# Tutorial 05 - Safe Globals ## A slightly longer tl;dr When we introduced the globally usable `print!` macros in [tutorial 03], we cheated a bit. Calling `core::fmt`'s `write_fmt()` function, which takes an `&mut self`, was only working because on each call, a new instance of `QEMUOutput` was created. If we would want to preserve some state, e.g. statistics about the number of characters written, we need to make a single global instance of `QEMUOutput` (in Rust, using the `static` keyword). A `static QEMU_OUTPUT`, however, would not allow to call functions taking `&mut self`. For that, we would need a `static mut`, but calling functions that mutate state on `static mut`s is unsafe. The Rust compiler's reasoning for this is that it can then not prevent anymore that multiple cores/threads are mutating the data concurrently (it is a global, so everyone can reference it from anywhere. The borrow checker can't help here). The solution to this problem is to wrap the global into a synchronization primitive. In our case, a variant of a *MUTual EXclusion* primivite. `Mutex` is introduced as a trait in `interfaces.rs`, and implemented by the name of `NullLock` in `sync.rs` in the `arch` folder. For teaching purposes, to make the code lean, it leaves out the actual architecture-specific logic for protection against concurrent access, since we don't need it as long as the kernel only executes on a single core with interrupts disabled. Instead, it focuses on showcasing the Rust core concept of [interior mutability]. Make sure to read up on it. I also recommend to read this article about an [accurate mental model for Rust's reference types]. If you want to compare the `NullLock` to some real-world mutex implementations, you can check out implemntations in the [spin crate] or the [parking lot crate]. [tutorial 03]: ../03_hacky_hello_world [interior mutability]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/index.html [accurate mental model for Rust's reference types]: https://docs.rs/dtolnay/0.0.6/dtolnay/macro._02__reference_types.html [spin crate]: https://github.com/mvdnes/spin-rs [parking lot crate]: https://github.com/Amanieu/parking_lot ### Give it a try ```console make qemu [...] [0] Hello from pure Rust! [1] Chars written: 26 [2] Stopping here. ``` ## Diff to previous ```diff diff -uNr 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/arch/aarch64/sync.rs 05_safe_globals/src/arch/aarch64/sync.rs --- 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/arch/aarch64/sync.rs +++ 05_safe_globals/src/arch/aarch64/sync.rs @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT +// +// Copyright (c) 2018-2019 Andre Richter + +//! Synchronization primitives. + +use crate::interface; +use core::cell::UnsafeCell; + +/// A pseudo-lock for teaching purposes. +/// +/// Used to introduce [interior mutability]. +/// +/// In contrast to a real Mutex implementation, does not protect against concurrent access to the +/// contained data. This part is preserved for later lessons. +/// +/// The lock will only be used as long as it is safe to do so, i.e. as long as the kernel is +/// executing single-threaded, aka only running on a single core with interrupts disabled. +/// +/// [interior mutability]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/index.html +pub struct NullLock { + data: UnsafeCell, +} + +unsafe impl Send for NullLock {} +unsafe impl Sync for NullLock {} + +impl NullLock { + pub const fn new(data: T) -> NullLock { + NullLock { + data: UnsafeCell::new(data), + } + } +} + +impl interface::sync::Mutex for &NullLock { + type Data = T; + + fn lock(&mut self, f: impl FnOnce(&mut Self::Data) -> R) -> R { + // In a real lock, there would be code encapsulating this line that ensures that this + // mutable reference will ever only be given out once at a time. + f(unsafe { &mut *self.data.get() }) + } +} diff -uNr 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/arch/aarch64.rs 05_safe_globals/src/arch/aarch64.rs --- 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/arch/aarch64.rs +++ 05_safe_globals/src/arch/aarch64.rs @@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ //! AArch64. +pub mod sync; + use crate::bsp; use cortex_a::{asm, regs::*}; diff -uNr 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/bsp/rpi.rs 05_safe_globals/src/bsp/rpi.rs --- 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/bsp/rpi.rs +++ 05_safe_globals/src/bsp/rpi.rs @@ -4,38 +4,114 @@ //! Board Support Package for the Raspberry Pi. -use crate::interface; +use crate::{arch::sync::NullLock, interface}; use core::fmt; pub const BOOT_CORE_ID: u64 = 0; pub const BOOT_CORE_STACK_START: u64 = 0x80_000; /// A mystical, magical device for generating QEMU output out of the void. -struct QEMUOutput; +/// +/// The mutex protected part. +struct QEMUOutputInner { + chars_written: usize, +} + +impl QEMUOutputInner { + const fn new() -> QEMUOutputInner { + QEMUOutputInner { chars_written: 0 } + } + + /// Send a character. + fn write_char(&mut self, c: char) { + unsafe { + core::ptr::write_volatile(0x3F20_1000 as *mut u8, c as u8); + } + } +} -/// Implementing `console::Write` enables usage of the `format_args!` macros, which in turn are used -/// to implement the `kernel`'s `print!` and `println!` macros. +/// Implementing `core::fmt::Write` enables usage of the `format_args!` macros, which in turn are +/// used to implement the `kernel`'s `print!` and `println!` macros. By implementing `write_str()`, +/// we get `write_fmt()` automatically. +/// +/// The function takes an `&mut self`, so it must be implemented for the inner struct. /// /// See [`src/print.rs`]. /// /// [`src/print.rs`]: ../../print/index.html -impl interface::console::Write for QEMUOutput { +impl fmt::Write for QEMUOutputInner { fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result { for c in s.chars() { - unsafe { - core::ptr::write_volatile(0x3F20_1000 as *mut u8, c as u8); + // Convert newline to carrige return + newline. + if c == '\n' { + self.write_char('\r') } + + self.write_char(c); } + self.chars_written += s.len(); + Ok(()) } } //-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +// BSP-public +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +/// The main struct. +pub struct QEMUOutput { + inner: NullLock, +} + +impl QEMUOutput { + pub const fn new() -> QEMUOutput { + QEMUOutput { + inner: NullLock::new(QEMUOutputInner::new()), + } + } +} + +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +// OS interface implementations +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +/// Passthrough of `args` to the `core::fmt::Write` implementation, but guarded by a Mutex to +/// serialize access. +impl interface::console::Write for QEMUOutput { + fn write_fmt(&self, args: core::fmt::Arguments) -> fmt::Result { + use interface::sync::Mutex; + + // Fully qualified syntax for the call to `core::fmt::Write::write:fmt()` to increase + // readability. + let mut r = &self.inner; + r.lock(|inner| fmt::Write::write_fmt(inner, args)) + } +} + +impl interface::console::Read for QEMUOutput {} + +impl interface::console::Statistics for QEMUOutput { + fn chars_written(&self) -> usize { + use interface::sync::Mutex; + + let mut r = &self.inner; + r.lock(|inner| inner.chars_written) + } +} + +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +// Global instances +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +static QEMU_OUTPUT: QEMUOutput = QEMUOutput::new(); + +//-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- // Implementation of the kernel's BSP calls //-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -/// Returns a ready-to-use `console::Write` implementation. -pub fn console() -> impl interface::console::Write { - QEMUOutput {} +/// Return a reference to a `console::All` implementation. +pub fn console() -> &'static impl interface::console::All { + &QEMU_OUTPUT } diff -uNr 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/interface.rs 05_safe_globals/src/interface.rs --- 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/interface.rs +++ 05_safe_globals/src/interface.rs @@ -20,17 +20,66 @@ /// System console operations. pub mod console { + use core::fmt; + /// Console write functions. - /// - /// `core::fmt::Write` is exactly what we need for now. Re-export it here because - /// implementing `console::Write` gives a better hint to the reader about the - /// intention. - pub use core::fmt::Write; + pub trait Write { + fn write_fmt(&self, args: fmt::Arguments) -> fmt::Result; + } /// Console read functions. pub trait Read { - fn read_char(&mut self) -> char { + fn read_char(&self) -> char { ' ' } } + + /// Console statistics. + pub trait Statistics { + /// Return the number of characters written. + fn chars_written(&self) -> usize { + 0 + } + + /// Return the number of characters read. + fn chars_read(&self) -> usize { + 0 + } + } + + /// Trait alias for a full-fledged console. + pub trait All = Write + Read + Statistics; +} + +/// Synchronization primitives. +pub mod sync { + /// Any object implementing this trait guarantees exclusive access to the data contained within + /// the mutex for the duration of the lock. + /// + /// The trait follows the [Rust embedded WG's + /// proposal](https://github.com/korken89/wg/blob/master/rfcs/0377-mutex-trait.md) and therefore + /// provides some goodness such as [deadlock + /// prevention](https://github.com/korken89/wg/blob/master/rfcs/0377-mutex-trait.md#design-decisions-and-compatibility). + /// + /// # Example + /// + /// Since the lock function takes an `&mut self` to enable deadlock-prevention, the trait is + /// best implemented **for a reference to a container struct**, and has a usage pattern that + /// might feel strange at first: + /// + /// ``` + /// static MUT: Mutex> = Mutex::new(RefCell::new(0)); + /// + /// fn foo() { + /// let mut r = &MUT; // Note that r is mutable + /// r.lock(|data| *data += 1); + /// } + /// ``` + pub trait Mutex { + /// Type of data encapsulated by the mutex. + type Data; + + /// Creates a critical section and grants temporary mutable access to the encapsulated data. + fn lock(&mut self, f: impl FnOnce(&mut Self::Data) -> R) -> R; + } } diff -uNr 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/main.rs 05_safe_globals/src/main.rs --- 04_zero_overhead_abstraction/src/main.rs +++ 05_safe_globals/src/main.rs @@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ #![feature(format_args_nl)] #![feature(panic_info_message)] +#![feature(trait_alias)] #![no_main] #![no_std] @@ -44,8 +45,12 @@ /// /// - Only a single core must be active and running this function. unsafe fn kernel_init() -> ! { + use interface::console::Statistics; + println!("[0] Hello from pure Rust!"); - println!("[1] Stopping here."); + println!("[1] Chars written: {}", bsp::console().chars_written()); + + println!("[2] Stopping here."); arch::wait_forever() } ```