrap()); // Unwrap it
}
```
The program panics, and prints:
```
thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: "There was an error"', src\main.rs:30:20
```
This information helps you fix your code. src\main.rs:30:20 means "inside main.rs in directory src, on line 30 and column 20". So you can go there to look at your code and fix the problem.
This function take a vector of bytes (u8) and tries to make a ```String```. So the success case for the Result is a ```String``` and the error case is ```FromUtf8Error```. You can give your error type any name you want. We will create our own error types later, because first we need to learn other things.
Using a ```match``` with Option and Result sometimes requires a lot of code. For example, the ```.get()``` method returns an Option on a Vec.
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![2, 3, 4];
let get_one = my_vec.get(0); // 0 to get the first number
let get_two = my_vec.get(10); // Returns None
println!("{:?}", get_one);
println!("{:?}", get_two);
}
```
This prints
```
Some(2)
None
```
So now we can match to get the values. Let's use a range from 0 to 10 to see if it matches the numbers in ```my_vec```.
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![2, 3, 4];
for index in 0..10 {
match my_vec.get(index) {
Some(number) => println!("The number is: {}", number),
None => {}
}
}
}
```
This is good, but we don't do anything for ```None```. Here we can make the code smaller by using ```if let```. ```if let``` means "do something if it matches, and don't do anything if it doesn't". ```if let``` is when you don't care about matching for everything.
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![2, 3, 4];
for index in 0..10 {
if let Some(number) = my_vec.get(index) {
println!("The number is: {}", number);
}
}
}
```
```if let Some(number) = my_vec.get(index)``` means "if you get Some(number) from my_vec.get(index)". Also note: it uses one ```=```. It is not a boolean.
```while let``` is like a while loop for ```if let```. Imagine that we have weather station data like this:
We want to get the numbers, but not the words. For the numbers, we can use a method called ```parse::<i32>()```. ```parse()``` is the method, and ```::<i32>``` is the type. It will try to turn the &str into an ```i32```, and give it to us if it can.
We will also use ```.pop()```. This takes the last item off of the vector.
```rust
fn main() {
let mut weather_vec = vec!["Berlin", "cloudy", "5", "-7", "78"];
while let Some(information) = weather_vec.pop() { // This means: keep going until you can't pop anymore
// When the vector reaches 0 items, it will return None
// and it will stop.
if let Ok(number) = information.parse::<i32>() { // Try to parse the variable we called information
// This returns a result. If it's Ok(number), it will print it
There is an even shorter way to deal with Result (and Option), shorter than ```match``` and even shorter than ```if let```. It is called the "question mark operator", and is just ```?```. After a function that returns a result, you can add ```?```. This will:
* return the result if it is Ok
* pass the error back if it is Err
In other words, it does almost everything for you.
We can try this with ```.parse()``` again. We will write a function called ```parse_str``` that tries to turn a ```&str``` into a ```i32```. It looks like this:
let parsed_number = input.parse::<i32>()?; // Here is the question mark
Ok(parsed_number)
}
```
This function takes a ```&str```. If it is Ok, it gives an ```i32``` wrapped in ```Ok```. If it is an Err, it returns a std::num::ParseIntError. Then we try to parse the number, and add ```?```. That means "check if it is an error, and give the result if it is okay". If it is not okay, it will return the error and end. But if it is okay, it will go to the next line. On the next line is the number inside of ```Ok()```. We need to wrap it in Ok because the return is ```Result<i32,std::num::ParseIntError>```, not ```i32```.
Now, we can try out our function. Let's see what it does with a vec of ```&str```s.
```rust
fn main() {
let str_vec = vec!["Seven", "8", "9.0", "nice", "6060"];
How did we find std::num::ParseIntError? One easy way is to "ask" the compiler again.
```rust
fn main() {
let failure = "Not a number".parse::<i32>();
failure.rbrbrb(); // Compiler: "What is rbrbrb()???"
}
```
The compiler doesn't understand, and says:
```
error[E0599]: no method named `rbrbrb` found for enum `std::result::Result<i32, std::num::ParseIntError>` in the current scope
--> src\main.rs:3:13
|
3 | failure.rbrbrb();
| ^^^^^^ method not found in `std::result::Result<i32, std::num::ParseIntError>`
```
So ```std::result::Result<i32,std::num::ParseIntError>``` is the signature we need.
We don't need to write ```std::result::Result``` because ```Result``` is always "in scope" (in scope = ready to use). But std::num::ParseIntError is not in scope. We can bring it in scope if we want:
Rust has a ```panic!``` macro that you can use to make it panic. It is easy to use:
```rust
fn main() {
panic!("Time to panic!");
}
```
The message ```"Time to panic!"``` displays when you run the program: ```thread 'main' panicked at 'Time to panic!', src\main.rs:2:3```
You will remember that ```src\main.rs``` is the directory and file name, and ```2:3``` is the line and column name. With this information, you can find the code and fix it.
```panic!``` is a good macro to use when writing your code to make sure that you know when something changes. For example, our function ```prints_three_things``` always prints index [0], [1], and [2] from a vector. It is okay because we always give it a vector with three items:
But later on we write more and more code, and maybe we forget that ```my_vec``` can only be three things. Now ```my_vec``` in this part has six things:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![8, 9, 10, 10, 55, 99]; // Now my_vec has six things
This gives us ```thread 'main' panicked at 'my_vec must always have three items', src\main.rs:8:9```. Now we remember that ```my_vec``` should only have three items. So ```panic!``` is a good macro to create reminders in your code.
There are three other macros that are similar to ```panic!``` that you use a lot in testing. They are: ```assert!```, ```assert_eq!```, and ```assert_ne!```.
They mean:
* ```assert!()```: if the part inside ```()``` is not true, the program will panic.
*```assert_eq!()```: the two items inside ```()``` must be equal.
*```assert_ne!()```: the two items inside ```()``` must not be equal.
Some examples:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_name = "Loki Laufeyson";
assert!(my_name == "Loki Laufeyson");
assert_eq!(my_name, "Loki Laufeyson");
assert_ne!(my_name, "Mithridates");
}
```
This will do nothing, because all three assert macros are okay.
You can also add a message if you want.
```rust
fn main() {
fn main() {
let my_name = "Loki Laufeyson";
assert!(
my_name == "Loki Laufeyson",
"{} should be Loki Laufeyson",
my_name
);
assert_eq!(
my_name, "Loki Laufeyson",
"{} and Loki Laufeyson should be equal",
my_name
);
assert_ne!(
my_name, "Mithridates",
"{} must not equal Mithridates",
my_name
);
}
}
```
These messages will only display if the program panics. So if you run this:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_name = "Mithridates";
assert_ne!(
my_name, "Mithridates",
"{} must not equal Mithridates",
my_name
);
}
```
It will display:
```
thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left != right)`
left: `"Mithridates"`,
right: `"Mithridates"`: Mithridates must not equal Mithridates', src\main.rs:4:5
```
So it is saying "you said that left != right, but left == right". And it displays our message that says ```Mithridates must not equal Mithridates```.
```unwrap``` is also good when you want the program to crash when there is a problem. Later, when your code is finished it is good to change ```unwrap``` to something else that won't crash. You can also use ```expect```, which is like ```unwrap``` but with your own message.
This will crash:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![9, 0, 10];
let fourth = get_fourth(&my_vec);
}
fn get_fourth(input: &Vec<i32>) -> i32 {
let fourth = input.get(3).unwrap();
*fourth
}
```
The error message is ```thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value', src\main.rs:7:18```.
Now we write our own message with ```expect```:
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![9, 0, 10];
let fourth = get_fourth(&my_vec);
}
fn get_fourth(input: &Vec<i32>) -> i32 {
let fourth = input.get(3).expect("Input vector needs at least 4 items");
*fourth
}
```
So the error message is ```thread 'main' panicked at 'Input vector needs at least 4 items', src\main.rs:7:18```.
You can also use ```unwrap_or``` if you want to always have a value that you choose.
```rust
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![8, 9, 10];
let fourth = my_vec.get(3).unwrap_or(&0); // If .get doesn't work, we will make the value &0.
// .get returns a reference, so we need &0 and not 0
// to keep the types the same.
// You can write "let *fourth" with a * if you want fourth to be
// a 0 and not a &0, but here we just print so it doesn't matter
We have seen traits before: Debug, Copy, Clone are all traits. To give a type a trait, you have to implement it. Because Debug and the others are so common, it's easy to do:
```rust
#[derive(Debug)]
struct MyStruct {
number: usize,
}
```
But other traits are more difficult, so you need to implement them manually with ```impl```. For example, std::ops::Add is used to add two things. But you can add in many ways.
```rust
struct ThingsToAdd {
first_thing: u32,
second_thing: f32,
}
```
We can add ```first_thing``` and ```second_thing```, but we need to give more information. Maybe we want an f32, so something like this:
```rust
let result = self.second_thing + self.first_thing as f32
```
But maybe we want an integer, so like this:
```rust
let result = self.second_thing as u32 + self.first_thing
```
Or maybe we want to just put ```self.first_thing``` next to ```self.second_thing``` and say that this is how we want to add. So if we add 55 to 33.4, we want to see 5533, not 88.
So first let's look at how to make a trait. To make a trait, write ```trait``` and then create some functions.
```rust
struct Animal { // A simple struct - an Animal only has a name
name: String,
}
trait Dog { // The dog trait gives some functionality
fn bark(&self) { // It can bark
println!("Woof woof!");
}
fn run(&self) { // and it can run
println!("The dog is running!");
}
}
impl Dog for Animal {} // Now Animal has the trait Dog
fn main() {
let rover = Animal {
name: "Rover".to_string(),
};
rover.bark(); // Now Animal can use bark()
rover.run(); // and it can use run()
}
```
This is okay, but we don't want to print "The dog is running". We can change the method .run(), but we have to follow the signature. The signature says:
```rust
fn run(&self) {
println!("The dog is running!");
}
```
The signature says "fn run() takes &self, and returns nothing". So you can't do this:
```rust
fn run(&self) -> i32 {
5
}
```
Rust will say:
```
= note: expected fn pointer `fn(&Animal)`
found fn pointer `fn(&Animal) -> i32`
```
But we can do this:
```rust
impl Dog for Animal {
fn run(&self) {
println!("{} is running!", self.name);
}
}
```
Now it prints ```Rover is running!```. This is okay because we are returning (), or nothing, which is what the trait says.
Actually, a trait doesn't need to write out the whole function. Now we change bark() and run() to just say ```fn bark(&self)``` and ```fn run(&self);```. This is not a full function, so the user must write it.
```rust
struct Animal {
name: String,
}
trait Dog {
fn bark(&self); // bark() says it needs a &self and returns nothing
fn run(&self); // run() says it needs a &self and returns nothing.
// So now we have to write them ourselves.
}
impl Dog for Animal {
fn bark(&self) {
println!("{}, stop barking!!", self.name);
}
fn run(&self) {
println!("{} is running!", self.name);
}
}
fn main() {
let rover = Animal {
name: "Rover".to_string(),
};
rover.bark();
rover.run();
}
```
So when you create a trait, you must think: "Which functions should I write, and which functions should the user write?" If you think the user will use the function the same way every time, then write out the function. If you think the user will use it differently, then just write the function signature.
So let's try implementing the Display trait for our struct. First we will make a simple struct:
```rust
struct Cat {
name: String,
age: u8,
}
fn main() {
let mr_mantle = Cat {
name: "Reggie Mantle".to_string(),
age: 4,
};
}
```
Now we want to print ```mr_mantle```. Debug is easy to derive:
```rust
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Cat {
name: String,
age: u8,
}
fn main() {
let mr_mantle = Cat {
name: "Reggie Mantle".to_string(),
age: 4,
};
println!("Mr. Mantle is a {:?}", mr_mantle);
}
```
but Debug print is not what we want.
```rust
Mr. Mantle is a Cat { name: "Reggie Mantle", age: 4 }
```
So we need to implement Display for Cat. On https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/fmt/trait.Display.html we can see the information for Display, and one example. It says:
Some parts of this we don't understand yet, like ```<'_>``` and what ```f``` is doing. But we understand the ```Position``` struct: it is just two ```f32```s. We also understand that ```self.longitude``` and ```self.latitude``` are the values in the struct. So maybe we can just use this for our struct, with ```self.name``` and ```self.age```. Also, ```write!``` looks a lot like ```println!```. So we write this:
