diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/README.md b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/README.md index f3da6b94..5417e927 100644 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/README.md +++ b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/README.md @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ # Enterprise Knowledge Retrieval -This repo is a deep dive on Enterprise Knowledge Retrieval, which aims to take some unstructured text documents and create a usable knowledge base application with it. +This app is a deep dive on Enterprise Knowledge Retrieval, which aims to take some unstructured text documents and create a usable knowledge base application with it. This repo contains a notebook and a basic Streamlit app: -- `enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb`: A notebook containing a step by step process of tokenising, chunking and embedding your data in a vector database, building a chat agent on top and running a basic evaluation of its performance +- `enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb`: A notebook containing a step by step process of tokenising, chunking and embedding your data in a vector database, building a chat agent on top and running a basic evaluation of its performance. - `chatbot.py`: A Streamlit app providing simple Q&A via a search bar to query your knowledge base. To run the app, please follow the instructions below in the ```App``` section @@ -21,16 +21,16 @@ Once you've run the notebook through to the Search stage, you should have what y ## App -We've rolled in a basic Streamlit app that you can interact with to test your retrieval service using either standard semantic search or Hyde retrievals. +We've rolled in a basic Streamlit app that you can interact with to test your retrieval service using either standard semantic search or [HyDE](https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.10496) retrievals. -You can use it by: -- Ensuring you followed the Setup and Storage steps from the notebook to populate a vector database with searchable content. -- Setting up a virtual environment with pip by running ```virtualenv venv``` (ensure ```virtualenv``` is installed). +To use it: +- Ensure you followed the Setup and Storage steps from the notebook to populate a vector database with searchable content. +- Set up a virtual environment with pip by running ```virtualenv venv``` (ensure ```virtualenv``` is installed). - Activate the environment by running ```source venv/bin/activate```. - Install requirements by running ```pip install -r requirements.txt```. -- Run ```streamlit run chatbot.py``` to fire up the Streamlit app in your browser +- Run ```streamlit run chatbot.py``` to fire up the Streamlit app in your browser. ## Limitations - This app uses Redis as a vector database, but there are many other options highlighted `../examples/vector_databases` depending on your need. -- We introduce many areas you may optimize in the notebook, but we'll deep dive on these in separate offerings in the coming weeks. \ No newline at end of file +- We introduce many areas you may optimize in the notebook, but we'll deep dive on these in subsequent cookbooks. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/assistant.py b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/assistant.py index 445e0a70..01795cdb 100644 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/assistant.py +++ b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/assistant.py @@ -167,3 +167,17 @@ def initiate_agent(tools): ) return agent_executor + + +def ask_gpt(query): + response = openai.ChatCompletion.create( + model=CHAT_MODEL, + messages=[ + { + "role": "user", + "content": "Please answer my question.\nQuestion: {}".format(query), + } + ], + temperature=0, + ) + return response["choices"][0]["message"]["content"] diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/chatbot.py b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/chatbot.py index 584be165..bec51be8 100644 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/chatbot.py +++ b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/chatbot.py @@ -4,7 +4,12 @@ import streamlit as st from streamlit_chat import message from database import get_redis_connection -from assistant import answer_user_question, initiate_agent, answer_question_hyde +from assistant import ( + answer_user_question, + initiate_agent, + answer_question_hyde, + ask_gpt, +) # Initialise database @@ -36,7 +41,12 @@ tools = [ if add_selectbox == "Standard vector search" else answer_question_hyde, description="Useful for when you need to answer general knowledge questions. Input should be a fully formed question.", - ) + ), + Tool( + name="Ask", + func=ask_gpt, + description="Useful if the question is not general knowledge. Input should be a fully formed question.", + ), ] if "generated" not in st.session_state: diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/config.py b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/config.py index a205c01a..a464f95b 100644 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/config.py +++ b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/config.py @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ REDIS_HOST = "localhost" -REDIS_PORT = "6380" +REDIS_PORT = "6379" REDIS_DB = "0" INDEX_NAME = "wiki-index" VECTOR_FIELD_NAME = "content_vector" diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/data/wikipedia_articles_2000.csv b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/data/wikipedia_articles_2000.csv deleted file mode 100644 index 15c1a174..00000000 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/data/wikipedia_articles_2000.csv +++ /dev/null @@ -1,60403 +0,0 @@ -,id,url,title,text -878,3661,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon,Photon,"Photons (from Greek φως, meaning light), in many atomic models in physics, are particles which transmit light. In other words, light is carried over space by photons. Photon is an elementary particle that is its own antiparticle. In quantum mechanics each photon has a characteristic quantum of energy that depends on frequency: A photon associated with light at a higher frequency will have more energy (and be associated with light at a shorter wavelength). - -Photons have a rest mass of 0 (zero). However, Einstein's theory of relativity says that they do have a certain amount of momentum. Before the photon got its name, Einstein revived the proposal that light is separate pieces of energy (particles). These particles came to be known as photons. - -A photon is usually given the symbol γ (gamma), - -Properties - -Photons are fundamental particles. Although they can be created and destroyed, their lifetime is infinite. - -In a vacuum, all photons move at the speed of light, c, which is equal to 299,792,458 meters (approximately 300,000 kilometers) per second. - -A photon has a given frequency, which determines its color. Radio technology makes great use of frequency. Beyond the visible range, frequency is less discussed, for example it is little used in distinguishing between X-Ray photons and infrared. Frequency is equivalent to the quantum energy of the photon, as related by the Planck constant equation, - -, - -where is the photon's energy, is the Plank constant, and is the frequency of the light associated with the photon. This frequency, , is typically measured in cycles per second, or equivalently, in Hz. The quantum energy of different photons is often used in cameras, and other machines that use visible and higher than visible radiation. This because these photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms. - -Another property of a photon is its wavelength. The frequency , wavelength , and speed of light are related by the equation, - -, - -where (lambda) is the wavelength, or length of the wave (typically measured in meters.) - -Another important property of a photon is its polarity. If you saw a giant photon coming straight at you, it could appear as a swath whipping vertically, horizontally, or somewhere in between. Polarized sunglasses stop photons swinging up and down from passing. This is how they reduce glare as light bouncing off of surfaces tend to fly that way. Liquid crystal displays also use polarity to control which light passes through. Some animals can see light polarization. - -Finally, a photon has a property called spin. Spin is related to light's circular polarization. - -Photon interactions with matter -Light is often created or absorbed when an electron gains or loses energy. This energy can be in the form of heat, kinetic energy, or other form. For example, an incandescent light bulb uses heat. The increase of energy can push an electron up one level in a shell called a ""valence"". This makes it unstable, and like everything, it wants to be in the lowest energy state. (If being in the lowest energy state is confusing, pick up a pencil and drop it. Once on the ground, the pencil will be in a lower energy state). When the electron drops back down to a lower energy state, it needs to release the energy that hit it, and it must obey the conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor destroyed). Electrons release this energy as photons, and at higher intensities, this photon can be seen as visible light. - -Photons and the electromagnetic force -In particle physics, photons are responsible for electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism is an idea that combines electricity with magnetism. One common way that we experience electromagnetism in our daily lives is light, which is caused by electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is also responsible for charge, which is the reason that you can not push your hand through a table. Since photons are the force-carrying particle of electromagnetism, they are also gauge bosons. Some matter–called dark matter–is not believed to be affected by electromagnetism. This would mean that dark matter does not have a charge, and does not give off light. - -Related pages - Particle physics - -Basic physics ideas -Electromagnetism -Light -Elementary particles" -2425,7796,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Dolby,Thomas Dolby,"Thomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson; 14 October 1958) is a British musican and computer designer. He is probably most famous for his 1982 hit, ""She Blinded me with Science"". - -He married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988. The couple have three children together. - -Discography - -Singles - -A Track did not chart in North America until 1983, after the success of ""She Blinded Me With Science"". - -Albums - -Studio albums - -EPs - -References - -English musicians -Living people -1958 births -New wave musicians -Warner Bros. Records artists" -18059,67912,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embroidery,Embroidery,"Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric or other materials with designs stitched in strands of thread or yarn using a needle. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as metal strips, pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. Sewing machines can be used to create machine embroidery. - -Qualifications -City and Guilds qualification in Embroidery allows embroiderers to become recognized for their skill. This qualification also gives them the credibility to teach. For example, the notable textiles artist, Kathleen Laurel Sage, began her teaching career by getting the City and Guilds Embroidery 1 and 2 qualifications. She has now gone on to write a book on the subject. - -References - -Other websites - The Crimson Thread of Kinship at the National Museum of Australia - -Needlework" -12045,44309,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consecutive%20integer,Consecutive integer,"Consecutive numbers are numbers that follow each other in order. They have a difference of 1 between every two numbers. In a set of consecutive numbers, the mean and the median are equal. - -If n is a number, then the next numbers will be n+1 and n+2. - -Examples - -Consecutive numbers that follow each other in order: - - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 - -3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 - 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 - -Consecutive even numbers -Consecutive even numbers are even numbers that follow each other. They have a difference of 2 between every two numbers. - -If n is an even integer, then n, n+2, n+4 and n+6 will be consecutive even numbers. - -For example - 2,4,6,8,10,12,14,18 etc. - -Consecutive odd numbers -Consecutive odd numbers are odd numbers that follow each other. Like consecutive odd numbers, they have a difference of 2 between every two numbers. - -If n is an odd integer, then n, n+2, n+4 and n+6 will be consecutive odd numbers. - -Examples - -3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, etc. - -−23, −21, −19, −17, −15, -13, -11 - -Integers" -11477,41741,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20Empire,German Empire,"The German Empire (""Deutsches Reich"" or ""Deutsches Kaiserreich"" in the German language) is the name for a group of German countries from January 18, 1871 to November 9, 1918. This is from the Unification of Germany when Wilhelm I of Prussia was made German Kaiser to when the third Emperor Wilhelm II was removed from power at the end of the First World War. In the 1920s, German nationalists started to call it the ""Second Reich"". - -The name of Germany was ""Deutsches Reich"" until 1945. ""Reich"" can mean many things, empire, kingdom, state, ""richness"" or ""wealth"". Most members of the Empire were previously members of the North German Confederation. - -At different times, there were three groups of smaller countries, each group was later called a ""Reich"" by some Germans. The first was the Holy Roman Empire. The second was the German Empire. The third was the Third Reich. - -The words ""Second Reich"" were used for the German Empire by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, a nationalist writer in the 1920s. He was trying to make a link with the earlier Holy Roman Empire which had once been very strong. Germany had lost First World War and was suffering big problems. van den Bruck wanted to start a ""Third Reich"" to unite the country. These words were later used by the Nazis to make themselves appear stronger. - -States in the Empire - -Related pages - Germany - Holy Roman Empire - Nazi Germany, or ""Drittes Reich"" - -1870s establishments in Germany - -States and territories disestablished in the 20th century -States and territories established in the 19th century -1871 establishments in Europe -1918 disestablishments in Germany" -6992,22079,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman%20%28city%29,Batman (city),"Batman is a city in southeast Turkey. It is the capital (city) of the province with the same name. In 2010, 325,000 people lived there. There are many Kurds in that area. The area has much oil and gas. - -There is a railway track at Kurtalan, near this city. The track runs all the way to Istanbul. There is also an airport near Batman. The name is short for the Bati Raman mountains. - -Other websites - Batman Municipality - -Batman" -15453,58831,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20of%20Acre,Joan of Acre,"Joan of Acre (April 1272 – 7 April, 1307) was a daughter of King Edward I of England and his first wife, Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290). - -English royalty -1272 births -1307 deaths" -4347,13528,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Series%20of%20Unfortunate%20Events,A Series of Unfortunate Events,"A Series of Unfortunate Events is a series of 13 books written for children by the author Lemony Snicket. They tell the story of three unlucky orphans (Violet Baudelaire, Klaus Baudelaire, and Sunny Baudelaire) and their lives after the death of their parents. The main villain of the books is Count Olaf who wants to steal Baudelaires' inheritance (the money their parents left behind). Count Olaf uses many disguises to get their fortune. - -In other media -In 2004, there was a movie version, ""Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events,"" from Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon movies, starring Jim Carrey as Count Olaf. - -In 2012, a new series from Lemony Snicket named All the Wrong Questions was written. The series tells the story of Lemony Snicket, a member of a group named V.F.D which is an important part of the series, when he was a child. - -In 2016, the series was broadcast through Netflix (children's section). - -Other websites - -Lemony Snicket's website - - -Children's books -2004 movies -Paramount movies -Black comedy" -9297,31891,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Kagame,Paul Kagame,"Paul Kagame (born October 23, 1957) is the President of Rwanda. -Though a member of the Tutsi ethnic group, he tends to downplay the importance of his ethnicity. He is responsible for ending the Rwandan Genocide. However, he is often seen as a dictator, and has a bad human rights record. - -1957 births -Living people -African Union chairpersons -Rwandan people -Dictators -Presidents (government)" -16565,63506,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg%20White,Meg White,"Meg White was born on December 10, 1974 in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan. She is an American drummer and vocalist. She is one half of The White Stripes with her ex-husband Jack White. - -Meg's playful yet simple style of drumming has drawn so much debate about her ability that is referenced in the movie School of Rock. In reference to her simple approach to drumming, Meg said ""That is my strength. A lot of drummers would feel weird about being that simplistic."" - -1974 births -Living people -Singers from Michigan -American drummers -Musicians from Michigan -American rock musicians -American blues musicians" -5705,18534,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket,Bucket,"A bucket is a container with a wide open top and a handle that is mainly used for carrying liquids. In some cases, solids may also be carried in a bucket (like sand which is hard to carry in your hands). - -Some buckets are used for work, and some more for leisure, as seen here . A bucket used for work is often made of a strong material such as iron or steel and is used to carry things like coal or soil. A bucket used for leisure, e.g. for making sandcastles, is normally made of plastic. - -In rare cases, a bucket may be worn as a piece of clothing, people may wear a bucket on their heads for humorous reasons. Buckethead is a famous example of this. - -Basic English 850 words" -9459,32330,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic%20Revolution,Islamic Revolution,"The Islamic Revolution occurred in 1979 in the Muslim-majority country of Iran. Islamist revolutionaries opposed the western secular policies of the authoritarian Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. - -Supporters of Ayatollah Khomeini organized protests against the authoritarian government of the Shah. Khomeini became the new Leader of Iran. 98.2% of the Iranian voters voted ""yes"" in a referendum for the creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini (also known as Imam Khomeini). It replaced an monarchy with a theocratic republic. The West claims that the republic is authoritarian. - -Shortly after the revolution, Iraq, under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran and started a war that ended in 1988, with neither side getting anything. The war is known as the Iran–Iraq War. - -Impact -Many Iranians were forced into exile by the revolution. - -Estimates of the number of Iranians who died during the war with Iraq and the riots with the Shah's forces vary from 3,000 to 60,000. The number executed by orders of the Revolutionary Courts is often estimated at 8,000. - -During the revolution, 52 Americans were held hostage after being seized at the US embassy. - -Related pages - Russian Revolution - -References - -History of Islam -1970s in Iran -Revolutions -Rebellions in Asia -20th century rebellions -1979" -15396,58490,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1492%20Pictures,1492 Pictures,"1492 Pictures is an American movie production company founded by director Chris Columbus in 1995. The name is a play on Columbus's more famous namesake, Christopher Columbus. - -In addition to various Columbus movies, 1492 Pictures has produced movies by other directors including Brian Levant (Jingle All the Way), Henry Selick (Monkeybone), Alfonso Cuarón (Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban), Joe Roth (Christmas with the Kranks), Tim Story (the Fantastic Four films), and Shawn Levy (the Night at the Museum films). The logo music was composed by Academy award winner Hans Zimmer. - -Movies -Nine Months (1995) -Jingle All the Way (1996) -Stepmom (1998) -Bicentennial Man (1999) -Monkeybone (2001) -Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (2001) -Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002) -Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004) -Christmas with the Kranks (2004) -Rent (2005) -Fantastic Four (2005) -Night at the Museum (2006) -Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007) -Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009) -I Love You, Beth Cooper (2009) -Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief (2010) - -Upcoming movies - Fantastic Four (TBA) - Night at the Museum 3 (TBA) - Dilbert (2012) - -Other websites - 1492 Pictures at the Internet Movie Database - -Movie studios -1995 establishments in the United States" -20902,80387,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2006%20S%201,S/2006 S 1,"S/2006 S 1 is an unnamed moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006, from observations taken between January 4 and April 30, 2006. - -S/2006 S 1 is about 6 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 18,930,200 km in 972.407 days, at an inclination of 154.2° to the ecliptic (175.4° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.1303. - -References - Institute for Astronomy Saturn Satellite Data - IAUC 8727: Satellites of Saturn 2006 June 30 (discovery) - MPEC 2006-M45: Eight New Satellites of Saturn 2006 June 26 (discovery and ephemeris) - -Saturn's moons" -4902,15525,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool,Blackpool,"Blackpool is a seaside town in Lancashire, in the north west of England. The town is on the coast of the Irish Sea. Blackpool had a population of 142,283 as of the 2001 census. - -Blackpool became important for tourism during the 19th century. It is known for its beaches and amusement parks. It is also the home to a famous international ballroom dancing competition. - -References - -Blackpool" -17699,66941,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Seymour%20%28actress%29,Jane Seymour (actress),"Jane Seymour OBE (born Joyce Penelope Wilhelmina Frankenberg on 15 February 1951) is an English actress. Her father was a Jew from England whose family was from Poland. Her mother was a Dutch Protestant. Seymour is known as the co-star of the James Bond movie Live and Let Die and star of the TV series and movie Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman. - -Famous movies - Live and Let Die (1973) - Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger (1977) - Battlestar Galactica (1978) - Somewhere in Time (1980) - The Scarlet Pimpernel (1982) - Lassiter (1983) - Head Office (1985) - War and Remembrance (1988) - Wedding Crashers (2005) - -Other websites - - - - - Official website - Jane Seymour cast bio on The WB - Jane Seymour: Actress, Artist, and Heart-Health Activist - Official Somewhere In Time website - Official fan website (FriendsOfJane.com) - -1951 births -Living people -Actors from Middlesex -Actresses who played Bond girls -Emmy Award winning actors -English movie actors -English television actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors" -24769,97031,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleander,Oleander,"Oleander, Nerium oleander, is a poisonous shrub. It is commonly used in gardens because of its pink colored flowers. Nerium oleander is native to northern Africa, the eastern Mediterranean basin and southeast Asia. Oleander prefers dry, warm climates and may naturalize in such areas. Recently, scientific studies on cardenolide oleandrin show that it may be used to prevent mutagenesis. - -References - -Gentianales -Shrubs" -3221,9910,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/May%2025,May 25," - -Events - -Up to 1950 - - 567 BC – Servius Tullius, king of Rome, celebrates a triumph for his victory over the Etruscans. - 240 BC – First-recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet - 1085 – Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo, Spain back from the Moors. - 1420 - Henry the Navigator is appointed Governor of the Order of Christ. - 1524 – Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issues the Edict of Worms, which declares Martin Luther an outlaw. - 1644 - Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui forms an alliance with the invading Manchus and opens the gates of the Great Wall of China at Shanhaiguan Pass, letting the Manchus through towards the capital, Beijing. - 1659 – Richard Cromwell resigns as Lord Protector of England. - 1809 – The South American Wars of Independence begin. - 1810 – May Revolution: The Argentine War of Independence begins. - 1837 - Rebels in Lower Canada (Quebec) rebel against the British for freedom. - 1865 – 300 people are killed in Mobile, Alabama when an ordnance depot explodes. - 1878 – The Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera H.M.S. Pinafore opens at the Opera Comique in London. - 1895 – The Republic of Formosa is founded. - 1895 - The playwright, novelist and poet Oscar Wilde is convicted of ""Committing acts of gross indecency with other male persons"" and sentenced to two years in prison. - 1914 - The United Kingdom House of Commons passes the Home Rule Act of 1914 for devolution to Ireland. - 1923 - A magnitude 5.7 earthquake strikes Iran, killing around 2,200 people. - 1925 – John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching Evolution. - 1935 – Jesse Owens of Ohio State University breaks three world records and ties one, in track and field athletics in Ann Arbor, Michigan. - 1938 – Spanish Civil War: 313 people are killed in Alicante. - 1946 – Abdullah I of Jordan is declared Emir by the Parliament of Transjordan. - -From 1951 - 1953 – The US conducts its only nuclear artillery test in Nevada. - 1955 – A night-time Force 5 tornado strikes the small city in Udall, Kansas, killing 80 people; it is the deadliest tornado ever to strike Kansas. - 1955 – First successful climb of Kanchenjunga (8,586 metres), the third-highest mountain in the world on the India-Nepal border, by a British expedition led by Joe Brown and George Band. - 1961 - The Bukit Ho Swee Fire occurs in Singapore. - 1961 – John F. Kennedy announces before the United States Congress that the United States should set the target of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s decade. - 1962 - In England, the new Coventry Cathedral is consecrated. The original one had been badly damaged by German bombs in World War II. - 1963 – The Organisation of African Unity is founded in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. - 1966 - Explorer program: Explorer 32 launches. - 1967 – Celtic F.C. from Glasgow, Scotland, becomes the first football team from the UK to win the European cup. - 1968 - The Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri is dedicated. - 1969 - Thor Heyerdahl sets off from Morocco on his Papyrus boat Ra, in an attempt to prove that America was directly settled from Africa. - 1977 – Star Wars is released in theatres. - 1977 - The People's Republic of China's government removes its 10-year ban on the work of William Shakespeare. - 1979 – American Airlines Flight 191, a McDonnell Douglas C-10, crashes during take-off from Chicago O'Hare International Airport, killing 273 people (271 on the plane and 2 on the ground). - 1979 – 6-year-old Etan Patz disappears on his way to school near his home in New York City. This becomes one of the most notorious missing-child cases in US history and leads to Ronald Reagan declaring May 25 National Missing Children's Day in 1983. - 1981 – In Riyadh the Guld Cooperation Council is created between Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. - 1982 – British ship HMS Coventry is sunk by Argentine forces during the Falklands War. - 1985 – A cyclone in Bangladesh kills 10,000 people and many more are made homeless. - 1997 – A coup in Sierra Leone removes Ahmad Tejan Kabbah and replaces him with Johnny Paul Koromah as leader. - 2000 – Israel withdraws most of its army from Lebanon. - 2001 – Erik Weihenmayer of Boulder, Colorado becomes the first person with a visual impairment to reach the top of Mount Everest. - 2002 – China Airlines Flight 611, a Boeing 747-200, breaks apart in mid-flight and plunges into the Taiwan Strait, killing 225 people. - 2002 – A train crash kills 197 people in Tenga, Mozambique. - 2003 - Néstor Kirchner becomes President of Argentina. - 2005 – Liverpool F.C. win the UEFA Champions League, defeating AC Milan in a penalty shoot-out. - 2009 – North Korea is believed to have tested its second nuclear device. - 2011 – The Oprah Winfrey Show airs for the last time. - 2013 - Suspected Maoist rebels kill at least 28 people and injure 32 others in an attack on a convoy of Indian National Congress politicians in Chhattisgarh, India. - 2013 - FC Bayern Munich defeat Borussia Dortmund 2-1 in the first UEFA Champions League final to be contested by two German teams. - 2014 - Elections are held to the European Parliament. Far-right parties make strong gains and finish in the lead in some countries, such as Nigel Farage's UKIP (UK), Marine Le Pen's National Front (France) and Danish People's Party (Denmark). In Greece, the left-wing SYRIZA Party finishes first. - 2014 - Petro Poroshenko is elected President of Ukraine. - 2018 - The European Union's General Data Protection Regulation enters into force. - 2018 - A referendum in the Republic of Ireland results in an-almost two-thirds majority (66.4%) voting to change the country's strict abortion laws. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1048 – Emperor Shenzong of China (d. 1085) - 1271 – Shah Jalal of Bengal (d. 1346) - 1334 – Emperor Suko of Japan (d. 1398) - 1458 – Mahmud Begada, Sultan of Gujarat (d. 1511) - 1572 - Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (d. 1632) - 1606 – Charles Garnier, French Jesuit missionary (d. 1649) - 1661 – Claude Buffier, French philosopher and historian (d. 1737) - 1677 - Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Orléans (d. 1749) - 1713 – John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of Great Britain (d. 1792) - 1725 – Samuel Ward, American politician (d. 1776) - 1762 - Walter Leake, Governor of Mississippi (d. 1825) - 1783 – Philip Pendleton Barbour, American politician (d. 1841) - 1791 - Ming Mang, Vietnamese Emperor (d. 1841) - 1803 – Edward Bulwer-Lytton, English novelist and playwright (d. 1873) - 1803 – Ralph Waldo Emerson, American essayist and philosopher (d. 1882) - 1815 - Giovanni Caselli, Italian physicist (d. 1891) - 1818 - Jacob Burckhardt, Swiss historian (d. 1897) - 1820 – Anne Brontë, English writer (d. 1849) - 1845 – Lip Pike, baseball player (d.1883) - 1846 – Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (d. 1923) - 1846 – Naim Frasheri, Albanian poet and writer (d. 1900) - 1848 - Johann Baptist Singenberger, Swiss composer, education and publisher (d. 1924) - 1860 – James McKeen Cattell, American psychologist (d. 1944) - 1863 - Camille Erlanger, French composer (d. 1919) - 1865 – John Mott, American YMCA leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1955) - 1865 – Pieter Zeeman, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943) - 1868 - Charles Hitchcock Adams, American chemist and astronomer (d. 1961) - 1877 – Billy Murray, American singer (d. 1954) - 1878 - Bill Robinson, American tap dancer and actor (d. 1949) - 1879 – Lord Beaverbrook, English publisher (d. 1964) - 1880 – Jean Alexandre Barré, French neurologist (d. 1967) - 1882 – Marie Doro, American actress (d. 1956) - 1883 - Carl Johan Lind, Swedish hammer thrower (d. 1965) - 1886 – Philip Murray, Scottish-American labor leader (d. 1952) - 1886 – Rash Behari Bose, Indian revolutionary (d. 1945) - 1887 – Francesco Forgione, Italian priest (d. 1968) - 1888 – Miles Malleson, English actor (d. 1969) - 1889 – Igor Sikorsky, Russian inventor (d. 1972) - 1897 - Gene Tunney, American boxer (d. 1978) - 1898 - Bennett Cerf, American publisher (d. 1971) - -1901 1950 - 1903 - Binnie Barnes, English-American actress and singer (d. 1998) - 1907 – U Nu, Burmese politician (d. 1995) - 1909 - Marie Menken, American actress, director and painter (d. 1970) - 1909 - Alfred Kubel, German politician (d. 1999) - 1912 – Princess Dukhye of Korea (d. 1989) - 1913 – Richard Dimbleby, British journalist and broadcaster (d. 1965) - 1913 - Donald Maclean, British secret agent (d. 1983) - 1916 - Brian Dickinson, Canadian politician (d. 1998) - 1917 - Theodore Hesburgh, American priest (d. 2015) - 1918 – Claude Akins, American actor (d. 1994) - 1921 – Hal David, American lyricist and songwriter (d. 2012) - 1921 – Jack Steinberger, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate - 1921 - Giorgio Orelli, Swiss writer (d. 2013) - 1922 – Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984) - 1922 - Kitty Kallen, American singer (d. 2016) - 1924 – István Nyers, Hungarian footballer (d. 2005) - 1925 – Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet (d. 1974) - 1925 – Jeanne Crain, American actress (d. 2003) - 1925 - Claude Pinoteau, French screenwriter and movie director (d. 2012) - 1926 - Bill Sharman, American basketball player (d. 2013) - 1926 – Miles Davis, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1991) - 1927 – Robert Ludlum, writer (d. 2001) - 1927 - Norman Petty, American singer-songwriter, pianist and producer (d. 1984) - 1929 – Beverly Sills, American soprano (d. 2007) - 1931 – Aili Jogi, Estonian anti-Communist activist (d. 2007) - 1931 – Georgi Grechko, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 2017) - 1931 - Herb Gray, former Deputy Prime Minister of Canada (d. 2014) - 1932 – John Gregory Dunne, American writer (d. 2003) - 1933 - Jógvan Sundstein, 7th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands - 1933 - Sarah Marshall, English-American actress (d. 2014) - 1933 - Basdeo Panday, 5th Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago - 1935 – Cookie Gilchrist, American football player - 1936 – Tom T. Hall, American singer and songwriter - 1938 – Raymond Carver, American writer (d. 1988) - 1939 – Dixie Carter, American actress (d. 2010) - 1939 – Ian McKellen, English actor - 1939 - Ferdinand Bracke, Belgian cyclist - 1941 – Vladimir Voronin, former President of Moldova - 1943 – Jessi Colter, American singer - 1944 – Frank Oz, English-born puppeteer and director - 1947 - Mitch Margo, American singer (The Tokens) (d. 2017) - 1948 – Klaus Meine, German singer (Scorpions) - 1949 – Jamaica Kincaid, Antiguan-born novelist - -1951 1970 - 1951 - François Bayrou, French politician - 1953 – Daniel Passarella, Argentine footballer - 1953 - Gaetano Scirea, Italian footballer (d. 1989) - 1953 – Eve Ensler, Jewish-American playwright and feminist activist - 1954 - Murali, Indian actor (d. 2009) - 1955 – Alistair Burt, British politician - 1956 – Sugar Minott, Jamaican singer (d. 2010) - 1957 – Alastair Campbell, British politician - 1957 - Robert Picard, Canadian ice hockey player - 1957 - Mark McGhee, Scottish footballer - 1958 – Paul Weller, English musician - 1959 – Julian Clary, English comedian - 1959 - Vladimir Franz, Czech composer and painter - 1960 - Amy Klobuchar, American politician, United States Senator from Minnesota - 1960 - Anthea Turner, English television presenter - 1961 - Robert Brylewski, Polish singer-songwriter (d. 2018) - 1963 – Mike Myers, Canadian actor and comedian - 1963 - Anne Consigny, French actress - 1963 - Torsten Albig, German politician - 1964 - Ivan Bella, Slovakian astronaut - 1965 – Simon Fowler, English singer (Ocean Colour Scene) - 1965 - Yahya Jammeh, former President of the Gambia - 1966 – McLoud, Swiss composer, musician, and multimedia artist - 1966 - Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands - 1967 - Luc Nilis, Belgian footballer - 1967 – Poppy Z. Brite, American writer - 1968 – Kendall Gill, American basketball player - 1969 – Anne Heche, American actress - 1969 – Glen Drover, Canadian musician (Megadeth) - 1970 – Jamie Kennedy, American actor - 1970 - Octavia Spencer, American actress - -From 1971 - 1971 – Sonya Smith, American actress - 1972 - Karan Johar, Indian director, producer, writer and actor - 1973 - Demetri Martin, American actor, comedian and musician - 1973 - Molly Sims, American model and actress - 1974 - Dougie Freedman, Scottish footballer and manager - 1974 – Monica Keena, American actress - 1974 - Frank Klepacki, American musician - 1975 - Keiko Fujimori, Peruvian politician - 1975 – Lauryn Hill, American singer - 1975 – Blaise Nkufo, Swiss footballer - 1976 – Miguel Tejada, Dominican Major League Baseball player - 1976 - Cillian Murphy, Irish actor - 1977 – Pat Burrell, baseball player - 1978 – Brian Urlacher, American football player - 1979 - Sayed Moawad, Egyptian footballer - 1979 – Jonny Wilkinson, English rugby player - 1979 – Carlos Bocanegra, American soccer player - 1979 - Caroline Ouellette, Canadian ice hockey player - 1980 - Alex Hofmann, German motorcycle racer - 1980 – David Navarro, Spanish footballer - 1982 – Adam Boyd, English footballer - 1982 – Daniel Braaten, Norwegian footballer - 1982 – Roger Guerreiro, Brazilian-Polish footballer - 1984 - Emma Marrone, Italian singer - 1984 - Marion Raven, Norwegian singer-songwriter, musician and actress - 1984 – Unnur Birna Vilhjálmsdóttir, Icelandic model (Miss Iceland), former Miss World - 1985 – Demba Ba, Senegalese footballer - 1985 - Joe Anoa'i, American football player and wrestler - 1986 – Lauren Crace, English actress - 1986 - Yoan Gouffran, French footballer - 1986 - Geraint Thomas, Welsh cyclist - 1987 - Kamil Stoch, Polish ski jumper - 1988 - Cameron van der Burgh, South African swimmer - 1990 - Nikita Filatov, Russian ice hockey player - 1991 - Jillian Wheeler, American singer-songwriter and actress - 1992 - Jon Dadi Bodvarsson, Icelandic footballer - 1994 - Aly Raisman, American gymnast - 1999 - Brec Bassinger, American actress - -Deaths - -Up to 1950 - 615 – Pope Boniface IV (b. 550) - 675 - Li Hong, Chinese prince (b. 550) - 709 – Aldhelm, English Christian saint (b. 639) - 967 – Emperor Murakami of Japan (b. 926) - 992 – Mieszko I of Poland (b. 935) - 1085 – Pope Gregory VII (b. 1020) - 1261 – Pope Alexander IV - 1452 – John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury - 1555 – Gemma Frisius, Dutch mathematician and mapmaker (b. 1508) - 1555 – Henry II of Navarre (b. 1503) - 1595 - Philip Neri, Italian priest and saint (b. 1515) - 1632 - Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician and philosopher (b. 1572) - 1667 - Gustaf Bonde, Swedish statesman (b. 1620) - 1681 – Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish playwright (b. 1600) - 1693 - Madame de la Fayette, French writer (b. 1634) - 1786 – King Peter III of Portugal (b. 1717) - 1789 - Anders Dahl, Swedish botanist (b. 1751) - 1805 – William Paley, English philosopher (b. 1743) - 1862 - Johann Nestroy, Austrian playwright, actor and opera singer (b. 1801) - 1895 - Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, Ottoman soldier, intellectual, bureaucrat, administrator and historian (b. 1822) - 1899 - Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (b. 1822) - 1899 - Emilio Castelar y Ripoll, Spanish politician and writer (b. 1832) - 1911 - Vasily Klyuchevsky, Russian historian (b. 1841) - 1912 - Austin Lane Crothers, 46th Governor of Maryland (b. 1860) - 1919 – Madam C. J. Walker, American philanthropist and tycoon (b. 1867) - 1924 - Lyubov Popova, Russian painter (b. 1889) - 1926 – Symon Petliura, Ukrainian politician and statesman (b. 1879) - 1930 – Randall Thomas Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1848) - 1934 – Gustav Holst, English composer (b. 1874) - 1939 - Frank Watson Dyson, English astronomer (b. 1858) - 1940 - Joe De Grasse, Canadian-American actor and director (b. 1873) - -1951 2010 - 1954 – Robert Capa, Hungarian-born photojournalist (b. 1913) - 1958 - Steinn Steinarr, Icelandic poet (b. 1908) - 1965 - Sonny Boy Williamson II, American singer-songwriter and musician (b. 1912) - 1970 - Tom Patey, Scottish mountaineer and writer (b. 1932) - 1977 – Yevgenia Ginzburg, Russian writer (b. 1904) - 1981 - Ruby Payne-Scott, Australian physicist and astronomer (b. 1912) - 1983 – King Idris I of Libya (b. 1890) - 1986 - Chester Bowles, 78th Governor of Connecticut (b. 1901) - 1988 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist (b. 1906) - 1993 - Buddhadesa, Thai monk and philosopher (b. 1906) - 1995 - Dany Robin, French actress (b. 1927) - 1996 - Renzo De Felice, Italian historian and politician (b. 1929) - 2002 – Pat Coombs, English actress (b. 1926) - 2005 - Sunil Dutt, Indian actor and politician (b. 1929) - 2006 – Desmond Dekker, Jamaican musician (b. 1941) - 2009 – Haakon Lie, Norwegian politician (b. 1906) - 2010 – Siphiwo Ntshebe, South African singer (b. 1975) - -From 2011 - 2011 – Leonora Carrington, British-Mexican painter (b. 1917) - 2012 – Edoardo Mangiarotti, Italian fencer (b. 1919) - 2014 - Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish general and politician, last Communist leader of Poland (b. 1923) - 2014 - Bunny Yeager, American model and photographer (b. 1929) - 2014 - Herb Jeffries, American jazz and pop singer (b. 1913) - 2014 - David Allen, English cricketer (b. 1935) - 2014 - Tommy Blom, Swedish radio host and singer (b. 1947) - 2014 - Malcolm Simmons, English motorcycle speedway racer (b. 1946) - 2015 - John M. Murphy, American politician (b. 1926) - 2015 - Mary Ellen Mark, American photographer (b. 1940) - 2015 - Bill O'Herlihy, Irish broadcaster (b. 1938) - 2016 - Yang Jiang, Chinese playwright, author and translator (b. 1911) - 2016 - Gyula Kosice, Czechoslovakian-Argentine poet and sculptor (b. 1924) - 2016 - Nancy Dow, American actress and model (b. 1936) - 2016 - John Webster, British theologian (b. 1955) - 2017 - Alistair Horne, British historian, journalist and spy (b. 1925) - 2017 - Eva Estrada Kalaw, Filipino politician (b. 1920) - 2017 - Frédérick Leboyer, French obstetrician and author (b. 1918) - 2017 - Saucy Sylvia, Canadian-American radio personality and singer (b. 1920) - 2018 - Piet Kee, Dutch composer and organist (b. 1927) - 2018 - Sergio Graziani, Italian actor (b. 1930) - 2018 - Naser Malek Motiei, Iranian actor (b. 1930) - 2019 - Margaret-Ann Armour, Scottish-Canadian chemist (b. 1939) - 2019 - Jean Burns, Australian aviatrix (b. 1919) - 2019 - Anthony Graziano, American mobster (b. 1940) - 2019 - Dmytro Kremin, Ukrainian poet, journalist and translator (b. 1953) - 2019 - Thembinkosi Mbamba, South African footballer (b. 1995) - -Observances - Africa Day - Geek Pride Day - Independence Day (Jordan) - Liberation Day (Lebanon) - National Day (Argentina) - National Missing Children's Day (United States), after the disappearance of Etan Patz on this day in 1979 - -Days of the year" -37,68,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20pudding,Black pudding,"Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled. - -Types of black pudding - -In Great Britain, blood sausage is called ""black pudding"". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. The most common kind of German Blutwurst is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and ""ready to eat"" it is usually served warm. - -Other kinds of blood sausage include boudin noir (France), boudin rouge (Creole and Cajun) and morcilla (Spain). - -History -A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's Odyssey from Ancient Greece says that ""As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted..."". - -Related pages -Sausage - -Sausage" -5310,17390,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1101,1101," - -Events - A second wave of crusaders arrives in the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem, after being heavily defeated by Kilij Arslan I at Heraclia. See Crusade of 1101. - Raymond IV of Toulouse, count of Tripoli, takes Ankara from the Seljuk Turks. - Robert Curthose signs the Treaty of Alton, giving up his claim to the Anglo-Norman throne and establishing Henry I as King of England. - The County of Berg, Germany is established. - Canute II of Denmark is canonized." -4142,12823,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibiscus%20syriacus,Hibiscus syriacus,"Hibiscus syriacus is one of the common flowering shrubs found in gardens, a species of Hibiscus. Common names for the same plant include Rose of Sharon (but it is not a rose), rose mallow, shrub-althaea, Syrian hibiscus, Syrian ketmia, and St Joseph's rod. - -The part of the name ""syriacus"" seems to say that the origin of this plant is from Syria, but the exact origin is so far unknown. Historically it was grown in ancient China and then it became a popular plant in Korea. Today the flowers are national symbols of Korea. In Japan, the flowers are often shown at tea ceremonies for decoration. - -There are many variations of flowers in gardens, because gardeners of the past were able to find different colors and shapes of flowers, and grow their seeds. - -Gallery - -References - -Trees -Malvaceae" -1663,5626,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Yare,River Yare,"The River Yare is a river in the county of Norfolk, England. - -The river starts south of Dereham in the county of Norfolk. From there it flows to the east of the world. The river flows along the southern edge of the city of Norwich. The river continues past Norwich into the tidal lake of Breydon Water. Here the Yare is joined by the Rivers Bure and Waveney. It empties into North Sea at Gorleston, Great Yarmouth.Google Chrome - -Small coastal boats can sail along the river from Norwich to the North Sea. In the past, the river had a large number of boats carrying goods to Norwich. Larger modern boats cannot get across Breydon Water because it is not deep enough. Because of this, a canal was created at Reedham to provides a connection to the River Waveney. - -References - -Rivers of England -Norfolk" -5514,18026,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealand,Zealand,"Zealand (Danish: Sjælland) is an island in the eastern part of Denmark. It is just west of Sweden and a strait called the Øresund lies between the two. It has an area of 7,031 km² and is the largest island in the country. - -About 2,268,000 people were living in Zealand as of 2016. Most of these people live in and around Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, which is on the eastern shore of Zealand. - -A number of bridges and tunnels link Zealand to other parts of Denmark. They include: - the Great Belt Bridge, which links Zealand to Funen, an island to the west. - the Storstrøm Bridge, which links Zealand to Lolland, an island to the south. - the Øresund Bridge, which links Zealand (actually the island of Amager) to Sweden to the east, near Malmö. - -Islands of Denmark" -5485,17900,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1555,1555," - -Events - Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland - February 2 – Diet of Augsburg begins - February 4 – John Rogers becomes first Protestant martyr in England - February 9 – Bishop of Gloucester John Hooper is burned at the stake - May 23 – Paul IV becomes Pope. - September 25 – Peace of Augsburg is signed. - -Births - -Deaths" -8967,30454,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eating,Eating,"Eating is taking in food to get energy or nutrients or for enjoyment. People and animals need to eat because they cannot make their own food inside their bodies like plants. All plants' energy comes from the sun. Plants take the sun's energy, and they are eaten by other animals as food. The animals then eat each other for the energy. - -However, many people can not stop themselves from eating, and they become fat or obese. You can become fat by eating the wrong, unhealthy types of food and by eating too much. When a plant collects energy from the sun through its leaves, it is called photosynthesis. If a plant gets too much food, it can just store it until later. They use this stored food during the winter. When you are proven to be fat or obese through your body mass index (BMI), it means you are heavier than the average for your height. The taller you are, the heavier you should be, in theory. If someone is too heavy to be called fat, then they are called obese. When someone eats too much of one thing, they become fat. Someone can eat junk food, but they can also balance themselves by also eating fruits and vegetables. - - -Food and drink" -11622,42709,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolita,Lolita,"Lolita is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov. The book was written in English. It was published in Paris in 1955. It was translated into Russian by Nabokov. The story is about the sexual relationship that develops in the United States between a middle-aged British professor and a 12-year-old girl after he becomes her stepfather. It was a very controversial book. The novel was made into a movie by Stanley Kubrick in 1962, and remade in 1997. - -Related pages - Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century - -Other websites - National Public Radio: ""50 Years Later, Lolita Still Seduces Readers"" - Stanford Magazine: ""The Lolita Question"" - Slate magazine: ""Lolita at 50 - Is Nabokov's masterpiece still shocking?"" - Photos of the first edition of Lolita - Lolita USA: The itineraries of Humbert's and Lolita's two voyages across the U.S.A. 1947–1949, with maps and pictures. - Lolita Calendar—A detailed and referenced inner chronology of Nabokov's novel. - Zembla—A resource of the Arts & Humanities Library of the Pennsylvania State University Libraries, home of the International Vladimir Nabokov Society and its publication The Nabokovian. - -1955 books -English-language novels -Incest in fiction -Russian novels" -11581,42245,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence%20Tao,Terence Tao,"Terence Chi-Shen Tao (born 17 July 1975) is a Chinese-Australian mathematician who currently resides in the United States. In 2006, Tao won the Fields Medal for his work in number theory. Tao shared the award with three other mathematicians. He also won the FRS in 2007. He is known for his studies in harmonic analysis, partial differential equations, combinatorics, analytic number theory and representation theory. Tao teaches math at UCLA. - -Life -Tao was born in Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. His parents are Han. Tao is the youngest person to be in the International Mathematical Olympiad. - -Ever since he was a young child he had shown great skills in mathematics and logic. -His father claimed that at the age of 2, during a family gathering, the infant Tao taught a 5-year-old child mathematics and English. According to Smithsonian Online Magazine, Tao taught himself arithmetic by the age of two. When asked by his father how he knew numbers and letters, he said he learned them from ""Sesame Street"". Aside from English, Tao speaks fluent Cantonese, but does not write Chinese. He was promoted to a full professor at age 24. He currently lives with his wife and son in Los Angeles, California. - -Other websites - Terence Tao's home page - Clay Research Award Announcement - Australian wins highest maths prize , by Charisse Ede, August 22, 2006, from AAP - BBC story - New York Times story - Mozart of Maths, Sydney Morning Herald, Deborah Smith, August 26, 2006. - Maths Architect of Beauty , Seed Magazine, by Jordan Ellenberg, Posted September 21, 2006 - -Fields Medalists -1975 births -Living people -Scientists from South Australia -Chinese mathematicians -Child prodigies -People from Adelaide -American bloggers -Number theorists" -5795,18792,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s%20100%20Years...%20100%20Movies,AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies,"AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies is a list of the top one hundred movies in American cinema. It was made by the American Film Institute in 1998. The television station CBS aired the list's special. - -Movies that were on the list: -had to be made in the United States; -must have English as their language; -must run over sixty minutes in length; -had to be recognised at many award shows and festivals, and by critics and audiences; -left a lasting mark on American history and society. - -The list -Citizen Kane (1941) -Casablanca (1942) -The Godfather (1972) -Gone with the Wind (1939) -Lawrence of Arabia (1962) -The Wizard of Oz (1939) -The Graduate (1967) -On the Waterfront (1954) -Schindler's List (1993) -Singin' in the Rain (1952) -It's a Wonderful Life (1946) -Sunset Boulevard (1950) -The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) -Some Like It Hot (1959) -Star Wars (1977) -All About Eve (1950) -The African Queen (1951) -Psycho (1960) -Chinatown (1974) -One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) -The Grapes of Wrath (1940) -2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) -The Maltese Falcon (1941) -Raging Bull (1980) -E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) -Dr. Strangelove (1964) -Bonnie and Clyde (1967) -Apocalypse Now (1979) -Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) -The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) -Annie Hall (1977) -The Godfather Part II (1974) -High Noon (1952) -To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) -It Happened One Night (1934) -Midnight Cowboy (1969) -The Best Years of Our Lives (1946) -Double Indemnity (1944) -Doctor Zhivago (1965) -North by Northwest (1959) -West Side Story (1961) -Rear Window (1954) -King Kong (1933) -The Birth of a Nation (1915) -A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) -A Clockwork Orange (1971) -Taxi Driver (1976) -Jaws (1975) -Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) -Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) -The Philadelphia Story (1940) -From Here to Eternity (1953) -Amadeus (1984) -All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) -The Sound of Music (1965) -M*A*S*H (1970) -The Third Man (1949) -Fantasia (1940) -Rebel Without a Cause (1955) -Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) -Vertigo (1958) -Tootsie (1982) -Stagecoach (1939) -Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) -The Silence of the Lambs (1991) -Network (1976) -The Manchurian Candidate (1962) -An American in Paris (1951) -Shane (1953) -The French Connection (1971) -Forrest Gump (1994) -Ben-Hur (1959) -Wuthering Heights (1939) -The Gold Rush (1925) -Dances with Wolves (1990) -City Lights (1931) -American Graffiti (1973) -Rocky (1976) -The Deer Hunter (1978) -The Wild Bunch (1969) -Modern Times (1936) -Giant (1956) -Platoon (1986) -Fargo (1996) -Duck Soup (1933) -Mutiny on the Bounty (1935) -Frankenstein (1931) -Easy Rider (1969) -Patton (1970) -The Jazz Singer (1927) -My Fair Lady (1964) -A Place in the Sun (1951) -The Apartment (1960) -Goodfellas (1990) -Pulp Fiction (1994) -The Searchers (1956) -Bringing Up Baby (1938) -Unforgiven (1992) -Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967) -Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) - -Other websites -American Film Institute -Filmsite.org article -Montreal Mirror's opinion of the list - -Lists of movies -American Film Institute" -21069,80826,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge%20Manrique,Jorge Manrique,"Jorge Manrique (c. 1440 – 1479) was a major Spanish poet, whose main work, the Coplas a la muerte de su padre (Stanzas about the Death of his Father), is still read today. He was a supporter of the great Spanish queen, Isabel I of Castile, and actively participated on her side in the civil war that broke out against her half-brother, Enrique IV, when the latter attempted to make his daughter, Juana, crown princess. Jorge died in 1479 during an attempt to take the castle of Garcimuñoz after Isabel gained the crown. - -Manrique were one of major Spanish aristocratic families of the Jewish converso descent. See, Norman Roth, ""Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain"", Madison, WI: The University of Wisconcin Press, 1995, p. 333. Jorge Manrique was a great-nephew of Iñigo López de Mendoza (marquess of Santillana), a descendant of Pero López de Ayala, chancellor of Castile, and a nephew of Gómez Manrique, corregidor of Toledo, all important poets of the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. He was, therefore, a member of a noble family of great consequence. - -1440 births -1479 deaths -Spanish poets" -12497,46061,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Praetorius,Michael Praetorius,"Michael Praetorius (born Creuzburg an der Werra, near Eisenach 15 February 1571? ; died Wolfenbüttel, 15 February 1621) was a German composer, organist and music theorist. He was one of the most important composers of his day and he wrote lots of different kinds of music. A lot of his music is based on hymns of the Protestant church. - -We are not quite certain about the date of his birth. He was born at a time when there was a lot of argument about religion in Germany. His father was a strict Lutheran and lost his job more than once because of his beliefs. We know very little about the life of Praetorius. He seems to have gone to the Lateinschule (“Latin School”) in Torgau where he had music lessons from Michael Voigt. He probably never had music lessons after he left school. Then he went to the University of Frankfurt an der Oder. There Praetorius graduated in divinity. Afterwards he found a job as organist to the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. He soon earned a good salary. He married in 1603 and had two sons. - -Although he had his job in Wolfenbüttel for many years he also worked a lot in Dresden where he met Heinrich Schütz and in Magdeburg where he met Samuel Scheidt. His health was not good, possibly because he worked so hard. When he died he left a lot of money to the poor. - -His music - -Praetorius wrote a very large amount of music. Much of it has been lost. He wrote a collection of French dances called Terpsichore for a small group of instruments. These are very happy pieces and are very popular today. A lot of his music is based on Protestant hymns, written for the services in the Lutheran church. He liked to write music in which two groups of singers or instrumentalists alternate (take it in turns to sing/play). His music for choir, which includes many motets, shows him to be one of the best composers of his time. He liked to write music for two, three or four choirs (all singing different parts). The tune would be in the top part so that the congregation could join in. - -His theory works - -Praetorius wrote a book about music theory called Syntagma Musicum. Part One talks about religious music. It is very interesting for us today because it tells us a lot about the way that Martin Luther wanted to change music in the church services. In Part Two he described the musical instruments of his day. Part Three talks about musical forms: this included discussions about things like music notation (the way music was written), transposition (music), solmization and how to write for large choirs. He was going to write a Part Four in which he wanted to discuss the technique of musical composition, but he died before he could write it. - -1571 births -1621 deaths -Baroque composers -German composers -German organists -Music theorists -People from Thuringia" -2939,9256,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894,1894," - -Events - Outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War - June 30 – Tower Bridge in London opened. - -Births - February 10 - Harold Macmillan, British Prime Minister - April 17 – Nikita Krushchev, Soviet leader - March 20 – Ky Ebright, American Olympic rowing coach (d. 1979) - July 26 – Aldous Huxley, English writer - November 27 - Katherine Milhous, American illustrator and writer (d. 1977) - -Deaths - 1 January – Heinrich Rudolf Hertz - 1 November - Alexander III of Russia Czar of Russia father of Czar Nicholas II" -1348,4794,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism,Leninism,"Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism. - -Beliefs -Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include: - - Democratic Centralism, also known as the idea of the vanguard party. Like other communists, Lenin wanted to see a socialist revolution led by the working class. But he thought the workers needed strong leadership in the form of a Revolutionary Party based on Democratic Centralism. Lenin wanted Communist political parties in every country to lead the revolution. He thought the vanguard party would need to have strong discipline, or it would fail. - The idea that capitalism is the cause of imperialism (empire-building). He thought that imperialism was the ""highest stage"" of capitalism. - Accepting the idea that the oppressed ethnic minorities (smaller groups of people) should get to have Nationalism and decide how they should be governed. - Teaching the proletariat (working class) about politics, especially Marxism. - -References - -Other websites - Books by Vladimir Lenin - What Is To Be Done?. - Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. - The State and Revolution. - ""The Lenin Archive"". - ""First Conference of the Communist International"". - - Other similar links - ""Marcel Liebman on Lenin and democracy"". - ""An excerpt on Leninism and State Capitalism from the work of Noam Chomsky"". - Rosa Luxemburg. ""Organizational Questions of the Russian Social Democracy"". - Karl Korsch. ""Lenin's Philosophy"". - ""Cyber Leninism"". - ""Leninist Ebooks"" . - Anton Pannekoek. ""Lenin as a Philosopher"". - Paul Mattick. ""The Lenin Legend"". - Paul Craig Roberts. ""Dead Labor: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered"". - -Communism -Marxism" -22004,83736,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungern,Lungern,"Lungern is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites -Official site of the municipal Lungern -Tourism Lungern - -Municipalities of Obwalden" -18447,69220,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takijir%C5%8D%20%C5%8Cnishi,Takijirō Ōnishi,"was a Vice-Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II, who came to known as the father of the kamikaze. - -Other websites - One of the commanders who be orderd the Kamikaze operation (in Japanese) - -1891 births -1945 deaths -Admirals -Aviators -Japanese military people -Military personnel of World War II -People from Hyōgo Prefecture" -9996,34141,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrato,Castrato,"A castrato (plural castrati) was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word castrato literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left. - -The practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence. - -Even though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future. - -Once a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead. - -It is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich Händel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli. - -The popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century when operas became less artificial and more like real life. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording. - -Related pages - Breeches role - -Other websites - Alessandro Moreschi at Internet Archive - -Vocal ranges" -15860,60789,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate%20tectonics,Plate tectonics,"Plate tectonics is a theory of geology. It explains movement of the Earth's lithosphere: this is the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle. The lithosphere is divided into plates, some of which are very large and can be entire continents. - -Heat from the mantle is the source of energy driving plate tectonics. Exactly how this works is still a matter of debate. - -Earth's crust -The outermost part of the structure of the Earth is made up of two layers. The lithosphere, above, is solid. It includes the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. - -Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is like a solid or a hot viscous liquid. It can flow like a liquid on long time scales. Large convection currents in the asthenosphere transfer heat to the surface, where plumes of less dense magma break apart the plates at the spreading centers. The deeper mantle below the asthenosphere is more rigid again. This is caused by extremely high pressure. - -Continental and oceanic plates -There are two types of tectonic plates: oceanic and continental. - -An oceanic plate is a tectonic plate at the bottom of the oceans. It is primarily made of mafic rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than the continental crust (generally less than 10 kilometers thick) and denser. It is also younger than continental crust. When they collide, the oceanic plate moves underneath the continental plate because of its density. As a result, it melts in the mantle and reforms. The oldest oceanic rocks are less than 200 million years old. - -Continental plate is the thick part of the earth's crust which forms the large land masses. Continental rock has lower density than oceanic rock. They are mostly made of felsic rocks. These have granite, with its abundant silica, aluminum, sodium and potassium. Continental plates are rarely destroyed. Their oldest rocks seem to be 4 billion years old. Oceanic plates cover about 71 percent of Earth’s surface, while continental plates cover 29 percent. - -Thickness of plates -Ocean lithosphere varies in thickness. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outward, it gets thicker as it moves further away from the mid-ocean ridge. Typically, the thickness varies from about thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than at subduction zones. - -Continental lithosphere is about thick. It varies between basins, mountain ranges, and the stable cratonic interiors of continents. The two types of crust differ in thickness, with continental crust being much thicker than oceanic: vs. . - -Movement of plates -The lithosphere consists of tectonic plates. There are seven major and many minor plates. The lithospheric plates ride on the asthenosphere (aesthenosphere). The plate boundary is where two plates meet. When movement occurs, the plates may create mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridges and oceanic trenches, depending on which way the plates are moving. - Convergent boundaries: two plates move toward each other. Sometimes one plate will move under the other. This is called subduction. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the oceanic plate will move underneath the continental because it is denser. Convergent boundaries can create mountains and volcanoes. The Andes mountain range in South America and the Japanese island arc are examples, along with the Pacific Ring of Fire. - Divergent boundaries: two plates move apart. As shown in the diagram, the place where the boundary occurs is called a rift. Magma from the mantle pushes up and cools off forming new land. They create earthquakes and trenches. The Mid-ocean ridges and Africa's Great Rift Valley are examples. - Transform fault boundaries: two plates move side to side. They make earthquakes. The San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a transform boundary. New Zealand is another, more complex, example. - -Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along plate boundaries. The lateral movement of the plates varies from: - per year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge). This is as fast as fingernails grow. - per year (Nazca Plate). This is as fast as hair grows. - -Major plates -Depending on how they are defined, seven or eight major plates are usually listed: - African plate - Antarctic plate - Indo-Australian plate, sometimes subdivided into: - Indian plate - Australian plate - Eurasian plate - North American plate - South American plate - Pacific plate - -Related pages - List of tectonic plates - Tectonics -Alfred Wegener - -References - - McKnight, Tom 2004. Geographica: the complete illustrated atlas of the world, Barnes and Noble; New York. - Stanley, Steven M. 1999. Earth system history. Freeman, p211–228. - Thompson, Graham R. & Turk, Jonathan 1991. Modern physical geology. Saunders. - Turcotte D.L. & Schubert G. 2002. Geodynamics. 2nd ed, Wiley, New York. - -Other websites - - Movie showing 750 million years of global tectonic activity. - More movies over smaller regions and smaller time scales. - Easy-to-draw illustrations for teaching plate tectonics - Map of tectonic plates - Plate tectonics -Citizendium" -14419,54230,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Batman,John Batman,"John Batman (21 January 1801 – 6 May 1839) was an Australian farmer and businessman who was one of the first white people to live in Melbourne. - -Batman was born in Rosehill, Parramatta (part of Sydney), and spent time in Tasmania (then called Van Diemen's Land). In Tasmania he started farming on land the government gave him. He brought more land. During this time, he was involved in conflicts with the Tasmanian Aborigines. - -In December 1825, or early 1826, Batman captured the notorious bushranger (a kind of robber), Matthew Brady. - -Batman asked to be given land in the Westernport area of Victoria, but the government rejected him. So, in 1835, as a leading member of the Port Phillip Association he sailed for the mainland of Australia in the schooner Rebecca and explored much of Port Phillip Bay. Batman made an agreement, now known as Batman's Treaty, with some local Aborigines to rent their land in return for things like knives and flour every year. Probably the Wurundjeri people did not understand the agreement. In any case, the Governor of New South Wales said the agreement was not legal the land was owned by the Government rather than the Aborigines. - -Batman became very unhealthy after 1835, and he separated from his wife, convict Elizabeth Callaghan. They had had seven daughters and a son. His son drowned in the Yarra River. In his last months the local Aborigines looked after him. - -Batman is remembered by some statues around Melbourne, and is buried in the Fawkner Cemetery, a cemetery named after his fellow colonist John Pascoe Fawkner. There is also a memorial in the Old Melbourne Cemetery. - -Melbourne was called Batmania for a very brief time, in 1835, after John Batman. - -He was also one of the first Australians to take part in the Common wealth Games 1823. - -His direct descendant is Australian sprinter Daniel Batman. - -Related pages - History of Melbourne - -Other websites - http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/0-dict-biogBa.html#batman1 - Batmania: a fun way to explore the people and events surrounding the foundation of Melbourne, images of the Batman Land Deed and other historical documents at the National Museum of Australia. - -References - A Pictorial History of Bushrangers, Prior, Wannan and Nunn, 1968, Paul Hamlyn Pty Ltd, Melbourne - -1801 births -1839 deaths -Australian explorers -People from Sydney -Australian businesspeople -Australian politicians" -20719,79702,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20delta,River delta,"A river delta is a landform where the mouth of a river flows into an ocean, sea, desert, estuary, lake or another river. It is formed by sediment carried by the river being deposited in the wider mouth. This happens because the water moves less quickly there. - -The word ""delta"" comes from the upper-case letter delta, Δ , in the Greek alphabet because many river deltas are triangular like this letter. - -A river delta can cover just a few square miles, or an area of hundreds or thousands of square miles of land. - -Other websites - Louisiana State University Geology - World Deltas" -23773,91700,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne%20Friedrich,Arne Friedrich,"Arne Friedrich (born May 29, 1979) is a German football player. His team at the moment is Hertha Berlin. He has played for the Germany national team in 82 matches, scoring a goal once. - -Club career statistics - -|- -|2000/01||rowspan=""2""|Arminia Bielefeld||rowspan=""2""|2. Bundesliga||25||1||2||0||colspan=""2""|-||27||1 -|- -|2001/02||22||0||2||0||colspan=""2""|-||24||0 -|- -|2002/03||rowspan=""8""|Hertha Berlin||rowspan=""8""|Bundesliga||33||5||1||0||8||0||42||5 -|- -|2003/04||30||2||3||1||2||0||35||3 -|- -|2004/05||25||3||0||0||colspan=""2""|-||25||3 -|- -|2005/06||31||1||3||1||8||0||42||2 -|- -|2006/07||26||2||4||0||4||0||34||2 -|- -|2007/08||30||0||2||0||0||0||32||0 -|- -|2008/09||25||0||1||0||4||0||30||0 -|- -|2009/10|||||||||||||||| -247||14||18||2||26||0||291||16 -247||14||18||2||26||0||291||16 -|} - -International career statistics - -|- -|2002||4||0 -|- -|2003||10||0 -|- -|2004||10||0 -|- -|2005||8||0 -|- -|2006||16||0 -|- -|2007||7||0 -|- -|2008||9||0 -|- -|2009||5||0 -|- -|2010||10||1 -|- -|2011||3||0 -|- -!Total||82||1 -|} - -References - -1979 births -Living people -German footballers -Sportspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia" -340,655,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman,Roman,"Roman or Romans may refer to: - A thing or person of or from the city of Rome, Italy - -History - Ancient Rome (8th century BC – 5th century AD) -Roman Kingdom (753 BC to 509 BC) - Roman Republic (509 BC to 27 BC) - Roman Empire (27 BC to 476/1453 AD) - Roman Britain, part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and about 410 - Roman alphabet, the standard alphabet of most of the languages of Western and Central Europe - Romanization - Roman army - Roman calendar - Roman law, the legal system of both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire - Roman numerals, numeral system where certain letters are given a numeral value - Roman mythology - Byzantine Empire (330/476/629 to 1453), the Eastern Roman Empire - Romaioi (Ρωμαίοι), Greek-speaking, Orthodox population of the Eastern Roman Empire dating to Late Antiquity - Romaioi (Ρωμιοί), Greek-speaking, Orthodox population of the Rum-milet in the Ottoman Empire, or Greek-speaking Orthodox people today - Romanae or the Greco-Romans from Aetolia Acarnania that speak Romanesci - Holy Roman Empire (c. 900 to 1806), a medieval state in Central Europe - Roman, Bulgaria, a town and a municipality in Vratsa Province - Romans-sur-Isère, in the Drôme département of France - Roman, Romania, a city in Neamţ county - Romans, Ain, a town in France - Roman, Eure, France - Romans, Deux-Sèvres, France - Romans d'Isonzo, a town in Italy - Roman roads - Roman Valley, Nova Scotia - Saint Roman, Monaco - -Christianity - Epistle to the Romans, a letter in the New Testament of the Christian Bible - The Roman Catholic Church - -Literature - The word for Novel in many European languages. - Nouveau roman (lit. ""new novel""), a type of French novel of the 1950s - Bildungsroman (lit. ""formation novel""), German for a coming-of-age story - Künstlerroman (lit. ""artist's novel""), German for a story of an artist's growth to maturity - Romance (heroic literature), a genre of Medieval French literature - Ar-Rum, the 30th book in the Qu'ran, is sometimes translated as The Romans - Roman à clef, a novel about real life, overlaid with a façade of fiction" -17951,67586,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daigo%2C%20Ibaraki,"Daigo, Ibaraki","Daigo (大子町; -machi) is a town that is in the Kuji District, Ibaraki, Japan. - -In 2003, about 22,813 people lived there, 70.03 people per km². The total area is . - -Other websites -Official website - -Towns in Japan -Settlements in Ibaraki Prefecture" -1178,4424,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20waterfalls,List of waterfalls,"This is a list of waterfalls. - -Africa - Boyoma Falls (Stanley Falls) - Democratic Republic of the Congo - Mutarazi Falls - Sipi Falls - Uganda - Tugela Falls - Victoria Falls - widest in the world - -North America - -Canada - Bow Glacier Falls - Banff National Park - Della Falls - highest in Canada - Emperor Falls - Mount Robson Provincial Park - Hunlen Falls - Montmorency Falls, Quebec - 83 m (272 ft) - Takakkaw Falls - Yoho National Park - Twin Falls - Yoho National Park - Canadian Falls, Ontario - part of Niagara Falls, with a 53 m (173 ft) drop - -Mexico - Basaseachic Falls - -United States -(in order of vertical drop) - Yosemite Falls, California - highest waterfall in North America with a 436 m (1430 ft) drop followed by a 206 m (675 ft) cascade and another 98 m (320 ft) sheer drop - Sulphide Creek Falls, Washington, cascades 2182 ft (665 m) - Ribbon Falls, California - 491 m (1612 ft) drop when flowing - Silver Strand Falls, California - 357 m (1170 ft) drop when flowing - Feather Falls, California - 195 m (640 ft) high when flowing - Bridalveil Falls, California - 189 m (620 ft) sheer drop when flowing - Multnomah Falls, Oregon - 189 m (620 ft) drop in two steps of 165 m and 21 m (542 ft then 69 ft), flowing year-round - Taughannock Falls, New York - 66 m (215 ft) single, vertical drop, flowing year-round - American Falls, New York - part of Niagara Falls with a drop of 52 m (170 ft), flowing year-round - Burney Falls, California - spring fed, 39 m (129 ft) drop, 4 m³/s (150 ft³/s) constant flow rate. - Great Falls of the Passaic River, New Jersey - 23 m (77 ft) drop. - Cumberland Falls, Kentucky - 21 m (69 ft) drop, home to moonbows when the moon is full, flowing year-round - Indian Chimney Falls, New York - 18 m (60 ft) drop, at Indian Chimney Farm - Tahquamenon Falls, Michigan - 15 m (50 ft) drop, 61 m (200 ft) wide - Saint Anthony Falls, Minnesota - highest waterfall on the Mississippi River until replaced by dams in the 19th century''' - -South America - -Argentina/Brazil - Iguaçu Falls - -Brazil - Tabuleiro Falls - -Brazil/Paraguay - Guaira Falls - -Guyana - Kaieteur Falls - King Edward VIII Falls - -Venezuela - Angel - highest waterfall in the world, at 979 m (3,212 ft) - Cuquenan Falls - -Asia - -India - jog Falls - -Japan - Nachi Falls - highest in Japan, over 122 m (400 ft) high - Kegon Falls - third highest in Japan, 97 m (318 ft) high - -Laos - Khone Falls - -Sri Lanka - - Bambarakande Falls - highest in Sri Lanka 263 m high - Diyaluma Falls - most famous in Sri Lanka 220 m high - Dunhida Falls - Lakshapana Falls - Bopath Ella - -Europe - -France - Gavarnie Falls - -Finland - Hepoköngäs - Kiutaköngäs - Korkeakoski - -Greenland - Qorlortorsuaq - -Iceland - Aldeyjarfoss - Barnafoss - Dettifoss - most powerful in Europe - Fjallfoss - Gjáin - Glymur - Goðafoss - Gullfoss - largest in Europe - Hafragilsfoss - Háifoss - Hengifoss - Hraunfossar - Selfoss - Seljalandsfoss - Skógafoss - Svartifoss - -Norway - Espelandsfossen - Kjell Falls - Lower Mar Valley Falls - Monge Falls - Tyssestrengene Falls - Upper Mar Valley Falls - Utigord Falls - Vettis Falls - -Slovenia - Klonte Falls - Lehnjak Falls - Rinka Falls - Waterfalls of Triglav national park - Mostnice Falls - Peričnik Falls - Savica Falls - -Switzerland - Engstligen Falls - Adelboden - Giessbach Falls - Brienz - Reichenbach Falls - Meiringen - Rhine Falls - Staubbach Falls - Lauterbrunnen - Trümmelbach Falls - Lauterbrunnen - -United Kingdom - -England - Gaping Gill - ""highest"" waterfall in England, with water falling 110m from the surface into an underground cavern - High Force - highest above-ground waterfall in England - Low Force - downstream from High Force - -Scotland - Eas Coul Aulin - 200 m (658 ft), highest waterfall in Britain - Gray Mares Tail - -Wales - Hendryd Waterfall - Pistyll Rhaeadr - highest waterfall in Wales - -Oceania - -Australia - Jim Jim Falls - Montezuma Falls - Tin Mine Falls - Twin Falls - Wallaman Falls - Wollomombi Falls - Gunlom Falls - -Hawaiian Islands - Akaka Falls - Kahiwa Falls - 530 m (1,750 ft) - Kahuna Falls - Olo'upena Falls - 900 m (2953 ft) total drop. Moloka'i North shore. - Papalaua Falls - Rainbow Falls - Wailua Falls - Waipoo Falls - -New Zealand - Sutherland Falls - highest waterfall in New Zealand - Browne Falls - might also be the highest - -Tahiti - Fachoda Falls - -Geography-related lists" -14881,56060,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp%20Lahm,Philipp Lahm,"Philipp Lahm (; born 11 November 1983) is a German retired football player. He was a former defender for Bayern Munich. - -Career club statistics - -Club - -1.Includes German Cup. -2.Includes UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup. -3.Includes German League Cup, German Super Cup, UEFA Super Cup, and FIFA Club World Cup. - -International career statistics - -|- -|2004||15||1 -|- -|2005||0||0 -|- -|2006||15||1 -|- -|2007||7||0 -|- -|2008||15||1 -|- -|2009||11||0 -|- -|2010||12||1 -|- -|2011||10||0 -|- -|2012||10||1 -|- -|2013||9||0 -|- -|2014||9||0 -|- -!Total||113||5 -|} - -Honours - -Club - -Bayern Munich - - Fußball-Bundesliga (6): 2002–03, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14 - DFB-Pokal (6): 2002–03, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14 - DFL-Ligapokal (1): 2007 - DFL-Supercup (2): 2010, 2012 - UEFA Champions League (1): 2012–13 - UEFA Super Cup (1): 2013 - FIFA Club World Cup (1): 2013 - -National team - - FIFA World Cup (1): 2014 - -References - -1983 births -Living people -Association football defenders -Association football full-backs -2006 FIFA World Cup players -2010 FIFA World Cup players -2014 FIFA World Cup players -German footballers -Sportspeople from Munich" -20219,77660,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkh,Balkh,"Balkh () is a city in Balkh Province of Afghanistan. It was a big city hundreds of years ago, but it was ruined by Mongols. It was not ruined forever, though. In 1850 it was captured by Dost Mohammad Khan. - -Related pages - Balkh Province - -References - -Cities in Afghanistan" -2076,7109,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal,Journal,"a written medium, for instance: - an academic journal - a diary - a literary magazine, a periodical devoted to literature - a daily newspaper - a scientific journal - Journal (mechanical device), the section of a rotating shaft that contacts and turns in a plain bearing - Mining journal, a record systematically describing the strata through which a mine shaft passes (see shaft mining) - Journal entry, an accounting transaction in the double-entry bookkeeping system" -1752,5821,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20words%20about%20computers,List of words about computers," - -A - Adobe - Acrobat - Algorithm - AMD - Android - API - Apple - Application - Analog - -B - - Boot - binary - BIOS - bitcoin - byte -bot - Botnet - Browser - -C - C programming language - Cable - Cache memory - Captcha - Connection - Control - Cookie -C++ -Computer - -D - data - database -datalake - Debian - decompress - desktop - dialer - digital - document - disk operating system (redirect (or disambig) from DOS) - download - -E - ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator - electricity - email - email attachment - Encarta encyclopedia - Epiphany web browser - End User License Agreement (redirect from EULA) - Explorer - ext2 filesystem type - ext3 filesystem type - -F - File allocation table (disambiguation from FAT or fat) - FAT16 filesystem - FAT32 filesystem - file - file types by ending - filesharing - filesystem - firewall - folder - footnotes - format - FreeBSD - freeware - FTP - Facebook - ((Function)) - -G - gigabyte (redir from gb) - Gimp - Gmail - Gnome - Google - GNU - GnuPG - GPU - Google Nest - -H - hacker - hard disk (redirects from hard drive, hard disk drive, hard disk) - hardware - Hash_function - HDMI - home page - HTML - HTTP - HTTP_Cookie - -I - Intel - Icons - Input device - Internet - -J - - MarA jio - Joo - Jio - - Java - JavaScript - J# - -K - KDE* - kernel - keyboard - key - keyword - -L - laptop - licensing examples for computer software - link - Linux - Lavasoft - Live CD - LibreOffice - -M - Macintosh - Mac OS - Mac OS X - Malware -Mainframe Computer - Mandrake Linux - Martus - md5 - media - megabyte (redir or disamb from mb) - Microsoft - modify - monitor - Motherboard - mouse - Mozilla web browser - Mozilla Firefox web browser - Modem - mp4 - mpeg-4 - -N - NTFS filesystem type - Netscape - Netscape Navigator web browser - network - NNTP - non-commercial - notebook computer - Nvidia - -O - ogg file format for multimedia - OpenOffice.org - Open Site - open source - Opera web browser - operating system - operating systems, a list - -P - page - Perl - personal computer (PC) - Petabyte - pdf or more likely PDF - peer to peer, P2P - PGP - PHP - proprietary - piracy - pirate - plug-in - Python - popup - printer - privacy - program - program release - Python - PRINT - -Q - QNX - QuickBasic - QuickTime. - QWERTY - -R - Random_access_memory(redirect from RAM) - ReactOS - Read-only_memory(Redirect from ROM) - RedHat - Reiser FS filesystem type - root - RSA - Recycle Bin - Reboot - -S - scan - search engine - security - server - shared source - shareware - software - spam - spamming - Spreadsheet - spyware - super computer - super user - surfing the internet - Suse - SDK - SSD - system - synergy (synergistic) - -T - training for computers - Trojan horse - Terabyte (TB) - Tablet - -U - Ubuntu - undo - UNIX - update - upload - user - USB - -V - version - virtual community - Visual Studio - Visual Basic - virus - Vulnerability32]✓ - VPN - -W - Windows - Wine (software) -Wi-Fi - -X - Xine - XML - x86, x32(processor) - x86-64, x64(processor architecture) - -Y - Yahoo! - Yotabyte - -Z - Z (file format) -Zoom in - Zoom out -ZIP -Zettabyte(ZB) - -Other websites - A Gnu Dictionary of Computing - downloadable - -Computing -Computer-related lists -Computers" -1357,4812,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20countries%20and%20dependencies%20by%20population,List of countries and dependencies by population,"This is a list of countries and dependent territories by population. The number shows how many people live in each country. Countries with the most people are at the top of the list. Countries with the fewest people are at the bottom. - -Also see: List of countries, List of countries by area, List of countries by population density. - -Sovereign states and dependencies by population - -Note: All dependent territories or constituent countries that are parts of sovereign states are shown in italics and not assigned a numbered rank. - -References -e - CIA, 9 August, 2005. -Notes - -Population" -12303,45395,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdi,Mahdi,"The Mahdi or Mehdi ('the rightly-guided one') is Islam's messiah or savior. It is said that he and the Prophet Jesus will change the world for the better, bringing God in all hearts, before Yaum al-Qiyamah (Day of the Resurrection). - -In particular, the Sudanese tribal leader Muhammed Ahmed proclaimed himself as the Mahdi, appointed by Allah to free his country. He defeated the forces of the Khedive of Egypt and the British, only to die suddenly six months later. - -Other websites - Who are Mahdavis? - The Promised Mehdi - Syed Mohammad AlMahdi AlMow'ood - -Islam" -9155,31389,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.%20Scott%20Fitzgerald,F. Scott Fitzgerald,"Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald (September 24, 1896 - December 21, 1940) was an Irish American writer. He is remembered mostly for his novel The Great Gatsby, and for being one of the main members of the Lost Generation. - -Life - -Fitzgerald was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He briefly went to the Nardin Academy– a private Roman Catholic school in Western New York. When his father lost his job, the Fitzgerald family returned to Minnesota. F. Scott Fitzgerald then went to the St. Paul Academy, but was thrown out of the school when he was aged 16 for not working hard enough. Fitzgerald went to another school in New Jersey and eventually went to Princeton University in 1913. While he was at Princeton, Fitzgerald wrote for a musical-comedy club at the University which led to him sending a novel off to a book publishing company, Charles Scribner’s Sons. The editor liked Fitzgerald’s writing, but did not publish the book. Fitzgerald left Princeton University to serve in the United States Navy in World War One, but the war ended shortly after he signed up. - -Fitzgerald got engaged to Zelda Sayre in 1919. He moved into an apartment on Lexington Avenue in New York where he wrote short stories and worked in advertising. Zelda did not think that Fitzgerald’s job was good enough and she broke off their engagement. Fitzgerald went back to his parent’s home in St. Paul and worked on his first novel This Side of Paradise. This Side of Paradise was finally accepted by Charles Scriber’s Sons in late 1919 and Zelda and Fitzgerald got engaged again. This Side of Paradise was published in 1920 and was very popular. Scott and Zelda got married in St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York. On October 26, 1921, their daughter Frances Scott Fitzgerald was born. - -Fitzgerald’s most famous book, The Great Gatsby, was first sold in 1925. Fitzgerald travelled a lot at this time – mainly to France, where he met a number of other Americans who had left the United States. It was around this time that Fitzgerald first met Ernest Hemingway. They became good friends, but Hemingway did not like Fitzgerald’s wife, Zelda. Hemingway said that Zelda was insane, made Fitzgerald drink alcohol and that she did not allow him to do his best work. It is generally accepted, however, that Zelda had a big influence on Fitzgerald’s writing. - -Fitzgerald’s other novels did not sell as well as his first novel while he was alive. He and Zelda spent a lot of money on parties and Fitzgerald had to try and make money by writing short stories. In the late 1920s, Fitzgerald started working on a fourth novel, but problems arose when Zelda’s mental health got worse. The fourth novel, Tender is the Night, was not published until 1934. Some people say that the characters in the novel are very similar to Fitzgerald and Zelda themselves. Tender is the Night did not sell as well as This Side of Paradise in Fitzgerald’s lifetime, and a number of critics said it was poor. The book is now considered to be one of Fitzgerald’s better works, however. - -Zelda’s mental health did not improve and she went to live in a mental hospital while her husband worked on more short stories and his fifth novel. - -Fitzgerald’s health got worse; possibly due to the fact that he drank a lot of alcohol during his life. On December 21st 1940, he had a heart attack and died. The last words of The Great Gatsby are written on Fitzgerald’s gravestone. His fifth and last novel, The Love of the Last Tycoon, was released after he died. - -Works - -Novels - - This Side of Paradise - The Beautiful and Damned - The Great Gatsby - Tender is the Night - The Love of the Last Tycoon - -Short story collections - Flappers and Philosophers (Short Story Collection, 1920) - Tales of the Jazz Age (Short Story Collection, 1922) - All the Sad Young Men (Short Story Collection, 1926) - Taps at Reveille (Short Story Collection, 1935) - Babylon Revisited and Other Stories (Short Story Collection, 1960) - The Pat Hobby Stories (Short Story Collection, 1962) - The Basil and Josephine Stories (Short Story Collection, 1973) - The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald (Short Story Collection, 1989) - -Short Stories - Bernice Bobs Her Hair (Short Story, 1920) - Head and Shoulders (Short Story, 1920) - The Ice Palace (Short Story, 1920) - May Day (Novelette, 1920) - The Offshore Pirate (Short Story, 1920) - The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (Short Story, 1921) - The Diamond as Big as the Ritz (Novella, 1922) - Winter Dreams (Short Story, 1922) - Dice, Brassknuckles & Guitar (Short Story, 1923) - The Freshest Boy (Short Story, 1928) - Magnetism (Short Story 1928) - A New Leaf (Short Story, 1931) - Babylon Revisited (Short story, 1931) - Crazy Sunday (Short Story, 1932) - The Fiend (Short Story, 1935) - The Bridal Party (Short Story) - The Baby Party (Short Story) - -Other - The Vegetable, or From President to Postman (play, 1923) - The Crack-Up (essays, 1945) - -References - - . - . - . - -Writers from Saint Paul, Minnesota -1896 births -1940 deaths" -15092,56925,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yochanan%20Vollach,Yochanan Vollach,"Yochanan Vollach (), also transliterated Jochanan Wallach or Yohanan Wallach, born 14 May 1945) is a former Israeli football player who played at: Hapoel Haifa, Maccabi Haifa, HKFC. -He was a member of the Israeli national team that competed at the 1970 FIFA World Cup. - -At 1979 he retired and volunteered as general manager of Maccabi Haifa. Vollach was the Major reason for Maccabi's success. - -Vollach has a master's degree in business administration from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and is a retired Major in the IDF. - -In recognition of his extensive volunteering to the sporting community as well as business success, he was awarded honorary citizenship by the city of Haifa, in 1993. - -Today, Vollach is president of the Maccabi Haifa association and president and CEO of Newlog, a subsidiary of Israeli shipping magnate Zim. - -Trophies won -Maccabi Haifa & Hapoel Haifa: - 4 x Israeli cup (1966, 1974, 1991, 1993), (1985 runners up) - 3 x Israeli title (1984, 1985, 1991) - 1 x Israeli Championship of the Champions Cup (1985) - 1 x Head of the house in the Intertoto home stage with Maccabi Haifa (1985) - 1 x IDF title (1965) - -Maccabi Haifa youth team: - - 4 x Israeli youth title (1979, 1983, 1984, 1991) - 3 x Israeli youth cup (1980, 1991, 1993) - 1 x Israeli Championship of the Champions Cup (1984) - -Major honours - Best XI in Israel (4 times, determined by Hadashot haSport and Yedioth Ahronoth) - Fair play award in Israel (3 times) - Hapoel Haifa Best XI All time - Israel Golden Jubilee Awards: Haifa Best XI - Israel Golden Jubilee Awards: Haifa Best Defender (All Time) - Honorary citizen of the City of Haifa - -1945 births -Living people -Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni -Israeli footballers -Israeli military people -Jewish Israeli sportspeople -Jewish military people -Majors" -19157,72518,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Schneidermann,Daniel Schneidermann,"Daniel Schneidermann (born April 5, 1958 in Paris) is a French journalist. He mainly reports about televised media. He is most active in weekly columns. Schneidermann has written in Le Monde and is presently in Libération. He also can be seen on the television program Arrêt sur images (Freeze-frame), broadcast by the public television channel France 5. - -1958 births -Living people -French writers -French journalists" -17885,67402,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Caan,James Caan,"James Langston Edmund Caan (born March 26, 1940) is an American movie, stage and television actor. He is known for his role of Sonny Corleone in 1972's The Godfather and for his role as Ed Deline on Las Vegas. He has been nominated for many awards, including the Academy Award, Emmy and Golden Globe. - -He is the son of Sophie (née Falkenstein) and Arthur Caan, Jewish immigrants from Germany. - -References - -Other websites - - - -1940 births -Living people -American movie actors -American stage actors -American television actors -Jewish American actors -Actors from New York City" -22068,83865,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Zug,Canton of Zug,"The Canton of Zug is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. It is in central Switzerland and its capital is Zug. With 239 km² in area, the canton is one of the smallest of the cantons. It does not contain any districts as there are not enough municipalities to warrant any districts. - -Geography -The canton of Zug is in central Switzerland. The canton of Lucerne and Canton of Aargau lie to its west. To the north is the Canton of Zürich; to the west and south is the Canton of Schwyz. The canton has two lakes inside of it, both of which make up a large part of the canton's area. They are the lakes of Zug and Ägeri. - -Municipalities -The eleven municipalities of the canton are: -Zug -Oberägeri -Unterägeri -Menzingen -Baar -Cham -Hünenberg -Steinhausen -Risch -Walchwil -Neuheim - -References - -Other websites - Canton of Zug official page (German) - Official statistics - Zug-Zuerich border photos - Kanton Zug - All photographs index -Company Formation Zug" -9024,30853,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly,Holly,"Holly is a type of bush with recognisable leaves. The leaves have sharp edges, and are often used to decorate a house on Christmas Day. Some types of holly are used to make tea. The leaves of the Holly don't fall of in the winter because they're very thick and have a waxy layer on them. -Holly bushes produce berries that birds often eat during the winter season. - -Christmas -Asterids" -21189,81132,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2003%20J%2019,S/2003 J 19,"is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers led by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2003. - - is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 22,709,000 km in 699.125 days, at an inclination of 165° to the ecliptic (164° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.1961. - -It belongs to the Carme group, made up of non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23,000,000 and 24,000,000 km and at an inclination of about 165°. - -References - -Jupiter's moons" -23358,89628,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorengo,Sorengo,"Sorengo is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. Lago di Muzzano can be found in this municipality. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -12883,47340,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability,Vulnerability,"Vulnerability means the extent to which changes can hurt or harm a person or a system. - -In context with natural hazards and natural disasters, vulnerability is a concept that looks at the relationship that people have with their environment and at social aspects. - -So it links environment to social forces and institutions and the cultural values that sustain and contest them. “The concept of vulnerability expresses the multidimensionality of disasters by focusing attention on the totality of relationships in a given social situation which constitute a condition that, in combination with environmental forces, produces a disaster” (Bankoff et al. 2004: 11). - -Complex definition: Vulnerability is the susceptibility to physical or emotional injury or attack. It also means to have one's guard down, open to censure or criticism; assailable. Vulnerability refers to a person's state of being liable to succumb, as to persuasion or temptation (see Thywissen 2006 for a comparison of vulnerability definitions). - -Related pages -Vulnerability index - -Other websites - Modelling Society’s Capacity to Manage Extraordinary Events *From the Swedish Morphological Society -United Nations University Institute of Environment and Human Security -MunichRe Foundation - -Social sciences" -10995,39589,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1538,1538,"The year 1538 was a common year which started on Tuesday. - -Events - October 28 – The first university of the New World, the Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino, is founded." -13415,49232,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documenta,Documenta,"documenta is one of the most important exhibitions of modern art in the world. Since 1955, it takes place every five years in Kassel, Germany. More than 1.2 million people visited the last one, documenta 14, which was held in 2017. The next one, documenta 15, will be from June 18 to September 25, 2022. - -Related pages - -German art - -Art" -12410,45801,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambutan,Rambutan,"A rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) is a tree from southeast Asia. The fruit that grows on the tree is also called rambutan. It is in the same family as Lychee. - -The name rambutan is a word that means ""hairy"". The fruit does look hairy. The fruit is green in color when not yet ripe. Once ripe the outside of the fruit turns red. The flesh on the inside of the rambutan is white in color. - -Rambutan is native to Indonesia. Rambutan trees grow naturally in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines and elsewhere in Southeast Asia . -Other than those countries, Sri Lanka is also popular for rambutan. - -The fruit are usually sold fresh, used in making jams and jellies, or canned. - -References - -Fruits -Tropical fruit -Trees -Sapindaceae" -16462,63231,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Jupiter%27s%20moons,List of Jupiter's moons,"There are 79 known moons of Jupiter. Jupiter has the second largest number of moons with reasonably stable orbits of any planet in the Solar System. - -The most massive of the moons are the four Galilean moons, which were independently discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius. They were the first objects found to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun. The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter. The other 75 known moons and the rings together make up just 0.003% of the total orbiting mass. The four are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are roughly the same size as Earth's moon, some are a bit bigger, some are smaller. - -From the end of the 19th century, dozens of much smaller Jovian moons have been discovered. All these are less than in diameter, with most barely exceeding . Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined. Many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter's spin (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to spin around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years). - -List of moons -This list starts with those that go around Jupiter (orbit) the fastest. That is, they have the shortest orbital period. Moons highlighted in purple are the ""Galilean moons,"" moons highlighted in dark gray have a retrograde orbit, and moons with the regular white background have a prograde orbit. - -Notes - -References - - -Astronomy lists" -13052,47882,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Kellner,Friedrich Kellner,"August Friedrich Kellner (born February 1, 1885 in Vaihingen an der Enz, Germany, died November 4, 1970 in Lich) was a German social democrat. He worked as a justice inspector. In the time of the Nazis in Germany, he wrote a secret diary. This became known as the Diary of Friedrich Kellner. After the war he said why he wrote it: - -“I could not fight the Nazis in the present, as they had the power to still my voice, so I decided to fight them in the future. I would give the coming generations a weapon against any resurgence of such evil. My eyewitness account would record the barbarous acts, and also show the way to stop them.” - -Biography - -Family and education -August Friedrich Kellner was born on February 1, 1885 in Vaihingen, a town next to the Enz River and not far from Heidelberg. He was the only child of Georg Friedrich Kellner, a baker from the village of Arnstadt in Thuringia, and Barbara Wilhelmine Vaigle from Bissingen. Friedrich’s parents belonged to the Evangelical Lutheran faith. - -When Friedrich was four years old, his family moved to Mainz. There his father became the master baker at ""Goebels Zuckerwerk"". - -In December 1902, when he was 17 years old, Kellner graduated from Goethe High School. He began work as a junior clerk in the courthouse in Mainz. He worked there from 1903 until 1933. He became a justice secretary, then an accountant, and finally a justice inspector. - -Military service and marriage - -In 1907 and 1908 Kellner had to fulfill his military reserve duty. He was assigned to the 6th Infantry Company of the Leibregiments Großherzogin (3. Großherzoglich Hessisches) Nr. 117 in Mainz. - -In 1913 Friedrich Kellner married Pauline Preuss. She was from Mainz. Their only child, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Kellner, was born three years later. - -When the First World War began in 1914, Kellner was called back to active duty. He was an officer substitute in the Prinz Carl Infantry Regiment (4. Großherzoglich Hessisches Regiment) Nr. 118, in Worms. He fought in France at the battle of the Marne. Later, he was wounded near Reims. He was sent to St. Rochus Hospital in Mainz to recover. - -Political activism - -Kellner was loyal to the Kaiser’s regime, but still he welcomed the birth of the German democracy after the war. He became a political organizer for the leading political party, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). From those first days of the Weimar Republic, he spoke out against the danger of extremists, against Communists and the National Socialists (the Nazis). Kellner would show his opposition at rallies by holding Adolf Hitler’s book, Mein Kampf, above his head. He then shouted to the crowd: “Gutenberg, your printing press has been violated by this evil book.” On more than one occasion Kellner was beaten by the Nazis for expressing his views. - -Adolf Hitler wanted revenge against his political opponents. So two weeks before Hitler became Chancellor, Kellner took his wife and son into the country for safety. They moved to the village of Laubach, in Hesse. He worked in Laubach as the chief justice inspector in the district court. This means that he was in charge of the administration of the courthouse. In 1935 his son went to live in the United States because he did not want to go into Hitler’s army. - -In November 1938 there was a pogrom (an attack) against the Jews. This became known as Kristallnacht, the Night of the Broken Glass. Friedrich and Pauline Kellner tried to help their Jewish neighbors. The Kellners were warned by the Nazi leaders that they would suffer the same fate as their neighbors if they continued their resistance. Kellner was told he and his wife would be sent to a concentration camp if he continued to be a ""bad influence"" on the people of Laubach. A report written by the district Nazi leader, Hermann Engst, shows that authorities were planning to punish Kellner at the end of the war. Because he could not continue to speak out openly, Kellner wrote down his thoughts in a secret diary. He wanted his son, and the coming generations, to know that democracy must not give in to dictatorships. In the diary, he warns everyone to resist tyrants and terrorism, and to not believe in their propaganda. - -The Diary - -The diary has 10 volumes with a total of 861 pages. It contains 676 individually dated entries. The entries are from September 1939 through May 1945. More than 500 newspaper clippings are pasted on the pages of the diary. - -Friedrich Kellner was an eyewitness to the events of his time. In his diary, he also offers a guide for future generations to prevent totalitarianism. He warns everyone to resist any ideology that would take away their personal freedoms, and he warns everyone to turn away from any belief that ignores the sanctity of human life. - -One of the most important entries in the diary was written on October 28, 1941. Most Germans after the war said that they knew nothing about the Holocaust. However, very early in the war Kellner recorded this in his diary. He showed that even in the small towns, normal people knew what was happening: - -“A soldier on vacation here said he witnessed a terrible atrocity in the occupied parts of Poland. He watched as naked Jewish men and women were placed in front of a long deep ditch and, upon the order of the SS, were shot by Ukrainians in the back of their heads and they fell into the ditch. Then the ditch was filled with dirt even as he could hear screams coming from people still alive in the ditch. -These inhuman atrocities were so terrible that some of the Ukrainians, who were used as tools, suffered nervous breakdowns. All the soldiers who had knowledge of these bestial actions of these Nazi sub-humans were of the opinion that the German people should be shaking in their shoes because of the coming retribution. -There is no punishment that would be hard enough to be applied to these Nazi beasts. Of course, when the retribution comes, the innocent will have to suffer along with them. But because ninety percent of the German population is guilty, directly or indirectly, for the present situation, we can only say that those who travel together will hang together.” - -After the war - -At war’s end, Kellner helped to establish the SPD in Laubach, and he became the regional party chairman. He was the deputy mayor of Laubach in 1945 and 1946. From 1956 to 1960 he was First Town Councilor and deputy mayor. - -Friedrich Kellner was the chief justice inspector and administrator of the courthouse in Laubach until 1947. For the next two years he was the district auditor in the regional court in Giessen. He retired in 1950, but he continued to be a legal advisor in Laubach. - -Kellner’s son, who had emigrated to America, died in 1953. In 1960 Kellner’s grandson, Robert Scott Kellner, traveled to Germany to meet his grandfather. Kellner gave his ten-volume diary to his American grandchild. He wanted him to translate it into different languages and bring it to the attention of the public. - -On November 4, 1970, Friedrich Kellner died. He was buried at the side of his wife in the Mainz cemetery. - -Film -In 2007, the Canadian film company, CCI Entertainment of Toronto, made a documentary film about both Friedrich Kellner and his grandson Robert Scott Kellner. The film is called, My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner. - -References - -Other websites - - Diary Entries in German and English - George Bush Presidential Library - Kellner exhibit - Justus Liebig University - Kellner Project - Telefilm Canada - ""My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner"" - Holocaust Museum Houston - Kellner exhibit - Heimat Museum, Laubach, Germany - Kellner exhibit - -1885 births -1970 deaths -Accountants -Deputy mayors -German historians" -13802,51095,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierpc,Sierpc,"Sierpc is a city in Poland in the Masovian Voivodeship. About 18,872 people live there. The area is 18,6 km². - -The football club there is called Kasztelan Sierpc. - -Other websites -Official town webpage -Map via mapa.szukacz.pl -Open air museum in Sierpc - photo - -Cities in Poland" -17158,64993,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuchehri,Manuchehri,"Abu Najm Ahmad ibn Qaus Manuchehri Damghani (c. 982 – 1040) () or Manucheri was a Persian poet. He was from Damghan in Iran. His poems are collected in a Diwan. - -982 births -1040 deaths -Persian poets" -12826,47119,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear%20search,Linear search,"Linear search or sequential search is a method to find an item in a list. It is a search algorithm. - -Algorithm -Start out with a list, L which may have the item that we want to look for. - If the list L is empty, then the list has nothing. The list does not have the item that we are looking for, so we stop here. - If the list L is not empty, we look at all the elements in the list. - For each element: - If the element equals the item that we are looking for, the list has the item in question, so we will stop here and return the position in the list that has the element that we are looking for. - If not, we will go on to the next element. - When we reached the end of the list and still have not found the element that we are looking for, then the list does not have the item that we want. - -Implementation -In the Java programming language, linear search looks like this. This method has two parameters: an array of integers and the item we are looking for (also an integer). It says the location in the array if it finds the item. If it does not find it, it says -1. - -public int linearSearch(int[] list, int item) { - for (int i = 0; i < list.length; i++) { - if (list[i] == item) { - return i; - } - } - - return -1; -} - -Related pages - Binary search - Breadth-first search - Depth-first search - -Searching and sorting algorithms" -11282,40902,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty%20Python%20and%20the%20Holy%20Grail,Monty Python and the Holy Grail,"Monty Python and the Holy Grail is the second movie made by Monty Python. It was made in 1974 and was very successful. It is still very popular. It was also made into a musical called Spamalot. - -Story -This is a comedy about King Arthur's search for the Holy Grail. He gathers a group of knights around him. They do not ride horses - instead, they clap coconut halves together, to make the sound of a horse galloping. They search for the grail, but keep on getting distracted by peasants (poor farmers) who want to talk about politics, or French knights insulting them. - -The movie was made in Scotland. - -1970s adventure movies -1974 comedy movies -Arthurian movies -British adventure movies -British comedy movies -Columbia Pictures movies -Cult movies -English-language movies -Monty Python -Fantasy comedy movies" -5538,18062,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alejandro%20Toledo,Alejandro Toledo,"Alejandro Toledo is a former president of Peru. He won the 2001 election for president. He gained international prominence after leading the opposition against president Alberto Fujimori, who held the presidency from 1990 to 2000. - -Early life -He pursued his undergraduate and graduate education at the University of San Francisco and Stanford University. He originally joined the technical and academic field, from where he participated as an analyst on politics and economics on some occasions. - -Political career -He entered politics when he founded the País Posible party, participating for the first time in the 1995 general election. In 2000, he managed to become in the largest opposition leader to the government of Alberto Fujimori, before whom in the midst of a controversial and bumpy process, lost the election for a second time. After the transition stage and the return of democracy in Peru, he participated for the third time in the 2001 elections against Lourdes Flores of National Unity and Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party; he competed with the latter in the second round, winning with 53.1% of the popular vote. - -Arrest -On 16 July 2019, Toledo was arrested in the United States. On 19 March 2020, he was released on bail. - -Personal life -He is from the town of Chimbote in Ancash Region, Peru. He is married to Eliane Karp of Belgium. - -References - -Presidents of Peru -1946 births -Living people" -5213,16847,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsel,Edsel,"Edsel was a make of car and a new car making division introduced by the Ford Motor Company on September 4, 1957. The company called that day, ""E-Day."" It was named after Henry Ford's son, Edsel Ford. The Edsel was also one of the biggest failures in history. It was sold for only three years, ending in 1960. - -Ford planned to move their Lincoln brand upmarket and put another make in beneath it. Design of the Edsel began in 1955 under the name ""E-car"" which stood for ""Experimental car"". - -Edsel produced four models their first year, the 1958 model year. These were the large Citation and Corsair, and the smaller, easier to buy Pacer and Ranger. - -These were the different body styles offered: - - Citation: 2 door hardtop, 4 door sedan, 2 door convertible - - Corsair: Same, no convertible - - Pacer: 2 door, 4 door, 2 door sedan, 2 door convertible - - Ranger: 2 door, 4 door, 2 door sedan, 4 door sedan - -The Bermuda, Villager and Roundup were station wagons based on the two smaller Edsel models. They were basically the same as the 1957-59 Ford wagons. - -63,110 Edsels sold the first year, which was the second largest car launch for any brand in history. Only the Plymouth introduction in 1928 was better, but still not as many cars as Ford hoped would sell. - -There were only 2 Edsels in 1959, the Ranger and the Corsair. Only 44,891 cars were sold in that model year. - -Only the Ranger and Villager were produced in 1960. These were almost exactly like the 1960 Ford cars. Only 2848 cars were built before the Edsel Motor Division was closed on November 19, 1959. - -Edsel's failure - -Edsel's failure is very famous because it failed after Ford put US$400,000,000 into its development. It had many innovations which are still in use today, including brakes which adjusted themselves and a very powerful V-8 engine called the ""FE-series"" that would be used for many years in later Fords. Also, the car did not live up to all of the promises in the advertisements before it was released. Some people blamed the look of the new car because of its very unusual grille shaped like a horse's collar. One famous quote from an auto writer said that the Edsel looked like ""an Oldsmobile sucking on a lemon."" Quality of the Edsel was a problem as well. Even the name was a problem to some buyers. Worst of all, the U.S. was entering a period of recession. All car sales were down. - -Many drivers did not like having the automatic transmission as push-buttons mounted on the steering wheel hub. Since this was the place the horn was normally found, drivers ended up shifting gears instead of honking the horn. - -The planned 1960 Edsel Comet compact car was relabeled Mercury Comet and sold more cars in its first year than all models of Edsel ever produced. - -Fewer than 6,000 Edsels survive and today they are considered collectors’ items, with convertibles sometimes selling for over US$20,000 if in good condition. As usual with classics, hardtop models are worth considerably less, station wagons less than that, and sedans least of all. It is possible to get a very good 1959 sedan for about US$3000–$3500. - -Other websites - Edsel.com History, specifications, resources for owners. - -Ford -1957 establishments in the United States -1960 disestablishments in the United States" -15227,57611,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%20FIFA%20World%20Cup,1966 FIFA World Cup,"The 1966 FIFA World Cup was the eighth FIFA World Cup. It was held in England from 11-30 July. England was chosen as hosts by FIFA to celebrate 100 years of football in England. England won the final beating West Germany 4-2. This was England's first (and so far only) World Cup win. England also became the first host to win since Italy won it in 1934. Later Germany, Argentina and France won it at their homes. - -Participants - -The following 16 teams qualified for the final tournament. - -AFC (1) - -CAF (0) -None participated -OFC (0) -None qualified - -CONCACAF (1) - -CONMEBOL (4) - - - - - -UEFA (10) - -  (hosts) - -Results - -Round 1 - -Group A - -Group B - -Group C - -Group D - -Round 2 - -Quarterfinals - Portugal 5-3 Korea DPR - England 1-0 Argentina - West Germany 4-0 Uruguay - Soviet Union 2-1 Hungary - -Semifinals - West Germany 2-1 Soviet Union - England 2-1 Portugal - -3rd place - Portugal 2-1 Soviet Union - -Final - England 4-2 West Germany -England won the championship. - -References - - FIFA - Details at RSSSF - -| - -FIFA World Cup tournaments -1960s in England -1966 FIFA World Cup -July events -Football in England" -22275,84386,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayacanes,Guayacanes,"Guayacanes is a village in the province of Ciego de Ávila, Cuba. - -Other websites -Information on Guayacanes (Spanish) -Maps of Guayacanes -Geographical data of Guayacanes - -Settlements in Cuba -Villages in North America" -20936,80504,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maloja%20%28district%29,Maloja (district),"Maloja () is a district of the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. It has an area of and a population of 17,810 people (as of December 2004). Most of the population of Maloja speaks Italian. - -It contains 2 Kreise (sub-districts) and 16 municipalities: - -Districts of Graubünden" -16035,61588,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khayyam,Khayyam,"Khayyam could mean: - - Khayyam, Iran - Mohammed Zahur Khayyam (20th century), Indian music composer - Kerry Thornley (1938-1998), co-founder of Discordianism, who wrote as Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst - Omar Khayyám (1048-1131), Persian poet, mathematician, philosopher and astronomer - Omar Khayam (born 1983),British protester who dressed as a Suicide bomber - -Surnames" -17075,64757,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kom%C3%A1rno,Komárno,"For the town in the Ukraine see Komarno - -Komárno is a town in the southwest of Slovakia. It is an important, historical town which is famous for having the largest fortification in Europe. - -The river Vah flows into the Danube at Komárno. The Danube at this point forms the border between the countries Slovakia and Hungary. The Hungarian name for the town is Komárom. - -History -At first there was just one town, with the Danube flowing through the middle of the town. Since the end of World War I, when Czechoslovakia became a separate country from Hungary, the town has been split into two: Komárno is on the left (north) bank of the river, now in Slovakia, and Komárom is on the right (south) bank of the river, in Hungary. Komárno has a population of 37.000 and Komárom has a population of 19.600. The two towns are joined by a bridge. - -People have lived in the area of Komárno for thousands of years. The first castle was built in the 10th century. In 1244 a law was made which said that every merchant who sailed a boat down the Danube past Komárno had to stop for several days in Komárno and unload all the cargo so that people could buy it if they wanted. If the merchant did not want to do this he had to pay a large duty (amount of money) to continue his journey. This law was stopped in 1751. - -In the 15th century Komárno had become very important. The rulers and the court of the kingdom of Hungary often stayed there. The fortress was very powerful and they managed to fight off Turkish invaders after the Turks had already captured Esztergom and Buda. The fort was badly damaged in 1783 in an earthquake, but it was built up again because of the Napoleonic wars. - -Today Komárno is a nice town to visit. There are many tourist attractions, especially the fort which is on the Hungarian side of the town (Komárom). There are also spa health centres where people can swim or bathe gently in the waters which help to make people who are ill healthy again. - -Notable people -Famous people who were born in Komárno are: - - Mór Jókai, (1825-1904), a famous Hungarian writer - Franz Lehár (1870-1948) – the Hungarian-born Austrian composer who wrote popular operettas such as ""The Merry Widow"" - Slovak-born Canadian Hollywood movie director Ivan Reitman (1946- ) - -References - -Settlements in Slovakia -Towns in Europe" -17919,67520,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine%20translation,Machine translation,"Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is part of computational linguistics. It looks at the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. - -At its basic level, MT performs simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another (see: Literal translation). - -Current machine translation software often allows to adapt the translation to subject or profession (such as weather reports) — to improve output by limiting the allowable substitutions. This technique is very effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used. It follows then that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text. - -Quotes -In the words of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT): - -Related pages - Translation - Literal translation - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - International Association for Machine Translation (IAMT) - Association for Machine Translation in the Americas (AMTA) - European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT) - Asia-Pacific Association for Machine Translation (APAMT) - Association for Computational Linguistics - Machine Translation, an introductory guide to MT by D.J.Arnold et al. (1994) - Machine Translation Archive by John Hutchins. An electronic repository (and bibliography) of articles, books and papers in the field of machine translation and computer-based translation technology - Machine translation (computer-based translation) — Publications by John Hutchins (includes PDFs of several books on machine translation) - NIST 2006 Machine Translation Evaluation Official Results - NIST 2005 Machine Translation Evaluation Official Results - Machine Translation and Minority Languages - John Hutchins 1999 - SMT An article on statistical machine translation in general and Language Weaver in particular - Free online machine translation powered by PROMT Supports 24 language directions and the following languages: English, Russian, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese. - How the Computer Translates An article on machine translation from the founder of PROMT . broken link - -Software -Linguistics -Languages" -22863,86782,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accommodation%20%28eye%29,Accommodation (eye),"Accommodation is the way the eye increases optical power (the degree to which the lens converges or diverges light). This is necessary to produce a clear image (focus) on an object when it draws near the eye. A lens that is more convex( fatter in the middle) would refract more light rays than a less convex lens (thinner lens). The lens can change shape because the cells of the lens contain an elastic crystalline protein. The young human eye can change focus from distance to seven centimeters from the eye in 350 milliseconds. - -The eye focuses on a given object by changing the shape of the eye lens through accommodation. This is controlled by ciliary muscle,which surrounds the lens. - -Other websites - pupilEyes - Learn about accommodation of the eye - -Optometry -Eye anatomy" -21986,83707,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buttwil,Buttwil,"Buttwil is a municipality of the district Muri in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -The village is 2 km west of Muri. - -References - -Municipalities of Aargau" -7585,24517,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advaita%20Vedanta,Advaita Vedanta,"Advaita Vedanta is a school in Hinduism. People who thoroughly explore Advaita know that their soul is not different from Brahman. The most famous Hindu philosopher who taught about Advaita Vedanta was Adi Shankara who lived in India more than a thousand years ago. - -History -Adi Shankara learned the sacred texts of Hinduism, like Vedas and Upanishads under his teacher Govinda Bhagavadpada and later wrote extensive commentaries of Hindu sacred texts called Upanishads. In these commentaries, he proposed the theory of Advaita, saying that the Upanishad actually teach that the individual soul (called Atman) is not different from Ultimate Reality (called Brahman). He also taught that there is only one essential principle called Brahman and everything else is a kind of expression of that one Brahman. Because of this theory of one being, his teachings became popular as the ""Advaita"" (a = not, dvaita = two, means no-two or non-dual). The way he said this to people was ""Atman is Brahman."" - -Adi Shankara was smart and knew that people would wonder how he could say such an odd thing. He realized that many people would ask him, ""If a person's soul is really one with Ultimate all along, then what makes a person feel so separate from Ultimate?"" His answer to this was that we are ignorant of our real self being Ultimate because we see through a kind of filter—like looking through a dirty piece of glass—and he called this filter we look through, maya, which means ""illusion"" in Sanskrit. - -Shankara said that our ignorance makes us feel very separate from Ultimate, and even from everything around us. Shankara suggested that the best way people can find the truth is for them to try to clear their thinking of all ignorant thoughts, be very good, and think very hard about who they really are. He said that if a person did all these things he would realize that Brahman was himself all along. - -This is a very similar idea to other religions at their esoteric core. For instance within Islam there is an idea of annihilation within the divine, Fana and Waḥdat al-Wujūd (Unity of Existence) - -References - -Other websites - Advaita Vedanta of Shankaracharya Portal - -Hinduism" -13340,48926,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Connick%20Jr.,Harry Connick Jr.,"Harry Connick, Jr. (born September 11, 1967) is an American singer, piano player and actor. He plays jazz music mostly, but also pop music. In 2014, he became a judge on American Idol. - -His father is former New Orleans district attorney Harry Connick Sr.. - -Albums - 2007 Oh, My NOLA - 2007 Chanson du Vieux Carre - 2006 Harry on Broadway, Act I - 2005 Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2 - 2004 Only You - 2003 Harry for the Holidays - 2003 Other Hours : Connick on Piano, Volume 1 - 2002 Thou Shalt Not - 2001 Songs I Heard - 2001 30 - 1999 Come By Me - 1997 To See You - 1996 Star Turtle - 1994 She - 1993 When My Heart Finds Christmas - 1992 25 - 1991 Blue Light, Red Light - 1990 Lofty's Roach Souffle - 1990 We Are in Love - 1989 When Harry Met Sally... - 1988 20 - 1987 Harry Connick Jr. - 1978 Eleven - 1977 Dixieland Plus - -DVD movies - 2008 P. S., I Love You - 2007 Bug - 2004 Mickey - 2003 Basic - 2001 Life Without Dick - 2000 The Simian Line - 2000 My Dog Skip - 1999 Wayward Son - 1999 The Iron Giant - 1998 Hope Floats - 1997 Excess Baggage - 1996 Independence Day - 1995 Copycat - 1991 Little Man Tate - 1990 Memphis Belle - -Other websites - Harry Connick Jr. internet site - Harry Connick Jr. internet site on Sony Music - connick.com - fans of Harry Connick, Jr. - - Harry Connick, Jr. music videos (Sony BMG) - -1967 births -Living people -American movie actors -American pianists -singers from Louisiana -actors from Louisiana -Musicians from Louisiana" -19678,75394,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo%20Tromboncino,Bartolomeo Tromboncino,"Bartolomeo Tromboncino (born Verona around 1470; died in or near Venice in 1535 or later) was an Italian composer. He lived in the Renaissance period. He is famous as a composer of songs called frottole. He is also remembered because he murdered his wife. - -We know very little about his life. He probably grew up in Mantua. In a letter he says that he came from Verona. Until around 1500 he lived and worked in Mantua, but sometimes he went to other towns when he was in trouble. In 1499 he found his wife with another man, so he murdered her. He may also have murdered the other man. We cannot be sure about this. -He does not seem to have been punished. This may be because a rich lady called Isabella d'Este liked him. - -From 1502 Tromboncino was employed by a rich lady called Lucrezia Borgia. She is remembered today because she was a very bad woman. He wrote music for the court and for her wedding to Alfonso d'Este. Sometime before 1521 he moved to Venice, where he probably spent the rest of his life. - -His frottole are very lively and full of fun. He played the trombone. This is how he got his name. He also wrote some serious sacred music. - -1470s births -16th-century deaths -Italian composers -Renaissance composers -People from Verona" -11891,43660,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20the%20Great,Alfred the Great,"Alfred the Great (c. 849 - 26 October 899) was King of Wessex from 871 to 899. He was the first monarch from the British Isles to style himself as 'King of the Anglo-Saxons' and so he is sometimes considered the first English king. Alfred started the Royal Navy in the 9th century - -Early childhood - -Alfred was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex and Osburga. She was the daughter of Osburga, Athelwulf's butler. Alfred was born in 849 in the royal village of Wantage then in Berkshire. In the world he grew up in there was constant talk and fear of Viking raiders. For fourteen years they had been raiding but a year after Alfred's birth they remained all winter. The Viking menace was now settled on the island of Thanet in Kent. - -When he was about four, Alfred's mother, Osburga, died. At age twelve, Alfred had difficulty finding a qualified teacher to help him learn to read and write. He finally overcame the problem and learned to read and write by using the writings of the church. At some point in his childhood Alfred was made a consul(a high rank in Anglo-Saxon England styled on the Roman office of consul). The ceremony involved him receiving a red cloak, a jeweled belt and a sword. This ceremony meant he was not destined to join the church, as the younger sons typically were. His life as an adult would be as a nobleman and possibly, if he survived his four older brothers, as king, someday. - -Before he was seven years old, he had traveled to Rome twice. In 853, Alfred was sent with an escort and met Pope Leo IV. In 855 King Æthelwulf traveled to Rome taking his young son Alfred with him. They stayed in Rome a year and returned through France. There, king Æthelwulf and his son Alfred stayed at the court of Charles the Bald. Æthelwulf became engaged to Charles's eldest daughter, Judith, then about aged twelve. That same October, they were married at Verberie in northern France. - -Succession - -While Alfred and his father were in Rome and France, 855-856, his older brother Athelstan had died. On the king's return his son Ethelbald, with his followers. was threatening a civil war. To prevent this from happening Æthelwulf stepped down as king. He gave the rule over Wessex to his son Ethelbald. He took over the rule of Kent, Essex, Sussex and Surrey ruling Wessex as the under-king with his child bride Judith sharing his throne. In 858 king Æthelwulf died. - -Ethelbald, now the undisputed king, next did the unexpected. He married his and Alfred's stepmother Judith. According to Asser, all men in England were horrified. Two years later in 860, Ethelbald was dead. Alfred's third brother, Ethelbert, succeeded to the throne. He united all of Wessex into one kingship. Queen Judith sold all of her extensive holdings in England and returned to France. - -The next brother to rule Wessex was Ethelbert. In the same year he succeeded his brother there was a great Viking raid on the south coast of England. The Vikings plundered Winchester the chief city of Wessex and obtained a great deal of plunder. As they returned to their ships they were ambushed by Anglo-Saxons from Hampshire and Berkshire. A few survived and returned to their ships. For the next three years Southern England was free of Viking raids. But the year 865 saw the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in East Anglia. For a time they were more interested in Northumbria. They gained control of York and moved south into Mercia then made their winter camp in Nottingham. - -Meanwhile, King Ethelbert died in early 866. So far all the brothers had been childless and so the succession was passed from brother to brother. The fourth brother in line was Ethelred. He became king in 866. It was at this time Alfred was given the title of Secundarius (Latin for secondary). In effect it meant he was given regal power over part of the kingdom or limited joint authority over the entire kingdom. in 868 Burgred, the King of Mercia, asked King Ethelred and Alfred for their help against the Danes (Vikings). But their forces together could not defeat the Danes. By 871 the Mercians and East Anglians had been defeated. Only Wessex could mount an army against the Vikings. That year Wessex was invaded by a large Danish army. After many battles the Anglo-Saxons were able to slow the Danes' progress. Ethelred died. He left a young son named Ethelwald who later rebelled against Edward the Elder. - -King of Wessex - -Alfred became king in the middle of this conflict. But before the end of the year he succeeded in effecting a peace, probably by paying a sum of money to the invaders. - -Alfred earned the name 'the Great' by defending the kingdom from Viking invasions. Alfred was a scholar and encouraged education in the kingdom as well as improving the legal system. - -King of the Anglo-Saxons - -By the close of the ninth century the four independent kingdoms of England had been reduced to just one. Wessex was the only remaining kingdom not destroyed by the Vikings. Beginning about 886 Alfred claimed to be the king of all the English. The exception was those parts of England that were under Danish rule. This was the beginning of unifying England under a single king. For many Alfred was the first king of the English. But he did not technically rule all of England. That distinction was given to Athelstan (ruled 924–939). King Ethelstan was Alfred's eldest grandson. - -In the 880s Alfred formed a marriage alliance with Mercia, still a powerful kingdom. his daughter, Æthelflæd, married king Æthelred, of Mercia. After his death Ethelflaeda ruled as Queen of Mercia. - -By 890 Alfred was making literacy among his people a priority. There were still Viking attacks, so Alfred was still telling his people to continue fighting and not give up. Alfred died in 899. He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder who was crowned on Whitsunday (8 June) 900. - -Family - -In 868 Alfred married Ealhswith, daughter of Ethelred, surnamed Mucill, Ealdorman of the Gainas. Together they had several children: - - Edward the Elder (–925). Succeeded his father. His son Athelstan is considered to be the first King of England. - Ethelweard (–922). - Ethelflaeda (died 919), Lady of Mercia, she married Ethelred, Lord of Mercia. - Elgiva (Ethelgiva), Abbess of Shaftesbury. - Elftryth, married Baldwin II, Count of Flanders. - Edmund (died young). - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - Britannia: Kings of Wessex - -849 births -899 deaths -House of Wessex -Kings of Wessex" -19675,75385,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quetta,Quetta,"Quetta () is the capital and largest city of Balochistan province in Pakistan. It is famous for its climate and buildings. It is to the north of Balochistan, 133 kilometers away from Spin Buldak, Afghanistan. - -In 1935, a powerful earthquake hit Quetta. The earthquake was felt between 2:30 am to 3:40 am. It resulted in the collapse of buildings, that is why there is no historical building in Quetta. - -History -Quetta is also spelled Kuwatah which is a variation of Kot, a Pashto word meaning ""fortress"". - -Quetta was captured by Mehmood Ghaznavi in the 11th century. The Khans of Kalat ruled Quetta until 1556 when the Persians conquered the city, only to have it retaken by Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1595. Despite all this, the Khans of Kalat were successful in restoring their rule in the region by the 18th century. - -The predominantly Muslim population supported the Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement. On joining Pakistan, Quetta was made the capital city of the newly created province of Balochistan. - -Geography -Quetta lies close to the borders of Afghanistan. Traders and invaders have passed through Quetta since pre-historic times. Quetta is 1,645 meters above the sea level. It is near the Hazarganji-Chitan National Park. - -It has a cold and windy in winter moderate summers. - -References - -Other websites - Quetta, Google Maps - -Capital cities in Pakistan -Cities in Pakistan" -8463,28759,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz%20al-Abub,Aziz al-Abub,"Aziz al-Abub (a.k.a. Ibrahim al-Nadhir or al-Nahdhir) was a Lebanese Hezbollah psychiatrist and mind control expert. - -Aziz was a disciple of Ewen Cameron and a graduate of the Soviet Union's Patrice Lumumba Institute that specialized in mind control techniques. - -Aziz al-Abub used mind-control, drugs and physical torture in the infamous 444-day (1984-1985) torture and mental derangement of American William Buckley in Beirut. - -Year of birth missing - -Lebanese Muslims -Lebanese nationalists -Lebanese terrorists -Muslim terrorists -Psychiatrists" -398,815,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue,Synagogue,"A synagogue is a place where Jews meet to worship and pray to God. - -In Hebrew, a synagogue is called beit knesset, which means, a ""house of gathering"". The word ""synagogue"" comes from sunagoge, which is a Greek word. In a synagogue, Jews carry out the Jewish services, which consist of prayers, sometimes with special actions. - -A synagogue will usually have a large room for prayers. There might be some smaller rooms for studying. There will be some offices. There will also usually be a big room for special events. - -The front of a synagogue faces towards Jerusalem in Israel. In the front is the holiest part of the synagogue, the Ark. This is a closet which has the Torah scrolls inside. The Torah scrolls have the holy writings of Judaism on them. The Ark usually has a curtain in front of it. - -On top of the Ark is light which is always lit, called the “Eternal Lamp”. It is a symbol which means that God is always there. -Every synagogue has a raised platform called the “Bimah”. The person who reads the Torah scroll stands there when he reads. The Bimah is either in the middle of the hall, or in front of the Ark. - -In some synagogues men and women sit in different places. Some synagogues even have a short wall so that they can not see each other. This is so that the people will think about the prayers better. - -Jews may call synagogues by different names. Many Orthodox and Conservative Jews living in English-speaking countries use the name ""synagogue"" or the word ""shul"", which is Yiddish. Jews who speak Spanish or Portuguese call synagogues esnoga. Some Jews call the synagogue a temple. - -Jewish worship does not have to be carried out in a synagogue. It can be wherever a minyan of ten Jews are. It could be in someone's home or anywhere such as a cruise liner or an airplane. Some synagogues have a separate room or torah study, this is called the ""beth midrash"" meaning house of study. Some kinds of Jewish worship can be done alone or with fewer than ten people. -Synagogues are places were Jews can worship. - - -Judaism" -8598,29158,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvisation,Improvisation,"Improvisation is the art of performing without a script or rehearsal. - -Music -In music, improvisation is the art of playing an instrument (or singing) in which the musician or musicians make up the music as they play. Improvising is inventing at the same time as one does something. Some musicians only play music when they have written music in front of them, but it can be great fun to improvise music. It is a way of composing. Improvisation is common during a jam session. - -In Baroque times, all musicians were taught to improvise because composers often did not bother to write all the notes down. Musicians would have improvised lots of ornaments, and even whole sections. - -Many great composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Liszt were famous for their keyboard improvisations. - -Organists are often expected to improvise during a service. In this way they can fill in gaps in the service when there would otherwise be silence, they can make a smooth link between one piece of music and the next, and they can create the right atmosphere. In Baroque times, in the Lutheran church, organists would improvise a chorale prelude. This was a piece of music which uses the melody of the chorale (hymn) that the congregation sang. Bach was one of many composers who wrote many of his chorale preludes down. In more recent times, some famous concert organists often finish an organ recital by playing an improvisation. This might be quite a long piece with several linked movements, finishing with a fugue. Somebody may give them the theme written on a piece of paper, so that it is quite unprepared. Charles Tournemire, Marcel Dupré, Pierre Cochereau, Pierre Pincemaille are known to be great organ improviser. - -A lot of people who play folk music improvise. Traditional folk music would not have been written down. - -In traditional jazz the musicians usually improvise. It is quite tricky when a group of people are improvising together. They have to listen to one another and get ideas from one another. It can be a very exciting way of making music. - -Comedy -Improvisation also refers to a type of performance. Improvisation (or improv for short) is often used in comedy. Actors or Improvisers will create an entire show that they make up as they go along. They will often ask the audience for an idea or suggestion. They will then do a short performance based on the suggestion. This lets them do many different short performances during each night's show. This is called ""Short-form improv"". - -musical performance techniques -Plays -Theatrical forms" -11652,42810,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Victoria,Lake Victoria,"Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza (also known as Ukerewe and Nnalubaale) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley. - -Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria. The White Nile flows out of the lake. - -Other websites - Lake Victoria Citizendium - -Lakes of Africa -Geography of Tanzania -Uganda -Geography of Kenya" -4038,12405,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mel%20Blanc,Mel Blanc,"Melvin Jerome ""Mel"" Blanc (born Melvin Jerome Blank ; May 30, 1908 – July 10, 1989) was an American voice actor and radio personality. Nicknamed The Man of a Thousand Voices, he was best known for his voices in Looney Tunes and Hanna-Barbera cartoons, among others. - -Blanc was born on May 30, 1908 in San Francisco, California. He studied at Lincoln High School in San Francisco. He was married to Estelle Rosenbaum from 1933 until his death in 1989. He has a son, Noel Blanc. Blanc died on July 10, 1989 from heart disease, aged 81. - -The characters he voiced and the years he started doing them - Porky Pig (1935) - Daffy Duck (1937) - Bugs Bunny (1940) - Cecil Turtle 1941 [""Tortoise Beats hare""] - Dopey (1941-1967) - Tweety Bird (1942) - The Hep Cat (1942) - Old man [1943] [""Tortoise winds by a hare""] - Yosemite Sam (1945) (""Hare Trigger"") - Pepe LePew (1945) - Herman Goering [1945] (""Herr Meets hare"") - Adolf Hitler [1945] (""Herr Meets hare"") - Joseph Stalin [1945] (""Herr Meets Hare"") - Sylvester the cat (1946) aka Thomas (1947) in some films - Foghorn Leghorn (1946) - Henery Hawk (1946) - Hugo [1946] [Rackateer Rabbit] - Police Detective [1946] {Rackateer Rabbit] - Charlie Dog (1947) - Wile E. Coyote (1948) - K-9 (1948) (sidekick to Marvin the Martian) - Marvin the Martian (1948) - Road Runner (1948) - Captain Bligh [1948] [""Buccaneer Bunny""] - Polly the parrot [1948] [""Bucceneer Bunny""] - Game Commissioner [1949] [""Rebel Rabbit""] - Police Guard [1949] [""Rebel Rabbit""] - Congressman [1949] [""Rebel Rabbit""] - Crew member [1949] [""Mutiny on the Bunny""] - Woman [1949] [""Bowrey Bugs""] - Swami [1949] [""Bowery Bugs""] - Irish NYPD Policeman [1949] [""Bowery Bugs""] - Prison Guard Sam Schultz [1950] [""Big House Bunny""] - Prison Warden [1950] [""Big House Bunny""] - Pigeon [1950] {""Big house Bunny""] - Rocky [1954] {""Bugs and Thugs""] - Mugsy [1954] [""Bugs and Thugs""] - Policeman on phone [1954] {""Bugs and Thugs""] - Policeman [1954] [""Bugs and Thugs""] - The Tasmanian Devil (1954) - Speedy Gonzalez (1955) - Sportscaster [1955] [""Roman Legion_Hare""] - Roman Soldier [1955] [""Roman Legion Hare""] - Emperor Nero [1955] [""Roman Legion-Hare""] - Charles M. Wolf [1958] [""Hare-Less Wolf""] - Elmer Fudd (1959, assumed from Arthur Q Bryan) - Railroad Station Announcer / Mexican Character / Maxwell Car / Carmichael Pet Polar Bear / Polly Pet Parrot / Salesman / Violin Teacher Professor LeBlanc [The Jack Benny show (Radio and TV)] - Jack Benny's Maxwell Car/Ed the Cheese Vault Guard [1959] [The Mouse That Jack Built] - Barney Rubble (1960) - Dino (1960) (Fred Flintstone's pet.) - Cosmo G. Spacely (1962) also same character in last film [1990] Jetsons the Movie - Spoiled King [1962] (""Shiskabugs"") - Head Devil [1963] [""Devil's Feud Cake""] - Colonel Zachary GAtor (1963 episode of Wally Gator) - Secret Squirrel (1964-1965) - Hardy Harr Harr (1965-1966) - Bubba McCoy from ""Where's Huddles?"" - Captain Caveman - Chug-a-Boom / Ant Hill Mob / Bully Brothers from ""The Perils of Penelope Pitstop"" and ""Wacky Races"" - Twiki from Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (1979) - Heathcliff (1981 / appeared in syndication from 1986-1988) - -Other websites - - - -1908 births -1989 deaths -Actors from San Francisco -American movie actors -American radio actors -American stage actors -American television actors -American voice actors -Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States -Deaths from stroke" -21064,80817,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient%20%28disambiguation%29,Coefficient (disambiguation),"Coefficient could have one of the following meanings: -In mathematics, a coefficient is a constant multiplication of a function was once called its differential coefficient, a usage now mostly displaced by the modern term. -In physics, a physical coefficient is an important number that characterizes some physical property of an object. - -Also, -The Coefficients were an Edwardian London dining club." -7950,26326,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/KGB,KGB,"KGB is the Russian-language abbreviation for State Security Committee. It was the main internal security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its break-up in 1991. It was formed in 1954 as a successor of earlier agencies, the Cheka, NKGB, and MGB. - -During the Cold War, the KGB suppressed ""ideological subversion"". This meant suppressing unorthodox political and religious ideas, and the people who held those ideas. It was Soviet policy for the KGB (and the secret services of the satellite states) to monitor public and private opinion, internal subversion and possible counter-revolutionary plots in the Soviet Bloc. - -The KGB was instrumental in crushing the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, and the Prague Spring of ""Socialism with a Human Face"", in 1968 Czechoslovakia. A record of some of its doings is contained in the Mitrokin Archive. - -Different stages -From 13 March 1954 to 6 November 1991, KGB was the main name for the main Soviet security agency, intelligence agency or spy agency, and the secret police agency. - -In March 1953, Lavrenty Beria merged the MVD and the MGB into one agencythe MVD. In December of that year, Beria and six associates were executed and the MVD split. The re-formed MVD retained its police and law enforcement powers, while the second, new agency, the KGB, did the internal and external security functions, and reported to the Council of Ministers. - -On 5 July 1978 the KGB was renamed as the ""KGB of the Soviet Union"", with its chairman holding a ministerial council seat. The KGB ended when its chief, Colonel-General Vladimir Kryuchkov, used the KGB's resources to help the August 1991 coup attempt to overthrow Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. On 23 August 1991 Colonel-General Kryuchkov was arrested, and General Vadim Bakatin was appointed KGB Chairmanand mandated to dissolve the KGB of the Soviet Union. On 6 November 1991, the KGB officially ceased to exist, although Russia's new national security organisation, the Russian Federalnaya sluzhba bezopasnosti (FSB), works in the same things that the Soviet KGB did. - -Belarus is the only post-Soviet Union era country where the national security organization is still called ""KGB"". Belarus is where Felix Dzerzhinsky started a group called the Cheka, which was an organization in the Soviet Union before the MVD or the KGB was started. - -Notes - -Other websites - KGB Info from FAS.org - Chebrikov, Viktor M., et al., eds. Istoriya sovetskikh organov gosudarstvennoi bezopasnosti. (1977) - Committee for State Security -Citizendium - -Soviet Union -Intelligence agencies -1954 establishments -1950s establishments in the Soviet Union -1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union" -15732,60240,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20denomination,Christian denomination,"The word denomination is used for a large group of Christian people right across the world who use the same name, the same sort of organisation and have the same (or very similar) beliefs. Christianity is divided into ten main groups. These groups all branched out at different dates from the early Christianity founded by the followers of Jesus. The splits generally happened because they could not agree on certain beliefs or practices. The groups then divided into smaller groups. Each group that has its own separate name is a ""denomination"". The word ""denomination"" means ""Being given a name” - -Denominations -Worldwide Christianity is divided into 10 major groups : - Roman Catholic - Eastern Orthodox - Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) -Church of the East (Nestorian) - Anglican -Lutheran -Reformed -Anabaptist -Evangelical -Nontrinitarian - -Each of these ten has important subdivisions. There are also other (smaller) groups that are not mentioned here. - -The Evangelical and Nontrinitarian branches of Christianity are much more divided up than any of the others. Each separate Evangelical church is often called a ""denomination"". While the Roman Catholic Church looks to a single earthly leader, the Pope, and has similar beliefs right across the world, the several Protestant denominations do not look to a single leader and sometimes have beliefs that are very different from each other. - -Many Christian denomination see themselves as part of the worldwide Church which includes other denominations as well. Some denominations, such as the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and some Protestant Churches, believe that they are the only true Christian church. - -Some denominations have beliefs which almost all the other denominations would disagree with, very strongly. These beliefs are called ""heresy"" by the other churches. - -There were some movements considered heresies by the early church which do not exist today and are not generally referred to as denominations. Examples include the Gnostics (who had believed in an esoteric dualism), the Ebionites (who venerated Christ's blood relatives), and the Arians. The greatest divisions in Christianity today, however, are between Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and various denominations formed during and after the Protestant Reformation. There also exists in Protestantism and Orthodoxy various degrees of unity and division. - -Comparisons between denominations must be approached with caution. For example, some churches are part of a larger church organization or diocese, while in other groups, each congregation is an independent organization. This issue is further complicated by the existence of groups of congregations with a common heritage that are officially nondenominational and have no centralized authority or records, but which are identified as denominations by non-adherents. Study of such churches in denominational terms is therefore a more complex proposition. - -Numerical comparisons are also problematic. Some groups count membership based on adult believers and baptized children of believers, while others only count adult baptized believers. Others may count membership based on those adult believers who have formally affiliated themselves with the congregation. In addition, there may be political motives of advocates or opponents of a particular group to inflate or deflate membership numbers through propaganda or outright deception. - -Related pages - Religious denomination - List of Christian denominations by number of members - -Other websites - - Christian Denominations History, profiles and comparison charts of major Christian denominations. - Denominational links from the Ecumenism in Canada site - The Christian Post - Canadian Church Headquarters - The Eastern Christian Churches – A Brief Survey - Denominations at WikiChristian - Map Gallery of Religion in the United States" -10520,37396,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving,Diving,"Diving is a form of movement downwards, either from air to ground or to water. Diving is also a sport. Diving is often done from a springboard or an elevated platform. - -Underwater diving includes Scuba diving. Scuba diving, however, is typically not considered a sport. Dives used for scuba diving are relatively simplistic. An example of this is a giant stride entry, also known as a stride dive. - -Diving in water -There are six different types of dives, and four different body positions that a person can use when diving. - -Types of dives -There are six different types of dives. Four of the types depend on whether the diver is facing towards the water or away from the water, and if they rotate towards or away from the water. The other two dives can be a part of the first four. For example, a diver can do a ""inward twisting"" or a ""forward armstand"" dive. The basic types of dives are: -Forward – The diver faces towards the water and rotates forward. -Backward – The diver stands with their back towards the water and rotates backwards, away from the board. -Reverse – The diver faces towards the water and rotates backwards, towards the board. -Inward – The diver faces away from the water and rotates forward, towards the board. -Twisting – A twisting dive is any of the other dives in which the diver twists their body to the left or right. -Armstand – An armstand dive is where the diver begins the dive from a handstand position. They are not standing on their feet at the beginning of this type of dive. - -Body positions -The four different body positions are tuck, pike, straight and free. -Tuck – The body is bent at the waist and knees. The thighs are close to the chest and the heels of the feet are close to the buttocks. -Pike – The diver's legs are straight. Their body is bent at the waist. The position of the arms is chosen by the diver. They are often pointed towards the toes. -Straight – There is no bend in the body at all. There could be a small arch of the back depending on the type of dive. -Free – The free position is not an actual body position. It is where the diver uses more than one position. It is usually used when doing a dive with a somersault or a twist in it - -Dive Numbers -Dives are put into categories, based on the Direction the dive is in, and what Position it is in. -100's=Forward -200's=Backward -300's=Reverse -400's=Inward -A-Straight -B-Pike -C-Tuck -D-Free -Every Half flip the number on the end goes up by one -For example: *Front dive Tuck is a 101c - -Related pages - -Scuba diving -Swimming - - -Summer Olympic sports" -15033,56679,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zippo,Zippo,"A Zippo lighter is a refillable metal lighter made by Zippo Manufacturing Company since 1933. Many different styles have been made since 1933, such as the pipe Zippo, for lighting pipes. Many people collect Zippos. Some Zippos are worth a lot of money. - -Zippo lighters are wind-proof, which means that the wind can not blow them out. The most common fuel for Zippos is naphtha. - -1932 establishments -Tools -Smoking" -658,3070,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelsea%20F.C.,Chelsea F.C.,"Chelsea F.C. is an English football club that plays in the English Premier League. Their home stadium is Stamford Bridge in Fulham, London. - -Chelsea is considered to be one of the most successful clubs of England, having won many trophies, including 6 Premier League, 2 UEFA Champions League, 2 UEFA Europa League, 5 League Cup, 8 FA Cup, 1 UEFA Super Cup and 2 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup titles. Their all-time highest goalscorer is Frank Lampard and their most successful goalkeeper (on the basis of clean sheets and titles statistics) is Petr Čech. Chelsea is owned by the Russian billionaire businessman Roman Abramovich. - -There was a supposed breakaway European Super League that Chelsea were apart of but this quickly collapsed as many English teams pulled out due to fan disagreement. Chelsea were the first of the English teams to pull out after Chelsea fans protested outside of the stadium before their match against Brighton. - -History -Chelsea started in 1905 and played the second division of the league. They won their first trophy in 1955, when they became Champions of the First Division. They won the FA Cup in 1970, 1997, 2000 and 2007. They won the League Cup in 1965, 1998, 2005 and 2007. In 1970s Chelsea failed to maintain their position of the first division, due to the financial difficulties. In 1990s they challenged the title of Premier League. They came close but did not win it until 2005 and 2006. - -In 2003 the Russian billionaire, Roman Abramovich, purchased Chelsea and invested lots of capital to employ new football players. He also hired Luiz Felipe Scolari as the manager of the club. Abramovich also employed Peter Kenyon as the chief executive to be responsible for the commercial strategies of the club. This made Chelsea stronger, and they won the Premier League in consecutive years. A third straight FA Premier League title slipped through Chelsea's fingertips after their failure to defeat Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, meaning that Manchester United had won their ninth league title in fifteen tries. - -On September 20, 2007, the very successful manager José Mourinho left the club by ""mutual consent"". This exit came just days after a shockingly poor performance which saw them barely scrape out a 1-1 draw in a Champions League tie against Norwegian side Rosenborg B.K.. Following Mourinho's exit, Chelsea made Director of Football Avram Grant, the former manager of Israel from 2002 to 2006, the new manager of the club, until May 2008. Grant took over with Chelsea trailing in the Premier League ""title race"" behind Manchester United and Arsenal, and managed to keep Chelsea in the hunt for the league until the last game of the season. He got Chelsea into the Champions League Final for the first time as well as the Carling Cup Final, but he was sacked at the end of the season, along with assistant Henk ten Cate. Grant was sacked from the job after he lost in the final in a 5-6 penalty shootout loss to Manchester United and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari, the then-Portugal coach, in August. However, after a poor run of results Scolari was sacked on February 9, 2009. Guus Hiddink took over the club until the rest of the season. In early June they played in the FA Cup final against Everton, where Chelsea won 2-1, after Frank Lampard and Didier Drogba scored goals. In that final, Louis Saha of Everton scored the fastest goal in FA Cup history, in 25 seconds. A week later, the former Milan manager Carlo Ancelotti was named as the new manager of Chelsea. Antonio Conte was their manager until July 2018 and helped them win the 2016/17 league title. Frank Lampard, former Chelsea player, became Chelsea F.C.'s successor manager. He was sacked in mid-season of 2020/21 following series of poor performances. Thomas Tuchel replaced him, and successfully took Chelsea to the finals of UEFA Champions League 2020/21, played against Manchester City, held in Istanbul, Turkey. Chelsea won the final 1-0, with the winning goal scored by Kai Havertz. - -League position - -Former position - -First-Team Squad - -Notable players - Frank Lampard - John Terry - Didier Drogba - Petr Čech - Michael Ballack - Michael Essien - Andriy Shevchenko - Joe Cole - Florent Malouda - Ashley Cole - Eden Hazard - Peter Bonetti - Wayne Bridge - Claude Makélélé - William Gallas - Jimmy Greaves - Peter Osgood - Dennis Wise - Ruud Gullit - Mark Hughes - Gianfranco Zola - Celestine Babayaro - Tore André Flo - Marcel Desailly - Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink - Damien Duff - Shaun Wright-Phillips - -References - -1905 establishments in England -Premier League clubs -Football clubs in London" -24108,92987,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec%20Guinness,Alec Guinness,"Sir Alec Guinness (2 April 1914 - 5 August 2000) was an Academy Award winning English actor. He was born in London. He is well known for the role of Obi-Wan Kenobi, a ""Jedi master"", in the Star Wars movie series (Episodes IV, V, and VI), a role that he was embarrassed with. He won an Academy Award for ""Best Actor in a Leading Role"". He got this award for acting in the movie The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957). Guinness also received a Golden Globe Award and a BAFTA Award for that movie. He has also received a Tony Award. In 1989 he received a BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award. Guinness died from liver cancer in Midhurst, West Sussex, in 2000. - -Other websites - - - - - -1914 births -2000 deaths -Best Actor Academy Award winners -Academy Award Honorary Award winners -Actors from London -BAFTA Award winning actors -Cancer deaths in England -Commanders of the Order of the British Empire -Companions of Honour -Deaths from liver cancer -English movie actors -English Roman Catholics -English stage actors -English television actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors -Knights Bachelor -People from Paddington -Tony Award winning actors" -4454,13971,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven,Heaven,"Heaven also known as Paradise or garden is a place where good people go when they die. It is a concept of the afterlife (what happens after somebody dies) in many religions. Some people who believe in heaven say it is a perfect place. They believe heaven is where people go after they die if they have been good in life. Some people also believe in Hell, a place bad people go when they die if they have been bad in life. Ideas of Heaven and Hell are not the same in all religions. - -In Christianity -According to the Bible, there are different meanings for the word: -Sky – the atmosphere that covers the Earth. The first time that it rained, it says, God opened ""the windows of heaven."" -Outer space – the sun, moon, stars, planets, etc. -The place where God lives and rules eternally. The people called prophets in the Bible, like Isaiah, often spoke of a physical Kingdom of Heaven that will occupy a new Earth, and ruled by God (Messiah) in the flesh himself, where we will have physical bodies that do not die. - -The Bible does not have a lot to say about what it looks like. The apostle Paul tells about a vision he had of being taken up to ""the third heaven,"" where he saw and heard things too wonderful to describe. But, much of what Christians believe Heaven to be like comes from the vision that John saw in a vision while praying, including: -The glory of God is the light (no sun) -Heaven is where all the true believers go. -You never sleep because of your purified new body -Has 12 gates made of pearl -Walls made of jasper -Streets made of pure gold -A river of life -Trees on each side of the river - -Catholics believe Mary is the Queen of Heaven, officially defined by Pope Pius XII in 1954. However many Protestants see this as not in the Bible. - -In Islam - -According to the Quran and Hadith, Heaven is a place of reward for those believers who accept the true faith and practices the teaching of Prophet Muhammad. The eternal life will be perfect, with thousands of types of food and clothing more beautiful than humans could ever imagine. There will also be no sad feelings, stress or pain and related problems of life. - -In Bahá'í Faith - -Baha'is believe that Heaven or (hell) being specific places as symbolic. The Aqdas, the holy book of Baha'is, along with other Baha'i books, describe heaven as a ""spiritual condition"" where being close to God is called heaven. Hell is seen as being separated from God. Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, said that the afterlife is beyond human understanding. - -In Paganism -Summerland is the name given by Wiccans and other Pagan (old European religions) to their belief of afterlife (life after death). - -References - -Afterlife" -6277,20029,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackinac%20Island,Mackinac Island,"Mackinac Island is an island in Lake Huron. It is part of the U.S. state of Michigan and is 8 miles (13 kilometers) around. - -Many people go to see Mackinac Island in the summer because the island passed a local law that says that no one can use a car on the island. Everybody has to ride a horse or a bicycle. In recent years, young people have been using roller skates or roller blades to get around the island. There is a narrow paved road that follows the 8 miles of shoreline. This road is for horses (and their buggies), bicycles, skaters and joggers or just people taking a long walk. - -In order to get to Mackinac Island, visitors have to buy a ticket on a ferry boat. The boat ride has views of Lake Huron and the Mackinac Bridge. After they get to Mackinac Island, many visitors buy locally made fudge. - -Islands of the United States -Geography of Michigan" -8847,29952,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arges,Arges,"Arges, Argeş, or Argeș might mean: - - Arges (Cyclops), a Cyclops in Greek mythology - -Places in Romania -Argeș County, a county -Argeș River, a river in the south of the country -Curtea de Argeş, a city along the banks of the Argeş River -Ţinutul Argeş, a former administrative division" -6089,19548,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Paul%20Stevens,John Paul Stevens,"John Paul Stevens (April 20, 1920 – July 16, 2019) was an American lawyer. He was a United States Supreme Court justice. He was nominated by President Gerald Ford in 1975. He voted with minority in Bush v. Gore case (2000). He also voted with majority in Furman v. Georgia case (1976), but later became against the death penalty. In 2010, he announced his retirement in the Supreme Court. - -Stevens died on July 16, 2019 from problems caused by a stroke while under hospice care in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the age of 99. - -References - -1920 births -2019 deaths -Deaths from stroke -United States Supreme Court justices -Military people from Chicago -Lawyers from Chicago" -9822,33554,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazio,Lazio,"Lazio (Latin: Latium) is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in central Italy. The capital is Rome. - -Geography -The region is in Central Italy with an area of . It is bordered to the northwest by the Tuscany region, to the north by the Umbria region, to the northeast with the Marche region, to the east with the Abruzzo and Molise regions, to the southeast is the Campania region and to the west is the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Vatican City is within the region. - -The main river in the region is the Tiber. The highest mountain in the region is Monte Gorzano, on the border with the Abruzzo region, with an altitude of . - -The Pontine Islands () are an archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Italy. They are part of Lazio. - -Provinces -Lazio has four provinces and one Metropolitan city (Rome). - -Largest municipalities -The 10 communi with more people living in it are: - -References - -Other websites - - Lazio Region Official site" -16798,64048,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond%20Keosayan,Edmond Keosayan,"Edmond Keosayan (; Leninakan, now Gyumri, October 9, 1936 - Moscow, April 21, 1994) was an Armenian Soviet movie director and musician. From 1954 to 1956 Keosayan studied in Plekhanov Moscow Institute of Economy. From 1956 to 1958 he studied in Yerevan Fine Arts and Theatre Institute. In 1964, he graduated from the Directing Department of VGIK (E.Dzigan's master class). Since 1964 Keosayan has been a director at Mosfilm Studio. He has worked worked a few times for Armenfilm Studio. -He was also a Master of Ceremonies of the Soviet State Variety Orchestra. -His films are mainly in the Armenian and -Russian languages. - -Filmography -1964: Where are you quiet Maxim? (Gde ty teper, Maxim?) -1966: The Elusive Avengers (Neulovimye mstiteli/Неуловимые мстители) -1968: The New Adventures of the Elusive Avengers (Novye priklyucheniya nuelovimykh/Новые приключения неуловимых) -1971: The Crown of the Russian Empire or Once again the Elusive Avengers (Korona Rossiyskoy imperi, ili snova neulovimykh -1973: Tghamardik (Russian: Muzhchiny, English The Men) -1975: Moratsvatz heqiatneri kirtche (Russian: Ushchele pokinutykh skazok, English: The Canyon of Deserted Tales) -1975: When September comes (Kogda nastupayet sentyabr) -1978: Huso Astgh (Star of Hope, Russian: Zvezda nadezhdy, alternative Armenian title: Mkhitar sparapet) -1980: Legend tzaghratzui masin (Russian: Legenda o skomorokhe, English: Legend of the Clown) - -References - -Armenian movie directors -1936 births -1994 deaths" -22434,84902,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCfenach,Rüfenach,"Rüfenach is a municipality of the district of Brugg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -24282,93633,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankt%20Wendel%20%28district%29,Sankt Wendel (district),"Sankt Wendel is a Kreis (district) in the north of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are Trier-Saarburg, Birkenfeld, Kusel, Neunkirchen, Saarlouis, Merzig-Wadern. - -History -The district was created in 1834 when Prussia bought the Lichtenfeld area from Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. After World War I the Saar area came under special rulership of the League of Nations, and the Sankt Wendel district was split into two parts. The northern part, the Restkreis Sankt Wendel, was merged into the district Birkenfeld, the southern part stayed in the Saarland in its smaller size. - -Geography -The district is located in the Saar-Hunsrück natural area, a hilly area with elevations between 200 and 600 meters. -The main river in the district is the Nahe. The Bostalsee is the biggest tourist lake in the south-west of Germany, covering an area of about 1.2 km2. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German) - Touristic website - -Districts of the Saarland" -15157,57250,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous%20solid,Amorphous solid,"An amorphous solid does not have a definite geometric or crystalline shape. It is a solid in which there is no long-term order in the positions of the atoms. Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous ceramic, many polymers are amorphous, and even foods such as cotton candy and cotton are amorphous solids. - -An amorphous solid is any noncrystalline solid in which the atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite lattice pattern. Such solids include glass, plastic, and gel. - -Solids and liquids are both forms of condensed matter; both are composed of atoms in close proximity to each other. But their properties are, of course, enormously different. While a solid material has both a well-defined volume and a well-defined shape, a liquid has a well-defined volume but a shape that depends on the shape of the container. Stated differently, a solid exhibits resistance to shear stress while a liquid does not. Externally applied forces can twist or bend or distort a solid’s shape, but (provided the forces have not exceeded the solid’s elastic limit) it “springs back” to its original shape when the forces are removed. A liquid flows under the action of an external force; it does not hold its shape. These macroscopic characteristics constitute the essential distinctions: a liquid flows, lacks a definite shape (though its volume is definite), and cannot withstand a shear stress; a solid does not flow, has a definite shape, and exhibits elastic stiffness against shear stress. - -Related pages - Glass - Crystalline - -Other websites - Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher Equation Parameters - Fragility thy name is glass - -Matter" -6428,20357,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Supply,Air Supply,"Air Supply is a pop music singing group. They formed in Melbourne, Australia in 1976. - -The current members are Russell Hitchcock (born June 15, 1949 in Melbourne) and Graham Russell (born June 1, 1950 in Nottingham, England). In 1981 they got with their song ""The One That You Love"" a number one hit in the United States. They had their most popular times during the early 1980s. - -Australian rock bands -Australian pop music groups -Musical duos -Musical groups from Melbourne -Musical groups established in 1975 -1975 establishments -1970s establishments in Australia" -5837,18907,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence%2C%20Rhode%20Island,"Providence, Rhode Island","Providence is the capital and the most populous city of Rhode Island. It was one of the first cities established in the United States. It is located in Providence County. It is the third largest city in the New England region. In the 2010 census, the city proper population was 178,042. The area is the 37th largest metropolitan population in the country, with an estimated MSA population of 1,600,856. This is more people than the population of Rhode Island due to the area reaching into southern Massachusetts. Providence is at the mouth of the Providence River, at the head of Narragansett Bay. The city's small footprint is crisscrossed by streets at odd angles and has a rapidly changing distribution of residents. - -Providence was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He named the area in honor of ""God's merciful Providence"" which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him and his followers to settle. The official name of the state includes the name of the city, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. After being one of the first cities in the country to industrialize, Providence became noted for its jewelry and silverware industry. Today, the City of Providence is home to eight hospitals and seven institutions of higher learning, which has shifted the city's economy into service industries, although it still retains significant manufacturing activity. - -From colonial times to the mid-19th century, the Rhode Island General Assembly rotated meetings between the state's five county court houses. After 1853 the state legislature stopped meeting at the Kent, Washington and Bristol county courthouses, but continued to alternate its sessions between Providence State House and the Newport State House in Newport. Early in the 20th century, Providence became the only capital of the state. - -Hurricanes -On September 21, 1938, a severe Category 3 hurricane struck Providence and nearby areas. Providence was flooded with storm surge. Another hurricane hit the region in September 1944 near the Connecticut-Rhode Island border. Ten years later, Hurricane Carol struck the area as a Category 2 hurricane, bringing severe storm surge and wind to the Providence area. The storm killed 17 in Rhode Island. - -Highways and Interstates -I-95 runs from north to south through Providence. I-195 connects the city to eastern Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts, including New Bedford, Massachusetts, and Cape Cod. I-295 encircles Providence while RI 146 provides a direct connection with Worcester, Massachusetts. The city's Iway project is moving I-195 to free up land and to reunify the Jewelry District with Downcity Providence. I-195 currently separates these two neighborhoods. The project is estimated to cost $446 million and be completed in 2012. - -Colleges and Universities - The flagship campuses of five of Rhode Island's colleges and universities are in Providence (city proper): - Brown University, an Ivy League university and one of nine colonial colleges in the nation. - Johnson & Wales University - Providence College - Rhode Island College, the state's oldest public college. - Rhode Island School of Design (RISD) - -References - -Other websites - - City of Providence official website - - -County seats in Rhode Island -State capitals in the United States" -10492,37287,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIBA%20Basketball%20World%20Cup,FIBA Basketball World Cup,"The FIBA Basketball World Cup, known as the FIBA World Championship from 1950 through 2010, is a world basketball tournament for men's national teams held once every four years by the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). After the 2014 FIBA World Cup, the tournament will move to a new four-year cycle to avoid conflict with the FIFA World Cup. To that end, no tournament will be held in 2018; the FIBA World Cup will resume in 2019. - -The current champions are Spain. They defeated Argentina 95-75 in the 2019 tournament at the Cadillac Center in Beijing, China. - -Tournaments - -Related pages - - Basketball - -References - -Notes - -Basketball" -22304,84482,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pianosa,Pianosa,"Pianosa is a small (about 10 km2) island in Italy's Tuscan Archipelago. The name is derived from the latin word ""planasia"" (plain) because its highest point is some 22 meters over sea level. Pianosa has no permanent residents. It is known in Italy for a maximum-security prison, where especially dangerous Mafia criminals are held. For administration, Pianosa is part of the Elba island municipality. On clear days, it can be seen from that island as a dark blue line over the lighter blue sea. - -In the novel Catch-22, a U.S. Army Air Corps bomber squadron is based on the island during World War II, - -There is another, even smaller island called Pianosa off the Adriatic coast of Italy. - -Other websites - Tourist information - -Islands of Italy" -22813,86565,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugs,Drugs,"Drugs change the way the body works. It could mean: - -Medicine - Special chemicals or herbs given to people by a doctor when they are sick -Illegal drugs - Chemicals, pills, liquids, or parts of plants that people take to make them feel a certain way" -10,19,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farming,Farming,"Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a part of agriculture. - -Agriculture started thousands of years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is. The development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities. - -Agriculture and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew. People probably started agriculture slowly by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land. - -This allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today. - -Types - -Arable farming -Arable farming means growing crops. This would include wheat or vegetables. Growing fruit means having orchards devoted to fruit. They cannot be switched easily with growing field crops. Therefore they are not classed as arable land in the statistics. - -Agriculture is not only growing food for people and animals, but also growing other things like flowers and nursery plants, manure or dung, animal hides (skins or furs), leather, animals, fungi, fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, and flax), biofuel , and drugs (biopharmaceuticals, marijuana, opium). - -Many people still live by subsistence agriculture, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years. - -In some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more. - -This kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt buildup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education. - -Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical pest control, and irrigation all help. - -Some plants are improved with genetic engineering. One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides. - -Food - -It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture. - Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries. - Intensive agriculture is mostly done in countries with more money. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers. - Organic farming is using only natural products such as compost and green manure. - Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process. - -Agricultural policy focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food. - -Problems -There are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today. -These include: - Pollution - Erosion - Diseases - Pests - Weeds - Drought - Rainfall - Climate - Contamination - -Crops -The major crops produced in the world in 2002, are maize (corn), wheat, rice, and cotton. - - Maize 624 million metric tons - Wheat 570 million metric tons - Rice 381.1 million metric tons - Cotton 96.5 million metric tons - -Related pages - Aquaculture - Bee keeping - Animal husbandry - Fertilizers - Crop rotation - Urban farming - Breeding - Fencing - Ranching - Plantation - Crop protection - -Agriculture by country -Agriculture in Azerbaijan -Agriculture in Pakistan - -References" -23420,90018,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal%C3%B3%20language,Caló language,"Caló (or Spanish Romani) is a dialect spoken by the Gitanos or Zincarli (also calés, ""dark ones"") that came to Spain. Caló uses Romani vocabulary with Spanish grammar, - as Spanish Roma lost the full use of their ancestral language. The language is mainly used for private talking between Roma people. - -Notes and references - -Other websites -Calo -Romani Language - -Indo-Aryan languages -Roma" -19065,72086,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism,Realism,"Realism is a way of portraying or thinking about reality. The word ""realism"" is used in many liberal arts in many different ways (such as in music, painting, and philosophy). It usually means trying to be true to reality. This is where the word ""realistic"" comes from. Realism is usually seen as an opposite of romanticism and idealism. It is also sometimes seen as an opposite of liberalism and classicism. It is used mainly to describe the way that some artists treat making art. These artists try to focus on the world as it really is, without unrealistic or supernatural ideas. - -Realism began as an art movement and in the 19th century. These realists wanted to give an accurate description of nature and of the way people lived. Realism can also apply to artists and artworks from before the 19th century though. - -Origins - -The word ""realism"" first appeared in 1794, as the opposite of idealism in art and philosophy. The French magazine () used the word in 1826. It said that realism was the art-style of being accurate to real life, rather than following art of the past. Around this same time, realism was thought to have been one of the styles of philosophy within scholasticism. Then in the 1840s, realism began as an art movement in France. It focused on realistic modern life without avoiding what was unpleasant. It also focused on the lower or middle classes. - -Realism in liberal arts - -In music - -In music there was a movement called Verismo which was the Italian word for ""reality"". Verismo was popular in Italian opera around the end of the 19th century and early 20th century. Puccini was an opera composer whose style is typical of Verismo. - -In painting and drawing - -In politics and history - -In politics, realism focuses on conflict and the harsher parts of history. - -In writing and philosophy - -Realism as a literary movement began in Germany. The poet and writer Heinrich Heine tried in his books to accept the world as it is instead of trying to escape from it. Realistic writers tried to find good things about society. The interest in realism led to a movement called naturalism. This meant describing scenes in nature accurately. The novelist Emile Zola was a naturalist. - -In philosophy, realism is also a way of thinking about knowledge and reality. It is usually the view that a particular thing is real whether or not it is known about. In fact, one person can be a realist about some things and a non-realist about other things. For example, some realists say that the past really happened no matter what we think about it. Other realist philosophers say that there are morals that really exist as facts. This is different from philosophers who say that things only exist because of people who are aware of them. For example, a non-realist philosopher might say beauty only exists because someone sees something that they think is beautiful. A realist philosopher might instead say that beauty is there whether anyone sees it or not. - -Other styles - -The term social realism describes an art form in America in the 1930s which expressed social protest in a naturalistic way. This is different from what is usually called socialist realism which was a term used by Soviet politicians from 1932 to the mid 1980s to describe art which showed the workers' struggle, glorifying the Soviet Union. - -In the early 20th century Realism led to other movements such as Dadaism and Surrealism. - -References - -Philosophical movements and positions‎ -Art movements -Literature -Music" -450,949,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20language,Chinese language,"The Chinese language is the group of languages used by Chinese people in China and elsewhere. It forms part of a language family called the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. - -Chinese includes many regional language varieties, the main ones being Mandarin, Wu, Yue and Min. These are not mutually intelligible and many of the regional varieties are themselves a number of non-mutually-intelligible subvarieties. As a result, many linguists refer to these varieties as separate languages. - -'Chinese' can refer to the written or the spoken languages. Although there are many spoken Chinese languages, they use the same writing system. Differences in speaking are reflected in differences in writing. Official China adopts a similar policy to the one in the Soviet Union, using one official language so people can understand each other. The Standard Chinese language is referred to as Mandarin in English, ""Pǔtōnghuà"" or ""common to everybody speech"" in mainland China and ""Guóyǔ"" or ""language of the whole country"" in Taiwan. All official documents in Pinyin are written in Mandarin and Mandarin is taught all over China. It is also a standard for language teaching in some other countries. - -Chinese is used by the Han people in China and other ethnic groups in China who are declared Chinese by the Chinese government. Many people in autonomous regions of China speak other languages. Chinese is almost always written in Chinese characters. They are symbols that have meaning, called logograms. They also give some indication of pronunciation, but the same character can get very different pronunciations among the different kinds of Chinese. Since Chinese characters have been around for at least 3500 years, people in places far from each other say them differently, just as ""1, 2, 3"" can be read differently in different languages. - -Chinese people needed to write down pronunciations in dictionaries. Chinese does not have an alphabet, so how to write down sounds was a big problem in the beginning. Nowadays the Mandarin language uses Hanyu Pinyin to represent the sounds in Roman letters. - -All the Chinese languages (or dialects) use tones. This means that they use high and low pitches to help make differences in meaning clear. - -Different languages or dialects of Chinese -The Chinese language is like a big tree. The base of the tree started thousands of years ago. It now has several main limbs. Some people call ""just a branch"" what other people call a main limb, so you can say there are six or seven main limbs. Each of these main limbs splits off into branches about the way there are branches of English spoken in Great Britain, the United States, Australia, India, and so forth. Just as the Romance languages all come from the area around Rome and are based on Latin, the Chinese languages all have some common source, so they keep many common things among them. - -Here are the main seven main groups of languages/dialects of Chinese by size: - Guan (""Northern"" or Mandarin), 北方話/北方话 or 官話/官话 (about 850 million speakers), - Wu, 吳/吴, which includes Shanghainese (about 90 million speakers), - Yue (Cantonese), 粵/粤 (about 80 million speakers), - Min (Hokkien, which includes Taiwanese), 閩/闽 (about 50 million speakers), - Xiang, 湘 (about 35 million speakers), - Hakka, 客家 or 客 or ""guest family"" speech (about 35 million speakers), - Gan, 贛/赣 (about 20 million speakers) - -Traditional and simplified characters - -In 1956, the government of the People's Republic of China made public a set of simplified Chinese characters to make learning, reading and writing the Chinese language easier. In Mainland China and Singapore, people use these simpler characters. In Hong Kong, Taiwan and other places where they speak Chinese, people still use the more traditional characters. The Korean language also uses Chinese characters to represent certain words. The Japanese language uses them even more often. These characters are known in Korean as Hanja and in Japanese as Kanji. - -A Chinese person with a good education today knows 6,000-7,000 characters. About 3,000 Chinese characters are needed to read a Mainland newspaper. However, people who have learned only the 400 most frequently used characters can read a newspaper—but they will have to guess some less-used words. - -Examples - -Here are some samples of some words and sentences in Mandarin Chinese. Simplified Characters are on the left, and Traditional characters are on the right. The pronunciation is given in the pinyin system, which may not always be as simple as it looks for those who have not studied it. - -The Traditional Characters are now used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Chinese from Mainland China uses the Simplified Characters, but may recognize Traditional Characters. - -Before 1956, Chinese was written using only Traditional Characters. At that time most Chinese people could not read or write at all. The government of the People's Republic of China thought that the Traditional characters were very hard to understand. They also thought that if they made the characters simpler more people could learn how to read and write. Today, many people in China can read and write with the new Simplified Characters. - -Related pages - Standard Chinese - Mandarin Chinese - Cantonese language - -References - -Other websites - - Chinese Flashcard Website Learn Chinese Online - I Love Chinese Learning Chinese Magazine - Learn Chinese Free Chinese Learning Lessons and mp3 - Free Chinese Character Input Software Google Pinyin Input Software - Chinese Pinyin a brief introduction to standard Chinese phonetic system - Day Day Up Chinese Online Chinese textbook - Direct method of learning Chinese—no English translation. A wok is just a wok. - Study More Chinese social network for Mandarin learners with videos, blogs, forum. - iChineseLearning A site for learning Chinese through skype Chinese lessons. - yimusanfendi Fact About yimusanfendi - - -Tonal languages" -13016,47779,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angles,Angles,"The Angles were a Germanic people of unknown origin. Their name seems to be connected with Angeln, a modern district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles, together with the Jutes, Saxons and Frisians, were among the Germanic tribes who sailed across the North Sea in the 5th century to invade Britain. The various tribes were later called ""Anglo-Saxon"". - -References - -Other websites - English and Welsh are races apart; BBC; 30 June, 2002. - -Germanic tribes - -Schleswig-Holstein" -18095,68048,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Guang,Li Guang,"Li Guang (; ? – 119 BC) was a Chinese general of the Han Dynasty. His father, Li Xin, was a great military leader. Li Guang became a soldier when he was young. As Li Guang fought bravely in the battlefields, he was soon promoted to a general. He killed himself in the year 119 BC. - -119 BC deaths -Han Dynasty generals -Year of birth unknown" -5406,17643,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1186,1186,"Year 1186 (MCLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. - -Events - John the Chanter becomes Bishop of Exeter. - January 27 – Constance of Sicily marries Henry (the future Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor). - The Byzantine Empire recognises the indepence of Bulgaria. - Guy of Lusignan becomes King of Jerusalem. - -Births - May 18 — Konstantin of Rostov, Prince of Novgorod (d. 1218) - Queen Urraca of Portugal spouse of King Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1220) - Hugh Bigod, 3rd Earl of Norfolk (d. 1225) - Iziaslav IV Vladimirovich, Grand Prince of Kiev - Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (d. 1241) - Song Ci, Chinese physician and judge (d. 1249) - -Deaths - May 29 or June 23 or June 24 — Robert of Torigni - August 19 — Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158) - Baldwin V of Jerusalem (b. 1177) - William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre (b. c. 1130) - Minamoto no Yukiie, Japanese warlord" -2415,7783,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brighton,Brighton,"Brighton is a city on the south coast of England. It was called ""Brighthelmstone"". It is in the county of East Sussex. In 2000, it joined Hove to become the city of Brighton & Hove. Historically, Brighton forms the main part of the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation, with 474,485 inhabitants (2011 census). This is England's 12th largest conurbation, and the mostly densely populated area outside London. - -History -From the 1730s, Brighton entered its second phase of development—one which brought a rapid improvement in its fortunes. The fad for bathing in seawater as a cure for illnesses was encouraged. From the 1760s it was a boarding point for boats travelling to France. Road transport to London was improved when the main road via Crawley was turnpiked in 1770. Spas and indoor baths were opened by physicians. - -From 1780, development of Georgian terraced houses started. The fishing village developed to the fashionable resort of Brighton. Growth of the town was encouraged by the patronage of the Prince Regent (later King George IV) after his first visit in 1783. He spent much of his leisure time in the town, and had the Royal Pavilion built during the early part of his Regency. - -The arrival of the London and Brighton Railway in 1841 brought Brighton within the reach of day-trippers from London. Some major attractions such as the West Pier and the Brighton Palace Pier were built for the growing number of tourists. The population grew from around 7,000 in 1801 to more than 120,000 by 1901. - -In 1984, a Provisional Irish Republican Army bombing killed five people. - -Modern-day Brighton is a centre for education, sports, and recreation. It has two universities: University of Sussex and the University of Brighton. It also has 54 other schools. - -In 2003, the universities of Sussex and Brighton formed a medical school, known as Brighton and Sussex Medical School. Brighton has a thriving LGBT community and every year in the first weekend in August Pride festivities are held. - -Notable people - - Dora Bryan - English actress - Henry Thrale - English politician. Lived in West Street. His good friend, Samuel Johnson, often stayed at his home. - Laurence Olivier - lived in the city for many years - Martha Gunn - famous Brighton dipper and favourite of George IV - Nick Cave - Australian musician, been living in the city since the 1980s - Rudyard Kipling - classical books author - -References" -13054,47886,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20Summer%20Olympics,1984 Summer Olympics,"The 1984 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIII Olympiad, were held in Los Angeles, United States from July 28 to August 12. - -1984 Summer Olympics" -3022,9511,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20school,High school,"High school is a kind of school, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs. In a three-part system such as in the United States, children go to high school after middle school (""junior high""). In a two-party system such as in the United Kingdom, the change is from primary school to secondary school at 11 years of age. - -In the United States, a high school is a school that students go to usually for grades 9 through 12, from the ages of about 14-15 to about 17-18. It is also the last school that the law requires the student to go to. However, students with behavioral issues that are too much for the school to handle are not required to attend. This is called expulsion. Some states have an age or certain grade where a student does not have to attend school, this is called the compulsory age, for example in New York, students below 17 years of age are required to attend school unless the child is excused. Some people may choose to take some tests called GED (General Education Development) as another way to finish high school. A student is allowed by law to stop going to high school after a certain age without having graduated. In most this is 16, however, in a few states, it is 18 or higher, for example, Wisconsin. - -In the United Kingdom the law requires the student to go to school until 16. The term 'high school' is only used in Scotland. -The term 'Secondary School' is used for most of the UK instead of 'high school'. -'Secondary school' is school year 7-11; which is pupils aged 11-16. - -There are public high schools and private high schools in the United States and many other countries. - -References - -Types of educational institutions" -7552,24372,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armour,Armour,"Armour (or armor U.S.) is a protective covering or clothing to prevent injury from attack. Armour can be worn by a person, or it can be used to protect machines, animals, even buildings. Armour has always been made from the strongest materials available at the time, but weight has always been a problem. Early body armour was made from leather. Later, metals were used (e.g. mail or plate armour). Some modern armour, like bullet-proof vests, are made from plastics that do not stretch or break, such as Kevlar. These plastics may be woven into a cloth and used in layers, which makes them even stronger. - -Plastic lamination (layers) is often used to protect windows against bullets. Many jewellery stores, embassies, and vehicles have bullet-proof glass with this feature. - -For vehicles -Armour put on vehicles is usually made of metal and can include one layer over another with open spaces in between (spaced armour) or multiple layers of metal; ceramics (baked clay), and other materials. Another type of armour uses blocks of explosive that explode when another explosion goes off near it. This explosive armour protects by pushing against the other explosion. Vehicle armor is often angled to increase the amount of armour that must be shot through to get inside and to make the shot bounce off rather than piercing the armour. - -Tanks have the heaviest armour of all land vehicles. Other military vehicles have armour, but not as much as a tank. - -Sometimes armour is put in non-military vehicles, such as limousines used by leaders of a country or by anyone who thinks they might be attacked, e.g. film stars or presidents of major companies. - -For animals -In the past, armour has also been used in wars to protect animals such as dogs, elephants, and horses. Today, police dogs and horses sometimes wear woven plastic bullet-proof vests. - -For sports -Many sports involve violent physical contact and may be highly dangerous if the players are unprotected. Such sports include ice hockey, American football and kendo. Sports armour is usually made from hard plastic. - - -Military" -7365,23654,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karachi,Karachi,"Karachi () is the largest city in Pakistan and the capital of the province of Sindh. Until 1958, it was also the capital of Pakistan. It is also called the City of Lights. It is also one of the world's biggest megacities. In 2017, there are about 17.63 million people who live in Karachi. It is the largest city in the Muslim world. - -Karachi has many names including ""Mai Kolachi Jo Goth"" and ""Karatishi"". A native of Karachi is called a Karachiite. Quaid-e-Azam (Muhammad Ali Jinnah), who was the founder of Pakistan, was born and buried in Karachi. Karachi has two important regional seaports. Karachi also makes the largest share of Pakistan's GDP and national revenue. - -Karachi has five districts: District South, District East, District West, District Central, and District Malir. The city is the financial and commercial center of Pakistan. - -Karachi has 26 universities including the University of Karachi. It is home to the National Stadium, which hosts many cricket games, and several other sports complexes. The city has several long sandy beaches including Clifton/Kemari beach and Sandspit beach. Clifton beach suffered from an oil spillage but the beach was cleaned. Karachi has Pakistan's first nuclear site, KANUP in 1952 from Canada. Karachi hosted the first ever night hockey match between India and Pakistan in 1986 at Hockey Club of Pakistan Stadium. - -Karachi has many large and small shopping areas including the Saddar area in downtown Karachi. Karachi also has a number of large modern shopping malls. - -The city has a modern international airport (Jinnah International Airport) and two large shipping ports, the Port of Karachi and Port Qasim. Karachi is linked by railway to the rest of Pakistan. - -Karachi has a hot desert climate (BWh in the Koeppen climate classification). - -Related pages - Islamabad - Lahore - Peshawar - Quetta - -References - -Cities in Pakistan -Settlements in Sindh -Capital of Pakistan" -21272,81509,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hefenhofen,Hefenhofen,"Hefenhofen is a municipality of the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -12576,46262,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral,Coral,"Corals are formed by small animals, the polyps of the phylum Cnidaria. - -Characteristics - -The corals are marine, either on continental shelves or round oceanic islands. They live in colonies. - -All the polyps in a colony are zooids: they are all clones, genetically identical. Inside the colony they breed by asexual reproduction. They also reproduce sexually. Colonies of the same species release gametes together, over one, two or three nights around a full moon. - -Each coral animal is like a small bag. The opening on top is the mouth. Tentacles (little arms) around the mouth carry stinging nematocysts, which paralyse the small animals eaten by the coral polyps. - -Coral usually grows in tropical oceans. A few corals grow in cold water, like the oceans around the British Isles and Norway. - -Symbiosis -Most corals get energy and nutrients from symbiosis with photosynthetic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae. Such corals need sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 ft). - -Many corals (and some other cnidaria) live with zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium, which are dinoflagellates. Usually, each polyp harbours one species of algae. By photosynthesis, these provide energy for the coral, and help calcification. - -The algae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste. Due to the strain the algae can put on the polyp, the coral often ejects the algae. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching, because the algae contribute to coral's brown coloration. Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress—they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies. - -Coral reefs -A coral reef is a place where many corals grow. The reef makes good places for many other animals, such as fish, crabs, clams, and sponges. - -Each coral animal secretes calcium carbonate around itself. This makes the solid structure of the colony. When the animal dies, new polyps live on top of the older structure. The rock they make is also called coral. - -They are called coral skeletons. Each different kind of coral colony builds a different kind of skeleton, so that colonies can be shaped like a brain, a mushroom, a cabbage, or many other things. With all these corals gathered together building skeletons around themselves, large coral formations are made. Together, all the coral formations in one place make up a coral reef. - -Coral can also be used as jewellery. - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites -Coral Reefs and Hard Grounds information from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute - Coral Reefs of the Tropics : facts, photos and movies from The Nature Conservancy - Australian Coral Records Research Group - -Cnidarians" -18474,69333,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/End%20of%20days,End of days,"End of Days usually can mean: -End times in eschatology and religion. - -""End of Days"" has also been the title of a number of movies and television episodes: -End of Days (1999 movie), starring Arnold Schwarzenegger and directed by Peter Hyams -""End of Days"" (Buffy episode), a season 7 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer -""End of Days"" (Torchwood), a series 1 episode of Torchwood" -18867,70887,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soconusco,Soconusco,"Soconusco is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It is in the most southern part of the state. It borders the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast, the regions Costa, Sierra and Fraylesca of Chiapas on the east and north, and the shore of the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. It is a region of rich lowlands and foothills. The economic center of Soconusco is Tapachula. - -The name comes from the Nahuatl word xoconostle, meaning the fruit of the prickly pear cactus. It was, under the Mexican culture, the farthest region of trade. The area provided jaguar pelts, cacao, and quetzal feathers for the ruling classes in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. - -The Soconusco region is the main coffee-producing region in Chiapas. It has many plantations farther inland in the foothills of the Sierra Madre del Sur. - -Chiapas" -6966,21976,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic%20proof,Alcoholic proof,"Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of 50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol). In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV. - -Where it comes from -This system was introduced in the 18th century. The British claim that this term has a nautical background. Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum. This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down. The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol proved itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and still light up the wet powder. If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the grog was considered below proof. It might have happened earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians. The very same process led to the nickname firewater, this time given by Native Americans. There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans. -A ""proven"" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°). People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol. This value is still used as the British definition. A simpler ratio to remember is seven to four: 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume. - -A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit. This test has gone through many formal changes. - -Laws - -EU -The European Union member nations have broadly adopted the recommendation of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) which measures percentage of alcohol by volume at 20 °C. - -British proof spirits -In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the Customs and Excise Act of 1952 defined ""spirits of proof strength"" (or proof spirits): - -""Spirits shall be deemed to be at proof if the volume of the ethyl alcohol contained therein made up to the volume of the spirits with distilled water has a weight equal to that of twelve-thirteenths of a volume of distilled water equal to the volume of the spirits, the volume of each liquid being computed as at fifty-one degrees Fahrenheit."" - -Previously, Clarke's hydrometer had been used since the 1740s when Customs and Excise and London brewers and distillers began to use Clarke's hydrometer. - -United States -In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C). Therefore, ""80 proof"" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water). If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is 75 proof. - -US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV). The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume. - -Alcohol during production -Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation. The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off. The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol. In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof). Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast. Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%. - -Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions. The main three are yeast, Brettanomyces, and Acetobacter. In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to ""eat"", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves. There are ""fortified"" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them. - -Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from. The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or ""boil off"") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on. The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water. Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or ""absolute alcohol""), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes. 100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere. - -References - -Other websites -History of the Sikes Hydrometer - -Alcoholic drink" -22094,83900,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallwil,Hallwil,"Hallwil is a municipality of the district of Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -4776,15093,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear%20Factory,Fear Factory,"Fear Factory is an American death/industrial metal group. They were formed in Los Angeles, California in 1989 and disbanded in early 2002. They have reformed in the following year adding Byron Stroud (of Strapping Young Lad) as their current bass player. Their classic line-up was Burton C. Bell (vocals), Dino Cazares (guitars), Christian Olde Woblers (bass) and Raymond Herrera (drums) between 1994 and break up time. - -1980s American music groups -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American heavy metal bands -Thrash metal bands -Death metal bands -Musical groups from Los Angeles" -2803,8744,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%2031,December 31," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 192 - Narcissus murders Roman Emperor Commodus. - 406 - Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning the invasion of Gaul. - 1225 – The Ly Dynasty in Vietnam ends after 216 years, as Tran Thai Tong, still a boy, becomes Emperor. This is the beginning of the Tran Dynasty. - 1472 – The throwing of snowballs is banned in Amsterdam. - 1494 - First Italian War: Troops of King Charles VIII of France enter Rome. - 1600 – The British East India Company is created. - 1660 - James II of England is named Duke of Normandy by Louis XIV of France. - 1687 - The first Huguenots set sail from France for the Cape of Good Hope. - 1695 - Window tax is introduced in England. As a result, many people brick up their windows in order not to have to pay the tax. - 1703 – An earthquake and tsunami damage Tokyo, Odawara and several nearby towns, killing around 10,000 people. - 1720 – A storm flood ravages the North German coast, separating a dune on Heligoland from the main island. - 1775 – American Revolutionary War: In the Battle of Quebec, British forces repulse an attack by Continental Army General Richard Montgomery. - 1790 - Efimeris, the oldest Greek newspaper still in print, is published for the first time. - 1796 - Baltimore, Maryland, is incorporated as a city. - 1857 – Queen Victoria chooses Ottawa as the capital of Canada. - 1862 – Abraham Lincoln signs the Act creating the state of West Virginia and thus splitting Virginia in two. - 1862 - American Civil War: The Battle of Stones River in Tennessee begins. - 1862 - The battleship USS Monitor sinks in a storm in heavy seas off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. - 1878 - In Mannheim, Germany, Karl Benz files a patent on his reliable two-stroke gas engine. - 1879 – Thomas Edison publicly demonstrates incandescent light in Menlo Park, New Jersey. - 1891 – A new immigration depot is opened on Ellis Island, New York. - -1901 2000 - 1904 – What is now Times Square, New York, holds its first New Year celebration. - 1909 – The Manhattan Bridge is opened. - 1917 - British troop transporter Osmanieh hits a mine laid by German U-boat UC 34 off Alexandria, Egypt, sinking with 99 deaths. - 1923 – The BBC broadcasts the chimes of Big Ben in London for the first time. - 1929 - The Glen Cinema Disaster in Paisley, Scotland, kills 70 children. - 1944 – World War II: Hungary declares war on Germany. - 1946 – President of the United States Harry S. Truman officially declares an end to hostilities in World War II. - 1948 - The 100,000th landing of the Berlin Airlift occurs. - 1951 - The Marshall Plan expires after giving over $ 13.3 billion to help war-torn parts of Europe. - 1955 - General Motors becomes the first US Corporation to make over a billion US Dollars in a year. - 1960 - The farthing coin stops being the legal tender in the United Kingdom. - 1963 – The Central African Federation officially breaks apart, and eventually becomes Zambia, Malawi and Rhodesia. - 1964 – A three-day census in East Germany ends, determining the population to be 17,003,632. - 1965 – Jean-Bedel Bokassa leads a coup against David Dacko in the Central African Republic. - 1968 – Marien Ngouabi becomes President of the Republic of the Congo. - 1973 - AC/DC is formed. - 1981 – In a military coup in Ghana, Jerry Rawlings takes control. - 1983 – A military coup in Nigeria is led by Muhammadu Buhari. - 1986 – In San Juan, Puerto Rico a fire at the Dupont Plaza Hotel kills 97 people. - 1987 – Robert Mugabe becomes President of Zimbabwe. - 1988 - Pittsburgh Penguins' Mario Lemieux becomes the only NHL player, to this date, to score goals in five different ways - even strength, shorthand, power play, penalty shot and empty net, in an 8-6 win over the New Jersey Devils. - 1989 – Arved Fuchs and Reinhold Messner reach the South Pole on their cross-Antarctica journey. - 1990 – Garry Kasparov successfully defends his world chess title against Anatoly Karpov. - 1991 – The Soviet Union officially comes to an end. - 1992 – Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolves, splitting into the Czech Republic and Slovakia the next day. - 1994 – This date is skipped altogether in Kiribati, as the International Date Line is shifted to the east of the Line Islands and Phoenix Islands. - 1999 – Boris Yeltsin resigns as President of Russia. - 1999 – The Panama Canal is transferred from US control to Panama's control. - -From 2001 - 2004 – The Taipei 101 tower is opened in Taipei, Taiwan. - 2006 - The total of US troops killed in the Iraq War reaches 3,000. - 2009 – In Espoo, Finland, Ibrahim Shkupolli shoots his former girlfriend dead, then shoots four people to death at a shopping mall before committing suicide. - 2009 – The Ignalina power station in Lithuania is shut down. - 2014 - The first same-sex marriages in Scotland take place. - 2014 - US and UK forces withdraw from Afghanistan. - 2014 - Beji Caid Essebsi becomes President of Tunisia. - 2014 - A crush at a New Year celebration in Shanghai kills 36 people. - 2015 - Fire breaks out at a hotel near the Burj Khalifa in Dubai. - 2016 - Bomb attacks in Baghdad kill at least 28 people. - 2017 - A bus crash near Migaa, Kenya, kills at least 36 people. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 695 – Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi, founded Islam in South Asia (d. 715) - 1378 – Pope Callixtus III (d. 1458) - 1491 – Jacques Cartier, French explorer (d. 1557) - 1499 - Diane de Poitiers (d. 1566) - 1514 - Andreas Vesalius, Flemish anatomist (d. 1564) - 1572 – Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan (d. 1617) - 1585 - Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, Spanish military leader and politician (d. 1645) - 1668 - Herman Boerhaave, Dutch humanist and physician (d. 1738) - 1720 – Charles Edward Stuart, pretender to the British throne (d. 1788) - 1738 – Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, British general (d. 1805) - 1741 – Isabella Maria of Parma (d. 1763) - 1798 - Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Estonian physician, philologist and academic (d. 1850) - 1815 - George G. Meade, American general and engineer (d. 1872) - 1830 – Isma'il Pasha, Governor of Egypt (d. 1895) - 1830 - Alexander Smith, Scottish poet (d. 1861) - 1838 - Emile Loubet, President of France (d. 1929) - 1842 – Giovanni Boldini, Italian painter (d. 1931) - 1844 - Ebe W. Tunnell, Governor of Delaware (d. 1917) - 1846 - Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, Dutch politician (d. 1919) - 1855 – Giovanni Pascoli, Italian poet (d. 1912) - 1857 - King Kelly, American baseball player (d. 1894) - 1860 - Berthold Lasker, German chess player (d. 1928) - 1863 – Alfredo Panzini, Italian writer (d. 1939) - 1864 - Hans am Ende, German painter (d. 1918) - 1864 - Robert Grant Aitken, American astronomer (d. 1951) - 1869 – Henri Matisse, French painter (d. 1954) - 1874 - Julius Meier, German-American politician, 20th Governor of Oregon (d. 1937) - 1877 – Viktor Dyk, Czech poet, dramatist and politician (d. 1931) - 1878 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian businesswoman (d. 1966) - 1878 – Horacio Quiroga, Argentine-Uruguayan writer (d. 1937) - 1880 – George Marshall, 50th United States Secretary of State (d. 1959) - 1880 - Fred Beebe, American baseball player (d. 1957) - 1881 – Max Pechstein, German painter (d. 1955) - 1884 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball player (d. 1964) - 1885 - Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1970) - 1899 – Silvestre Revueltas, Mexican composer (d. 1940) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - Karl-August Fagerholm, Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1984) - 1903 - Nathan Milstein, Ukrainian-born violinist (d. 1992) - 1904 - Umm Kulthum, Egyptian singer (d. 1975) - 1905 - Jules Styne, American songwriter (d. 1994) - 1905 - Guido Mollet, Prime Minister of France (d. 1975) - 1908 – Simon Wiesenthal, Austrian Holocaust survivor (d. 2005) - 1909 - Jonah Jones, American jazz trumpeter (d. 2000) - 1910 - Archie M. Gubbrud, Governor of South Dakota (d. 1987) - 1914 - Yrjö Nikkanen, Finnish javelin thrower (d. 1985) - 1918 - Ray Graves, American football player and coach (d. 2015) - 1919 - Recy Taylor, American rape victim and civil rights activist (d. 2017) - 1924 - Kjell Arnljot Wig, Norwegian media personality (d. 2015) - 1924 – Taylor Mead, American actor (d. 2013) - 1928 - Hugh McElhenny, American football player - 1928 – Amarillo Slim, American professional poker player (d. 2012) - 1928 - Veijo Meri, Finnish writer (d. 2015) - 1928 - Siné, French cartoonist (d. 2016) - 1929 - Mies Bouwman, Dutch entertainer (d. 2018) - 1930 - Odetta, American singer (d. 2008) - 1931 - George Ardisson, Italian actor (d. 2014) - 1931 - Tom Rolf, Swedish-American film editor (d. 2014) - 1931 – Mildred Scheel, German physician, cancer campaigner and First Lady (d. 1985) - 1934 - Michael Bonallack, English golfer - 1935 – Peter Herbolzheimer, German musician (d. 2010) - 1935 - King Salman of Saudi Arabia - 1936 – Siw Malmkvist, Swedish singer - 1936 - Umaru Dikko, Nigerian politician (d. 2014) - 1937 – Avram Hershko, Israeli biologist - 1937 – Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor - 1937 - Carl Emil Christiansen, Danish footballer (d. 2018) - 1938 – Rosalind Cash, American actress (d. 1995) - 1938 - Marien Ngouabi, Congolese politician (d. 1977) - 1939 - Peter Camejo, American politician (d. 2008) - 1940 - Tim Considine, American actor - 1941 – Alex Ferguson, Scottish football manager - 1941 - Sean S. Cunningham, American movie director and writer - 1941 - Sarah Miles, English actress - 1942 - Taufiq Kiemas, First Gentleman of Indonesia (d. 2013) - 1942 – Andy Summers, British guitarist - 1943 – Ben Kingsley, British actor - 1943 – John Denver, American singer-songwriter (d. 1997) - 1943 - Pete Quaife, British musician (d. 2010) - 1944 - Neil Ross, American voice actor - 1944 – Taylor Hackford, American director and producer - 1945 - Diane von Fürstenberg, Belgian-American fashion designer - 1946 - Lyudmila Pakhamova, Soviet ice dancer (d. 1986) - 1946 - Boris Dubin, Russian sociologist and translator (d. 2014) - 1947 - Burton Cummings, Canadian keyboardist - 1947 - Tim Matheson, American actor - 1948 – Donna Summer, American disco singer (d. 2012) - 1948 - Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer (d. 2014) - 1948 - Joe Dallesandro, American actor - 1948 - Viktor Mikhailovich Afanasyev, Soviet-Russian cosmonaut - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Tom Hamilton, American bassist (Aerosmith) - 1954 – Alex Salmond, Scottish politician, 4th First Minister of Scotland - 1954 – Hermann Tilke, German racing circuit designer - 1954 – Ingibjorg Solrun Gisladottir, Icelandic politician - 1956 - Robert Goodwill, English politician - 1958 – Bebe Neuwirth, American actress - 1959 – Baron Waqa, Nauruan musician and politician, President of Nauru - 1959 – Val Kilmer, American actor - 1959 – Paul Westerberg, American musician - 1960 – Steve Bruce, English footballer - 1960 – John Allen Muhammad, American spree killer (d. 2009) - 1961 - Rick Aguilera, American baseball player - 1961 - Jeremy Heywood, English economist and civil servant - 1963 - Scott Ian, American guitarist - 1964 - Michael McDonald, American actor and comedian - 1965 – Gong Li, Chinese actress - 1965 – Nicholas Sparks, American writer - 1966 - Lisa Joyner, American journalist and actress - 1970 – Bryon Russell, American basketball player - 1972 – Grégory Coupet, French footballer - 1974 – Mario Aerts, Belgian cyclist - -From 1976 - 1976 - Matthew Hoggard, English cricketer - 1977 - Psy, South Korean rapper - 1977 - Donald Trump Jr., son of Donald Trump - 1979 – Bob Bryar, drummer in My Chemical Romance - 1980 – Richie McCaw, New Zealand rugby player - 1980 – Fumie Suguri, Japanese figure skater - 1981 – Margaret Simpson, Ghanaian athlete - 1981 - Nathan Robinson, Canadian ice hockey player - 1982 – Craig Gordon, Scottish footballer - 1984 – Corey Crawford, Canadian ice hockey goaltender - 1984 - Calvin Zola, Congolese footballer - 1986 - Bronson Pelletier, Canadian actor - 1987 - Javaris Crittenton, American basketball player - 1987 - Emilie Le Pennec, French gymnast - 1990 – Patrick Chan, Canadian figure skater - 1991 - Camila Giorgi, Italian tennis player - 1995 - Gabrielle Douglas, American gymnast - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 192 – Commodus, Roman Emperor (b. 161) - 335 – Saint Silvester, Pope and Saint whose day is marked on December 31 - 669 - Li Shiji, Chinese chancellor (b. 594) - 1164 – Margrave Ottokar III of Styria (b. 1124) - 1194 – Leopold V of Austria (killed at a tournament) (b. 1157) - 1302 - Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1238) - 1384 – John Wyclif, English theologian (b. 1328) - 1460 - Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury (b. 1400) - 1510 – Bianca Maria Sforza, wife of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1472) - 1568 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyo (b. 1493) - 1650 – Dorgon, Emperor of China (b. 1612) - 1679 - Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist (b. 1608) - 1705 - Catherine of Braganza (b. 1638) - 1719 - John Flamsteed, English astronomer (b. 1646) - 1742 - Karl III Philip, Elector Palatine (b. 1661) - 1830 - Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis, French writer (b. 1746) - 1857 - Edward Williams Clay, American artist (b. 1799) - 1865 - Fredrika Bremer, Swedish writer (b. 1801) - 1872 – Aleksis Kivi, Finnish writer (b. 1834) - 1876 - Catherine Labouré, French nun and saint (b. 1806) - 1877 – Gustave Courbet, French painter (b. 1819) - 1882 - Léon Gambetta, French politician (b. 1838) - 1888 – Samson Raphael Hirsch, rabbi (b. 1808) - 1894 - Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch mathematician (b. 1856) - -1901 2000 - 1905 - Alexander Popov, Russian physicist (b. 1859) - 1936 – Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish writer, philosopher (b. 1864) - 1948 – Malcolm Campbell, English Grand Prix race car driver (b. 1885) - 1950 – Karl Renner, President of Austria (b. 1870) - 1964 – Olafur Thors, five-time Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1892) - 1964 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball player (b. 1884) - 1969 – George Lewis, jazz musician (b. 1900) - 1972 – Roberto Clemente, Baseball Hall of Famer (b. 1934) - 1972 - Henry Gerber, German-American activist (b. 1892) - 1977 – Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (b. 1924) - 1980 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian writer (b. 1911) - 1980 – Raoul Walsh, movie director (b. 1887) - 1985 – Ricky Nelson, American singer (b. 1940) - 1989 - Gerhard Schröder, German politician (b. 1910) - 1990 – Vasili Lazarev, Soviet cosmonaut (b. 1928) - 1993 – Zviad Gamsakhurdia, scientist and writer, first President of the Republic of Georgia (b. 1939) - 1993 – Brandon Teena, American murder victim (b. 1972) - 1994 – Bruno Pezzey, Austrian footballer (b. 1955) - 1997 – Floyd Cramer, musician (b. 1933) - 1997 – Michael Kennedy, son of Robert F. Kennedy, killed in a skiing accident on Aspen Mountain in Colorado (b. 1958). - 1999 – Elliot Richardson, American politician (b. 1920) - 2000 – Alan Cranston, American politician (b. 1914) - 2000 – José Greco, Spanish Flamenco dancer (b. 1918) - -From 2001 - 2003 – Arthur R. von Hippel, German-born American scientist and professor at MIT (b. 1898) - 2004 – Gérard Debreu, French economist (b. 1921) - 2006 – Liese Prokop, Austrian politician (b. 1941) - 2007 – Ettore Sottsass, Italian architect (b. 1917) - 2008 – Donald E. Westlake, American writer (b. 1933) - 2009 - Rashidi Kawawa, former Prime Minister of Tanzania (b. 1926) - 2009 - Cahal Daly, Irish cardinal and archbishop (b. 1917) - 2010 – Syd Ward, New Zealand cricketer (b. 1907) - 2013 - John Fortune, English comedian (b. 1939) - 2013 - Johnny Orr, American basketball player and coach (b. 1927) - 2013 - James Avery, American actor (b. 1945) - 2014 - Arthur Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington, English aristocrat and army officer (b. 1915) - 2014 - Edward Herrmann, American actor (b. 1943) - 2015 - Marvin Panch, American racing driver (b. 1926) - 2015 - Dal Richards, Canadian big band leader (b. 1918) - 2015 - Wayne Rogers, American actor (b. 1933) - 2015 - Natalie Cole, American singer (b. 1950) - 2015 - Beth Howland, American actress (b. 1941) - 2016 - William Christopher, American actor (b. 1932) - 2016 - Prince Dimitri Romanov, Russian prince (b. 1926) - 2016 - Henning Christophersen, Danish politician (b. 1939) - 2017 - Prince François, Count of Clermont, French nobleman, self-styled Dauphin of France (b. 1961) - 2021 - Betty White, American actress and comedian (b. 1922) - -Holidays - New Year's Eve, including Hogmanay (Scotland) and Calennig (Wales) - St. Sylvester's Day - Ōmisoka (Japan) - -Days of the year" -18102,68069,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squash,Squash,"Squash may refer to: - Squash (plant), the fruit - Squash (sport), an indoor racket sport - Squash tennis, a similar game but played with equipment related more to that of tennis - Squash (2002 movie), an Academy Award-nominated short movie about a squash game - Squash (drink), a drink made of concentrated fruit syrup or fructose - Squash (professional wrestling), an extremely one-sided match in professional wrestling - SquashFS, a read-only file system" -4217,13215,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius,Confucius,"Confucius (born 551 BC, died 479 BC) was an important Chinese educator and philosopher. His original name was Kong Qiu or Zhong Ni. -As a child, he was eager to learn about everything, and was very interested in rituals. Once he grew up, he worked as a state official who handled farms and cattle. Then he became a teacher. - -Confucius lived in a time when many states were fighting wars in China. -This period was called the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou Dynasty. -Confucius did not like this and wanted to bring order back to society. - -Teaching -Like Socrates, Confucius sometimes did not answer philosophical questions himself. -Instead he wanted people to think hard about problems and to learn from others, especially from history. -Confucius also thought that people should get power because they were good and skilled, and not just because they came from powerful families. - -Confucius wanted people to think about other people more than about money or what they owned. -However he also felt that there should be strong rules in society and that people needed to obey them. -Confucius thought that there were five relationships people could have, and that they all had their own rules. -Two people could be - Prince and Subject - Father and Son - Husband and Wife - Elder and Child - or Friends -These were traditional relationships called the 'five prototypes'. -Confucius said that in all these relationships, both people must obey rules. -For example, a subject must obey a prince, but also a prince must listen to a subject and must rule him well and fairly. - -Confucius said that people should only do things to other people if they would be okay with other people doing those things to themselves. -This is sometimes called the Golden Rule and was also taught by Jesus Christ. - -His students wrote down small stories about him, and things that he said. -These were put together to make a book called The Analects, which became one of the main books of Confucianism. - -551 BC births -479 BC deaths -Eastern philosophers -Confucianism -Chinese philosophers" -5170,16541,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick,Sick,"To be sick can mean: - Having a disease, illness, or disorder - -Sick may also refer to: - Sick comedy, an expression used to attack the social criticism of the new late 1950s comedians - Sick (magazine), a humour magazine - Sick (Sow album), an album by Sow - Sick (Massacra album), an album by Massacra - ""Sick"" (Young Ones episode), the 11th episode of the British comedy The Young Ones - ""Sick, Sick, Sick"", a song by Queens of the Stone Age - SICK: The Life & Death of Bob Flanagan, Supermasochist, a 1997 documentary about Bob Flanagan - Sick AG, a German sensor technology corporation which built the laser range-finders used on the robot Stanley - Gary Sick, a writer - -Related pages - Sic, a Latin word used in writing - Sicko, a 2007 documentary film by Michael Moore - Sickness (disambiguation)" -1489,5153,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788,1788," - -Events - January 26 – The First Fleet arrives at Sydney Cove, bringing the first European settlers to Australia. This is now celebrated as Australia's national day. - October 25 – The HMVA Bounty reaches Tahiti. - December 14 – Accession of Charles IV, King of Spain. - Georgia becomes a state. - -Births - January 22 – Lord Byron, English poet - February 5 – Robert Peel, British Prime Minister - -Deaths - January 31 – Bonny Prince Charlie, Pretender to the English Throne - August 2 – Thomas Gainsborough, painter - December 14 – Charles III, King of Spain" -8656,29299,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes,Diogenes,"Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name. It can refer to different people: - -Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 BC), better known as Diogenes the Cynic or simply Diogenes -Diogenes Apolloniates (about 460 BC), philosopher -Diogenes the Stoic (Diogenes of Seleucia on the Tigris) (c. 150 BC) -Diogenes Laertius (between 200-500 AD), historian -Diogenes of Oenoanda (2nd Century AD), Epicurean -Diogenes of Judea (about 100-76 BC), general and advisor for Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus -Diogenes of Babylon, Greek philosopher -Diogenes (duke of Syrmia), duke of Syrmia (11th century)" -20214,77620,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaine%20Tailleferre,Germaine Tailleferre,"Germaine Tailleferre (born Saint Maur Des Fossés, France, 19 April 1892; died Paris, 7 November 1983) was a French composer. She was one of the members of the famous group Les Six. - -Early years -She was called Marcelle Taillefesse when she was born. When she was grown up she changed her last name to ""Tailleferre"" just to annoy her father because he had refused to let her study music. She studied piano with her mother at home, composing short works of her own and then began studying at the Paris Conservatoire. There she met Louis Durey, Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Auric and Arthur Honegger. She won several prizes at the Conservatoire. She often met with her friends who became known as Les Six. - -Works -In 1923 Tailleferre began to spend a great deal of time with Maurice Ravel at his home in Monfort-L'Amaury. Ravel encouraged her to enter the Prix de Rome Competition. In 1925, she married Ralph Barton, an American caricaturist, and moved to Manhattan, New York. She stayed in the United States until 1927 when she and her husband returned to France. They divorced shortly afterwards. - -Tailleferre wrote many of her most important works during the 1920s, including her 1st Piano Concerto, The Harp Concertino, the Ballets ""Le Marchand d'Oiseaux"" (the most often performed ballet in the repertoire of the Ballets Suédoises during the 1920s) and ""La Nouvelle Cythère"" which Diaghilev had asked her to write for his ballet company. - -In the 1930s she composed the Concerto for Two Pianos, Choeurs, Saxophones and Orchestra, the Violin Concerto, the Operas ""Zoulaïna"" and ""Le Marin de Bolivar"", and her masterwork, ""La Cantate de Narcisse"", which she wrote with Paul Valéry. Her work in film music included ""Le Petit Chose"". - -When World War II started she had to escape across Spain to Portugal and from there to America. - -After the war, in 1946, she returned to her home in France where she composed a lot more music, much of which was not published until after her death. She was accompanist at a children's music and movement class. She wrote shorter pieces towards the end of her life because her arthritis made writing difficult. - -Tailleferre carried on composing until a few weeks before her death in November 1983. - -Other websites - Suite Burlesque for piano duet (1981) in Youtube - -1892 births -1983 deaths -20th-century French composers -Women composers" -6049,19460,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide,Nucleotide,"A nucleotide is an organic molecule. Nucleotides are the building blocks of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA. These two types of nucleic acid are essential biomolecules in all forms of life on Earth. - -A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or 2-deoxyribose), and one phosphate group. Nucleotides contain either a purine or a pyrimidine base. Ribonucleotides are nucleotides in which the sugar is ribose. Deoxyribonucleotides are nucleotides in which the sugar is deoxyribose. - -In DNA, the purine bases are adenine and guanine, and the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine. Adenine always pairs with thymine by 2 hydrogen bonds, while guanine pairs with cytosine through 3 hydrogen bonds, each due to their unique structures. - -Nucleotides also play a central role in metabolism at a fundamental, cellular level. They provide chemical energy for the many cellular functions that need it. Examples are: amino acid, protein and cell membrane synthesis, moving the cell and cell parts (both internally and intercellularly), cell division, and so on. In addition, nucleotides work in cell signaling, and they are in important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (e.g. coenzyme A, FAD, FMN, NAD, and NADP+). - -In experimental biochemistry, nucleotides can be labeled using radionuclides to make radionucleotides. - -References - -Biochemistry -Organic compounds" -4215,13211,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masturbation,Masturbation,"Masturbation is when a person touches their own sex organs to have pleasure. It often results in an orgasm. - -Masturbating may be done alone, but can also be done with another person. This is called ""mutual masturbation"". Vibrators and dildos can be used to make masturbation easier or feel better, but it is often done with just a person's hand. Studies have shown that many people masturbate regularly. - -Animals can masturbate too. - -Female masturbation -The female sex organ most sensitive to touch is the clitoris. Therefore, female masturbation almost always involves stimulating the clitoris, either by hand or with a vibrator. Many women also enjoy the feeling of fingers or a sex toy in the vagina, but this is a secondary sensation that is not necessary for orgasm, and that rarely results in orgasm on its own. Some women find stimulation of the front vaginal wall particularly pleasurable. The anus is rich in nerve endings and is also sometimes stimulated during masturbation, as are the nipples. - -Masturbation is usually continued until orgasm. Some women may have problems reaching an orgasm, especially when they are young, and have little experience masturbating. - -Some women experience ""multiple orgasms"" - several orgasms in a row without loss of arousal. It should be noted, however, that women who are not capable of multiple orgasms report as much orgasmic satisfaction as women who are multi-orgasmic. - -Male masturbation - -Masturbation for males is the act of stimulating the penis manually to provide self-pleasure. For older teens and adults, masturbation usually ends in what is called an ejaculation (the release of liquid called semen which contains sperm cells). This ejaculation is usually accompanied by a powerful, pleasurable feeling called an orgasm. Most boys start masturbating between the age of 12 and 15. - -There are many ways in which a male can choose to masturbate. The most common of these techniques is using the hand. A man simply wraps his hand or two or three fingers around the shaft of his penis (in erection) and moves his hand up and down. Sometimes a lubricant is used to create a softer sensation. As the sensation increases in intensity, the rate of hand movement generally quickens until orgasm occurs. Orgasm is a very pleasurable feeling which results in semen being ejaculated from the penis. -Men may also rub and touch other sensitive areas of the body such as the scrotum (the place where the testicles are located). Due to the placement of the prostate gland, another method (though much more of a social taboo) involves inserting an object, like one's hand or a sex toy, into the anus to rub against the prostate. This causes a sensation of pleasure through the male's body, and has been stated to cause orgasms more pleasurable than those caused by simply rubbing the shaft. - -Masturbation frequency, age and sex - -If and how often people masturbate depends on many things. One of the things it depends on is hormone levels. Hormones cause sexual arousal. Other things that the frequency of masturbation depend on sexual habits. Sexual habits are sexual activities that people do because they are used to doing them. Other people of the same age or standing - called peers - can also influence this frequency. General health is another of the many factors. The general attitude towards masturbation is formed by culture. Medical causes have also been associated with masturbation. - -""Forty-eight female college students were asked to complete a sexual attitudes questionnaire in which a frequency of masturbation scale was embedded. Twenty-four of the women (the experimental group) then individually viewed an explicit modeling film involving female masturbation. One month later, all subjects again completed the same questionnaire. Subjects in the experimental group also completed a questionnaire evaluating aspects of the film. Results indicated that the experimental group reported a significant increase in the average monthly frequency of masturbation, as compared to the control group. This same group, however, reported that the film had no effect on sexual attitudes or behavior."" - -A 2004 survey by Toronto magazine NOW was answered by an unspecified number of thousands. The results show that an overwhelming majority of the males — 81% — began masturbating between the ages of 12 and 15. Among females, the same figure was a more modest majority of 55%. (Note that surveys on sexual practices are prone to self-selection bias.) It is not uncommon, however, to begin much earlier, and this is more frequent among females: 18% had begun by the time they turned 12, and 6% already by the time they turned 10. Being the main outlet of child sexuality, masturbation has been observed in very young children. In the book Human Sexuality: Diversity in Contemporary America, by Strong, Devault and Sayad, the authors point out, ""A baby boy may laugh in his crib while playing with his erect penis (although he does not ejaculate). Baby girls sometimes move their bodies rhythmically, almost violently, appearing to experience orgasm."" - -A 2004 magazine survey in Canada found that 43% started masturbating when they were about 12–13 years old. When boys start masturbating, wet dreams often stop since semen is taken out from his body regularly. -According to a Canadian survey of Now magazine readers, (cited above), the frequency of masturbation declines after the age of 17. However, most males masturbate daily, or even more frequently, well into their 20s and sometimes far beyond. This decline is more drastic among females, and more gradual among males. While females aged 13–17 masturbated almost once a day on average (and almost as often as their male peers), adult women only masturbated 8–9 times a month, compared to the 18–22 among men. It is also apparent that masturbation frequency declines with age. Adolescent youths report being able to masturbate to ejaculation six or more times per day, though some men in older middle age report being hard pressed to ejaculate even once per day. The survey does not give a full demographic breakdown of respondents, however, and the sexual history of respondents to this poll, who are readers of an urban Toronto lifestyle magazine, may not extend to the general population. - -It appears that females are less likely to masturbate while in a heterosexual relationship than men. Both sexes occasionally engage in this activity, however, even when in sexually active relationships. Popular belief asserts that individuals of either sex who are not in sexually active relationships tend to masturbate more frequently than those who are; however, much of the time this is not true as masturbation alone or with a partner is often a feature of a relationship. Contrary to conventional wisdom, several studies actually reveal a positive correlation between the frequency of masturbation and the frequency of intercourse as well as the number of sex partners. One study reported a significantly higher rate of masturbation in gay men and women who were in a relationship. - -Cultural views and practices -The Catholic church says masturbation is a 'gravely disordered action'. Among men masturbation may be seen as a sign of weakness. There are slang terms for it that are used as insults. - -The Sambia tribe of New Guinea has rites of passage surrounding manhood. They include frequent ejaculation by fellatio. Semen is valued. Masturbation is seen as a waste of semen. Because of this, it is frowned upon but frequent ejaculation is encouraged. The capacity and need to ejaculate is nurtured for years. This is done from an early age through fellatio. This allows the semen to be consumed rather than wasted. Semen is ingested for strength. It is considered in the same line as mothers' milk. - -Other cultures have rites of passage into manhood that end in the first ejaculation of a male. This is often by the hands of a tribal elder. In some tribes such as the Agta in the Philippines, stimulation of the genitals is encouraged from an early age. At puberty, the young male is then paired off with a ""wise elder"" or ""witch doctor"". This person uses masturbation to build his ability to ejaculate in preparation for a ceremony. The ceremony ends in a public ejaculation before a celebration. The ejaculate is saved in a wad of animal skin and worn later to help conceive children. In this and other tribes, the measure of manhood is actually associated more with the amount of ejaculate than penis size. Frequent ejaculation through masturbation from an early age fosters frequent ejaculation well into adulthood. - -Masturbation marathons have occurred in the U.S. and UK. These events provide a supportive environment where masturbation can be performed openly. - -Function -Masturbation may increase fertility during sexual intercourse. In females, it can regulate the conditions of the vagina, cervix and the uterus. This can either increase or decrease the chance of conception. Whether the chance is increased or decreased depends on the timing of the masturbation. This timing is a subconscious decision. If she has intercourse with more than one male, it favors the chances of one or the other male's sperm reaching her egg. - -Female masturbation can also protect against cervical infections. It does this by increasing the acidity of the cervical mucus and by moving debris out of the cervix. - -The function of masturbation in males is to flush out old sperm with low motility from the male's genital tract. The next ejaculate contains more fresh sperm, which has higher chances of achieving conception during intercourse. If more than one male is having intercourse with a female, the sperm with the highest motility will compete more effectively. - -Health and psychological effects - -Benefits -The physical effect of masturbation and having an orgasm or ejaculating is heightened arousal while epinephrine courses through the body, producing dopamine also known as the happy chemical, shallow breath and post-climactic euphoria. - -It is held in many mental health circles that masturbation can relieve depression, stress and lead to a higher sense of self-worth. Masturbation can also be particularly useful in relationships where one partner wants more sex than the other — in which case masturbation provides a balancing effect and thus a more harmonious relationship. - -Mutual masturbation, the act by which two or more partners stimulate themselves in the presence of each other, allows a couple to reveal the map to their pleasure centers. Witnessing a partner masturbate is an educational activity to find out the method a partner uses to please them self, allowing each partner to learn exactly how the other enjoys being touched. - -In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles of The Cancer Council Australia concluded that frequent masturbation by males appears to help prevent the development of prostate cancer. - -A study published in 1997 found an inverse association between death from coronary heart disease and frequency of orgasm even given the risk that myocardial ischaemia and myocardial infarction can be triggered by sexual activity. Excerpt: ""The association between frequency or orgasm and all cause mortality was also examined using the midpoint of each response category recoded as number of orgasms per year. The age adjusted odds ratio for an increase of 100 orgasms per year was 0.64 (0.44 to 0.95)"". That is, a difference between any two subjects appeared when one subject ejaculated at around two or more times per week than the other. Assuming a broad range average of between 3-5 ejaculations per week for a healthy males, this would mean 5-7 ejaculations per week. This is consistent with an article on the benefits against prostate cancer However, the article notes that ""The question of causation is complex... several explanations are possible"". - -Masturbation is also seen as a sexual technique that protects individuals from the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Support for such a view, and for making it part of the American sex education curriculum, led to the dismissal of US Surgeon General Joycelyn Elders during the Clinton administration. A 2011 study from the Indiana University supports the assertion. After taking age and partner status into account, the study showed that sexually active boys who masturbated regularly were eight times more likely to have used a condom during their last intercourse than other boys. This positive outcome has been observed in other studies and has been the basis of public health policy in Great Britain promoting masturbation. - -Some people actually consider masturbation as a cardiovascular workout. Masturbation makes most people feel good and can sometimes replace sexual intercourse when one cannot find a partner. It can also prepare one for sexual intercourse. - -Blood pressure -A small study has shown that a test group which only had intercourse experienced, as a whole, lower blood pressure in stressful situations than those who had intercourse but also had masturbated for one or more days. - -Insertion -Objects inserted into the vagina or anus should be clean and should not be able to scratch or break. Care should be taken not to fully insert anything into the anus — any object used should have a flared or flanged base; otherwise, medical help may be needed to get it out. Modern dildos and anal plugs are designed with this feature. - -Pregnancy -Masturbation involving both a man and a woman (see mutual masturbation) can result in pregnancy only if semen contacts the vulva. Masturbation with a partner can also theoretically result in transmission of sexually transmitted diseases by contact with bodily fluids. - -Problems for males -A man whose penis has suffered a blunt trauma or injury during intercourse may rarely sustain a penile fracture or suffer from Peyronie's disease. Phimosis is ""a contracted foreskin (that) may cause trouble by hurting when an attempt is made to pull the foreskin back"". In these cases, any energetic manipulation of the penis can be problematic. - -Lawrence I. Sank observed that masturbating prone (lying face downward) could be responsible for sexual problems in some men, including anorgasmia and erectile dysfunction, as observed in four men he examined. He coined the term traumatic masturbatory syndrome to describe this theory. As of 2007, no follow-up research has been conducted and the idea is not familiar or widely-held within the medical community. Some sources, however, give credence to the idea. One sex therapist condemned masturbation by rubbing against a pillow or mattress and Lipsith et al. suggest that masturbation could play a part in male psychogenic sexual dysfunction (MPSD), citing Sank as their authority. MPSD is a difficulty in reaching orgasm during intercourse, and developing a dependence on masturbation. - -Compulsive masturbation -Masturbating frequently presents no physical, mental or emotional risk in itself, but masturbation can be used to relieve boredom or stress. In either case, as with any ""nervous habit"", it is more helpful to consider the causes of the boredom or of the stress, rather than try to repress the behavior itself, in this case masturbation. - -There is some discussion between professionals and other interested parties as to the existence or validity of sexual addictions. Nevertheless, there are lists of warning signs such as when sexual activity affects a person's ability to function in everyday life, or is placing them at risk, for example, of pursuing illegal or destructive activities. Very frequent and compulsive masturbation may be seen as a sign of sexual addiction. - -Philosophical views -Immanuel Kant considered masturbation a violation of one's duty to one's self and an unnatural act, stating it was against natural law. Sigmund Freud regarded masturbation as unhealthy. Margaret Sanger frequently stated that masturbation was unwise. - -Masturbation in non-human animals -Not only humans masturbate, animals do too. The following animals have been seen masturbating: dogs, several kinds of monkeys and apes, cows,> horses, whales, bats, and sheep. Even birds and reptiles masturbate (turtles, for example). In this case, this does not only affect animals that were domesticated, and live in captivity, but also includes wild animals, of both sexes. - -Bears have been documented to masturbate, while they watch other bears mating. - -Techniques used vary: Manual stimulation using hands, paws, feet, or tail is common, but autofellatio also occurs: Animals , rub their penis against the belly, or against other objects. Some species have been known to make tools that help them masturbate. Some species have shown to ejaculate spontaneously, without being stimulated first. Certain species are known to also stimulate other erogenous zones, such as the nipples, or the antlers in deer. Female mammals often masturbate by stimulating the clitoris, which is present in all mammal species. - -References - -Other websites - The Basics | JackinWorld - -Human sexuality" -4229,13258,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof,Roof,"A roof is the top surface of the building. The plural of 'roof' is 'roofs'. The roof keeps out rain and snow and protects people from the sun. Some roofs are sloped, or pitched, so the rain and snow fall off easily. Some roofs are flat, but even flat roofs have a little bit of pitch so the water can flow away towards a drain. - -Types -Gable, hip, gambrel, shed and mansard roofs are the main types of pitched roofs. The type of roof on a building helps identify the building style. For example, an American Arts and Crafts style versus a Cape Cod style. Roofs are often covered in asphalt or wood shingles. But they can also be covered in metal, slate, or clay tiles. It can be dangerous to walk on a pitched roof. Some pitched roofs have parts that stick out for windows. These are called dormers. The edges of pitched roofs are called 'eaves'. Often there are gutters and leaders at the eaves, which take away water from the roof. - -Flat roofs are usually covered in rubber or types of plastic. You can usually walk on a flat roof. At the edge of a flat roof there is sometimes a parapet. This is to prevents people from falling off the roof. - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites - Gable Roof Erection Procedure: YouTube - Roof Truss Basics - Structural Engineering And Home Building Tips; YouTube - -Basic English 850 words -Construction" -5260,17105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel%20de%20Cervantes,Miguel de Cervantes,"Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (29 September 1547 – 23 April 1616) was a Spanish writer. His most famous book was Don Quijote de la Mancha. It is considered the first modern novel, and therefore Cervantes was the first novelist. The book has been published in 65 countries. The work is considered among the most important in all of literature. He is sometimes called ""The Prince of Satire"". - -Military history and captivity - -Nobody knows for sure the reasons that forced Cervantes to leave Castile. Whether he was a ""student"" of the same name, a ""sword-wielding fugitive from justice"", or fleeing from a royal warrant of arrest, for having wounded a certain Antonio de Sigura in a duel, is another mystery.'The Enigma of Cervantine Genealogy, 118 - -In any event, in going to Italy, Cervantes was doing what many young Spaniards of the time did to further their careers. Rome would reveal to the young artist its ecclesiastic pomp, ritual, and majesty. In a city teeming with ruins Cervantes could focus his attention on Renaissance art, architecture, and poetry (knowledge of Italian literature is readily discernible in his own productions) and on rediscovering antiquity. He could find in the ancients ""a powerful impetus to revive the contemporary world in light of its accomplishments"". Thus, Cervantes' continuing desire for Italy, as revealed in his later works, was in part a desire for a return to an earlier period of the Renaissance. - -By 1570, Cervantes had enlisted as a soldier in a regiment of the Spanish naval elite corps, Infantería de Marina, stationed in Naples, then a possession of the Spanish crown. He was there for about a year before he saw active service. In September 1571 Cervantes sailed on board the Marquesa, part of the galley fleet of the Holy League, Spain, the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Knights Hospitaller based in Malta, and others, under the command of King Philip II's illegitimate half brother, John of Austria, that defeated the Ottoman fleet on October 7 in the Gulf of Lepanto near Corinth, at great cost to both sides. Though taken down with fever, Cervantes refused to stay below, and begged to be allowed to take part in the battle, saying that he would rather die for his God and his king than keep under cover. He fought bravely on board a vessel, and received three gunshot wounds – two in the chest, and one which rendered his left arm useless. In Journey to Parnassus he was to say that he ""had lost the movement of the left hand for the glory of the right"" (he was thinking of the success of the first part of Don Quixote''). Cervantes always looked back on his conduct in the battle with pride; he believed that he had taken part in an event that would shape the course of European history. - -References - -1547 births -1616 deaths -Deaths from diabetes -Deaths from cirrhosis -Spanish writers" -15274,57903,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldpolenz%20Solar%20Park,Waldpolenz Solar Park,"Waldpolenz Solar Park, is a photovoltaic (PV) power plant, to the east of Leipzig in Germany. The power plant is a 40-megawatt solar power system using new technology. It is in the Muldentalkreis district in the state of Saxony in eastern Germany. The investment cost for the Waldpolenz solar park amounts to some Euro 130 million. - -Related pages - Photovoltaics - Pocking Solar Park in Germany - Renewable energy commercialization - Solar cell - Solar power station in Victoria - Wind power in Germany - -References - -Other websites - World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany - -Buildings and structures in Saxony -Power stations in Germany -Solar power plants" -798,3471,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denarius,Denarius,"The denarius was a small silver coin used by the Roman Empire and Roman Republic. The denarius weighed about 3 to 4.5 grams. It was the main coin of Ancient Rome. It became the most common coin produced for circulation but was slowly debased in weight and silver content. The coin was then sometimes made of copper and painted silver in color. During the Empire the front side usually had a picture of the emperor on it. - -The denarius was introduced in 211 BC, and was last made in 275 AD. By then it was made of bronze. - -Former currencies -Former currencies of Europe -Ancient Rome -3rd-century BC establishments -3rd-century disestablishments" -14884,56068,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feller%20Bach,Feller Bach,"The Feller Bach is a right tributary of the Moselle River in Rhineland-Palatinate (Germany). Its source is in the Hunsrück mountains. It flows through the villages Lorscheid (Verbandsgemeinde Ruwer), Fell and Riol (Verbandsgemeinde Schweich). It joins the Moselle in Riol. - -At the left there is the Thommer Bach in the Nossernvalley with the Fell Exhibition Slate Mine (Besucherbergwerk Fell). - -Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate -Rivers of Germany" -16697,63830,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance%20of%20Madeleine%20McCann,Disappearance of Madeleine McCann,"Madeleine McCann (born 12 May 2003) was reported missing on the evening of Thursday, 3 May 2007 from a holiday apartment in Praia da Luz in the Algarve, Portugal. One newspaper said it was ""the most heavily reported missing-person case in modern history"". It is still not known where she is or what happened to her. - -Madeleine was on holiday with her parents, her two-year-old twin brother and sister, and family friends. She and the twins had been left asleep at 20:30 in a ground floor apartment, while the McCanns and friends had dinner in a restaurant away. The parents checked on the children every so often, until it was discovered Madeleine was missing at 22:00. Over the next few weeks, the Portuguese police started to believe that Madeleine had died in an accident in the apartment and the parents had covered it up. - -There was a lot of news coverage around the world about the case. Rumours that Madeleine has been taken to countries such as Morocco and Malta have all turned out to be untrue. - -Madeleine's parents have started a website in their daughter's name where people can keep up to date on events and write to the family. They have also started Madeleine's Fund to which people can give money. - -Robert Murat was the first official suspect. On 8 September 2007, Madeleine's mother, Kate McCann, and her father, Gerry McCann, were declared official suspects as well, after the finding of blood and fluids in their apartment. Murat stopped being an official suspect in July 2008, Kate and Gerry in August 2008. - -The case remains unsolved. However, in June 2020 a possible suspect who is yet to be named is being held in custody for question by German authorities. The person being held is known to have committed other sexual asaults on children. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -2007 crimes -2007 in Europe -2000s crimes in Europe -2000s in Portugal -May events -Missing people" -17275,65419,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Darin,Bobby Darin,"Walden Robert Cassotto (May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973), better known as Bobby Darin, was an American pop singer, most famous during the 1950s. His hits included ""Mack the Knife"", ""Dream Lover"", ""If I Were a Carpenter"", ""Splish Splash"", and ""Beyond the Sea"". He also helped Wayne Newton begin his musical career. - -Career -Allen Klein, an accountant who became an artist manager, first came to public attention when he audited Darin's royalty payments, and discovered Darin had been underpaid. His record company paid up, and Darin split the money with Klein. - -Darin was married to actress Sandra Dee from 1960 to 1967. They had a son, named Dodd. Darin died late in 1973 after heart surgery. - -In 2004, a movie, Beyond the Sea, was made about Darin's life and career. Actor Kevin Spacey, a longtime Darin fan, produced and starred in the movie, with Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee. - -Other websites -Hear Bobby Darin on the Pop Chronicles - -Singers from New York City -Deaths from surgical complications -1936 births -1973 deaths -People from the Bronx" -7046,22265,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muteness,Muteness,"Muteness means not being able to speak. A person that cannot speak is called a mute. A mute keeps the ability to hear the speech of others. If not, the person would be a deaf mute. - -Muteness is a type of speech disorder. A person who chooses not to speak is said to be silent rather than mute. Slang for this (British English) is ""keeping mum"". - -Originally, the common word dumb or dumbness used to mean ""unable to speak"". Unfortunately this was taken over to mean ""unwilling to speak"". So people prefer ""muteness"". ""Dumb"" is a much commoner word, and might be used if it would not be misunderstood. - -Cause (eteliology) -In general, someone who is mute may be mute for one of several different reasons: genetics, psychological, or trauma. - -For children, a lack of speech may be developmental, neurological, psychological, or due to a physical disability or a communication disorder. - -Adults who previously had speech and then became unable to speak: this may be due to disease, injury, damage or surgery affecting areas of the brain needed for speech. Loss of speech in adults may occur, but rarely, for psychological reasons. Damage (however caused) to the parts of the brain needed for speech is called aphasia. - -Action -Treatment or management of muteness depends on what has caused the absence of speech. When there is an absence of speech, a speech assessment is strongly recommended to determine cause and treatment. Treatment of absence of speech is possible in a variety of cases. If the absence of speech is determined to be a permanent condition, a range of assistive and augmentative communication devices are available to aid communication. - -Speech-generating devices help people with speech deficiencies. - -References - -See also -Aphasia -Aphonia -Autism -Deafness -Dysarthria - -Health -Disability" -14918,56187,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greystones,Greystones,"Greystones () is a coastal town in County Wicklow, Ireland. It is on Ireland’s east coast, south of Bray and south of Dublin (it is within the Greater Dublin Area), with 15,000 people living in the region. - -Other websites - Greystones Community Notice Board - Greystones Online Magazine - -Towns in Ireland -County Wicklow" -2664,8451,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spork,Spork,"A spork is a combination of a spoon and a fork to create a special tool used to eat. Most sporks are made from plastic. Many fast food chains use the spork, including Taco Bell, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Taco John's, and Taco Bueno. Many people dislike the spork because it cannot poke food as well as a fork nor hold liquids as well as a spoon. - -Other websites - - The Straight Dope on: why is it so hard to get a good spork? - The spork’s weird history, Bee Wilson, Salon - -Food utensils" -22133,84018,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts%20of%20Switzerland,Districts of Switzerland,"In Switzerland each Canton is free to decide its own internal organisation. Because of this there many types and names for smaller administrative divisions in each canton. The term District is used for these smaller divisions. - -Amt, Amtsbezirk, District and Distretto -Most Cantons are divided into Bezirke (German for districts). Some are called Ämter (Lucerne), Amtsbezirke (Bern), district (in French) or distretto (Tessin and part of Graubünden). - -The Bezirke generally only deals with administration and court organization. The cantons Graubünden and Schwyz are their own legal entities. They have the power to control taxes as well. - -No district level in ten cantons -Ten of the 26 Cantons do not have a district level of government: - -Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Glarus, Zug, Basel-City and Geneva. Schaffhausen stopped using Bezirke in the middle of 1999. Since the start of 2003 Canton of St. Gallen does not use the Bezirk level any more. - -List of Swiss districts by canton - -Canton of Zürich - -The Canton of Zürich is divided into 12 districts (German: Bezirke). The city of Zürich is its own district. - -Canton of Bern -There are 26 administrative districts in Berne - -Canton of Lucerne - -The Canton of Lucerne is divided into 5 districts termed Ämter: - -Canton of Uri -Canton of Uri is not divided into districts: the municipality is the next lowest unit of government. - -Canton of Schwyz -The Canton of Schwyz is divided into six districts and 30 municipalities, although the districts Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and Gersau simply comprise the municipality of the same name. - -Canton of Obwalden -Obwalden is not divided into districts: the municipality is the next lowest unit of government. See: Obwalden. - -Canton of Nidwalden -Nidwalden is not divided into districts. - -Canton of Glarus -Canton of Glarus is not divided into districts: the municipality is the next lower unit of government. - -Canton of Zug -Canton of Zug is not divided into districts. - -Canton of Fribourg - -The Canton of Fribourg is divided into 7 districts: - -Canton of Solothurn - -From 2005, Solothurn's ten districts are combined in pairs into five electoral districts, called Amtei. From 2005, districts are only used for statistics. - -Canton of Basel-City -Basel-City is not divided into districts. It is formed only of the city of Basel and two municipalities. - -Canton of Basel-Country - -There are 5 Bezirke in Basel-Landschaft: - -Canton of Schaffhausen -The Canton of Schaffhausen used to be divided into 6 districts (Bezirke) until July 1999. The municipality is now the next lower unit of government. - -Canton of Appenzell Ausserrhoden -Canton Appenzell Ausserrhoden is not divided into districts. The municipality is the next lower unit of government. - -Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden - -The 6 Bezirke (districts) are the local government level. They are part of the municipalities: - -Feuerschaugemeinde is a special-purpose municipality for firefighting, energy and water for the town Appenzell. - -Canton of St. Gallen -The canton used to be subdivided into 14 districts (Bezirke) until 2003 January 1, -when it was reorganised into 8 constituencies (Wahlkreise). - -Canton of Graubünden - -Canton Graubünden is divided into 11 Districts. They tend to follow the natural boundaries of the landscape. The districts are further subdivided into 39 sub-districts (German: Kreise): - -Canton of Aargau - -Aargau is divided into 11 districts. - -Canton of Thurgau - -The Canton of Thurgau is divided into eight districts. Each district is named after its capital. - -Canton of Ticino - -The Canton of Ticino is divided into 8 districts (called distretti): - Distretto di Mendrisio - Distretto di Lugano - Distretto di Locarno - Distretto di Vallemaggia - Distretto di Bellinzona - Distretto di Riviera - Distretto di Blenio - Distretto di Leventina - -Canton of Vaud - -Since 1803 the Canton of Vaud has been divided into 19 districts: - -As of January 1, 2008, Vaud will be reorganized into the following districts: - -Aigle -Broye-Vully (which will combine the districts of Avenches and Payerne, and part of the districts of Moudon and Oron) -Gros-de-Vaud (which will combine the district of Echallens, and part of the districts of Cossonay, Moudon, and Oron) -Jura-North Vaudois (which will combine the districts of Grandson, Orbe, and Yverdon) -Lausanne (part of the current district will be merged into West Lausannois) -Lavaux-Oron (which will combine the district of Lavaux and part of the district of Oron) - Morges (which will combine parts of the districts of Aubonne, Cossonay, Morges, and Rolle) - Nyon (part of Rolle district will merge into Nyon) -Riviera-Pays-d'Enhaut (which will combine the current districts of Pays-d'Enhaut and Vevey) -West Lausannois (which will be carved out of parts of the districts of Lausanne and Morges) - -Canton of Valais - -The Canton of Valais is divided into 14 districts and half-districts: - - Brig - Conthey - Entremont - Goms - Hérens - Leuk - Martigny - Monthey - Raron - Saint-Maurice - Sierre - Sion - Visp -See also: Valais Municipalities - -Canton of Neuchâtel - -The Canton of Neuchâtel is divided into 6 districts which belong to 4 geographic regions: - -Canton of Geneva -The Canton of Geneva is not divided into districts. The municipality is the next level of government. - -Canton of Jura - -Canton Jura is divided into 3 districts:" -20234,77698,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyala%20Province,Diyala Province,"Diyala () is a province in east of Iraq. Its area is . The capital is Baqubah. 1,271,000 people live in the province." -21792,83027,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinta%20%28ship%29,Pinta (ship),"The Pinta is one of the ships Christopher Columbus sailed to the new world. The others were the Niña and the Santa Maria. - -History of Spain" -13350,48972,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment%20%28physics%29,Moment (physics),"In physics, moment of force (often just moment) is a measure of a force's tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis. - -In this concept the moment arm, the distance from the axis of rotation, plays an important role. The lever, pulley, gear, and most other simple machines create mechanical advantage by changing the moment arm. The SI unit for moment is the newton meter (kgm²/s²). - -Formula for moment: - - - -The Principle of Moment states that when a system is in equilibrium the sum of its CLOCKWISE MOMENTS equals the sum of its ANTICLOCKWISE MOMENTS. - -Some examples where moments (turning effect) are applied involve levers, like seesaws, opening and closing doors, nutcrackers, can openers, and crowbars. - -A lever is a simple machine in which one force called the effort is used to overcome another force called the load. - -In physics, a moment is a combination of a physical quantity and a distance. - -History of moment - -The principle of moments is derived from Archimedes' discovery of the operating principle of the lever. In the lever one applies a force, in his day most often human muscle, to an arm, a beam of some sort. Archimedes noted that the amount of force applied to the object, the moment of force, is defined as M = rF, where F is the applied force, and r is the distance from the applied force to object. - -Physical quantity" -15181,57353,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigga,Nigga,"Nigga is a term derived from the racial slur ""nigger"". It is generally used by African-Americans (especially young adults), because other ethnic groups using it is considered offensive. The use for this word is for a good friend, it can also be defined as a substitute for ""nigger"" in a less serious tone. - -Note that this version of the word does not use a ""hard R."" - -Pejoratives -Slang -English profanity" -12745,46908,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithril,Mithril,"Mithril is a fictional metal from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe. - -Mithril is the strongest metal known in Middle-earth. It looks similar to silver. It does not weigh much, and it is easy to make into things. Mithril is very rare and precious. It was only found in Khazad-dûm (Moria), where it was mined by the Dwarves, and (perhaps) in Númenor. - -The name ""mithril"" comes from the Sindarin words mith, meaning ""grey"", and ril meaning ""glitter"". In Quenya, its name is mistarille. Mithril was also called ""true-silver"" or ""Moria-silver"". - -The most well known object made of mithril is probably the mail shirt of Bilbo and Frodo Baggins. - -Influence on other fiction -Mithril is now often used in other fictional works, usually as a strong and magical metal. It other fictional works, mithril it is also sometimes written differently, for example as mythril or mithral. - -Middle-earth" -17933,67559,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient,Ancient,"Ancient means very old. The word can also be used in these ways: -Ancient history — the period of written history starting more or less 5,000–5,500 years ago. -Ancient (band) — the progressive black metal musical group. -Ancient (company) — the Japanese software developer. -Ancient — used to refer to an ensign in medieval times, appearing in texts such as Shakespeare's Othello." -14361,53918,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotswolds,Cotswolds,"The Cotswolds is a range of hills in central England, sometimes called the ""Heart of England"", a hilly area reaching over 300 m. The area has been designated as Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The highest point in the Cotswolds is Cleeve Hill at 330 m (1083 ft). - -The Cotswolds lie within the current ceremonial counties of Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire. The county of Gloucestershire forms the largest area of the Cotswolds. - -Description - -The spine of the Cotswolds runs southwest to northeast through six counties, particularly Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and southern Warwickshire. The northern and western edges of the Cotswolds are marked by steep slopes down to the Severn valley and the River Avon, Avon. These are a result of the broken edge of the limestone layer. On the eastern boundary is the city of Oxford and on the west is Stroud. To the south towns as Cirencester, Lechlade, Tetbury, Beverston and Fairford mark the southern limit of this region. - -In the Middle Ages, the wool trade made the Cotswolds prosperous. Some of this money was put into the building of churches. The area has a number of large, handsome Cotswold stone ""wool churches"". The area is still wealthy and has attracted people who own second homes in the area, or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds. - -Typical Cotswold towns are Bourton-on-the-Water, Broadway, Burford, Chipping Norton, Cirencester, Moreton-in-Marsh, Stow-on-the-Wold and Winchcombe. The town of Chipping Campden is famous as the home of the Arts and Crafts movement, that was founded by William Morris at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. - -The Cotswold Way is a long-distance footpath about 103 miles long (166 km) running the length of the AONB, mainly on the edge of the Cotswold escarpement with good views over the Severn Valley and the Vale of Evesham. - -Cotswld stone -The area has attractive small towns and villages built of Cotswold stone (a yellow limestone). This limestone is rich in fossils. The stone is a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone. At the time, this was laid down in a warm tropical sea, about 177 million years ago. The latitude of Britain was about where North Africa is today. The stone is full of fossils such as stalked crinoids. A project is under way to collect examples for the Natural History Museum. - -Historical structures -Sudeley Castle - -References - -Other websites -Cotswold District Council — The website of Cotswold District Council -Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Website (Countryside Agency) -Cotswold Journal Local Cotswolds news and information -Yate and Chipping Sodbury Guide — A Guide to Yate, Chipping Sodbury on the Southern Edge of the Cotswold Escarpment - Photos of Lower Slaughter in 3d (Anaglyphs) -Cotswold AONB Magic interactive map (slow on first load) - -Warwickshire -Geography of England" -7642,24932,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism,Jainism,"Jainism is a religion originally from India that teaches that ""all the events in the universe are self-caused, random, fixed and are independent of previous events or external causes or god"": Jain philosophy is the oldest philosophy of India that distinguishes body (matter) from the soul (consciousness) completely. It teaches that the universe is eternal and that every living being has a soul which has the power to become all-knowing (observer of all the random events). A soul which has won over its inner enemies like attachment, greed, pride, etc. is called jina which means conqueror or victor (over ignorance). The holy book of Jainism is Pravachansara. - -Jainism point - Every living being has a soul. - Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karmas). - The universe is self-regulated, with all the events self-caused, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own efforts. - There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver or destroyer. - Therefore, Jainists think of every living being as themselves, harming no one and being kind to all living beings. - Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karmas. - Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter. - When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. - Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct (triple gems of Jainism) provide the way to this realization. - Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows with respect to liberated souls still in human form (Arihantas), fully liberated souls (Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks. By saluting them, Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect towards beings who are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal, nirvana or moksha. - Jainism stresses on the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far away from true nature of the soul. - Limit possessions and lead a pure life that is useful to yourself and others. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however attachment to an object is. Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions. - Enjoy the company of the holy and better qualified, be merciful to those afflicted souls and tolerate the perversely inclined. - It is important not to waste human life in evil ways. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution. - The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech and action. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism. - Jains mainly worship idols of Jinas, Arihants and Tirthankars, who have conquered the inner passions and attained divine consciousness. Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls (Yaksha and Yakshini) that look after the well beings of Thirthankarars. Usually, they are found in pair around the idols of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, they are also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. - -Citations - -References of Jainism - - -Jainism" -3258,9947,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%204,September 4," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 476 – Romulus Augustus, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself King of Italy. - 626 - Li Shimin, known after his death as Emperor Taizong of Tang, assumes the throne over the Tang Dynasty in China. - 1260 – The forces of King Manfred of Sicily, in league with the Ghibellines, defeat the Guelphs at Monte Aperto. - 1618 - A rock fall in the Val Bregaglia in the north of present-day Italy kills 2,430 people. - 1666 - The most destructive damage of the Great Fire of London occurs. - 1774 - Members of James Cook's expedition become the first Europeans to sight New Caledonia (presently part of France) in the Pacific Ocean, and name it after Scotland, for which Caledonia is another name. - 1781 – Los Angeles is founded as El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora La Reina de Los Angeles de Porciuncula (the City of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of Porciuncula) by a group of 44 Spanish settlers. - 1800 - The French garrison of Valletta surrenders to British troops who had been called at the invitation of the Maltese. The islands of Malta and Gozo become the Malta protectorate. - 1812 - War of 1812: The Siege of Fort Harrison begins when the fort is set on fire. - 1857 - Ernst Rietschl's Goethe-Schiller Monument in Weimar is unveiled. - 1862 - American Civil War: Maryland campaign - General Robert E. Lee takes the army of Northern Virginia, and the war, into the North. - 1870 – Emperor Napoleon III of France is deposed and the Third Republic is declared. - 1882 - Thomas Edison flips the switch on the first-ever commercial electrical power plant, which lights up a square mile of Lower Manhattan. - 1886 – Indian Wars: After almost 30 years of fighting, Apache leader Geronimo surrenders with his last band of warriors to General Nelson Miles at Skeleton Canyon in Arizona. - 1888 – George Eastman registers the trademark Kodak, and receives a patent for his camera which uses roll film. - 1890 - The now-Greek city of Thessaloniki is heavily damaged by fire, making 20,000 people homeless. - 1894 – In New York City, 12,000 tailors strike against sweatshop working conditions. - -1901 2000 - 1912 - Albanian rebels are successful in their revolt when the Ottoman Empire agrees to fulfill their demands. - 1923 – In Lakehurst, New Jersey, the first American airship, the USS Shenandoah, takes to the sky for the first time. - 1940 – World War II: The USS Greer becomes the first United States ship fired upon by a German submarine in the war, even though the United States is a neutral power. Tension heightens between the two nations as a result. - 1941 - World War II: A German submarine carries out the first attack on a United States ship, the USS Greer. - 1944 - World War II: Finland ends its state of war with the Soviet Union. - 1944 – World War II: The British 11th Armored Division liberate the city of Antwerp in Belgium. - 1945 – World War II: Japanese forces surrender on Wake Island after hearing word of their nation's surrender. - 1948 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands abdicates for health reasons. - 1950 – Beetle Bailey comic strip started. - 1951 – The first live transcontinental television broadcast takes place in San Francisco, California from the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference. - 1957 – Civil Rights Movement: Little Rock Crisis – Orval Faubus, governor of Arkansas, calls out the National Guard to prevent black students from enrolling in Central High School in Little Rock. - 1957 – Ford Motor Company introduces the Edsel. - 1962 - The 4th Asian Games in Jakarta end. - 1963 – Swissair Flight 306 crashes near Dürrenäsch, Switzerland killing all on board. - 1964 – Forth Road Bridge, near Edinburgh, is officially opened. - 1967 – The last new episode of the television sitcom Gilligan's Island airs on CBS-TV. - 1967 – Vietnam War: Operation Swift begins – The United States Marines launch a search-and-destroy mission in Quang Nam and Quang Tin Provinces. The ensuing 4-day battle in Que Son Valley kills 114 Americans and 376 North Vietnamese. - 1970 - Salvador Allende is elected President of Chile. - 1970 - The 6th Asian Games in Bangkok end. - 1971 – A Boeing 727 carrying Alaska Airlines Flight 1866 crashes into the side of a mountain near Juneau, Alaska killing all 111 people on board. - 1971 – The Lawrence Welk Show airs its last show. - 1972 – Mark Spitz wins his seventh swimming gold medal at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, becoming the first Olympian to win seven gold medals. - 1972 – The Price Is Right, hosted by Bob Barker, returns to television with a new format on CBS. Over three decades later, it continues to air and give away prizes galore. - 1984 - Brian Mulroney is elected Prime Minister of Canada. - 1985 - Discovery of Buckminsterfullerene, the first fullerene molecule of carbon. - 1989 - In Leipzig, then-East Germany, the first of the so-called Monday Demonstrations takes place, calling for opposition groups to be allowed. - 1995 – The Fourth World Conference on Women opens in Beijing with over 4,750 delegates from 181 countries in attendance. - 1996 – War on Drugs: Colombian Revolutionary Armed Forces (FARC) attack a military base in Guaviare, Colombia starting three weeks of guerrilla warfare that will claim the lives of at least 130 Colombians. - 1997 – In Lorain, Ohio, the last Ford Thunderbird rolls off the assembly line. - 1997 – A U.S. Air Force C-141 cargo plane and a German TU-154 collide in mid-air over southwest Africa killing 33. - 1998 - Google is founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University. - -From 2001 - 2006 – Australian naturalist and TV presenter Steve Irwin (Crocodile Hunter) is killed by a stingray off the Queensland coast. - 2007 - Three terrorists are arrested in Germany on suspicion of being part of Al-Qaeda and allegedly planning attacks on Frankfurt International Airport and US military installations. - 2009 – An airstrike in Kunduz, Afghanistan kills 142 people. - 2010 – 2010 Canterbury earthquake: A magnitude 7.1 earthquake strikes New Zealand's South Island, causing widespread damage and power outages, particularly in Christchurch. No deaths are reported. - 2014 - NATO leaders meet in South Wales to discuss conflicts in Ukraine and Iraq. - 2016 - Canonization of Mother Teresa by Pope Francis. - 2017 - The Queensferry Crossing, linking Fife and Lothian in Scotland, is officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II, exactly 53 years to the day after the opening of the nearby Forth Road Bridge. - 2018 - Japan is hit by one of its strongest-ever typhoons. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1241 – King Alexander III of Scotland (died 1286) - 1383 - Antipope Felix V (died 1451) - 1454 - Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English politician (died 1483) - 1557 – Sofie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Queen of Denmark and Norway (died 1631) - 1563 – Wanli, Emperor of China (died 1620) - 1596 - Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (died 1687) - 1681 - Carl Heinrich Biber, Austrian violinist and composer (died 1749) - 1755 - Axel von Fersen the Younger, Swedish general and politician (died 1810) - 1756 - Christen Pram, Norwegian-Danish writer (died 1821) - 1768 – François-René de Chateaubriand, French writer and diplomat (died 1848) - 1798 - Raynold Kaufgetz, Swiss soldier, economist and politician (died 1869) - 1803 – Sarah Childress Polk, First Lady of the United States (died 1891) - 1805 - William E. Dodge, American businessman and politician (died 1883) - 1809 – Juliusz Slowacki, Polish poet (died 1849) - 1809 - Federico Luigi Menabrea, Italian scientist, general and politician (died 1896) - 1809 - Manuel Montt, 6th President of Chile (died 1880) - 1824 – Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer (died 1896) - 1825 - Dadabhai Naoroji, Indian academic and politician (died 1917) - 1826 - Martin Wiberg, Swedish philosopher and inventor (died 1905) - 1832 – Antonio Agliardi, Italian diplomat (died 1915) - 1838 - William Gibson Sloan, Scottish missionary (died 1914) - 1840 - William, Prince of Orange (died 1879) - 1846 - Daniel Burnham, American architect (died 1912) - 1848 - Lewis Howard Latimer, American inventor (died 1928) - 1851 – John Dillon, Irish nationalist (died 1927) - 1852 - Eilif Peterssen, Norwegian painter (died 1928) - 1877 – Karlis Ulmanis, Latvian politician (died 1942) - 1882 - Leonhard Frank, German writer (died 1961) - 1885 - Antonio Bacci, Italian cardinal (died 1971) - 1886 - Albert Orsborn, 6th General of the Salvation Army (died 1967) - 1890 - La Argentina, Argentine-Spanish dancer and choreographer (died 1936) - 1890 - Naime Wifstrand, Swedish actress (died 1968) - 1891 – Fritz Todt, Nazi official (died 1942) - 1892 – Darius Milhaud, French composer (died 1974) - 1896 – Antonin Artaud, French playwright, actor, director (died 1948) - 1896 – Aspasia Manos, Queen consort of Greece (died 1972) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - William Lyons, English businessman (died 1985) - 1901 - Ahmet Kutsi Tecer, Turkish poet and politician (died 1967) - 1904 - Sabin Carr, American athlete (died 1983) - 1905 - Walter Zapp, Latvian-Estonian inventor (died 2003) - 1905 – Mary Renault, English novelist (died 1983) - 1905 - Meade Lux Lewis, American pianist and composer (died 1964) - 1906 – Max Delbrück, German biologist (died 1981) - 1908 – Richard Wright, American writer (died 1960) - 1908 – Edward Dmytryk, movie director (died 1999) - 1913 – Stanford Moore, American chemist (died 1982) - 1913 - Kenzo Tange, Japanese architect (died 2005) - 1913 - Shmuel Wosner, Israeli rabbi (died 2015) - 1915 - Rudolf Schock, German tenor (died 1986) - 1917 - Henry Ford II, American businessman (died 1987) - 1918 - Bill Talbert, American tennis player (died 1999) - 1918 – Paul Harvey, American radio broadcaster (died 2009) - 1918 - Gerald Wilson, American trumpeter and composer (died 2014) - 1919 - Xavier Atencio, American animator, lyricist and engineer (died 2017) - 1919 - Emile Bouchard, Canadian ice hockey player (died 2012) - 1920 – Teddy Johnson, British singer - 1921 – Ariel Ramírez, Argentine composer (died 2010) - 1922 - Per Olof Sundman, Swedish politician (died 1992) - 1924 - Joan Aiken, English author (died 2004) - 1925 – Forrest Carter, writer (died 1979) - 1926 - Bert Olmstead, Canadian ice hockey player (died 2015) - 1927 - John McCarthy, American computer scientist (died 2011) - 1928 – Dick York, American actor (died 1992) - 1929 - Robert V. Keeley, American diplomat (died 2015) - 1931 – Mitzi Gaynor, American actress - 1932 - Dinsdale Landen, English actor (died 2003) - 1934 – Clive Granger, Welsh economist (died 2009) - 1934 - Eduard Khil, Russian singer and actor (died 2012) - 1937 – Dawn Fraser, Australian swimmer - 1939 - Erwin Teufel, German politician - 1941 - Earl Ross, Canadian racing driver (died 2014) - 1941 – Sushilkumar Shinde, Indian politician - 1942 - Raymond Floyd, American golfer - 1942 - Jerry Jarrett, American wrestler and promoter - 1942 - Merald ""Bubba"" Knight, American singer-songwriter and producer - 1943 - Hédi Annabi, Tunisian diplomat (died 2010) - 1944 - Tony Atkinson, British economist (died 2017) - 1944 - Jennifer Salt, American actress, producer and screenwriter - 1946 - Dave Liebman, American saxophonist, flautist and composer - 1948 – Samuel Hui, Hong Kong singer - 1949 - Tom Watson, American golfer - -1951 1975 - 1951 - Martin Chambers, English drummer and singer (The Pretenders) - 1951 - Marita Ulvskog, Swedish politician - 1952 - Stephen Easley, American politician (died 2013) - 1952 - Rishi Kapoor, Indian actor, director and producer - 1953 – Fatih Terim, Turkish football manager - 1955 – Brian Schweitzer, American politician, former Governor of Montana - 1955 - David Broza, Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1957 – Khandi Alexander, American actress - 1957 – Patricia Tallman, American actress - 1958 - George Hurley, American drummer - 1958 - Drew Pinsky, American radio and television host - 1958 - Satoshi Tezuka, Japanese footballer - 1959 – Kevin Harrington, Australian actor - 1959 - Armin Kogler, Austrian ski jumper - 1960 – Damon Wayans, American actor and comedian - 1962 - Shinya Yamanaka, Japanese physician, 2012 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner - 1963 - John Vanbiesbrouck, American ice hockey player, coach and manager - 1963 - Sami Yaffa, Finnish singer-songwriter and bass player - 1964 - Anthony Weiner, American politician - 1964 - Aadesh Shrivastava, Indian composer and singer (died 2015) - 1966 - Yanka Dyagileva, Russian singer-songwriter (died 1991) - 1966 - Jeff Tremaine, American director, producer and screenwriter - 1968 – Mike Piazza, American baseball player - 1968 - John DiMaggio, American voice actor - 1969 - Sasha, Welsh DJ and music producer - 1969 - Ramon Dekkers, Dutch kick-boxer (died 2013) - 1969 - Giorgi Margvelashvili, former President of Georgia - 1970 – Daisy Dee, American singer and actress - 1970 - Igor Cavalera, Brazilian drummer - 1970 - Ione Skye, British actress - 1970 - Richard Speight Jr., American actor, director, screenwriter and producer - 1974 - Carmit Bachar, American singer, dancer and actress (Pussycat Dolls) - 1974 - Nona Gaye, American singer, model and actress - 1975 - Mark Ronson, English music producer - -From 1976 - 1977 – Lucie Silvas, English singer - 1977 - Sun-woo Kim, South Korean baseball player - 1978 - Wes Bentley, American actor - 1979 - Maxim Afinogenov, Russian ice hockey player - 1979 – Kerstin Garefrekes, German footballer - 1980 - Zachary Abel, American actor - 1980 - Max Greenfield, American actor - 1981 – Beyoncé Knowles, American singer - 1982 – Mark Lewis-Francis, English athlete - 1982 - Sarah Solemani, English actress - 1983 - Jennifer Metcalfe, English actress - 1984 - Hamish McIntosh, Australian footballer - 1984 - Camila Bordonaba, Argentine singer and actress - 1985 - Raúl Albiol, Spanish footballer - 1986 – Aaron Hunt, German footballer - 1988 - JJ Hickson, American basketball player - 1990 - Stefanía Fernández, Venezuelan model - 1990 - Jonny Lomax, English rugby player - 1990 - James Bay, English singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1991 - Carter Jenkins, American actor - -Deaths - -Up to 1950 - 422 - Pope Boniface I - 799 – Musa al-Kazim, Shia Imam (born 745) - 1037 - Bermudo III of Leon (born 1010) - 1063 - Tughril, Turkish ruler (born 990) - 1199 - Joan of England, Queen of Sicily (born 1165) - 1588 - Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, English statesman (born 1532) - 1767 - Charles Townshend, English politician (born 1725) - 1784 - César-François Cassini de Thury, French astronomer and cartographer (born 1714) - 1804 – Richard Somers, American naval officer (born 1778) - 1821 – José Miguel Carrera, Chilean politician (born 1785) - 1852 – William MacGillivray, naturalist and ornithologist (born 1796) - 1864 – John Hunt Morgan, American Confederate military leader (born 1825) - 1907 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian composer (born 1843) - 1914 - William Gibson Sloan, Scottish missionary (born 1838) - 1914 - Charles Péguy, French poet and philosopher (born 1873) - 1916 – José Echegaray y Eizaguirre, Spanish writer (born 1832) - 1930 - Vladimir Arsenyev, Russian adventurer and writer (born 1872) - 1940 - George William de Carteret, French-English journalist and author (born 1869) - 1944 - Erich Fellgiebel, German general (born 1886) - 1949 - Liberato Pinto, Prime Minister of Portugal (born 1880) - -1951 2010 - 1963 – Robert Schuman, French politician (born 1886) - 1965 – Albert Schweitzer, German physician (born 1875) - 1974 – Marcel Achard, French playwright (born 1899) - 1974 - Lewi Pethrus, Swedish minister (born 1884) - 1977 - Jean Rostand, French biologist and philosopher (born 1894) - 1977 – E. F. Schumacher, German economist and statistician (born 1911) - 1986 – Hank Greenberg, American baseball player (born 1911) - 1987 – Bill Bowes, English cricketer (born 1908) - 1989 – Georges Simenon, Belgian-French writer (born 1903) - 1989 – Ronald Syme, New Zealand classicist and historian (born 1903) - 1990 - Irene Dunne, American actress and singer (born 1898) - 1991 - Charlie Barnet, American saxophonist, composer and producer (born 1950) - 1991 – Tom Tryon, American actor and novelist (born 1926) - 1991 – Dottie West, American country music singer (born 1932) - 1993 – Hervé Villechaize, actor (born 1943) - 1995 – William Kunstler, lawyer (born 1919) - 1997 - Aldo Rossi, Italian architect (born 1931) - 2003 - Lola Bobesco, Romanian-Belgian violinist (born 1921) - 2003 – Tibor Varga, Hungarian violinist and conductor (born 1921) - 2004 – Alphonso Ford, American basketball player (born 1971) - 2004 – Moe Norman, golfer (born 1929) - 2004 – James O. Page, American founder of modern emergency medical response (born 1936) - 2006 – Steve Irwin, Australian naturalist and TV presenter (born 1962). - 2006 – Giacinto Facchetti, Italian footballer (born 1942). - 2006 – Astrid Varnay, Swedish soprano (born 1918) - -From 2011 - 2011 - Princess Lalla Aicha of Morocco (born 1930) - 2014 - Habib Wali Mohammad, Pakistani singer (born 1921) - 2014 - Martynas Andriukaitis, Lithuanian basketball player (born 1981) - 2014 - Donatas Banionis, Lithuanian actor (born 1924) - 2014 - Gustavo Cerati, Argentine singer and musician (born 1959) - 2014 - Franca Falcucci, Italian politician (born 1926) - 2014 - Wlodzimierz Kotonski, Polish composer (born 1925) - 2014 - Gerrit Kouwenaar, Dutch poet (born 1923) - 2014 - Roy Leonard, American radio personality (born 1931) - 2014 - Hopeton Lewis, Jamaican singer (born 1947) - 2014 - Orunamamu, American-Canadian storyteller (born 1921) - 2014 - Wolfhart Pannenberg, German theologian (born 1928) - 2014 - Joan Rivers, American comedienne, actress and entertainer (born 1933) - 2015 - Geoffrey Bolton, Australian historian (born 1931) - 2015 - Graham Brazier, New Zealand musician and songwriter (born 1952) - 2015 - Wilfred de Souza, Indian politician (born 1927) - 2015 - Chandra Bahadur Dangi, Nepalese shortest-man-ever record holder (born 1939) - 2015 - Rico Rodriguez, Cuban trombonist (born 1934) - 2015 - Sylvie Joly, French actress and comedienne (born 1934) - 2015 - Jean Darling, American actress (born 1922) - 2017 - Sultan Ahmed, Indian politician (born 1953) - 2017 - David Consunji, Filipino engineer and industrialist (born 1921) - 2017 - Mountaga Diallo, Senegalese diplomat (born 1942) - 2017 - Rogéria, Brazilian actress and drag queen (born 1943) - 2017 - Gastone Moschin, Italian actor (born 1929) - 2017 - Les McDonald, British-Canadian runner (born 1933) - 2018 - Sheldon S. Cohen, American politician (born 1927) - 2018 - Bill Daily, American actor (born 1927) - 2018 - Christopher Lawford, American actor, writer and political activist (born 1955) - 2018 - Ab McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player (born 1936) - 2018 - Ralph Wolfe Cowan, American portrait artist (born 1931) - 2018 - Don Gardner, American singer-songwriter and drummer (born 1931) - 2018 - István Bethlen, Hungarian aristocrat and economist (born 1946) - 2019 - Dai Tielang, Singaporean-Chinese animator (born 1930) - 2019 - Patrick Dehornoy, French mathematician (born 1952) - 2019 - Peter Ellis, New Zealand child sex offender (born 1958) - 2019 - Roger Etchegaray, French cardinal (born 1922) - -Observances - Immigrant's Day (Argentina) - -September 04" -14634,55155,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slum,Slum,"A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town. - -Victorian London -Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was: -""Wretched houses with broken windows patched with rags and paper; every room let out to a different family, and in many instances to two or even three – fruit and ‘sweetstuff’ manufacturers in the cellars, barbers and red-herring vendors in the front parlours, cobblers in the back; a bird-fancier in the first floor, three families on the second, starvation in the attics, Irishmen in the passage, a ‘musician’ in the front kitchen, a charwoman and five hungry children in the back one – filth everywhere – a gutter before the houses, and a drain behind – clothes drying, and slops emptying from the windows; ... men and women, in every variety of scanty and dirty apparel, lounging, scolding, drinking, smoking, squabbling, fighting, and swearing"". - -Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839. - -Sources -Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, 2006 -Elizabeth Blum/ Peter Neitzke Favela Metropolis 2004 - -Other websites - - http://skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=131517 -South Africa slum dwellers' movement -Slums of Victorian London -Slums of New Delhi, India -Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4, 2003. -Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities - Struggle in the Global Slums - -Cities -Shanty towns" -3490,10481,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile%20Selassie%20I,Haile Selassie I,"Haile Selassie I ( born Tafari Makonnen July 23, 1892 - August 27, 1975) was the Emperor of Ethiopia from April 2, 1930 to September 12, 1974. He was Regent Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia from 1916 to 1930, when he was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia as one of the Solomonid dynasty. He fought against Italy, shortly before World War II. He was one of the founding fathers of the League of Nations and the United Nations and the 8th person to be recognized the Time Person of the Year. - -Tafari was made into local governor of Sidamo in 1907 and Harar in 1911. In Harar, he had a huge following, but he agreed not to remove Lij Iyasu from power as regent in exchange for Iyasu not removing him as governor of Harer. However, Iyasu became a Muslim and broke his agreement by trying to remove Tafari as governor. Tafari said that he now did have to keep the agreement and so he removed Iyasu as regent. - -Because Iyasu was Muslims, the nobles replaced him with Empress Zauditu on September 27, 1916 and made Tafari regent. From to then on, Tafari controlled Ethiopia. He was made negus (king) in 1928 and was crowned ""Haile Selassie I, King of Kings of Ethiopia, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God"" on November 2, 1930. His coronation was given widespread publicity throughout the world, especially in two TIME Magazine articles. The publicity created interest on the faraway island of Jamaica, where a belief in his divinity (Godliness) soon arose because of his titles, and he was seen as a symbol of black liberation. - -In 1936, he left Ethiopia after an invasion by Benito Mussolini's Italy. The Emperor gave a speech at the League of Nations that asked the world to stop the Italians, but it failed to act. With the help of the British in World War II, he returned to Ethiopia in 1941. In 1963, the Emperor did everything he could to help start the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), with its headquarters in Addis Ababa. In 1966, he visited Jamaica, where he met the Rastafarian community of Jamaica. - -On September 12, 1974, he was overthrown by a Marxist coup. He was said to have died of natural causes in August 1975, but evidence later showed that he had been murdered. However, many Rastafarians claim that he is still alive. - -Foreign relations -Haile Selassie contributed Ethiopian troops to the United Nations operation in the Congo peacekeeping force during the 1960 Congo Crisis to preserve Congolese integrity, according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 143. On 13 December 1960, while Haile Selassie was on a state visit to Brazil, his Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard) forces staged an unsuccessful coup and briefly proclaimed Haile Selassie's eldest son, Asfa Wossen, as emperor. The regular army and police forces crushed the coup attempt since it lacked broad popular support; was denounced by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church; and was unpopular with the army, the air force, and thr police. The effort to depose the Emperor, however, had support among students and the educated classes. The coup attempt has been characterized as a pivotal moment in Ethiopian history, when Ethiopians ""for the first time questioned the power of the king to rule without the people's consent"". Student populations began to empathise with the peasantry and the poor and advocate on their behalf. The coup spurred Haile Selassie to accelerate reform, which was manifested in the form of land grants to military and police officials. - -The Emperor continued to be a staunch ally of the West although he pursued a firm policy of decolonisation in Africa, which was still largely under European colonial rule. The United Nations conducted a lengthy inquiry regarding Eritrea's status, with each of the superpowers vying for a stake in the state's future. The British administrator suggested Eritrea's partition between Sudan and Ethiopia to separate Christians and Muslims. The idea was instantly rejected by Eritrean political parties, as well as the United Nations. - -A UN plebiscite voted 46 to 10 to have Eritrea be federated with Ethiopia, which was later stipulated on 2 December 1950 in resolution 390 (V). Eritrea would have its own parliament and administration and be represented in what had been the Ethiopian PA, which would become the federal parliament. Haile Selassie would have none of the European attempts to draft a separate constitution under which Eritrea would be governed, and he wanted his own 1955 Constitution protecting families to apply to both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 1961, the 30-year Eritrean Struggle for Independence began, followed by Haile Selassie's dissolution of the federation and shutting down of the Eritrean Parliament. - -In September 1961, Haile Selassie attended the Conference of Heads of State of Government of Non-Aligned Countries in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. That is considered to be the founding conference of the Non-Aligned Movement. - -In 1961, tensions between independence-minded Eritreans and Ethiopian forces culminated in the Eritrean War of Independence. The emperor declared Eritrea the fourteenth province of Ethiopia in 1962. The war would continue for 30 years. Haile Selassie and then the Soviet-backed junta that succeeded him attempted to retain Eritrea by force. - -In 1963, Haile Selassie presided over the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the precursor of the today's African Union (AU). The new organization would establish its headquarters in Addis Ababa. In May that year, Haile Selassie was elected as the OAU's first official chairperson, a rotating seat. Along with Modibo Keïta of Mali, the Ethiopian leader would later help successfully negotiate the Bamako Accords, which brought an end to the border conflict between Morocco and Algeria. In 1964, Haile Selassie would initiate the concept of the United States of Africa, a proposition later taken up by Muammar Gaddafi. - -On 4 October 1963, Haile Selassie addressed the General Assembly of the United Nations that referred to his address to his earlier speech to the League of Nations:Twenty-seven years ago, as Emperor of Ethiopia, I mounted the rostrum in Geneva, Switzerland, to address the League of Nations and to appeal for relief from the destruction which had been unleashed against my defenseless nation, by the fascist invader. I spoke then both to and for the conscience of the world. My words went unheeded, but history testifies to the accuracy of the warning that I gave in 1936. Today, I stand before the world organization which has succeeded to the mantle discarded by its discredited predecessor. In this body is enshrined the principle of collective security which I unsuccessfully invoked at Geneva. Here, in this Assembly, reposes the best – perhaps the last – hope for the peaceful survival of mankind.Emperor Haile Selassie standing in front of throne c. 1965 -On 25 November 1963, the Emperor was among other heads of state, including French President Charles de Gaulle, ti traveed to Washington, DC, and attend the funeral of assassinated President John F. Kennedy. - -In 1966, Haile Selassie attempted to replace the historical tax system with a single progressive income tax, which would significantly weaken the nobility, which had previously avoided paying most of their taxes. Even with alterations, the law led to a revolt in Gojjam, which was repressed although enforcement of the tax was abandoned. Having achieved its design in undermining the tax, the revolt encouraged other landowners to defy Haile Selassie. - -A parade in honoir of Emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie I, turns onto Pennsylvania Avenue from New York Avenue; crowds line the street. Washington, D.C 1963 - -While he had fully approved and assured Ethiopia's participation in UN-approved collective security operations, including Korea and Congo, Haile Selassie drew a distinction between it and the non-UN-approved foreign intervention in Indochina, consistently deplored it as needless suffering and called for the Vietnam War to end on several occasions. At the same time, he remained open toward the United States and praised it for making progress with civil rights legislation in the 1950s and the 1960s. He visited the US several times during those years. - -Titles and styles -Main article: List of titles and honours of Haile Selassie - - 23 July 1892 – 1 November 1905: Lij Tafari Makonnen - 1 November 1905 – 11 February 1917: Dejazmach Tafari Makonnen - 11 February 1917 – 7 October 1928: Le'ul-Ras Tafari Makonnen - 7 October 1928 – 2 November 1930: Negus Tafari Makonnen - 2 November 1930 – 12 September 1974: His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, King of Kings, Lord of Lords, Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God and Light of the Universe. - 134th Christian ruler of Ethiopia ? - On 21 January 1965, Haile Selassie I was venerated with the title of ""Defender of the Faith"" by the Patriarchs of the Oriental Orthodox Churches of the World. - -National orders - - Chief Commander of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia (1909) - Grand Collar of the Order of Solomon (1930) - Grand Cordon of the Order of the Seal of Solomon - Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Queen of Sheba - Grand Cordon of the Order of the Holy Trinity (Ethiopia) - Grand Cordon of the Order of Menelik II - Order of Fidelity - -References - -1892 births -1975 deaths -Ethiopian people -Rastafari -Time People of the Year -Emperors and empresses -Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria" -17211,65177,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical%20Storm%20Franklin%20%282005%29,Tropical Storm Franklin (2005),"Tropical Storm Franklin was a strong tropical storm that stayed in the western Atlantic Ocean for much of its life. Franklin was the sixth named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and almost became a hurricane two times. - -Tropical Storm Franklin formed north of the Bahamas on July 21 and moved steadily across the western Atlantic while coming close to Bermuda on July 26. Later, Franklin became an extratropical cyclone near Newfoundland, before being absorbed by another non-tropical system. Franklin caused no damages and killed no people while it stayed in the ocean during most of its life. - -Storm history - -A tropical wave formed west from the African coast late on July 10. The wave entered the Bahamas on July 21 and strengthened into Tropical Depression Six while 70 miles (110 km) east of Eleuthera. Initially the storm was predicted to move in a clockwise loop and slowly move to the west in response to a high pressure system. Several models showed the possibility of the storm to change westward and move into central Florida. Anyhow, soon after the depression formed, it strengthened into Tropical Storm Franklin. - -Tropical Storm Franklin suffered a lot of wind shear related with the development of Tropical Storm Gert, which made the forecasters at the National Hurricane Center to say that Franklin could be destroyed in the next few days. However the shear stopped as Franklin moved to the northeast, allowing the storm to strengthen. The forecasters now said that Franklin could ""attain and maintain hurricane strength"" and make a close approach to Bermuda. -Shortly after on July 23, Tropical Storm Franklin reached its strongest point with 70 mph (110 km/h) winds. - -Franklin moved unevenly to the east while weakening as shear increased again. The NHC predicted that the storm would dissipate, but Frnaklin stopped weakening on July 25 with Franklin a minimal tropical storm. The storm passed to 200 miles (325 km) to the west of Bermuda on July 26 and moved slowly northwards into the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream. The shear also reduced once again allowing Franklin to re-strengthen somewhat, with winds reaching 60 mph (95 km/h) on July 28. Meanwhile, Franklin began to accelerate to the northeast becoming an extratropical cyclone on July 30 to the south of Newfoundland. The extratropical storm passed close to the southern tip of Newfoundland later that day and was absorbed by a larger system on July 31. - -Impact -As Tropical Storm Franklin was forming, a tropical storm warning was issued for the northwest Bahamas, but it was cancelled as Franklin moved north and away from the islands. A tropical storm watch was given out to Bermuda on July 25 but was also cancelled a day later when Franklin moved away. - -Tropical Storm Franklin developed very close to land in the Bahamas and passed close to Bermuda, but there were no reports of tropical storm force winds overland, with the strongest gust recorded on Bermuda being 37 mph (60 km/h). After Franklin became an extratropical storm, it affected parts of southeastern Newfoundland, bringing about 1 inch (25 mm) of rain to the area. There were no damages or fatalities reported from Tropical Storm Franklin. - -Naming and records -When Franklin formed on July 21, it was the became earliest tropical cyclone ever in a season that the sixth tropical storm formed, breaking the previous record held by storm 6 from 1936 by 14 days. This was the first use of Franklin to name a tropical storm after the retirement of Hurricane Floyd from 1999. Because Frank filed to cause any deaths or damages, its the name was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization and will be on the list of names for the 2011 Season. - -Related pages - 2005 Atlantic hurricane season - -References - -Other websites - NHC's Tropical Cyclone Report on Tropical Storm Franklin - NHC's archive on Tropical Storm Franklin - -Atlantic tropical storms -Hurricanes in Bermuda -2005 Atlantic hurricane season -2005 in Bermuda -2005 in the Bahamas -2005 in Canada" -5942,19225,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheshire,Cheshire,"Cheshire is a county in England. It is the North West part of the country. It is most famous for making salt and cheese. Cheshire is made up of lots of little towns including the Borough of Macclesfield which covers a large area of plains. The main attraction is in Kerridge where there is the famous landmark 'White Nancy.' - - -Ceremonial counties of England" -11207,40583,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20Erhard,Ludwig Erhard,"Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (4 February 1897 in Fürth - 5 May 1977 in Bonn) was a German politician. - -Life -Erhard was born as the son of a salesman. After his middle school exam, he started training to become a salesman himself. He was wounded as soldier in World War I. After World War I, he started to study micro economy at a college in Nuremberg. - -After that, he studied economy on the University of Frankfurt am Main. In 1925 he finished his doctoral thesis. Afterwards, he worked in his father's company. After the Great Depression, the company went bankrupt. -From 1928 to 1942, he worked as science assistant, but he could not get a promotion because he did not want to become a member of a Nazi organisation. From 1942 to 1945, he was the head of the institute for industrial research. - -Until 1949, he worked for the CDU, but joined still in 1963. -From 1945 to 1946, he worked for the provisional government of Bavaria, afterwards he was an economic organisation official for the British-American administration in West Germany. - -In 1949, he became Minister of Economics under Konrad Adenauer. -From 1957-1963, he was Vice Chancellor. -After Adenauer resigned in 1963, Erhard became the new chancellor. -In 1966, Kurt Georg Kiesinger succeeded him. - -Erhard died in 1977, aged 80. - -1897 births -1977 deaths -Chancellors of Germany -Former members of the German Bundestag -Government ministers of Germany -Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany -Politicians from Bavaria -Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany -Vice Chancellors of Germany" -23487,90425,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling,Tickling,"Tickling is to lightly touch, scratch, or rub a person or animal to make them laugh. For most people, it causes pleasure and happiness whereas others hate it. Tickle spots are feet, armpits, and sides of stomach. - -Tickling yourself -It is believed by many that tickling yourself is very hard and by some that it is nearly impossible. Research shows that the brain notices and senses our movements and actions. This lets the brain prepare itself when we try to tickle ourselves. The unexpected senses are then cancelled by our brain, so we do not feel the reaction we would have if someone else tickled us when we least expected it. - -Unlike others, some people in the world know how to tickle themselves. This is because they know the tickling spots in their body and are able to use other objects to tickle themselves. For example, they can use a piece of tissue and rub it against their stomach to tickle themselves. Tickling may be relaxing, but may also be painful. - -Other websites - - Telegraph (UK) Article on ""robot tickling experiment"" - Boston Globe Online - Why are some people not ticklish? - Article 'Is it possible for someone to be tickled to death?' from The Straight Dope - -Everyday life" -12992,47689,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Paul-en-Jarez,Saint-Paul-en-Jarez,"Saint-Paul-en-Jarez is a town in France. It is near La Grand-Croix and Saint-Chamond. - -Communes in Loire" -10984,39558,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground,Ground,"Ground is a commonly used word for the surface of the Earth. It is the dirt, soil and rock that we walk on. Ground in electrical language is the electrical charge of the earth. Voltages are compared to the ground to measure voltage. - -Geography" -1480,5142,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Warrior%20%281860%29,HMS Warrior (1860),"HMS Warrior was the first battleship with a hull made of iron. It was built in response to the French ironclad warship Gloire. It is in Portsmouth, England with the HMS Victory and the remains of the Mary Rose, a ship belonging to Henry VIII of England. - -Other websites - -HMS Warrior website -StVincent.ac.uk - -Warrior -Portsmouth" -23801,91864,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Root,Jim Root,"James ""Jim"" Root (born October 7, 1971) is an American musician. He is the guitarist for both Slipknot and Stone Sour. In Slipknot he is named #4. He is the tallest member of the band at 6 feet and 6 inches tall. Jim wears a court jester's mask with a zip-up mouth. Jim enjoys fishing and playing video games in his free time. - -Musicians from Iowa -American rock musicians -American heavy metal musicians -Musicians from Des Moines, Iowa -1971 births -Living people" -4591,14384,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Against,Against,"Against can mean: - in an opposite direction - walking against the wind - in front, touching, or resting - The man was standing against the tree. - in opposition - against all odds - in competition - The boy played chess against his father. - touching with strong force - Ocean waves crash against the swimmer. - as a protection from - She used an umbrella against the strong rain."" - -Other meanings - Against'' was the seventh album by Brazilian thrash metal band Sepultura. It came out in 1998 from Roadrunner Records. - -Basic English 850 words -VOA Special English words" -18553,69546,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatoire%20de%20Paris,Conservatoire de Paris,"The Conservatoire de Paris (Paris Conservatoire) is a music conservatory where students can study dance, drama and music. It has now been split into two ""Conservatoires"". One is for Acting, Theatre and Drama and is called the Conservatoire National Supérieur d'Art Dramatique (CNSAD). It is in the old building in the centre of Paris. The other is called Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique et de Danse de Paris. It is farther from the centre of the city. This is where Music and Dance are taught. - -The Paris Conservatoire has been famous for music since it was formed in 1795. Nearly all famous French composers and performing musicians studied there, and many young musicians came from abroad to study. It was, and still is, one of the best places to study music in the world. - -Related pages - Paris - Conservatoire - Prix de Rome - -Music schools -Buildings and structures in Paris -1795 establishments -1790s establishments in France" -24095,92934,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.A.%20River%20Plate,C.A. River Plate,"Club Atlético River Plate, commonly known as River Plate, is an Argentine professional football club. They are based in Buenos Aires, and play their home games at Estadio Monumental. - -The name of the club is English for Río de la Plata. They are the most succcessful club in Argentina, with 36 league titles. River Plate has a very strong rivalry with Boca Juniors, mainly because both teams are from Buenos Aires and also are considered the biggest teams in Argentina. Matches between them sometimes involve violence between supporters. - -Current squad - -Related pages - List of Argentine football teams - -References - -Argentine football clubs" -19792,75706,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%20Don%27t%20Know%20Me%20%28Like%20U%20Used%20To%29,U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To),"U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) – The Remix EP is the first EP by American R&B singer Brandy Norwood, released in 1999 (see 1999 in music). It was released for promotional use only. - -Release -During 1999, her record company, Atlantic Records, released a 9-track remix EP entitled U Don't Know Me... Like U Used To – The Remix EP. The album contains remix versions with Da Brat, Ma$e, Fat Joe, Big Pun, Darkchild, DJ Premier and many other artists and producers. The album is seen as a maxi-single so the peak positions are the same as the peak positions of the single. The songs on U Don't Know Me did not have much success with a peak position of #79 on the U.S. Hot 100, 50 in Canada and 25 in the UK. The album's lead single was ""U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) [Remix]"". - -References - -1999 albums -Brandy albums" -8223,27447,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address,Address,"This article is about the kind of address that you find or communicate with someone through. Address can also mean public speaking. It can also be used when someone is working on something, or talking about something. - -An address (pronounced AD-dress or ad-DRESS) is a way to find or communicate with someone. It can be a postal address or an e-mail address. On forms, it is common to ask for someone's name, address and phone number, so that the person can be found easily. - -Postal address -A postal address is usually the location of someone's house, but sometimes it is the person's Post Office Box. It is the information that is put on a letter to have the letter delivered to a person. - -Example (in England): -Mr John Smith -132, My Street, -Bigtown BG23 4YZ -England - -Example (in the U.S.): -Mr John Smith -132, My Street, -Kingston, New York 12401 -United States - -Example (in Nigeria): -Mr Daniel Izuchukwu Nwoye -8, My Street, -Ilassan Lekki, Lagos 105102 -Nigeria. - -Email Address -An email address is used to send someone an e-mail. It has a username, and this is followed by the name of the person's email provider. The at sign (@) separates the two. For example: -john@gmail.com -horseycrazy@yahoo.com -larry.smith@msn.com -example50150@domain.eu - -The ""name"" part can be made up of any letters or numbers, and a few special characters, but it cannot contain spaces. The ""provider"" part can be made up of any letters or numbers, but no special characters and no spaces. Some providers may restrict the ""name"" part in other ways. For example, Gmail does not allow underscores. - -Human geography -Postal service -E-mail" -19824,75881,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Cavendish,Henry Cavendish,"Henry Cavendish FRS (10 October 1731-24 February 1810) was a British scientist. He is famous for discovering hydrogen. Cavendish measured the Earth's mass, density and gravitational constant with the Cavendish experiment. He studied at Peterhouse, which is part of the University of Cambridge, but he left without graduating. - -He built a laboratory in his father's house in London, where he worked for nearly fifty years, but he only published about 20 scientific papers. Even so, he is regarded as one of the greatest scientists of his time. - -Cavendish claimed that the force between the two electrical objects gets smaller as they get further apart. If the distance between them doubled, the force would be one quarter what it was before. This was the basis of the inverse-square law. He explained the concept of electric potential, which he called ""the degree of electrification"". He developed the thought of all points on a good conductor's surface have the same potential energy beside a common reference point. Having no way to measure electric current, he used his body as a machine which measures strength of electric current. All Cavendish's explorations in his notebook was found and confirmed by James Clerk Maxwell. - -Cavendish’s electrical papers from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London have been reprinted, together with most of his electrical manuscripts, in The Scientific Papers of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S. (1921). - -References - -1731 births -1810 deaths - -English physicists -English chemists" -22543,85280,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brione%20sopra%20Minusio,Brione sopra Minusio,"Brione sopra Minusio is a municipality of the district of Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Ticino" -7449,24079,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demo%20%28music%29,Demo (music),"A demo, in music, is the first version of a song or album. - -It can also refer to an album made by the band as a ""sample"" in hopes of getting a contract with a record label. - -Musical terminology - -it:Demo#In musica" -18128,68143,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabic%20languages,Judeo-Arabic languages,"Judeo-Arabic languages are a collection of Arabic language dialects spoken by Jews living or formerly living in Arabic-speaking countries. Just as with the rest of the Arab world, Arabic-speaking Jews had different dialects for the different regions where they lived. Most Judæo-Arabic dialects were written in modified forms of the Hebrew alphabet, often including consonant dots from the Arabic alphabet to accommodate phonemes that did not exist in the Hebrew alphabet. - -In retaliation for 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jews in Arab countries became subject to increasingly insufferable discrimination and violence, causing virtually all of them to flee en masse to Israel. Their dialects of Arabic did not thrive in Israel, and most became extinct, replaced by the Modern Hebrew language. - -In the Middle Ages, Jews in the Islamic diaspora spoke a dialect of Arabic, which they wrote in a mildly adapted Hebrew script (rather than using Arabic script). - -This phenomenon is called Judaeo-Arabic and may be compared to both Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish) and Yiddish (Judaeo-German). - -Some of the most important books of medieval Jewish though were originally written in Judaeo-Arabic, as well as certain halakhic works and biblical commentary. Only later were they translated into medieval scientific Hebrew so that they could be read by the Ashkenazic Jews of Europe. These include: - - Saadia Gaon's Emunot ve-Deot, his Tafsir (biblical commentary and translation), and his siddur (the explanatory parts, not the prayers themselves) - Solomon ibn Gabirol's Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh - Bahya ibn Pakuda's Hovot ha-Levavot - Judah Halevi's Kuzari - Maimonides' Commentary on the Mishnah, Sefer ha-Mitzvot, Guide to the Perplexed, and many of his letters and shorter essays. - -References - -Judaism -Middle East -Semitic languages" -11979,44030,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinosaurus,Spinosaurus,"Spinosaurus (which means 'spiny lizard') was a huge semi-aquatic dinosaur from the Cretaceous, 112 to 93.5 million years ago. It had paddle-like feet and nostrils on top of its crocodile-like head. This would let it submerge as a crocodile does. - -The same research suggests it was perhaps larger than Tyrannosaurus rex, but more clumsy on land, moving as a quadruped. All these ideas had been suggested before. The discovery of a more complete skeleton made palaeontologists think they were correct. The fossil was found in Morocco by a private collector who let scientists examine it. - -Spinosaurus bones were first discovered in Egypt in 1912 by German paleontologist Ernst Stromer in 1915. Two species, S. aegyptiacus and S. marocannus, are recognized by many paleontologists, but there may only be one. Spinosaurus looked like Baryonyx except it was larger and more heavily built. Six specimens of Spinosaurus have been uncovered. Apparently, good material was destroyed in Munich in a 1944 bombing raid. - -Description - -100 million years ago, the Sahara Desert was wet. Animals included the pterosaur Alanqa, types of giant crocodiles, and theropod predators the size of T. rex. The largest predator was Spinosaurus. In the past, it was thought that Spinosaurus aegyptiacus was bipedal. In 2014, scientists believed that Spinosaurus aegyptiacus was quadrupedal because it is front-heavy. If Spinosaurus aegyptiacus were to walk on two legs, it would topple. Spinosaurus probably walked on its knuckles. Spinosaurus's legs were short. Spinosaurus'''s jaws were designed to catch slippery prey like fish. Scientists say that Spinosaurus spent most of its time in the water and it was a semi-aquatic dinosaur. Spinosaurus was larger than Tyrannosaurus. Estimates published in 2005, 2007, and 2008 suggested that it was between 15 metres (50 ft) in length and 7 to 20.9 tonnes (7.7 to 23.0 short tons) in weight. A new estimate published in 2014 and based on a more complete specimen, supported the earlier research, finding that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of over 15 m (49 ft). It had a two meter high sail on its back like Dimetrodon. Several uses have been suggested for this sail, such as to help control its body temperature, as a way to attract a mate, and to intimidate or frighten enemies. It lived in what is now the Sahara Desert, but which then was mangrove forests alongside shoreline conditions, tidal flats and channels. - -The skull of Spinosaurus was long and narrow like that of a modern gharial. Spinosaurus is known to have eaten fish. Evidence suggests that it lived both on land and in water like a modern crocodilian. - - Media -It was featured as the main dinosaur in the 2001 film Jurassic Park III where it fights and kills a T-Rex. It has also appeared on postage stamps in several countries, and many toy companies have made models of Spinosaurus''. - -References - -Spinosauridae -Dinosaurs of Africa -Cretaceous dinosaurs" -16000,61449,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basin%2C%20Wyoming,"Basin, Wyoming","Basing is a town in the American state of Wyoming. It is the county seat of Big Horn County. It had 1,285 people living in it at the 2010 census. - -Basin is near the Big Horn river. The town has an area of 2.0 mi². 0.04 mi² of it (1.47%) is water. - -Towns in Wyoming -Big Horn County, Wyoming -County seats in Wyoming" -1261,4616,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivore,Omnivore,"An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria. - -Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle. They are sometimes called ""life-history omnivores"", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered. - -Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another. Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae, eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature. - -Animal types -All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example). - -Humans, many pigs, many bears, some primates, some rodents, opossums, rails, rheas, most seagulls, and other animals are omnivores. - -Related pages - carnivore - herbivore - insectivore - semi-vegetarian - -References" -22601,85523,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courrendlin,Courrendlin,"Courrendlin is a municipality in Delémont in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. On 1 January 2019 the former municipalities of Rebeuvelier and Vellerat merged into the municipality of Courrendlin. - -References - -Other websites - -Official website - -Municipalities of Jura" -24301,93682,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Poitiers,Battle of Poitiers,"Battle of Poitiers can be one of two battles: - Battle of Tours (732), also known as Battle of Poitiers between Frankish and Islamic armies - Battle of Poitiers (1356), between England and France." -24668,96535,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate%20H-3,Interstate H-3,"Interstate H-3 is a highway in the American state of Hawaii. It begins at the Halawa Interchange with Interstates H-1 and H-201. The highway then runs along a viaduct through Halawa Valley for about 6 miles. It then goes through the Tetsuo Harano Tunnels through the Koolau Mountains. Once on the eastern end of the tunnel, the highway follows a viaduct built along the side of Haiku Valley until the Kaneohe Interchange with state route 63 (Likelike Highway) which leads into the town of Kaneohe. The highway then continues to the Halekou Interchange with state route 83 (Kamehameha Highway). Four miles farther, it reaches the main gate of Marine Corps Base Hawaii. The route is long. - -References - -H3 -Roads in Hawaii" -635,3035,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow,Yellow,"Yellow is a colour. It is the color of the color of amber. -Yellow is the color of: - The color amber. - The outer skin of a lemon. - The flower of the dandelion. - The peel of a banana. - The middle light of a stoplight. -Most of the time, your Urine. - -Meaning of yellow - - Yellow can represent light and the sun's rays as well as lightning. - The phrase ""yellow"" used to be used as a sign of cowardice. - In China, yellow is the color of royalty. Emperors used to wear yellow. - On road signs in the USA, yellow means ""warning"". - Inkjet printers use yellow ink as one of their three basic colors, along with cyan ink and magenta ink. - -Tones of yellow colour comparison chart - Yellow Mist (web colour Light Yellow) (Banana) (Hex: #FFFFE0) (RGB: 255, 255, 224) - Old Lace (web colour) (Hex: #FDF5E6) (RGB: 253, 245, 230) - Linen (web colour) (Hex: #FAF0E6) (RGB: 250, 240, 230) - Antique White (web colour) (Hex: #FAEBD7) (RGB: 250, 235, 215) - Blanched Almond (web colour) (Hex: #FFEBCD) (RGB: 255, 235, 205) - Light Goldenrod Yellow (web colour) (Hex: #FAFAD2) (RGB: 250, 250, 210) - Lemon Chiffon (web colour) (Lemon Cream) (Hex: #FFFACD) (RGB: 255, 250, 205) - Cornsilk (web colour) (Hex: #FFF8DC) (RGB: 255, 248, 220) - Beige (web colour) (Hex: #F5F5DC) (RGB: 245, 245, 220) - Cream (Hex: #FFFDD0) (RGB: 255, 253, 208) - Papaya Whip (web colour) (Hex: #FFEFD5) (RGB: 255, 239, 213) - Banana Mania (Crayola) (Hex: #FBE7B2) (RGB: 251, 231, 128) - Moccasin (web colour) (Hex: #FFE4B5) (RGB: 255, 228, 182) - Peach-Yellow (Hex: #FADFAD) (RGB: 250, 223, 173) - Wheat (web colour) (Hex: #F5DEB3) (RGB: 245, 222, 179) - Navajo White (web colour) (Hex: #FFDEAD) (RGB: 255, 222, 173) -
  • Light Khaki (X11 ""Khaki"") (Hex: #F0E68C) (RGB: 240, 230, 140)
  • - Pale Spring Bud (Crayola ""Spring Green"") (Hex: #ECEBBD) (RGB: 236, 235, 189) - Pale Goldenrod (web colour) (Hex: #EEE8AA) (RGB: 238, 232, 170) - Pale Canary Yellow (Crayola Canary) (Hex: #FFFF99) (RGB: 255, 255, 153) - Buff (HexF0DC82) (RGB: 240, 220, 130) - Flax (Hex: #EEDC82) (RGB: 238, 220, 130) -
  • Zinnwaldite (Hex: #EBC2AF) (RGB: 235, 194, 175)
  • -
  • Desert Sand (Crayola) (Hex: #EDC9AF) (RGB: 237, 201, 175)
  • - Peach Puff (web color) (Hex: #FFDAB9) (RGB: 255, 218, 185) - Peach (Hex: #FFE5B4) (RGB: 255, 229, 180) - Deep Peach (Crayola Peach) (Hex: #FFCBA4) (RGB: 255, 203, 164) - Peach-Orange (Pale Salmon) (Hex: #FFCC99) (RGB: 255, 204, 153) - Bright Apricot (Crayola Apricot) (Hex: #FDD5B1) (RGB: 253, 213, 177) - Apricot (Hex: #FBCEB1) (RGB: 251, 206, 177) -
  • Light Mustard (Hex: #EEDD62) (RGB: 255, 119, 255)
  • - Dandelion (Crayola) (Hex: #FED85D) (RGB: 254, 216, 93) - Mustard (Hex: #FFDB58) (RGB: 255, 219, 88) - Energy Yellow (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #F8DD5C) (RGB: 248, 221, 92) - Medium Goldenrod (Crayola Goldenrod) (Hex: #FCD667) (RGB: 252, 214, 103) -
  • Mellow Yellow (Hex: #F8DE7E) (RGB: 248, 222, 126)
  • - Light Goldenrod (web colour) (Hex: #FFEC8B) (RGB: 255, 236, 139) - Maize (Corn) (Hex: #FBEC5D) (RGB: 251, 236, 93) -
  • Ultra Yellow (Unmellow Yellow) (Crayola) (Hex: #FFFF66) (RGB: 255, 255, 102)
  • -
  • Laser Lemon (Crayola) (Hex: #FEFE22) (RGB: 254, 254, 34)
  • -
  • Yellow (Electric Yellow) (Hex: #FFFF00) (RGB: 255, 255, 0)
  • -
  • Daisy Yellow (Hex: #FDFD02) (RGB: 255, 253, 2)
  • -
  • Lemon Yellow (Lemon) Hex: #FFF700) (RGB: 255, 247, 0)
  • -
  • Process Yellow (Pigment Yellow) (Printer's Yellow) (Canary Yellow) (Hex: #FFEF00) (RGB: 255, 239, 0)
  • - Medium Yellow (Crayola Yellow) (Hex: #FFE302) (RGB: 255, 227, 2) -
  • Golden Yellow (Hex: #FFDF00) (RGB: 255, 223, 0)
  • -
  • School Bus Yellow (Hex: #FFD800) (RGB: 255, 216, 0)
  • -
  • Golden (web color Gold) (Hex: #FFD700) (RGB: 255, 215, 0)
  • -
  • Tangerine Yellow (Hex: #FFCC00) (RGB: 255, 204, 0)
  • -
  • Supernova (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #FFC901) (RGB: 255, 201, 1)
  • - Golden Poppy (Hex: #FCC200) (RGB: 252, 194, 0) - Amber (Hex: #FFBF00) (RGB: 255, 191, 0) - Selective Yellow (Hex: #FFBA00) (RGB: 255, 186, 0) -
  • Sunglow (Crayola) (Hex: #FFCC33) (RGB: 255, 204, 51)
  • - Saffron (Hex: #F4C430) (RGB: 244, 196, 48) - Macaroni and Cheese (Crayola) (Hex: #FFB79B) (RGB: 255, 185, 123) -
  • Sandy Brown (web color) (Hex: #F4A460) (RGB: 244, 164, 96)
  • - Atomic Tangerine (Crayola) (Hex: #FF9966) (RGB: 255, 153, 102) - Gamboge (Hex: #EF9B0F) (RGB: 239, 155, 15) - Light Buff (Hex: #ECD9B0) (RGB: 236, 217, 176) - Pale Gold (Crayola Gold) (Hex: #E6BE8A) (RGB: 230, 190, 138) - Brass (Hex: #C3A368) (RGB: 195, 163, 104) - California Gold (Hex: #A98F64) (RGB: 169, 143, 100) - Vegas Gold (Hex: #C5B356) (RGB: 197, 179, 88) - Old Gold (Hex: #CFB53B) (RGB: 207, 181, 59) - Metallic Gold (Hex: #D4AF37) (RGB: 212, 175, 55) - Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #DAA520) (RGB: 218, 165, 32) - Banana Yellow (Yellow Ochre) (Human Feces) (Hex: #CCCC33) (RGB: 204, 204, 51) - Satin Sheen Gold (Hex: #CBA135) (RGB: 203, 16, 53) - Buddha Gold (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #C1A004) (RGB: 193, 160, 4) -
  • Peru (web color) (Hex: #CD853F) (RGB: 205, 133, 63)
  • -
  • Ochre (Hex: #CC7722) (RGB: 204, 119, 34)
  • - Dark Goldenrod (web color) (Hex: #b8860B) (RGB: 184, 134, 11) - Bronze Yellow (Hex: #737000) (RGB: 115, 112, 0) - Dark Mustard (Hex: #7C7C40) (RGB: 124, 124, 64) - Sandy Taupe (Hex: #967117) (RGB: 150, 113, 23) -
  • Fallow (Hex: #C19A6B) (RGB: 193, 154, 107)
  • -
  • Khaki (HTML/CSS) (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 195, 176, 145)
  • -
  • Ecru (Hex: #C3B091) (RGB: 205, 184, 145)
  • -
  • Dark Khaki (X11 ""Dark Khaki"") (Hex: #BDB76B) (RGB: 189, 183, 107)
  • - Citrine (Hex: #E4D00A) (RGB: 228, 208, 10) - Pear (Hex: #D1E231) (RGB: 209, 226, 49) -
  • Starship (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E3DD39) (RGB: 227, 221, 57)
  • - Chartreuse Yellow (Hex: #DFFF00) (RGB: 223, 255, 0) - Neon Yellow (Hex: #FFFFE0) (RGB: 207, 255, 4) - Electric Lime (Crayola) (Hex: #CCFF00) (RGB: 204, 255, 0) - Lime (Hex: #BFFF00) (RGB: 191, 255, 0) - Green-Yellow (web color) (Hex: #ADFF2F) (RGB: 173, 255, 47) - Spring Bud (Hex: #A7FC00) (RGB: 167, 252, 0) -
  • Yellow-Green (web color) (Hex: #9ACD32) (RGB: 154, 205, 50)
  • - Citrus (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #A1C50A) (RGB: 161, 197, 10) - June Bud (Hex: #BDDA57) (RGB: 189, 218, 87) - Medium Spring Bud (Hex: #C9DC89) (RGB: 202, 220, 137) - Pale Green-Yellow (Crayola Green-Yellow) (Hex: #F1E788) (RGB: 242, 231, 136) - Lime Pulp (Hex: #D1E189) (RGB: 209, 225, 137) - Olivine (Hex: #9AB973) (RGB: 154, 185, 115) - Pistachio (Hex: #93C572) (RGB: 147, 197, 146) - Swamp Green (Hex: #ACB78E) (RGB: 172, 183, 142) - Camouflage Green (Hex: #78866B) (RGB: 120, 134, 107) - Olive (web color) (Dark Yellow) (Hex: #808000) (RGB: 128, 128, 0) - Olive Drab (web color) (Hex: #6B8E23) (RGB: 107, 142, 135) - Dark Olive Green (web color) (Hex: #556B2F) (RGB: 85, 107, 47) - Shadow (Crayola) (Hex: #837050) (RGB: 131, 112, 80) -
  • Raw Umber (Hex: #734A12) (RGB: 115, 74, 18)
  • - Olivetone (Xona color list) (Hex: #716E10) (RGB: 113, 110, 16) - Bisque (web colour) (Hex: #3D2B1F) (RGB: 61, 43, 31) - Black Olive (Olive RAL 6015) (Hex: #3B3C36) (RGB: 59, 60, 54) - -Related pages - - List of colors - Amber - Gold - -Basic English 850 words" -16640,63728,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20direction,Cardinal direction,"Cardinal directions or cardinal points are the four main directions or points of the compass: north, east, south and west. These direction are also written in short form as N, E, S and W. - -North and south are directed towards the north and south poles of the Earth. The Earth's rotation defines east and west. The sun rises in the morning in the east, and sets in the afternoon in the west. - -If a needle is magnetised and allowed to move freely (for example floated on water) it will align itself with the Earth's magnetic field which is almost in the same direction as north. The direction of the needle in this situation is called magnetic north which in some places differs from the direction of the North Pole by a few degrees. - -Cardinal directions in world cultures - -Through history, different cultures have given different values to each direction. For example, in old Asian culture, each direction is given a color, as follows: - - East: Green or Blue - South: Red - West: White - North: Black - -Related pages - Latitude - Longitude - Compass - -Compass directions" -10433,37026,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension,Hypertension,"Hypertension or high blood pressure is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is higher than it should be. This involves the heart working harder than normal to circulate blood through the blood vessels. - -Blood pressure - -The pressure in the arteries changes depending on what the heart is doing. When the heart squeezes, pumping blood into the arteries, the pressure increases. When the heart relaxes, the pressure decreases. When blood pressure is measured, the highest pressure (when the heart is squeezing) is called the systolic blood pressure. The lowest pressure (when the heart is relaxing) is called the diastolic blood pressure. - -Blood pressure is written as two numbers. For example, in the picture at the right, the person's systolic blood pressure was 158. Their diastolic blood pressure was 99. This blood pressure is written as 158/99. It is said ""158 over 99."" - -Types -There are two types of hypertension, called “primary” and “secondary.” Primary hypertension means that the hypertension is not caused by any other disease or condition and it gradually develops over time with age. Secondary hypertension means that the hypertension is caused by another disease or conditions. Secondary hypertension tend to result in higher blood pressure than primary hypertension. In most cases (90-95%), hypertension is primary. Only a small amount of hypertension (5-10%) is secondary. - -There are various health conditions that leads to secondary hypertension which includes: Obstructive sleep apnea, Kidney problems, Adrenal gland tumors, Thyroid problems, Certain defects you're born with (congenital) in blood vessels, Certain medications (birth control pills, cold remedies, decongestants, over-the-counter pain relievers and some prescription drugs), Illegal drugs (cocaine and amphetamines). - -Complications -Hypertension can cause many problems, including heart attack, stroke, Aneurysm, congestive heart failure, kidney failure, vision loss, Metabolic syndrome, Dementia, etc.. - To stay healthy, most people should try to keep their blood pressure below 140/90 mmHg. - -Risk Factors -The risk factors includes age, Race, Family history or genes, obesity, lack of physical activity, chewing or smoking tobacco, too much salt in diet, not enough potassium in diet, alcohol, stress, kidney disease, diabetes and sleep apnea. - -Treatment - -Lifestyle changes -Hypertension can often be fixed with changes in diet or lifestyle. The 2004 British Hypertension Society suggests that people with high blood pressure: - Lose weight if they are overweight or obese - Exercise regularly - Decrease the amount of salt they eat - Limit the amount of alcohol they drink - Eat a lot of fruits and vegetables - -Medicine -If lifestyle changes do not decrease a person's blood pressure, then the person may need medications. A doctor will choose which medications to use, based on what other medical problems the person has. Examples of medications that decrease blood pressure include: - Diuretics, which increase urination to get rid of extra fluid - Beta blockers, which slow down the heart rate - ACE inhibitors, which relax the arteries - -Effectiveness -Even small decreases in blood pressure can have a large effect on a person's health. For example, decreasing blood pressure by 5 mmHg (for example, from 150/100 to 145/95 mmHg) can decrease the risk of stroke by 34%. It can also decrease the risk of heart disease by 21%. - -Related pages - Blood pressure - Heart - Arteries - Circulatory system - Hypotension (low blood pressure) - -References - -What is Blood Pressure Or Hypertension ? - -Diseases and disorders of the cardiovascular system" -11191,40505,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive%20disjunction,Exclusive disjunction,"Exclusive disjunction (also called exclusive or, XOR) is a logic operation on two values. It is often represented by the symbol (or ). It will be true, if exactly one of the two values is true. Otherwise, it will be false. This also means that the result of 'XOR' will be true precisely both the values are different. Same values will result in a false. - -The best way to remember a XOR operation is: ""One or the other, but not both"". - -Because of that, this is different from inclusive disjunction. - -Truth table -The truth table of (also written as , , or ) is as follows: - -Related pages - - Boolean algebra - Logical conjunction - XOR gate - -References - -Logic -Logical connectives" -508,2083,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour,Colour,"Colour or color is a property of light as seen by people. In Commonwealth English, it is spelled “colour” (notice the U), while in American English it is “color” (no U). - -The most common colour names are: - Red - Orange - Yellow - Green - Cyan - Blue - Magenta - Purple - White - Black - Gray (American English) - Grey (Commonwealth English) - Silver - Pink - Maroon - Brown - Beige - Tan - Peach - Lime - Olive - Turquoise - Teal - Navy blue - Indigo - Violet - -""Primary colours"" can be mixed to make other colours. Red, yellow, and blue are the three traditional primary colours. The primary colours for television screens and computer monitors are red, green and blue. Printers and paints use magenta, yellow, and cyan as their primary colours; they may also use black. Sometimes this set of colours is simply called red, yellow, and blue. - -People who can not see colours or have a distorted sense of colour are called colour blind. Most colour blind people are male. - -Colours are sometimes added to food. Food colouring is used to colour food, but some foods have natural colourings, like beta carotene. - -When something has no colour, it is transparent. An example is air. - -The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science. - -A translucent material is not the same as a colourless material because it can still have a colour, like stained glass. - -Related pages - - List of colours - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Color -Vision" -24636,96369,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat%20%27em%20up%20games,Beat 'em up games,"Beat 'em up games are video games where the player beats up bad guys while walking through levels. Sometimes the player has to beat up certain bad guys to progress through the game. Most of the time, these games have level bosses which are usually at the end of the level. Examples of ""beat-em up"" games are arcade games like Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and The Simpsons. Super Smash Bros. Brawl also has a ""beat-em up"" part in the game where the player fights bad guys from the Subspace Emissary and fights other characters as well in order to beat the levels. - -Types of video games - -Video game genres" -24088,92921,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Plata,La Plata,"La Plata is a capital city of the Buenos Aires province, Argentina. More than 600,000 people live there. - -Cities in Argentina -Capitals of Argentine provinces -Buenos Aires Province" -3787,11352,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A9ra,Guéra,"Guéra was one of fourteen prefectures of Chad. The capital city of Guéra was Mongo. Since 2002, Chad is divided into regions. - -Prefectures of Chad" -17007,64609,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudrecourt%2C%20Moselle,"Baudrecourt, Moselle","Baudrecourt is a village in the Lorraine region of France. It is about half way between Metz and Nancy. The TGV high-speed line from Paris to Strasbourg currently ends there. In 1999, 172 people lived there. - -Communes in Moselle" -120,221,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%20cetera,Et cetera,"Et cetera means ""and the rest"" in Latin. It is often used in English to continue a list that is longer than what can be normally written. People most often write ""et cetera"" as etc.. Very rarely, it is also written ""&c"" because the ampersand, or the ""&"", is the same as ""et"", having been formed by 'e' and 't' being joined into a single letter. It is also the symbol for ""and"". Some people write it as ""ect"", but that is wrong since it incorrectly abbreviates ""et cetera"". - - ""Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, kangaroos, rabbits, etc."" - ""Robert ordered a large amount of groceries in order to stock for later. He ordered carrots, tomatoes, potatoes, eggs, etc."" - -Latin phrases" -4962,15674,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Troughton,Patrick Troughton,"Patrick George Troughton (25 March 1920 – 28 March 1987) was a British actor. He played different sorts of characters and who was in a lot of movies. - -He is best known as the Second Doctor on Doctor Who from 1966 to 1969. He also appeared in Jason & the Argonauts (1963) and The Omen (1976). His grandson, Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley in the Harry Potter series of movies. - -1920 births -1987 deaths -Actors from Middlesex -English movie actors -English stage actors -English television actors" -9440,32256,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand,Brand,"Brand might mean: - - an iron rod used to burn an ownership mark on cattle - a trademark: a name, symbol, logo, or other item used to mark a product or maker. This distinguishes it from other companies and their products. -a surname: -David Brand (1912-1979), Australian politician -Joel Brand (1906-1964), Hungarian humanitarian -Ron Brand (born 1940), American retired baseball player -Russell Brand (born 1975), British entertainer" -21001,80664,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermippe%20%28moon%29,Hermippe (moon),"Hermippe or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the designation . - -Hermippe is about 4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 21,182,000 km in 629.809 days, at an orbital inclination of 151° to the ecliptic (149° to Jupiter's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.2290. - -It was named in August 2003 by the IAU, after Hermippe, a lover of Zeus (Jupiter). - -Hermippe belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde non-spherical moons which orbit Jupiter between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, at inclinations of about 150°. - -References - -Jupiter's moons" -19883,76088,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quirinus,Quirinus,"In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as Janus Quirinus. - -History - -Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the Collis Quirinalis, the Quirinal Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome. When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus. - -In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place). - -Notes - -Roman gods and goddesses" -1134,4362,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy,Alloy,"An alloy is a uniform mixture. It is made up of two or more chemical elements, of which at least one is a metal. An alloy has properties different from the metals it is made of. - -Most alloys are made by melting the metals, mixing them while they are liquid to form a solution, then leaving them to cool and turn solid again. - -Theory -Combining a pure metal with one or more other metals or non-metals often makes it better. For example, steel is an alloy made from iron but it is stronger than iron. Physical properties like density, reactivity and electrical and thermal (heat) conductivity may not be much different than the elements (substances) which make the alloy. But, properties like strength can be very much different. - -The first alloy to be discovered was Bronze. Bronze is made from copper and tin. Bronze was discovered a very long time ago in the prehistoric period. Then, bronze was being used for making tools and weapons. This period was known as Bronze Age. But, later better alloys were discovered which replaced bronze for making tools and weapons. Now, bronze is used for making ornaments, statues, and bells. Brass is another alloy made from copper and zinc. - -Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to liquid. Most alloys do not have a single melting point. They have a melting range in which the alloy is a mixture of solid and liquid stages. The temperature at which melting just starts is called solidus and the temperature at which the melting is just finished is called liquidus. - -Terms related to alloys -The term alloy means a mixture of atoms in which the main substance or the primary constituent is a metal. This primary metal is called the base or matrix. - -If an alloy has only two types of atoms, like copper-nickel alloy, then such an alloy is called binary alloy. If an alloy has three types of atoms, like iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ternary alloy. An alloy with four types of atoms is called a quaternary alloy and an alloy with five types of atoms is called a quinary alloy. - -Different varieties or forms of alloys can be made from the same constituent materials (substances from which the alloy is formed). These different forms or varieties can be formed by using different amounts of the constituents. - -Some common alloys -There are some common alloys: - - Brass is made of 35% zinc and 65% copper and is used for musical instruments, jewellery, faucets and decorative hardware. - Stainless steel is mostly iron, plus more than 11% chromium, and various amounts of nickel and carbon and is used for tableware, cookware and surgical tools. - Steel is made of 99% iron and 1% carbon and is used for tools, car bodies, machinery, girders and rails. - Bronze is made of mostly copper and some tin and is used for boat hardware, screws and grill work. - Alnico is a mix of aluminium, nickel and cobalt, and it is used to make permanent magnets. - - -Metallurgy" -13660,50546,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kullervo,Kullervo,"Kullervo is a person in the Finnish national epic Kalevala. He is a good looking man with golden hair. Bad things happen to him; his destiny is tragic. - -In folk stories Kullervo is the son of the giant Kaleva. In the Kalevala however Kullervo is the son of a man called Kalervo. - -In the Kalevala Kullervo's family is killed by Untamo's family before Kullervo is born. Only one woman is not killed. She gives birth to Kullervo who will be a slave of Untamo. Every work that Kullervo tries goes ill. This is why Untamo sells him to a smith called Ilmarinen. - -Ilmarinen puts Kullervo to shepherd cows. Ilmarinen's wife gives Kullervo bread that has stones in it. While Kullervo cuts the bread his knife hits the stone and breaks. Kullervo gets angry and curses bears to eat cows and Ilmarinen's wife. Then he escapes. - -While travelling Kullervo has sex with a girl. He does not know that this is his own sister. When he finds out he goes very angry and attacks Untamo and kills him and his family. Then he commits suicide. - -The story of Kullervo differs from all other folktales in the respect that it describes the effects of child abuse in a very realistic way, and in the end of the poem Väinämöinen especially warns all parents from abusing their children. - -Finnish mythology" -17347,65761,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre%20per%20second,Metre per second,"Metre per second is an SI unit of measurement of both speed and velocity. It is defined by the distance in metres divided by the time in seconds. Its abbreviation is m/s or m·s-1. In astronomy, the unit is sometimes used in kilometres per second (equivalent to 1000 metres per second). - -Conversions -1 metre per second is equivalent to: - ≈ 3.2808 feet per second (approximately) - ≈ 2.2369 miles per hour (approximately) - = 3.6 km·h−1 (exactly) - -1 foot per second = 0.3048 m·s−1 (exactly) - -1 mile per hour ≈ 0.4470 m·s−1 (approximately) - -1 km·h-1 ≈ 0.2778 m·s−1 (approximately) - -1 kilometre per second is equivalent to: - ≈ 0.6213 miles per second (approximately) - ≈ 2,237 miles per hour (approximately) - -Velocity -Units of measurement -SI units" -979,3880,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin%20C,Vitamin C,"Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is a vitamin. It is found in fresh fruits, berries and vegetables. It is one of the water-soluble vitamins. - -Vitamin C is important in wound healing. Without enough vitamin C, a person can get a sickness called scurvy. Lack of vitamin C was a serious health problem on long ocean trips where supplies of fresh fruit were quickly used up. Many people died from scurvy on such trips. - -Most animals make their own vitamin C. Some mammals cannot. Those that cannot include the main suborder of primates, the Haplorrhini: these are the tarsiers, monkeys and apes, including humans. Others are bats, capybaras and guinea pigs. - -Vitamin C was first discovered in 1928. In 1932, it was proved to stop the sickness called scurvy. That fruit was a cure for scurvy was known long before vitamins were known to exist. - -History -Through history the need for people to eat fresh plant food to help them get through long sieges or long sea trips was known by some wise people but was often forgotten. - -The first attempt to prove this idea was by a ship's doctor in the British Royal Navy called James Lind, who at sea in May 1747 gave some crew members lemon juice as well as their normal ships food, while others continued on normal food alone. - -The results showed that lemons prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in 1753. - -Lind's work was slow to be noticed. In 1795 the British navy adopted lemon or lime juice as food for sailors. - -As well as lemons, limes and oranges; sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and soup were tried with different effects. James Cook relied on sauerkraut to prevent the disease on his long voyages of exploration. - -It was believed that only humans got scurvy but in 1907, Alex Holst and Theodore Frohlich, two Norwegian chemists found that guinea pigs could also get it if not given fresh food. - -In 1928 the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson proved that Eskimo (Inuit) people are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet by eating raw meat. - -In 1912 the Polish American scientist Casimir Funk first used the word vitamin for something present in food in small amounts that is essential to health. He named the unknown thing that prevented scurvy Vitamin C. - -From 1928 to 1933, the Hungarian research team of Joseph L Svirbely and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, and separately the American Charles Glen King, first took out vitamin C from food and showed it to be an acid they called ascorbic acid. - -In 1933/1934, the British chemists Norman Haworth and Edmund Hirst, and separately the Polish Tadeus Reichstein, successfully synthesized the vitamin. -It was the first man-made vitamin. This made it possible to make lots of vitamin C cheaply in factories. Haworth won the 1937 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for this work. - -In 1959 the American J.J. Burns showed that the reason why some animals get scurvy is because their liver cannot make one chemical enzyme that other animals have. - -Sources - -Plant sources -Citrus fruits (such as lime, Indian gooseberry, lemon, orange, and grapefruit) are good sources of vitamin C. - -Other foods that are good sources of vitamin C include papaya, broccoli, brussels sprouts, blackcurrants, strawberries, cauliflower, spinach, cantaloupe, sweet peppers, and kiwifruit. - -The following table is to give an idea of how much vitamin C is in different plant foods. Each individual fruit will vary. - -The amount of vitamin C in foods of plant origin depends on the kind of plant, the kind of soil where it grew, how much rain and sun it got, the length of time since it was picked, and how it was stored since then. -Cooking food destroys vitamin C. - -{| class=""wikitable"" -|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Principal Fruits and some Raw Vegetables -|----- -! Fruit - mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit -! Fruit Continued - mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit -! Fruit Continued - mg vitamin C per 100 grams of fruit -|----- -| CamuCamu || 2800 || Lemon -| 40 || Grape || 10 -|----- -| Rose hip || 2000 || Melon, cantaloupe -| 40 || Apricot || 10 -|----- -| Acerola || 1600 || Cauliflower -| 40 || Plum || 10 -|----- -| Jujube || 500 || Grapefruit -| 30 || Watermelon || 10 -|----- -| Baobab || 400 || Raspberry -| 30 || Banana || 9 -|----- -| Blackcurrant || 200 -| Tangerine/ Mandarin oranges -| 30 || Carrot || 9 -|----- -| Indian gooseberry || 445 || Passion fruit -| 30 || Avocado || 8 -|----- -| Guava || 100 -|----- -| Kiwifruit || 90 || Spinach -| 30 || Crabapple || 8 -|----- -| Broccoli (raw) || 90 || Cabbage (raw green) -| 30 || Peach || 7 -|----- -| Loganberry || 80 || Lime -| 20 || Apple || 6 -|----- -| Redcurrant || 80 || Mango -| 20 || Blackberry || 6 -|----- -| Brussels sprouts || 80 || Melon, honeydew -| 20 || Beetroot || 5 -|----- -| Lychee || 70 || Raspberry -| 20 || Pear || 4 -|----- -| Persimmon || 60 || Tomato -| 10 || Lettuce || 4 -|----- -| Papaya || 60 || Blueberry -| 10 || Cucumber || 3 -|----- -| Strawberry || 50 || Pineapple -| 10 || Fig || 2 -|----- -| Orange || 50 || Pawpaw || 10 || Bilberry -| 1 -|} - -Animal sources -Most species of animals synthesise their own vitamin C. It is therefore not a vitamin for them. Synthesis is achieved through a sequence of enzyme driven steps, which convert glucose to ascorbic acid. It is carried out either in the kidneys, in reptiles and birds, or the liver, in mammals and perching birds. The loss of an enzyme concerned with ascorbic acid synthesis has occurred quite frequently in evolution and has affected most fish, many birds; some bats, guinea pigs and most but not all primates, including humans. The mutations have not been lethal because ascorbic acid is so prevalent in the surrounding food sources. - -It was only realised in the 1920s that some cuts of meat and fish are also a source of vitamin C for humans. The muscle and fat that make up the modern western diet are however poor sources. As with fruit and vegetables cooking destroys the vitamin C content. - -{| class=""wikitable""= -|+ Table Showing Relative Abundance of Vitamin C in Foods of Animal Origin -|----- -! Food of animal origin - mg vitamin C per 100 grams food -! Food of animal origin (contd) - mg vitamin C per 100 grams food -! Food of animal -! mg vitamin C per 100 grams food -|----- -| Calf liver (raw) || 36 || Chicken liver (fried ) -| 13 || Goats milk (fresh) || 2 -|----- -| Beef liver (raw) || 31 || Lamb liver (Fried) -| 12 || Beef steak (fried) || 0 -|----- -| Oysters (raw) || 30 || Lamb heart (roast) -| 11 || Hens egg (raw ) || 0 -|----- -| Cod Roe (fried) || 26 || Lamb tongue (stewed) -| 6 || Pork Bacon (fried) || 0 -|----- -| Pork liver (raw) || 23 -| Human milk (fresh) -| 4 || Calf veal cutlet (fried) || 0 -|----- -| Lamb brain (boiled) || 17 -| Cows milk (fresh) || 2 || Chicken leg (roast) -| 0 -|} - -Artificial chemical synthesis -Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process developed in the 1930s uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The more modern Two-Step fermentation process was originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. Both processes yield approximately 60% vitamin C from the glucose feed. - -In 1934, the Swiss pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass-produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of Redoxon. -Main producers today are BASF/ Takeda, Roche, Merck and the China Pharmaceutical Group Ltd of the People's Republic of China. - -Functions of vitamin C in the body -In living organisms, ascorbate is an antioxidant, since it protects the body against oxidative stress. It is also a cofactor in at least eight enzymatic reactions, including several collagen synthesis reactions that cause the most severe symptoms of scurvy when they are dysfunctional. In animals, these reactions are especially important in wound-healing and in preventing bleeding from capillaries. - - Vitamin C is needed for the production of collagen in the connective tissue. These fibres are in many places throughout the body; providing firm but flexible structure. Some tissues have a greater percentage of collagen, especially: skin, mucous membranes, teeth, and bones. - Vitamin C is required for making of dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline in the nervous system or in the adrenal glands. - Vitamin C is also needed to make carnitine, important in the transfer of energy to the cell mitochondria. - It is a strong antioxidant. - The tissues with greatest percentage of vitamin C—over 100 times the level in blood plasma—are the adrenal glands, pituitary, thymus, corpus luteum, and retina. - The brain, spleen, lung, testicle, lymph nodes, liver, thyroid, small intestinal mucosa, leukocytes, pancreas, kidney, and salivary glands usually have 10 to 50 times the concentration present in plasma. - -Vitamin C deficiency -Lack of ascorbic acid in the daily diet leads to a disease -called scurvy, a form of avitaminosis that is characterized by: - Loose teeth - Superficial bleeding - Fragility of blood vessels - Poor healing - Compromised immunity - Mild anemia. - -Daily requirement -A healthy person on a balanced western diet should be able to get all the vitamin C needed to prevent the symptoms of scurvy from their daily diet. People who smoke, those under stress and women in pregnancy have a slightly higher requirement. - -The amount of vitamin C needed to avoid deficiency symptoms and maintain health has been set by variously national agencies as follows: - 40 mg per day UK Food Standards Agency - 60–95 mg per day US Food and Nutrition Board 2001 revision. - -Some researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows: - 200 mg per day - Linus Pauling Institute and US National Institutes of Health (NIH) Recommendation. - 3000 mg per day - Vitamin C Foundation's recommendation. - 6000–12000 mg per day–Thomas Levy, Colorado Integrative Medical Centre recommendation. - 6000–18000 mg per day - Linus Pauling's daily recommendation - -High doses (thousands of mg) may result in diarrhoea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers (Cathcart) claim the onset of diarrhoea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. - -The small size of the ascorbic acid molecule means the kidneys cannot retain it in the body. Quite a low level in the blood serum will cause traces to be present in the urine. All vitamin C synthesising mammals have traces in the urine at all times. - -In April 1998 Nature reported alleged carcinogenic and teratogenic effects of excessive doses of vitamin C. This was given great prominence in the world's media. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms. Almost all mammals manufacture their own vitamin C in amounts equivalent to human doses of thousands of milligrams per day. Large amounts of the vitamin are used in orthomolecular medicine and no harmful effects have been observed even in doses of 10,000 mg per day or more. - -Therapeutic uses -Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent scurvy. It also has a reputation for being useful in the treatment of colds and flu. The evidence to support this idea, however, is ambiguous and the effect may depend on the dose size and dosing regime. The Vitamin C Foundation recommends 8 grams of vitamin C every half hour to show an effect on cold symptoms. - -Vitamin C advocacy -Fred R. Klenner, a doctor in Reidsville, North Carolina reported in 1949 that poliomyelitis yielded to repeated megadoses of intravenous vitamin C. - -Nobel Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling began actively promoting vitamin C in the 1960s as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease. - -A minority of medical and scientific opinion continues to see vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat infectious disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons. - -A meta-study of the published research claimed that relatively high levels of vitamin C must be maintained in the body for it to function effectively as an antioxidant. - -Some research shows that there are veterinary benefits of vitamin C as well. - -One meta-study of the published research examined the effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins. It was conducted in 2002 by Dr. Thomas Levy, Medical Director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Center in Denver. It claimed that overwhelming scientific evidence exists for its therapeutic role. - -Some vitamin C advocates say that vitamin C is not used therapeutically because it cannot be patented. Pharmaceutical companies seek to generate revenue and profit their shareholders. They may be reluctant to research or promote something that will make them little money. - -References - -Vitamins" -24058,92844,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasseramt%20%28district%29,Wasseramt (district),"Wasseramt is one of the 10 districts of the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland, found in the south of the canton. - -Wasseramt contains these municipalities: - -Districts of Solothurn" -12324,45446,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic,Electronic,"Electronic could mean: -Electronics, devices or parts of devices using electrical signals -Electronic music or electronica -Electron configuration in an atom or molecule -Video game company Electronic Arts" -15626,59642,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town%20privileges,Town privileges,"Town privileges were important things. They were special treaties or royal charters used in the Middle Ages. In such a charter, a sovereign, a monarch granted the town or city special rights. These usually included -The right to have a market, to form guilds -Some freedoms, like to determine the government of the town or city, or to judge criminals. -Some people who permanently lived in the town or city (called Burghers) had special rights. Getting these rights was a special privilege (and not granted to everyone). -Many of those charters were very similar. In the end, only few charters remained in use. Notable ones in the territory of modern-day Germany include the Lübeck law, the Magdeburg rights and the Kulm law. - -Middle Ages" -42,76,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browser,Browser,"A browser is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass. - -Ecology -Zoology" -13141,48167,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsey%20Jacobellis,Lindsey Jacobellis,"Lindsey Jacobellis (born August 19, 1985 in Danbury, Connecticut) is an American snowboarder. She competed in the 2006 Winter Olympics and won the silver medal. - -References - -Other websites - - Lindsey Jacobellis at NBC Olympics - Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames - - Lindsey Jacobellis at ESPN XGames - -1985 births -Living people -American Olympic silver medalists -Sportspeople from Connecticut" -2486,7953,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilt%20%28law%29,Guilt (law),"In criminal law, a person is guilty if a court has decided they have done something illegal. If a person has broken a law by stealing, for example, they are guilty of a crime. - -A person is guilty if a court says they are. The court has blamed them for doing something wrong. A guilty person is punished. The punishment is called the sentence. - -Law" -19465,74210,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Poland,President of the Republic of Poland,"The President of the Republic of Poland (Polish: Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) is the president of Poland. The president directly elected by the people to serve a term of five years. He can be reelected only once. His rights and responsibilities are determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Poland. - -In agreement with the current Constitution, the President of the Republic of Poland is the head of state, the supreme representative of Poland and the guarantor of the continuity of government and is prevented from holding office for more than two consecutive terms. This means that the President heads the executive authority, is appointed to represent Polish interests on the international arena, ensures the observance of the Constitution, and is responsible for the security of the state. The President calls elections to the Sejm and the Polish Senate. He has a right to dissolve the parliament when it fails to form a Council of Ministers or pass the budget act. He can (with the Senate's consent) call a national referendum in matters important for the state, requiring the decision of all the citizens. - -Living former Presidents -There are three living former Polish Presidents: - -References - - - -id:Presiden Polandia" -17285,65449,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami%20Ink,Miami Ink,"Miami Ink is an American television show on TLC about a tattoo shop in Miami, Florida. - -Other websites - -2005 American television series debuts -2008 American television series endings -2000s American television series -American reality television series -Miami, Florida -Television series set in Florida -English-language television programs" -20054,76783,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulfila%20Bible,Wulfila Bible,"The Wulfila Bible (or Gothic Bible) is a translation of parts of the Bible into the Gothic language. It was done by a Christian Bishop, called Wulfila, in the 3rd century. It contains mainly a translation of the New Testament. The basis for the translation was a Greek version of the Bible. Up till then, the Goths had used runes to write. This was impractical, though. For this reason Wulfila also invented the Gothic alphabet. The Gothic alphabet is based on the Greek one. - -Many copies of parts of the text still exist today. Most of them are from the 6th to 8th century. The Wulfila bible is the oldest written text of a Germanic language. It is very important for research. - -Text of The Lord's Prayer in the Wulfilabible -þ is pronounced like the English th in the. - -atta unsar þu ïn himina -weihnai namo þein -qimai þiudi nassus þeins -wairþai wilja þeins -swe ïn himina jah ana airþai -hlaif unsarana þana sin teinan gif uns himma daga -jah aflet uns þatei skulans sijai ma -swaswe jah weis afletam þai skulam unsaraim -jah ni brig gais uns ïn fraistubnjai -ak lau sei uns af þamma ubilin -unte þeina ïst þiudangardi -jah mahs jah wulþus ïn aiwins -amen - -Other websites - Full text of the Wulfilabible - Smaller gothic fragments - -Bible versions" -19797,75729,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism,Totalitarianism,"Totalitarianism is when regimes (political systems) control all public behaviour and as much of private behaviour as they can. No elections are held, or if they are, candidates must be approved by the ruling group. Physical force and/or arrests and detentions are used on people who protest against the regime. There are events such as parades or rallies. These suggest to the people that the ruling group is in complete control. - -For some, totalitarianism is as old as history. However, their main examples in modern times are Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, North Korea, the Soviet Union, Eritrea and China. - -There are other countries which had dictatorships, but never reached full totalitarianism. Italian fascism under Benito Mussolini, Spain under General Franco, Portugal under Dr. Salazar, China under Mao Zedong, and many Latin American countries for periods were dictatorships with some aspects of totalitarianism. Some African countries have been dictatorships for long periods (e.g. Zimbabwe). The Empire of Japan (predecessor state of the modern nation-state of Japan) was a well-known example of a totalitarian military dictatorship during World War II. The satire Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell was about such a society taken to extremes. - -The list is long: it is not true that most countries today are democratic. - -According to some, authoritarianism ""does not attempt to change the world and human nature"". In contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life and morals of citizens. - -Related pages - Dictatorship - Fascism - Nazism - Stalinism - -References - -Forms of government" -21153,81056,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiasso,Chiasso,"Chiasso is a municipality of the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -Sport - Football: FC Chiasso - Ice hockey: HC Chiasso - Road bicycle racing: GP Chiasso (UCI Europe Tour) - -References - -Other websites - Official municipality website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -14086,52286,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastide,Bastide,"A bastide is a fortified town. They were built mainly in the south of France in the Middle Ages. Most bastides were built between 1229 and 1373, between the Albigensian Crusade and the Hundred Years' War. Today, there are about 400 bastides. They all have a central square, and a rectangular street layout. On the market square, the houses have arcades. They were usually built in places that were easy to defend, such as the top of a hill or on a plain. - -Well-known bastides today are Carcassonne and Andorra la Vella. - -Overview -Bastides are medieval cities. There is an act of foundation (a law made to start them). There are often historic documents written about them. -Some times they are planned cities and are usually only one architect (or one lord) designs it. They were often built where there was already a village, or at a place of historical importance. They were sometimes also built where people bought and sold things a lot (for example where trading routes crossed). - -The Treaty of Paris (1229) is sometimes seen as the foundation act which made the construction of modern cities and bastides possible. The treaty itself ended the Albigensian Crusade. One of the first bastides built was Montauban. Montauban became a city in 1144. However some consider Mont-de-Marsan which was founded in 1133 to be a bastide. - -Purpose -Most bastides were built in the countryside. They were basically to serve the needs of local trade (usually, agriculture). A few of them were built in places which were very easy to defend. Others were built where it was possible to defend them, but most bastides were simply built where they were needed. The time when they were built was a peaceful one in the region. - -Builders of Bastides - -Bastides were built by people who had a high social status, such as: - - The counts of Toulouse, Raymond VII and Alphonse of Poitiers. - The kings of France, Louis IX, Philippe III, and Philippe IV. - The kings of England, Edward I, Edward II and Edward III. - High-ranking seneschals, Doat Alaman, Eustache of Beaumarchès and Jean of Grailly. They did this in the name of their lords. - Local lords, namely the counts of Foix, of Comminges and Astarac. - Religious authorities, such as monasteries and abbeys. - -Structural elements - -Central square -The main feature of all bastides is a central, open place, or square. It was used for markets, but also used for political and social gatherings. A typical square, (which was probably a model for other bastides), can be found in Montauban. - -Generally, there is just one square. Saint-Lys and Albias are different because they have two squares, one for the market, and one square for the church. - -The square is also used to divide the city into quarters. Generally it lies outside the main street (the axis) which carried the traffic. There are three possible layouts: - completely closed: The square does not touch any street. These are very rare; there is one example at Tournay with a size of by ). - single-axis: These happen because of the single-axis design of the bastide. All roads run in one direction and are parallel. Here and there there are alleys cut between the roads. The square is placed between two roads. These squares are usually to on each side. - grid-layout; usually based on the square in Montauban. - -Generally the flattest place in the bastide was used for the square. - -Church -Except in very rare cases, the church was not on the central square. Usually it was at an angle, and faced the square diagonally. One of the rare exceptions is Villefranche-de-Rouergue. - -Houses -There were clear rules how houses could be built in the bastide. The front of the houses - the façades - had to line up. Also there had to be a small space between the houses. The different housing lots were all alike, by was a common size. There were only a limited number of lots. This varied between 10, and several thousand (3,000 in Grenade-sur-Garonne) - -Streets -The streets were usually – wide, so a chariot could pass through. They ran alongside the façades of the houses. Alleys run between streets, these are usually only – wide. Sometimes they are only – wide. In a bastide there were usually between one and eight streets. - -City walls -When bastides were founded most had no city walls or fortifications. This was because it was a peaceful time in history. Such things were added later. This was done either through a special tax, or through a law that required that the people of the city helped build the walls. A good example is Libourne. Ten years after the city was founded, the people asked for money to build city walls. Once they had received the money, they spent it on making their city prettier, rather than building walls. - -At the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, many bastides that had no city walls were destroyed. Some of the others quickly built stone walls, to protect the city. - -Layout of a bastide - -There are different base layouts for bastides. Often for each type of layout, there was a bastide that was an example for other bastides. The most common layout started from two perpendicular streets. New streets were made parallel to the two original streets. This led to a usually rectangular grid layout. - -Unstructured bastide -There seems to have been no plan when these bastides were built. This may have been for the following reasons: - They were built in a place where there already was a hamlet or village and the bastide had to allow for the buildings. - There were very few people who lived in the bastide, (which means the reason for the bastide failed). - The lords who built them had little or no authority to put their ideas into practice. - -An example of such a bastide is La Bastide-de-Bousignac. - -Circular bastide -The circle layout for a bastide was very rare. The only surviving example is in Fourcès. - -Enclosing type -Enclosing bastides were built around an existing small village or hamlet. There already was a church or a small group of houses. When new houses were built, they were added around the original buildings. - -One axis design -There is one main street that links the two gates. This makes the axis around which the bastide was built. These are quite common, with about 30—40% of all bastides using this design. Very often they are found on flat land. The square is often made by making the main street bigger. Very often there are alleys which run perpendicular to the main street. This layout is very easy to change to fit in with the local landscape. - -An example of a one axis bastide is Gimont. Gimont is long, and only wide. Sometimes, there is another street which runs parallel to the main axis. The city square is made between the two streets. - -Two axis design -There are two main streets, axes, which are perpendicular (make a right angle). All other streets are at a right angle, or parallel to one of the two main streets. The city square is very often in the centre, or very near the centre. The whole city is either rectangular, square, hexagonal or oval shaped. This layout was the plan used at the height of the bastide movement. - -Making a bastide -A few steps are necessary to make a new bastide, these are: -Choosing a place where the baside can be built. -Choosing a name for it; there are different options: -Telling about the privileges of citizenship: Villefranche, La Bastide. -Telling about the site where it is built; Monségur or Montastruc tell about the fact the place was easy to defend or a pleasant one to live in. -The name tells about foreign cities the lord has visited when he went abroad, like for a crusade or for a war: Pavie, Fleurance (for Florence), Grenade, Cordes (for Cordoba), Tournay (for Tournai in Flanders ), but also Bruges (Bruges, also in Flanders) and Gan (Ghent, in Belgium). -Name of the founding nobleman, for example Libourne is named after Leyburn. -The authority of a king: Montréal (means: mountain of the king). -A contract is made between the noblemen who owned the land, and who (co-)founded the city. -A plan of what the city should look like is drawn. - -Once all this steps are done, the bastide is not yet founded. The next step is to attract people to come live in the new city. This is done by making a Charta of customs. This Charta does not tell so much about customs, but rather about the privileges those that live there (the citizens) get. These privileges can be of different kinds: -Based on taxes: Those that live in the city have to pay less taxes. -Based on a given legal status. -Based on honorifics. - -Bastides wanted to attract people who should come to live there. They therefore offered equality to those who came to live there. They made it look like citizens had equal rights, and were free. - -Legal foundations for bastides -The social system was very fixed and unchanging during the Middle Ages. The system of laws of the Middle Ages was built on the fact that society did not change. Everyone had their place in the system and they stayed there. The lords who built the bastide did not want to change the social system. All they wanted was small local improvements. Usually, the land where the bastide was built was not developed. The lords that owned the land were not making much money from it. They built the bastide because they hoped they would get more profits from the land. - -For these reasons, people who already had a social status, (serfs, noblemen and priests) could not settle in the bastide. A few poor noblemen gave their land to the city and started a career as a trader, because that way they could earn more money than before. - -The people who lived in the city looked free, but this freedom had limits: -When they came to the city, they had equal chances of being able to live there, and being made a citizen (Not all people who lived in the bastide were citizens). -On paper, all citizens had equal rights and duties. - -Men and women did not have equal rights. Women are often mentioned in the Charter, and have some rights: -In most of the bastides, husbands did not have the right to beat their wives. -There are special rules regarding dowry. Sometimes even men have to pay it. - -Lepers were usually not welcome in the city. Certain bastides had special places which would treat them, but they were generally excluded from social life. They had to wear special badges to show they were ill, and they could not come close to normal people. - -Another group of people that was generally not welcome were the Jews. In the beginning there was no problem, but later Jews were persecuted. Philip IV of France did not allow any Jews to live in France, in 1306. He confiscated their belongings and sold them. - -Charter - -Later developments -A number of bastides were successful and still exist today. Many others have failed, and most of their population left them. - -The bastides had three stages of development or change: - - Many bastides failed to take off, and disappeared, as new people did not come to live there. Those that are left see an economic growth that changes the way south-eastern France is organised. - During the Hundred Years' War the bastides that are left, are forced to build city walls to defend themselves. Those that do not disappear from the map during the war. After the end of the war, there is prosperity again. The position of the bourgeoisie is strengthened. Long-distance roads are built and the bastides along these roads profit enormously. -In the 19th and 20th centuries people left the countryside to move to the cities. During this time bastides are tested again, and some disappear. - -Images - -Related pages -List of Bastides - -References - -Reading material" -966,3858,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spade,Spade,"In gardening, a spade is a tool for digging. It is similar to a shovel. It has a straight handle, usually of wood and a blade, usually of steel. - -For some purposes the difference between a spade and a shovel is important. For example, spade more easily digs in hard soil; a shovel more easily moves gravel. - -In card games a spade is one of the four shapes or ""suits"" of cards. -Basic English 850 words -Gardening tools" -9341,32003,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodilia,Crocodilia,"The Order Crocodilia is a group of Archosaur reptiles. There are three living families. - -Crocodiles are the nearest living relatives to birds, because they are both survivors of the Archosaurs. - -Crocodiles are first found in the Upper Cretaceous period. They are descendents of a much wider group of Archosaurs called the Crocodylomorphs. These, in the Upper Triassic, were slender land-living forms, the sister group of the dinosaurs. - -The Crocodylomorphs, in turn, were part of an even larger group, the Crurotarsi, which are first seen early in the Triassic. - -Sauropsida -Archosauria -Crurotarsi -Crocodylomorphs -Crocodilia - -Taxonomy - Order Crocodilia - Family Crocodylidae - Crocodiles - Family Alligatoridae - Alligators - Caimans - Family Gavialidae - Gharial - False Gharial" -24009,92716,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchberg,Buchberg,"Buchberg is a municipality in the canton of Schaffhausen in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -Municipalities of Schaffhausen" -8885,30077,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1689,1689," - -Events - Louis XIV of France passed the ""Code Noir,"" allowing the full use of slaves in the French colonies. - January 11 – The Parliament of England declares King James II of England deposed. - February 13 – William III and Mary II are proclaimed co-rulers of England, Scotland and Ireland. Scotland and Ireland do not yet recognize them. - April 11 – The Estates of Scotland declare King James VII of Scotland deposed. - April 11 – Crowning of co-rulers King William III and Mary II as King and Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland. Ireland does not recognize them yet. - May 12 – King William's War: William III of England joins the League of Augsburg starting the war. - May 24 – The Act of Toleration passes the English Parliament protecting Protestants (Roman Catholics are intentionally excluded). - May 25 – Last collection of the Hearth Tax n England and Wales. It was abolished by William III of England - May 31 – Leisler's Rebellion – Calvinist Jacob Leisler deposes lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson and assumes control of New York colony - July 27 – Glorious Revolution: Battle of Killiecrankie ends - August 5 – 1,500 Iroquois attack village of Lachine, in New France. - August 27 – China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk. - December 16 – The official declaration of the English Bill of Rights" -20747,79801,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/56%20%28number%29,56 (number),"Fifty-six is a number. It comes between fifty-five and fifty-seven, and is an even number. It is divisible by 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 14, 28, and 56. - -Integers" -19385,73826,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipton%20%28disambiguation%29,Tipton (disambiguation),"Tipton may refer to: - -Towns or Cities -Tipton, town in the West Midlands, England - -Tipton, Indiana, city in Indiana, USA -Tipton, Iowa, city in Iowa, USA -Tipton, Kansas, city in Kansas, USA -Tipton, Oklahoma, city in Oklahoma, USA - -People -Analeigh Tipton, the American figure skater, actress, and fashion model. -Billy Tipton, the American jazz musician and bandleader. -Zurlon Tipton, the American football player. - -In Fiction -The Tipton Hotel or fictional character London Tipton from the television series, The Suite Life of Zack and Cody" -3885,11612,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius,Vilnius,"Vilnius is the largest city and the capital of Lithuania, with a population of 553,904 (850,700 together with Vilnius County) as of December 2005. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County. Vilnius lies 312 kilometres (194 mi) from the Baltic Sea and Klaipėda, the chief Lithuanian seaport. Vilnius is connected by highways to other major Lithuanian cities, such as Kaunas (102 km/63 mi away), Šiauliai (214 km/133 mi away) and Panevėžys (135 km/84 mi away). - -History -See History of Vilnius - -Population -According to the 2001 census by the Vilnius Regional Statistical Office, there were 542,287 inhabitants in the Vilnius city municipality, of which 57.8% were Lithuanians, 18.7% Poles, 14% Russians, 4.0% Belarusians, 1.3% Ukrainians and 0.5% Jews. - -Climate -The climate of Vilnius is considered as Humid Continental or Hemiboreal by Köppen climate classification. Summers can be hot, with temperatures above thirty degrees Celsius throughout the day. Winters can be very cold, with temperatures rarely reaching above freezing - -Tourism - -Vilnius is a cosmopolitan city with diverse architecture. There are more than 40 churches in Vilnius. Restaurants, hotels and museums have sprouted since Lithuania declared independence. Like most medieval towns, Vilnius was developed around its Town Hall. The Old Town, the historical centre of Vilnius, is one of the largest in Europe (3.6 km²). The most valuable historic and cultural sites are concentrated here. The main sights of the city are Gediminas Castle and Cathedral Square, symbols of the capital. The Old Town of Vilnius was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1994. In 1995, the first bronzecast of Frank Zappa in the world was installed near the center of Vilnius with the permission of the government. - -Economy -Vilnius is the major economic centre of Lithuania and one of the largest financial centres of the Baltic states. - -Education -The city has many universities. The biggest are: - Vilnius University - Vilnius Gediminas Technical University - Mykolas Romeris University - Vilnius Pedagogical University - -Specialized higher schools with the university status are: - - General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania - Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre - Vilnius Academy of Fine Arts - National M. K. Čiurlionis School of Art - -Religion - -Vilnius is the Roman Catholic center of the country, with the main church institutions and Archdiocesan Cathedral located here. There are many churches in the city as there are many monasteries and religion schools. The Church architecture in the city includes Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassical styles, these styles can be foundin the Old Town. Vilnius is considered one of the main centers of the Polish Baroque movement in architecture of churches. Vilnius has been home to an Eastern Orthodox Christian presence since the thirteenth century. A famous Russian Orthodox monastery, named for the Holy Spirit, is located near the Gate of Dawn. St. Paraskeva's Orthodox Church in the Old Town is the site of the baptism of Hannibal, the great-grandfather of Pushkin, by Tsar Peter the Great in 1705. A number of Protestant and other Christian groups are present in Vilnius, most notably the Lutheran Evangelicals and the Baptists. - Once widely known as Yerushalayim De Lita (the ""Jerusalem of Lithuania""), Vilnius once was comparable only to Jerusalem, Israel, as a world center for the study of the Torah, and for its large Jewish population. That is why one part of Vilnius was named Jeruzalė. At the end of the 19th century, the number of synagogues in Vilnius was more than hundred. -Islam came to Lithuania in the 14th century from Crimea and Kazan, through the Tatars. Tatars in Lithuania have maintained their religious practices: currently, about 3,000 Tatar Muslims live in Lithuania. There are same few groups of pre-Christian pagan in the city. - -Subdivisions - -The city of Vilnius is made up of 21 elderates that are based on neighbourhoods: - Verkiai — includes Baltupiai, Jeruzalė, Santariškės, Balsiai, Visoriai - Antakalnis — includes Valakampiai, Turniškės, Dvarčionys - Pašilaičiai — includes Tarandė - Fabijoniškės — includes Bajorai - Pilaitė - Justiniškės - Viršuliškės - Šeškinė - Šnipiškės - Žirmūnai — includes Šiaurės miestelis - Karoliniškės - Žvėrynas - Grigiškės — a separate town included in the Vilnius city municipality - Lazdynai - Vilkpėdė — includes Vingis park - Naujamiestis — includes bus and train stations - Senamiestis (Old Town) — includes Užupis - Naujoji Vilnia — includes Pavilnys, Pūčkoriai - Paneriai — includes Trakų Vokė, Gariūnai - Naujininkai — includes Kirtimai, Salininkai, Vilnius International Airport - Rasos — includes Belmontas, Markučiai - -Transport - -Motorways -Vilnius is the starting point of the Vilnius-Kaunas-Klaipėda motorway that runs across Lithuania and connects the three major cities. The Vilnius-Panevėžys motorway is a branch of the Via-Baltica. - -Airports -Vilnius International Airport serves most Lithuanian international flights to many major European destinations. - -Public Transport -Vilnius has a public transportation system. There are over 60 bus and 19 trolleybus routes, the trolleybus network is one of the biggest in Europe. Over 250 buses and 260 trolleybuses transport about 500,000 people every day. In the end of year 2007 a new electronic monthly ticket system was introduced. - -Sister cities -Vilnius has 14 sister cities. - -References - -Other websites - - - Vilnius Public Transport System" -3960,12277,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012,2012,"2012 (twenty twelve) (MMXII) was a . - -The year 2012 was the International Year of Cooperatives and the Alan Turing Year. - -2012 was the Chinese Year of Water Dragon based on the 12-year Chinese Zodiac cycle. - -Events - -January - - January 1 – Start of Denmark's Presidency of the European Union - January 5 – Portia Simpson-Miller becomes Prime Minister of Jamaica for a second time. - January 6 – New Mexico celebrates the 100th anniversary of its statehood. - January 10 – The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes before midnight, after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima in Japan in 2011, and the nuclear threat level. - January 13–22 – The first Winter Youth Olympics are held in Innsbruck, Austria. - January 14 – The cruise ship Costa Concordia runs aground off the Tuscan coast, at the island of Giglio, and partially sinks. Out of more than 4000 people on board, at least 30 people are killed. - January 18 – The English language Wikipedia blacks out for 24 hours in protest against the internet laws SOPA and PIPA proposed by the United States Congress. - January 20 – 185 people are killed in a series of coordinated bombings in Kano, Nigeria, carried out by the Islamist extremist group Boko Haram. - January 23 – The EU adopts an embargo against Iran over its uranium enrichment. - January 30 – Following this date, cold weather in Europe causes several deaths, due to the low temperatures. - January 31 – 433 Eros, the second-largest Near Earth Object on record (size 13×13×33 km) passes Earth. NASA studied Eros with the NEAR Shoemaker probe launched on February 17, 1996. - -February - - February 1 – Violence erupts at the end of a football match in Port Said, Egypt, killing 74 people. - February 2 – The ferry MV Rabaul Queen sinks off the north coast of Papua New Guinea, with at least 230 people being rescued, and several missing. - February 6 – Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II marking the 60th anniversary of her accession to the Thrones of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia & New Zealand (as well as the 60th anniversary of her becoming Head of the Commonwealth). - February 7 - President of the Maldives Mohamed Nasheed announces his resignation. Mohammed Waheed Hassan takes over from him. - February 11 - American singer and actress Whitney Houston is found dead at her hotel in Los Angeles. - February 12 - The Zambia national football team wins the African Cup of Nations, defeating the Ivory Coast. - February 15 - A fire at a prison in Honduras kills at least 357 people. - February 17 - President of Germany Christian Wulff announces his resignation following a home-loan scandal. He is the shortest-serving President in the history of the Federal Republic of Germany. Horst Seehofer becomes interim-President. - February 19 - Iran suspends oil exports to France and the United Kingdom, after sanctions were imposed by the EU and the United States. - February 21 - EU finance ministers reach an agreement on a 130 billion-Euro bailout for Greece. - February 25 - Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi succeeds Ali Abdullah Saleh as President of Yemen. - -March - - March 2 - A tornado outbreak in Alabama, Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana kills 39 people. - March 4 - Several munitions dump explosions in Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo, kill over 250 people. - March 4 - Vladimir Putin declares victory in the Russian Presidential Election, returning him to the Presidency. - March 13 - It is announced that, after 244 years, the Encyclopedia Britannica is to stop its print edition to focus on its online version. - March 13 - A coach crash in Switzerland kills 28 people, including 22 children, who were returning to Belgium. - March 18 - Joachim Gauck is chosen to succeed Christian Wulff as President of Germany. He becomes President immediately. - March 19 - Four people are killed in a shooting attack at a Jewish school in Toulouse, France. The gunman, Mohammed Merah, is killed three days later after a siege. - March 22 - Ahmed Toumani Toure, President of Mali, is ousted in a coup after armed soldiers attack government offices. - March 25 - Macky Sall is elected President of Senegal, succeeding Abdoulaye Wade. - -April - April 1 - Aung San Suu Kyi wins a seat in the Burmese parliament. - April 2 - President of Hungary Pal Schmitt resigns following a plagiarism scandal. - April 5 - President of Malawi Bingu wa Mutharika dies. Joyce Banda succeeds him. - April 6 - The National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad declares an independent state, Azawad, in northern Mali, which is not recognised internationally. - April 11 - Two strong earthquakes strike off the Indian Ocean coast of Sumatra, causing widespread panic and tsunami alerts all around the Indian Ocean. - April 12 - A coup takes place in Guinea-Bissau as mutinous soldiers arrest interim President Raimundo Pereira and Presidential candidate Carlos Gomes Junior, as they take control of the capital, Bissau. - April 13 - Kwangmyongsong-3, a North Korean earth observation satellite, explodes shortly after launch. - April 16 - The trial of Anders Behring Breivik, perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, begins in Oslo. - April 22 - Francois Hollande defeats Nicolas Sarkozy in the first round of the French Presidential election. They both go through to the second round, as National Front leader Marine Le Pen comes third. - April 26 - Former President of Liberia Charles Taylor is found guilty of war crimes, committed during the Sierra Leone Civil War. - -May - - May 2 – Edvard Munch's The Scream sells for 120 million US dollars, a record price for a work of art at auction. - May 6 – Second round of the French Presidential Election: Francois Hollande is elected President of France, defeating Nicolas Sarkozy. - May 6 – The Parliamentary election in Greece ends in an inconclusive result. A re-run is scheduled for June 17. - May 7 – Vladimir Putin becomes President of Russia for a second time, swapping places with Dmitry Medvedev, who becomes Prime Minister. - May 12 – The 2012 World Expo begins in Yeosu, South Korea. It is due to last until August 12. - May 15 – Francois Hollande becomes President of France. - May 18-20 – The G8 Summit is held at Camp David, near Washington, DC after a last minute switch of location. Chicago was originally the host city of the G8 summit prior to the NATO Summit. - May 20 – Taur Matan Ruak becomes President of East Timor. - May 20-21 - The first NATO Summit in the United States outside of Washington, D.C. is held in Chicago, Illinois. - May 20 – A magnitude 6 earthquake strikes northern Italy, killing at least 7 people and destroying many historic buildings. - May 20 – Annular solar eclipse: Path of annularity runs through the Pacific Ocean from East Asia to the Western and Midwestern United States. - May 22 - The Tokyo Skytree in Tokyo, Japan, opens to the public. It is the tallest self-supporting tower in the world, at a height of 634 metres. - May 26 – Final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku, Azerbaijan, which is won for Sweden by Loreen. - May 29 - Mitt Romney secures the Republican Party nomination for President of the United States. - -June - - June 2 - Former President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to prison for ordering the killing of demonstrators during the 2011 Egyptian protests. - June 2-5 - Celebrations take place across the UK and Commonwealth to mark Queen Elizabeth II's 60 years on the throne. - June 3 - A Dana Air Flight crashes into a building in Lagos, Nigeria, killing all 153 people on board and 40 on the ground. - June 4 - Partial lunar eclipse - June 6 – The second and last solar transit of Venus of the century. The next pair is predicted to occur in 2117 and 2125. - June 8-July 1 – The UEFA Euro 2012 is played in Poland and Ukraine. It is won by the Spain national football team. - June 9 - Devastating wildfires begin in Colorado. - June 17 - Parliamentary election in Greece: The second such election in Greece in the space of six weeks. - June 17 - The deciding round of Egypt's Presidential election is held. - June 18-June 23 – Turing Centenary Conference at the University of Cambridge, in honor of the mathematician, computer scientist, and cryptographer Alan Turing, the last day of the conference being the hundredth anniversary of his birth. - June 20 - Antonis Samaras is sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece. - June 22 - President of Paraguay Fernando Lugo is removed from office by impeachment and is succeeded by Federico Franco. - June 22 - A Turkish Air Force McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter airplane is shot down by the Syrian Armed Forces, killing both pilots on board, further damaging already difficult relations between the two countries. - June 24 - Shenzhou 9, a Chinese spacecraft carrying three Chinese astronauts, including the first female one, docks manually with orbiting module Tiangong 1, becoming the third country to successfully perform the mission. - June 24 - Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood is announced as the winner of Egypt's Presidential election. - June 28 - The United States Supreme Court declares that Barack Obama's healthcare reform plan is constitutional. - June 30 - Mohamed Morsi is sworn in as President of Egypt. - June 30 - Iceland's Presidential election is held, won by incumbent President Olafur Ragnar Grimsson. - June 30 - An extra leap second is added at the end of the month. - -July - - July 1 - Start of Cyprus' Presidency of the European Union - July 1 - Presidential election in Mexico - won by Enrique Pena Nieto. - July 4 - Scientists at CERN announce that they have discovered a particle whose properties are consistent with those of the Higgs boson, after experiments were carried out at the Large Hadron Collider. - July 7 - Flooding affects parts of the Krasnodar Krai region in southern Russia, killing 72 people. - July 13 - FIFA is embroiled in its second corruption scandal in just over a year, as Sepp Blatter claims that there may have been irregularities when Germany won the right to host the 2006 FIFA World Cup. - July 18–21 – The 2012 World Rowing Championships are held at Plovdiv, Bulgaria. - July 20 - A gunman opens fire at a cinema in Aurora, Colorado. The shooting kills 12 people and 59 are reported injured. - July 24 - John Atta Mills, President of Ghana, dies while still in office. John Dramani Mahama takes over the running of the country until the election in December. - July 25 - Pranab Mukherjee becomes President of India, succeeding Pratibha Patil, whose five-year term expired. - July 27 – Opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics begins in London at 7:30 pm UTC, 8:30pm BST. - July 29 - In Romania, a referendum is held on whether President Traian Basescu should be removed from office. He remains in his position after a low voter turnout. - July 30/31 - Large parts of northern and eastern India are affected by wide-scale power failures, leaving over 600 million people without electricity. - -August - - early August - Typhoon Haikui causes flooding in the Philippines. - August 6 - Curiosity, the Mars Science Laboratory mission's rover, successfully lands on the planet Mars. - August 11 - Two earthquakes over magnitude 6, followed by several aftershocks, strike the area around Tabriz in northwestern Iran, killing over 300 people. - August 11 - US presidential candidate Mitt Romney chooses Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan as his running mate. - August 11 - The Jamaican men's 4 by 100 metre team wins the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, meaning that Usain Bolt successfully defends all three of the titles he won in Beijing in 2008. - August 12 – The closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London takes place. Host nation Great Britain finishes with the third-highest gold medal count, 29, winning 65 medals overall. - August 16 - Police open fire on striking miners at the Marikana mine in South Africa, killing 34. - August 22 - It is ruled that the attempt to unseat Romania's President Traian Basescu in a referendum was not legal. - August 24 - Cyclist Lance Armstrong announces that he will no longer fight against doping allegations, as the World Anti-Doping Agency strips him of his seven consecutive (in-a-row) Tour de France titles. - August 24 - A court in Oslo declares Anders Behring Breivik sane and rules that he should serve a 21-year prison sentence for the 2011 Norway attacks. - August 29 - Start of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London. - August 31 - Researchers announce the successful implantation of an early prototype bionic eye with 24 electrodes. - August 31 - Armenia breaks off diplomatic ties with Hungary, after the extradition of Azerbaijani Ramil Safarov to his homeland, followed by his pardoning. He had been convicted of killing an Armenian soldier in Hungary in 2004. - -September - September 7 - Two earthquakes in southern China kill at least 80 people. - September 7 - Canada breaks off diplomatic relations with Iran, over its stance on Syria, its nuclear programme and its human rights record. - September 9 – End of the 2012 Summer Paralympics. - September 11 - Both embassies in Cairo, Egypt and in Benghazi, Libya were attacked by Muslims who were believed to be protesting over a movie Innocence of Muslims, this attack killed U.S. Ambassador of Libya Christopher Stevens, Sean Smith, and 2 more people were killed and about two injured. It was later revealed that this may have been a coordinated terrorist attack. - September 27 - Flooding affects parts of southern Spain. - September 28 - A plane crashes shortly after take-off from Kathmandu, Nepal, and bursts into flames, killing all 19 people on board, who were heading to Mount Everest Base Camp. - September 30 - Europe wins the Ryder Cup golf tournament over the United States, coming back from far behind to win. - -October - - October 1 - A ferry accident in Hong Kong kills 38 people. - October 3 - A bomb attack believed to be linked to the Syrian conflict is carried out on the other side of the border with Turkey. - October 9 - Pakistani schoolgirl and education activist Malala Yousafzai is shot and wounded during an assassination attempt by the Taliban while returning home on a school bus. - October 12 - The European Union wins the Nobel Peace Prize. - October 14 - Austrian skydiver Felix Baumgartner becomes the first person to break the sound barrier (travel faster than the speed of sound) without mechanical help, during a record space dive out of the Red Bull helium-filled balloon from 24 miles (39 kilometres) over Roswell, New Mexico, United States. - October 15 - British Prime Minister David Cameron and Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond sign an agreement in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the terms and conditions of a referendum on Scottish independence, due to be held in 2014. - October 19 - A bomb attack in Beirut, Lebanon, kills 11 people, including the Lebanese army chief, in an attack believed to be linked to the conflict in neighbouring Syria. - October 24 - Ireland ceases analog television broadcasts. - October 24-30 - Hurricane Sandy kills over 200 people in Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba, the Bahamas, Eastern United States and parts of Canada and, in terms of diameter, it is the biggest North Atlantic Hurricane ever measured. Considerable storm surge damage causes major disruption on the eastern seaboard of the United States. - October 26 - Silvio Berlusconi is found guilty of tax fraud. - October 30 - Hurricane Sandy dissolves. - -November - - November 3 - The New York City Marathon is cancelled for the first time in 42 years, due to Hurricane Sandy. - November 4 - Bishop Tawadros is elected the next Pope of the Coptic Church in Egypt, succeeding Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, who died in March. - November 6 – United States presidential election, 2012: After winning the electoral and popular vote, President Barack Obama wins re-election against Mitt Romney. - November 6 - A referendum is held in Puerto Rico on its future status. A majority support a change, with a majority of them voting for Puerto Rico becoming the 51st US State. - November 6 - In referendums, a majority of voters in the US States of Maine, Maryland and Washington support introducing same-sex marriage. - November 6 - In other referendums, the states of Washington and Colorado have majorities voting for the legalisation of marijuana for recreational use, while Oregon rejects the proposal. - November 10 - Four days after the United States presidential election, 2012, Barack Obama secures the state of Florida, completing the 332-206 electoral college win. - November 13 – Total solar eclipse (It was visible in northern Australia and the South Pacific). - November 14 - Israel launches Operation Pillar of Defense on Palestinians in the Gaza Strip, killing Hamas military chief Ahmed Jabari. Hostilities over the following week kill 133 Palestinians and 5 Israelis. - November 15 - The Communist Party of China unveils Xi Jinping as its next General Secretary, who is expected to lead the People's Republic of China until 2022. - November 21 - After a week of violence in Israel and the Gaza Strip, the United States and Egypt announce a ceasefire, ending the week-long war. - November 25 - A fire in a clothing factory in Dhaka, Bangladesh, kills over 100 people. - November 25 - Regional elections are held in Catalonia, dominated by the issue of possible future independence from Spain. - November 25 - Sebastian Vettel wins the Formula One World Championship for the third year in a row, becoming the youngest driver to win three Formula One championships. - November 25 to December 2 - Typhoon Bopha, known in the Philippines as ""Pablo"", kills at least 1,020 people, with 844 missing, causing considerable damage on the island of Mindanao. - November 28 – Penumbral lunar eclipse. - November 29 - At the UN General Assembly, a majority of member states votes to give Palestine non-member observer state status. - -December - December 1 - Enrique Pena Nieto becomes President of Mexico. - December 3 – Jupiter in opposition. - December 8 - In Qatar, at the UN Climate Conference, it is agreed that the Kyoto Protocol is extended until 2020. - December 12 - North Korea announces that it has carried out a successful rocket launch. - December 14 - Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: A shooting occurs at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, as 26 people, including 20 children, are shot dead by 20-year-old Adam Lanza, who then turns the gun on himself. - December 15 - Egypt holds a referendum on its constitution. - December 16 - Parliamentary election in Japan: The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan, under Shinzo Abe, wins the election. - December 17 – Members of the Electoral College meet in each U.S. state. - December 19 - Park Geunhye is elected President of South Korea over Moon Jae-in. She becomes the country's first female leader in February 2013. - December 21 – 11:11 UTC. Winter Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, Summer Solstice in the Southern Hemisphere. - December 21 – The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, notably used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilization among others, completes a ""great cycle"" of thirteen baktuns. Some people believed that the end of this cycle would be the end of the world. - December 21 - Barack Obama nominates John Kerry to become United States Secretary of State, a position in which he would succeed Hillary Clinton. - December 26 - Shinzo Abe becomes Prime Minister of Japan for the second time. - December 28 - At the age of 115 years, 253 days, Jiroemon Kimura of Japan becomes the oldest man ever, overtaking Christian Mortensen who had died in 1998. The oldest-ever person is Jeanne Calment, who lived for 122 years, 164 days. - December 31 - Politicians in the United States do last-minute talks in an attempt at avoiding the so-called ""Fiscal Cliff"", a series of tax rises that would come into force in the new year. - -Deaths - -Nobel Prizes - Physiology or Medicine: John Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka - Physics: Serge Haroche and David J. Wineland - Chemistry: Robert Lefkowitz and Brian Kobilka - Literature: Mo Yan - Peace: European Union - Economics: Alvin E. Roth and Lloyd Shapley - -References" -21371,81842,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rag%C4%B1p%20Zarakolu,Ragıp Zarakolu,"Ragıp Zarakolu (born 1948) is a Turkish publisher who has long faced legal problems for publishing books on controversial things in Turkey, especially on minority and human rights in Turkey. - -Biography -Ragıp Zarakolu was born in 1948 on the island of Büyükada close to Istanbul. His father, Remzi Zarakolu, was the district governor on that island. Ragıp Zarakolu grew up with members of the Greek and Armenian minority in Turkey and began writing for ""Ant"" and ""Yeni Ufuklar"" magazines in 1968. - -In 1971, the Turkish government was overthrown. Ragıp Zarakolu was tried on charges of secret relations to Amnesty International. He spent five months in prison before being declared innocent. In 1972 Ragıp Zarakolu was sentenced to 2 years in prison for his paragraph in the journal Ant (Oath) on Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnam War. He stayed in Selimiye Prison (in Istanbul) and was set free in 1974 after a general amnesty. On his release Zarakolu refused to abandon his work for freedom of thought, because he wanted different thoughts and cultures to be available in Turkey. - -The Belge Publishing House, established in Istanbul in 1977 by Zarakolu and his wife Ayşenur, has been a focus for Turkish censorship laws ever since. The couple was imprisoned and the books confiscated and destroyed. - -In 1979 Ragıp Zarakolu was one of the founders of the daily newspaper Demokrat and took responsibility for the news desk on foreign affairs. The paper was banned and Ragıp Zarakolu was shortly imprisoned in 1982 because of his link to Demokrat. He was banned from leaving the country between 1971 and 1991. In 1986 he became one of 98 starters of the Human Rights Association in Turkey (HRA or in Turkish IHD). For some time Ragıp Zarakolu chaired the Writers in Prison Committee of International PEN in Turkey. Currently (beginning of 2007) he chairs the Committee for Freedom of Publication in the Union of Publishers. - -Until the military coup of 12 September 1980, Belge Publishing House mostly published academic and theoretical books. Afterwords Belge started to publish books written by political prisoners. The series of 35 books consisted of poems, shorts stories, novels. The list of publications (see a list of selected publications below) include more than 10 books (translations) of Greek literature, 10 books on the Armenian Question and five books related to the Jews in Turkey. There are also a number of books dealing with the Kurds in Turkey. - -He also published several books on the Armenian Genocide – such as George Jerjian's book History Will Free All of Us/Turkish-Armenian Conciliation and Professor Dora Sakayan's An Armenian Doctor in Turkey: Garabed Hatcherian: My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922 – which brought new criminal charges in 2005. - -In 1995 the Belge Publishing House offices were firebombed, forcing it to be housed in a cellar. Since his wife's death in 2002, Zarakolu continues to face further prosecutions. - -Notes - -References -International PEN calls for an end to publisher Ragip Zarakolu's trials - IFEX - Page of PEN American Center about honorary member Ragip Zarakolu - similar page of the English Centre of PEN - -Press release / OSCE - OSCE media freedom representative concerned over legal grounds for trials of publisher and writer in Turkey - -1948 births -Living people -Turkish people -Turkish journalists" -809,3487,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland,Holland,"Holland is the name of a region in the western part of the Netherlands. Holland was a county of the Holy Roman Empire and later the leading province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (1581–1795). - -Today, there is no country called ""Holland"". There are two provinces called ""Holland"" in the Netherlands: North Holland () and South Holland (). Those provinces were created in 1840. The earlier country and province of Holland used to be bigger, but some parts of that province were given to other provinces during the French occupation (1795-1813). For example, Willemstad became part of North Brabant, the islands of Vlieland and Terschelling were given to Friesland, and the island of Urk to Overijssel. But for a short time during that period (1806–1810), there was a country called ""Holland"", the Kingdom of Holland, which was in the central and northern Netherlands and East Friesland in Germany. - -Many people use the name ""Holland"" to refer to all of the Netherlands, including the other ten provinces. That is not correct and is like calling the United Kingdom, ""England"" or ""Great Britain"". Some Dutch people who do not live in Holland do not like it when people call the entire country Holland. But they don't mind using ""Holland"" when you mean the Dutch national football team, which they are used to calling ""Holland"". - -Regions of the Netherlands -Regions of South Holland -North Holland" -14274,53333,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joiner,Joiner,"For ""joinery"" in North American sense see: Woodworking joints - -A joiner is a person who makes woodwork that is used for buildings. That includes things that are called ""Finish carpentry"" and ""millwork"" in the United States. Joiners make and install parts of building, for example doors, windows, stairs, wooden panelling, mouldings, shop cabinets, kitchen cabinets, and other wooden items. The skills of a joiner are somewhat between a carpenter and a cabinetmaker. - -The terms joinery and joiner are not used often in the United States any more, but the main carpenters' trade union still calls itself the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. - -Woodworking -Construction occupations" -551,2866,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible,Bible,"The Bible, also known as the Holy Bible, is a group of religious texts of Judaism and Christianity, it contains the both Old Testament and The New Testament. The word Bible comes from the Greek word τὰ (biblía) which means ""books"" in English, because it is many books in one book. It includes laws, stories, prayers, songs, and wise words. A number of texts are both in the Hebrew Bible, used by Jews, and this Christian one. - -In considering the source and inspiration for the Bible one must see what the Bible says of itself. Several verses of scripture define the source, intent, and Author. 2 Peter 1:21 says this - ""No prophecy was ever made by the act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God."" Isaiah 55:11 tells us that His is a word of power - ""So shall My sword be that goes forth from My mouth; It shall not return to Me void, But it shall accomplish what I please, And it shall prosper in the thing for which I sent it."" Hebrews 4:12 says this - ""For the word of God is alive and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart."" - -When talking about the Bible, a book is used to speak about a number of texts. All the texts that make a book are believed to belong together. Most of the time, people believe they were written or collected by the same person. The Bible contains different kinds of such books. Some are history, telling the stories of the Jews, Jesus, or Jesus' followers. Some are collections of wise sayings. Some are God's commands to his people, which he expects them to obey. Some are songs of praise to God. Some are books of prophecy, messages from God that he gave through chosen people called prophets. - -Different groups of Christians do not agree which texts should be included in the Bible. Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The oldest surviving Christian Bible is the Codex Sinaiticus, a Greek manuscript from the fourth century AD. The oldest complete Hebrew manuscripts date from the Middle Ages. - -How it was written -For a long time the texts were passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. The Bible was written long ago in Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek. Translations were made later into Latin and some other languages. Now there are translations in English and many other languages. The books of the Hebrew Bible—what Christians call the Old Testament—were not all written at the same time. It took hundreds of years (about 1200 years). The process of putting it all together began around 400 B.C. The books of the New Testament, which was originally written in Greek, began to be collected together in about 100 A.D. It tells about events that happened between 4 B.C. and 70 A.D. These events included the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus. It also tells how his followers went around spreading his message. It ends with a description of how the world will end when Jesus returns to earth. Most of the writers of the New Testament were apostles of Jesus. These were people who said they had seen Jesus alive after his crucifixion. - -Translations and versions -A translation is when a scribe takes the source in one language and writes it in another language. Most texts of the Bible were written in Ancient Greek or in Aramaic or Hebrew. - -The first to provide a translation into Latin was Jerome, in the 5th century. He started what is known as the Vulgate today. Wufila translated the Bible into the Gothic language. In the early Middle Ages, people such as Petrus Valdes, and Jan Hus provided translations. - -The New Testament was first translated into English in 1382 by John Wycliffe, and his associates translated the Old Testament. The translation was made from the Vulgate Latin bible. Wycliffe did this so that people could see for themselves what the Bible said. The translation was completed in 1382. There were some later editions by other people to the Wycliffe bible, as it is called. It was translated into Middle English, the language of his day. Wycliffe did not have Church permission to do this, but he was protected by John of Gaunt, one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. After both Wycliffe and his protector were dead, the Church declared Wycliffe a heretic in 1415, and banned his writings. The Council of Constance decreed Wycliffe's works should be burned and his remains exhumed (dug up). Why was the Church so opposed? The translations challenged the Church's authority over the people. In church, explaining the Bible was the priest's work. Whatever he said could not be challenged. Once the ordinary people could read the Bible, they might have other opinions. - -The next step in translation was done in 1525 by William Tyndale. His translation was into Early Modern English, which we can just about understand today. Tyndale also did it without Church permission. His was the first translation to be printed, and several thousand copies were made. He had no protector, and his fate was terrible. He fled to Europe, but the agents of Thomas More (Chancellor of England at the time) eventually found him. Both Tyndale and his printer were executed by burning at the stake. - -Another well known translation is the 1611 King James translation (commonly known as the Authorized King James Version of the Bible). - -Some texts were written by historians who tried to show what Ancient Israel was like. Other texts are poems about God and his work. And others were used to make laws. Followers of Judaism and Christianity consider the Bible sacred but they do not all agree about what belongs in the Bible. What is considered part of the Bible changed with history. Different denominations include certain parts or leave out other parts. There is not one single version of the Bible; both the content of the books and their order may change. - -Languages do not match. When a translation is done, the translator has to decide between translation word for word, or capturing the sense of the text. When he decides to capture the sense, he will choose other words in the target language. This is called paraphrasing. - -Today there are dozens of versions of the Bible. Some are translations and some are paraphrases. A paraphrased version is where people take a translation and put it in their own words. As the Bible has been translated into modern languages, it is also possible that there are different translations of the same texts. The Bible is the best selling book of all time. 2.5 billion to more than 6 billion copies of the Bible have been sold to date. A complete version of the Bible exists in 471 languages. Parts have been translated in 2225 languages. Most Bibles can be found in the British Museum in London. - -Old Testament - -The Christian Bible is a collection of 66 books. The first 39 books are the Old Testament. It is the first part of the God's story of salvation. ""Salvation"" is God's long work of saving us from our sins. ""Sin"" is what happened when people decided to live their own way instead of God's way in the world that God created. That was when God began His great work of saving us from our sins. -To prepare the way, God had to destroy the whole world by a great flood, except for the family of Noah. Then God raised up a new people for Himself. They were the ancient Hebrews. God promised the Hebrews they would bring His salvation to the whole world. -The first five books of the Old Testament are mostly the story of how God chose the ancient Hebrews and taught them his laws. Following these are the twelve books that tell the history of the Hebrews. The next five are books of poetry and wisdom. One of these five books, the ""Psalms"", is a book of songs showing mainly how God wants to be worshiped. -The last seventeen books of the Old Testament were written by Hebrew prophets. These books tell about God's disappointment with the ancient Hebrews and His promise to bring them back to friendship with Him. The prophets also foretell a great surprise God was planning for the world-He was going to send His very own Son, the Messiah (the ""Anointed One""), the Saviour, to save us from our sins. -You can read about this Messiah in the New Testament. -In the Old Testament, Tanakh was mostly written in Hebrew; a few parts were written in Aramaic. This part of the Bible is considered to be holy by Jews as well as Christians. - -There are also a few books of the Old Testament's time called Deuterocanonical by those Churches that accept them as part of the Bible, and Apocrypha by those that do not. - -New Testament - -The second part is called the New Testament. The main part of this book is the story of the life of Jesus Christ. The four different versions of this story in the New Testament are called the Gospels. After the Gospels, there is also the story of what happened to the Church after Jesus's death and resurrection. Part of this is told through letters by early Christian leaders, especially Saint Paul. The final book of the Bible tells about a vision that St. John, one of the disciples of Jesus, had. In the vision John saw what would happen at the end of the world. This included judgement for evil and happiness for the people who had followed Jesus. One of the most quoted verses in the Bible is John 3:16: ""For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish [die] but have eternal life."" NIV - -Views about the Bible -People have different ideas about the Bible. Christians believe it is God's Word to people. The Jews believe that only the Old Testament is from God. Protestants and Catholics believe that the Old and New Testaments are God's Word. Catholics also believe that the books called Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical are part of the Bible. Sometimes different denominations disagree over exactly what the Bible means. - -According to Islam, the Injil itself is to be followed but it is believed to have been corrupted with time. The Qur'an is believed to be the successor. - -Atheists do not believe that gods exist, so the Bible is only an ancient book. - -Deists believe in God, but they believe that the Bible was written by people, so they don't see it as important. - -Some people in the Bible - - Abraham - King David - Isaac - Jacob - James (son of Zebedee) - Jesus Christ - John the Apostle - Joseph - Luke the Evangelist - Mark the Evangelist - The Virgin Mary - Matthew the Evangelist - Moses - Joshua - Noah - Saint Peter - Saint Paul - Timothy - Adam - Eve - -References - - Entre Galilée et l'Église : la Bible., Une mise au point. Étude. Joël COL. , AutoEdition Méguila, 2003. - -Other websites - The Bible Gateway: the complete Bible online - The Bible in Simple English" -24334,93792,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20%28disambiguation%29,David (disambiguation),"David (name) is a common given name and surname. - -David, King of Israel (c. 1011 – 971 BC) is a major character in the Bible and the Koran. - -David may also mean: - -People: - Saint David, the patron saint of Wales - David of Sasun, an Armenian epic hero - David I of Scotland, the former King of Scotland - David II of Scotland, the former King of Scotland - David (actor) (1908 - 1981), an Indian actor - David Tennant (born 1971), a Scottish actor - David Wilkerson (1931-2011), an American pastor, evangelist and author - Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825), a French painter - Karel David (born 1964), a Czech long-distance runner - -Art: - David (Bernini), a sculpture by Gian Lorenzo Bernini - David (Donatello), a sculpture by Donatello - David (Michelangelo), a sculpture by Michelangelo - David (Verrocchio), a sculpture by Andrea del Verrochio - -Films: - King David (film), a 1985 period drama about the Biblical figure starring Richard Gere" -14595,55039,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust%20%28disambiguation%29,Thrust (disambiguation),"Thrust is a reaction force described by Newton's Second and Third Law. For this meaning, see Thrust. - -This word has other uses: - For the land-speed record breaking car, see ThrustSSC and Thrust2 - For the computer game, see Thrust (computer game) - For the rapper, see Thrust (rapper) - For the Transformers characters, see Thrust (Transformers) - For the Herbie Hancock fusion album, Thrust (album) - For the semi-professional magazine which later changed its name to Quantum, see Thrust (magazine) - Thrust fault in geology" -22318,84516,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavement%20%28band%29,Pavement (band),"Pavement was an indie rock band from California, United States. They made music from 1989 until 1999. They were on the music label Matador Records. - -American rock bands -Indie rock bands -Musical groups from California" -7212,22923,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnid,Arachnid,"The Arachnids are a class of eight-legged arthropods. They are a highly successful group of mainly terrestrial invertebrates: spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, and mites, and a number of smaller groups. - -In 2019, a molecular phylogeny study put horseshoe crabs in the Arachnida. - -Definition -Arachnids are defined as coming from the class of Arachnida. The requirements for this class is to have two body regions; a cephalothorax and an abdomen; 4 pairs of legs; and 2 pairs of mouthpart appendages, the chelicerae and the pedipalps. - -Anatomy -All adult arachnids have four pairs of legs, and arachnids may be easily distinguished from insects by this fact, since insects have three pairs of legs. However, arachnids also have two further pairs of appendages that have become adapted for feeding, defense, and sensory perception. The first pair, the chelicerae, serve in feeding and defense. The next pair of appendages, the pedipalps have been adapted for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions. - -Like all arthropods, arachnids have an exoskeleton. They also have an internal structure of cartilage-like tissue, to which certain muscle groups are attached. - -Arachnids have no antennae or wings. Their body is organized into two parts: the cephalothorax, and the abdomen. - -Physiology -There are some adaptations for life on land. They have internal respiratory surfaces. These may be trachea (tubes), or a modification of gills into a 'book lung'. This is an internal series of lamellae used for gas exchange with the air. - -Diet and Digestive System -Arachnids are mostly carnivorous, feeding on the pre-digested bodies of insects and other small animals. Only the harvestmen and some mites eat solid food particles. Predigestion avoids exposure to internal parasites. Several groups secrete venom from specialized glands to kill prey or enemies. Several mites are external parasites, and some of them are carriers of disease (vectors). - -Arachnids pour digestive juices produced in their stomachs over their prey after killing it with their pedipalps and chelicerae. The digestive juices rapidly turn the prey into a broth of nutrients which the arachnid sucks into a pre-buccal cavity located immediately in front of the mouth. Behind the mouth is a muscular, pharynx, which acts as a pump, sucking the food through the mouth and on into the oesophagus and stomach. In some arachnids, the oesophagus also acts as an additional pump. - -Myth -The word Arachnida comes from the Greek for 'spider'. In legend, a girl called Arachne was turned into a spider by the goddess Athena. Arachne said she'd win a weaving contest against the goddess. Athena won, but Arachne became angry, and started to weave an insult to the gods. Then Athena turned her into a spider for her disrespect. - -Orders -The subdivisions of the arachnids are usually treated as orders. Historically, mites and ticks were treated as a single order, Acari. However, molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that the two groups do not form a single clade; morphological similarities are probably due to convergence. They are now usually treated as two separate taxa – Acariformes, mites, and Parasitiformes, ticks – which may be ranked as orders or superorders. The arachnid subdivisions are listed below alphabetically; numbers of species are approximate. - Acariformes – mites (32,000 species) - Amblypygi – ""blunt rump"" tail-less whip scorpions with front legs modified into whip-like sensory structures as long as 25 cm or more (153 species) - Araneae – spiders (40,000 species) -†Haptopoda – extinct arachnids apparently part of the Tetrapulmonata, the group including spiders and whip scorpions (1 species) - Opilioacariformes – harvestman-like mites (10 genera) - Opiliones – phalangids, harvestmen or daddy-long-legs (6,300 species) - Palpigradi – microwhip scorpions (80 species) - Parasitiformes – ticks (12,000 species) -†Phalangiotarbi – extinct arachnids of uncertain affinity (30 species) - Pseudoscorpionida – pseudoscorpions (3,000 species) - Ricinulei – ricinuleids, hooded tickspiders (60 species) - Schizomida – ""split middle"" whip scorpions with divided exoskeletons (220 species) - Scorpiones – scorpions (2,000 species) - Solifugae – solpugids, windscorpions, sun spiders or camel spiders (900 species) - Thelyphonida (also called Uropygi) – whip scorpions or vinegaroons, forelegs modified into sensory appendages and a long tail on abdomen tip (100 species) -†Trigonotarbida – extinct (late Silurian to early Permian) -†Uraraneida – extinct spider-like arachnids, but with a ""tail"" and no spinnerets (2 species) -Xiphosura – horseshoe crabs (4 living species) - -It is estimated that 98,000 arachnid species have been described, and that there may be up to 600,000 in total. - -Images - -References - - -Arthropods -Parasites -Spiders" -4047,12418,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britcom,Britcom,"""Britcom"" is short for ""British sitcom"". It is a situation comedy show produced in the United Kingdom. This is what they are called especially in the United States and Australia, where they have cult followings. Some of them like Till Death Do Us Part and Steptoe and Son were remade as American comedy TV shows (All in the Family and Sanford and Son). - -Some famous Britcoms - - Dad's Army - Dinnerladies -* Fawlty Towers -* The Good Life -* Last of the Summer Wine -* Mr. Bean -* Only Fools and Horses" -13385,49104,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear%20%28disambiguation%29,Gear (disambiguation),"A gear is a toothed wheel designed to transmit force (torque) to another gear or toothed component. - -Gear can also mean: - - One of a series of pre-set rotation mechanisms for a manual transmission. - Gear (graphic novel), written by Doug Tennapel and later made into a TV show called Catscratch - Gear (comics), a DC comics superhero - Gear (Static Shock), a DCAU superhero - ""Gear"", a slang term for equipment or apparel, particularly used for motorcycle safety clothing and cargo - Gear (magazine), an international men's magazine - Gears, types of mecha in the Xenogears and Metal Gear video games, as well as the Heavy Gear universe - ""Gear"", a slang term for marijuana, used when making reference to the drug in a green or solid form - Gears are a type of biomechanical or mystical creature in the video games series Guilty Gear -Gears (Transformers), a character in Transformers - Gears of War, an Xbox 360 game - -GEAR may refer to: - Geographic and Energy Aware Routing, a routing protocol for wireless sensor networks" -11545,42042,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Tallis,Thomas Tallis,"Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation. - -We know very little about Tallis’s youth. He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey. After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I. - -Tallis was an organist and composer. He had to write music for the royal chapels. He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days. In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585. - -In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony. For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again. This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”. These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works. After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe. He wrote some very fine anthems. Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts. - -One of his works is called Spem in Alium. The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line. It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure. - -His Diliges Dominum is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”. - -English composers -Renaissance composers -English organists -1505 births -1585 deaths -Gentlemen of the Chapel Royal" -7582,24509,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1147,1147," - -Events - Siege of Lisbon: King Afonso I of Portugal and the Crusaders capture Lisbon from Muslims - First written mention of Moscow. - Abd al-Mumin destroys the Almoravid Empire - Dore Abbey founded - Wendish Crusade - -1147" -12500,46067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus,Prometheus,"Prometheus, is a Titan in Greek mythology. He is the son of Iapetus and Clymene. He created humans, originally made out of gold. He also stole fire from Zeus and gave it to humans. As punishment, Zeus had Prometheus chained to a mountain. Every day an eagle (symbol of Zeus) would come and eat his liver. Prometheus is immortal, so he never died, and his liver grew back every night. But he still felt great pain. - -After a long time, Zeus sent his son Heracles to free Prometheus by breaking the chains which held him. - -Aeschylus wrote a play about Prometheus. - -Gallery - -Other websites - - Theoi Text, Theogony - Theoi Text, Works and Days - Theoi Text, Prometheus Bound - Theoi Mythology, Prometheus - Theoi Mythology, Pronoea - GML, Prometheus - Encyclopedia Mythica, Prometheus - Messagenet, Prometheus - Prometheus, a poem by Noevel (French) - Prometheus, a poem by Byron - -Titans" -20118,77051,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damson,Damson,"A damson is a kind of plum. Like the plum, it comes from the Rosaceae family. Originally, the fruit comes from the Mediterranean. Damsons are thought to be members of the 'European Plum' family, which also includes greengage, mirabelle, quetsche, and Italian prune plums. The damson is generally less sweet than other kinds of plum and is used in jams, jellies, and liqueurs. - -Plums" -5119,16330,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wausau%2C%20Wisconsin,"Wausau, Wisconsin","Wausau is a city in Marathon County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. It is the largest city in the county, and it is the county seat (where the government of the county works). According to the 2000 census (official count), 38,426 people lived in the city. - -The Wisconsin River flows through the middle of the city. - -Other websites - -City of Wausau - -County seats in Wisconsin -Marathon County, Wisconsin -Cities in Wisconsin" -19411,73969,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiHow,WikiHow,"wikiHow is a wiki-based website with a collection of articles which tell people how to do things. The site uses version 1.12.0 of MediaWiki. As of August 2017, wikiHow contains more than 190,000 free how-to articles and over 1.6 million registered users. wikiHow's mission is to create the world's largest collection of how-to information. In May 2011, wikiHow had 36 million unique readers. - -History -In January 2005, Jack Herrick and Josh Hannah started wikiHow. On April 28, 2006, wikiHow was launched on its own www.wikihow.com domain. - -Censorship -wikiHow's censorship policy usually does not allow articles about things that: -Are ""sexually charged"" -Are inaccurate -Contain potty humor -Are joke pages, or pages that rely on backwards logic -Are spam pages, or pages advertising a product or service -Violate copyright -Are not a step-by-step how-to guide -Are illegal -Contain drug use; especially information about illegal drugs -Or are potentially destructive or dangerous. - -Some people complain that this does not support the idea behind an educational resource. - -References - -Other websites - wikiHow.com - wikiHow to Open Content - ""How to do absolutely everything"" , Macleans, October 16, 2006 - -Wikis -MediaWiki websites" -19788,75678,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Convention%20%28Germany%29,Federal Convention (Germany),"The Bundesversammlung, or Federal Convention, is a special federal body in Germany. - -It is made up of all of the members of the Bundestag, plus an equal number of delegates elected by the parliaments of the Länder. Those delegates don't have to be memebers of the Länder parliaments; sometimes celebrities are chosen. - -The convention usually has for about 1200 members. The only task of the Bundesversammlung is to elect the Federal President. - -Meeting - -The Bundesversammlung is called to meet by the President of the Bundestag, and the President of the Bundestag acts as Chairman of the Bundesversammlung. - -The Bundesversammlung meets at least thirty days before the end of the Federal President's term of office ends, in order to elect the next president. If the Federal President dies or is impeached, the Bundesversammlung meets within 30 days. - -Electing the President -The Bundesversammlung does not hold debates or question any of the candidates for president. -It chooses the next Federal President by an absolute majority vote. If no-one has an absolute majority on the first and second ballot, then they hold a third ballot, and the winner is the person who has the highest number of votes. - -German Bundestag -Government of Germany -President of Germany" -8032,26731,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20FrontPage,Microsoft FrontPage,"Microsoft FrontPage (Full name: Microsoft Office FrontPage) is a program made by Microsoft to help people make webpages and full websites. It was one of Microsoft Office programs until 2003. - -Microsoft FrontPage was commercially available in four versions: -FrontPage 98, FrontPage 2000, FrontPage 2002 & FrontPage 2003. - -A freeware version was also included in earlier releases of Internet Explorer. It was called FrontPage Express. It was a useful web editor without costing as much as professional software. FrontPage express is compatible with Windows XP and some other versions of Windows. FrontPage Express downloads are still available online from third-party hosts, such as stormthecastle.com. - -FrontPage is a WYSIWYG, ""What You See Is What You Get"", Web Editor. All versions of FrontPage are still in use by web developers all over the globe. - -The 2003 version is the last installment to the series. It was discontinued in 2006, being replaced by Microsoft Expression Web and Microsoft Office SharePoint Designer. - -The first version of the app was made by Vermeer Technologies in 2005, before its acquisition by Microsoft. - -References - -Microsoft software" -4781,15117,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy%20Frog,Crazy Frog,"The Crazy Frog is a 3D animated creature, featured on music albums. - -History -Before becoming a ringtone to download onto mobile phones, The Crazy Frog started as a TruboForce 3D animated creature. It was called “The Annoying Thing” in 2003 by its creator, Erik Wernquist of Sweden. With big eyes and a bigger mouth, the high resolution anthropomorphic “thing” is dappled grey-blue and nude save for a helmet, goggles and biker vest. All original videos and images also show small male humanoid genital in a relaxed state that move realistically. Some sources pixel out or remove the genitals. - -Music remixes -Members of Bass Bumpers had a dance remix of Harold Faltermeyer’s “Axel F” in early-2005, the Beverly Hills Cop theme, adding Daniel Malmedahl’s impression of a moped engine (Ring-a-ding-dong) and a Max Headroom, “What’s going on?” (among other dubbed words). In the music video for that remix the “Thing” says featured bites from Daniel’s bit (Ding, ding.) and zooms around on a mimed bike to escape a robot minion on a hover bike. - -The internet and media dubbed it both a Frog and crazy. Erik went along with it. - -First, it was simply a vocal imitation of a two stroke, internal combustion engine. Daniel Malmedahl of Sweden created a recording of his imitation in 1997 that eventually spread through peer to peer file sharing on the Internet. - -Sales and revenue -The company that sells Crazy Frog ringtones (Jamba!) has made £14 million from it. - -Animated characters" -12378,45676,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya%20pear,Ya pear,"The Ya pear or Chinese white pear is a type of pear. It is found in northern China, where it is grown for food. These pears are very crunchy, juicy, and fragrant. They have a skin that is pale white to light yellow, and the inside is white. - -Ya pears are sold everywhere in China, and can also be found in shops outside China. Outside China, they are often called Asian pears or Chinese pears. - -Rosaceae -Pears" -24327,93739,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandi%20Carlile,Brandi Carlile,"Brandi Carlile (born June 1, 1981) is an American singer and songwriter. Carlile's music has been categorized in several genres, including pop, rock, country, indie and folk. - -References - -Other websites - Brandi Carlile's official web page - Brandi Carlile's MySpace page - -1981 births -Living people -American singer-songwriters -Singers from Washington" -3501,10512,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Hanks,Tom Hanks,"Tom Hanks (born July 9, 1956) is an American actor, director, producer, screenwriter, and writer. - -Career -Many of Hanks' early movies were comedies. He was made famous by his roles in Splash and Big. He made his way into drama with A League of Their Own and Philadelphia. He combined the two genres with Forrest Gump. Hanks has starred in many more famous movies since, including Apollo 13, Saving Private Ryan, Toy Story (only his voice was used), Cast Away, The Terminal, The Da Vinci Code, The Green Mile, Captain Phillips, Sully, Bridge of Spies and The Post. - -Hanks played Fred Rogers in Marielle Heller's biographical movie A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood (2019), a role which earned him a Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations. - -Hanks has won several awards for acting. He won both a Golden Globe and an Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in Philadelphia. He also won a Golden Globe, an Academy Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and a People's Choice Award for Best Actor for his role in Forrest Gump. - -In 2014, he received a Kennedy Center Honor and, in 2016, he received a Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama, as well as the French Legion of Honor. - -Personal life -For his role in Saving Private Ryan, Hanks was honored as an honorary member of the United States Army Rangers Hall of Fame. - -In December 2019, he was naturalized as an honorary Greek citizen by the President of Greece. - -On March 12, 2020, Hanks announced that he and his wife Rita had tested positive for COVID-19 while shooting Elvis in Australia. - -Filmography - -Film - -Television - -Music video appearances - -Stage - -References - -1956 births -Living people -Actors from Contra Costa County, California -American Christians -American movie actors -American stage actors -American television actors -American voice actors -Best Actor Academy Award winners -Emmy Award winning actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors -People from Concord, California -People's Choice Award winners -Saturn Award winners -Screen Actors Guild Award winners -Writers from California" -18827,70742,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biescas,Biescas,"Biescas is a town in the province of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. It is on the river Gallego at and altitude of 875 m in the zone known as Tierra de Biescas. The population is 1240. - -It is divided in two main neighbourhoods ""San Pedro"" and ""El Salvador"", the last one divided other two neighbourhoods called ""Barrio Bajo"" and ""La Peña"" (or ""Barrio Alto""). - -There are two churches in the town, the first one, San Pedro's Church is in the neighbourhood of San Pedro and the second one San Salvador's Church in La Peña. - -Municipality of Biescas is divided in four parts - Tierra de Biescas, which includes the towns of Orós Alto, Orós Bajo, Oliván, Escuer Alto, Escuer Bajo and Biescas. - Sobremonte, which includes Aso de Sobremonte, Betés de Sobremonte and Yosa de Sobremonte. - Valley of Tena, where are the towns of Piedrafita de Jaca, Búbal, Polituara and Saqués. - Valley of Gavín, where Gavín is the only one town. - -Additionally Ainielle, Barbenuta, Bergusa, Casbas, Espierre, Susín and Javierre del Obispo are included in Biescas municipality - -References - -Settlements in Huesca -Municipalities in Aragon" -18572,69690,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20teller%20machine,Automated teller machine,"The full form of ATM is Automated Teller Machine for short, is a machine that lets people take out (withdraw) cash from their bank accounts. In the UK ATMs are often called cash machines, cashpoints or the hole in the wall. - -Some ATMs allow people to do more than take money out. They may allow people to put in money, or check how much money is in a bank account. - -ATMs may be found in stores and shopping malls. Sometimes, they can be found in bars or restaurants. Other times, at special events, people may set one up so the guests can use the machine, like at a fundraiser. - -People need a debit card or credit card in order to use an ATM. They will also need to have a Personal Identification Number (PIN), which is a code that lets them get into their account. - -There are a number of scams with ATMs. In one scam, con artists look over the victim's shoulder and find their PIN; this is known as shoulder surfing. In another, they may install a video camera and get PIN numbers from that way. They then make cards using the PIN number and account number to be able to use that person's account. - -Money -Technology" -6851,21600,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lozi,Lozi,"Lozi could mean: -The Lozi language -The Lozi people -Lozi (Homeland) (Bantustan) in South West Africa" -15156,57246,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecozone,Ecozone,"An ecozone or biogeographic realm is the largest scale biogeographic division of the earth's surface. - -These divisions are based on the historic and evolutionary distribution of plants and animals. Ecozones represent large areas of the Earth surface where plants and animals developed in relative isolation over long periods of time, and are separated from one another by geologic features, such as oceans, broad deserts, or high mountain ranges, that formed barriers to plant and animal migration. Ecozones correspond to the floristic kingdoms of botany or zoogeographic regions of mammal zoology. - -Ecozones are characterized by the evolutionary history of the plants and animals they contain. As such, they are distinct from biomes, also known as major habitat types, which are divisions of the earth's surface based on life form, or the adaptation of plants and animals to climatic, soil, and other conditions. Biomes are characterized by similar climax vegetation, regardless of the evolutionary lineage of the specific plants and animals. Each ecozone may include a number of different biomes. A tropical forest in Central America, for example, may be similar to one in New Guinea in its vegetation type, but these forests are inhabited by plants and animals with very different evolutionary histories. - -The patterns of plant and animal distribution in the world's ecozones was shaped by the process of plate tectonics, which has redistributed the world's land masses over geological history. - -The term ecozone, as used here, is a fairly recent development, and other terms, including kingdom, realm, and region, are used by other authorities with the same meaning. J. Schultz uses the term ""ecozone"" to refer his classification system of biomes. - -Biogeographical realms -In 1975 Miklos Udvardy proposed a system of 203 biogeographical provinces, which were grouped into eight biogeographical realms (Afrotropical, Antarctic, Australian, Indomalayan, Nearctic, Neotropical, Oceanian, and Palaearctic). Udvardy's goal was to create an integrated ecological land classification system that could be used for conservation purposes. - -WWF Ecozones - -The WWF ecozones are based largely on the biogeographic realms of Pielou (1979) and Udvardy (1975). A team of biologists convened by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) developed a system of eight biogeographic realms (ecozones) as part of their delineation of the world's over 800 terrestrial ecoregions. - Nearctic 22.9 mil. km² (including most of North America) - Palearctic 54.1 mil. km² (including the bulk of Eurasia and North Africa) - Afrotropic 22.1 mil. km² (including Sub-Saharan Africa) - Indomalaya 7.5 mil. km² (including the South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia) - Australasia 7.7 mil. km² (including Australia, New Guinea, and neighbouring islands). The northern boundary of this zone is known as the Wallace line. - Neotropic 19.0 mil. km² (including South America and the Caribbean) - Oceania 1.0 mil. km² (including Polynesia, Fiji and Micronesia) - Antarctic 0.3 mil. km² (including Antarctica). - -The WWF scheme is broadly similar to Udvardy's system, the chief difference being the delineation of the Australasian ecozone relative to the Antarctic, Oceanic, and Indomalayan ecozones. In the WWF system, The Australasia ecozone includes Australia, Tasmania, the islands of Wallacea, New Guinea, the East Melanesian islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand. Udvardy's Australian realm includes only Australia and Tasmania; he places Wallacea in the Indomalayan Realm, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and East Melanesia in the Oceanian Realm, and New Zealand in the Antarctic Realm. - -References - Cox, C. Barry & Peter D. Moore 1985. Biogeography: an ecological and evolutionary approach. 4th ed, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. - Dinerstein, Eric; David Olson; Douglas J. Graham; et al. 1995. A conservation assessment of the terrestrial ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington DC. - Ricketts, Taylor H. et al. 1999. Terrestrial ecoregions of North America: a conservation assessment. Island Press, Washington DC. - Schultz J. 2005. The Ecozones of the World. 2nd ed, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York. - Udvardy M.D.F. 1975. A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional Paper #18. Morges, Switzerland: IUCN. - Wikramanayake, Eric; et al. 2002. Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Island Press; Washington DC." -19409,73959,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengu,Tengu,"Tengu are a group of creatures from Japanese folklore. They are recognized for either a bird-like appearance or occasionally a human with a large nose or beak. - -Japanese folklore" -8735,29630,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma%20%28mathematics%29,Lemma (mathematics),"In mathematics, a lemma is a ""mini-proof""; a small hypothesis which is proved and then provides a part of a more important theorem. - -Popular Lemmas -A good small thing can lead to many big things. Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, such as Bézout's lemma, Dehn's lemma, Euclid's lemma, Farkas' lemma, Fatou's lemma, Gauss's lemma, Greendlinger's lemma, Itō's lemma, Jordan's lemma, Nakayama's lemma, Poincaré's lemma, Riesz's lemma, Schur's lemma, Schwarz's lemma, Urysohn's lemma, Yoneda's lemma and Zorn's lemma. While these results originally seemed too simple to get independent interest, they have turned out to be important to the theories in which they occur. - -Mathematics" -9910,33897,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrop-Rauxel,Castrop-Rauxel,"Castrop-Rauxel is a town in the Ruhr area in the German state North Rhine-Westphalia. It has about 78,000 inhabitants. - -References - -Other websites - -Recklinghausen Rural District" -9779,33334,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimpanzee,Chimpanzee,"The common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), or robust chimpanzee, is a species of great ape. The common chimpanzee is often called the chimpanzee (or ""chimp""), though this can be used to refer to both species in the genus Pan: the common chimpanzee and the closely related bonobo. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing show both species of chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to modern humans. - -The common chimpanzee is more robust than the bonobo, weighing between and measuring approximately from head to tail. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old, but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several more years; it reaches puberty at the age of eight to 10, and its lifespan in captivity is about 50 years. - -The common chimpanzee lives in groups which range from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a male-dominated, strict hierarchy, so disputes can generally be settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves and use them for acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts, and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. - -The common chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range in the forests and savannahs of West and Central Africa. The biggest threats to the common chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching and disease. - -Chimps eating habits - -Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as Colobus monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as one-third of the colobus population in the park each year. This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior. -""Goodall’s Gombe data have also led researchers to take a closer look at the role that hunting plays in chimp feeding habits. One recent Gombe study, for instance, concluded that the 45 members of one troop ate a ton of monkey meat per year. During one hunting binge, chimps killed 71 colobus monkeys in 68 days; one chimp alone killed 42 monkeys over five years. All told, chimps may kill and eat a third of the Gombe’s colobus population each year. Researchers have also found that lower-ranking males often trade the meat for mating privileges; such trades may help prevent inbreeding by keeping a single group of males from fathering the majority of a troop’s children"". - -Aggression within the troop -Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence within chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going as far as cannibalism. - -She says of this revelation, ""During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings. […] Then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal—that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature"". These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner. - -Aggression between groups -If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighbouring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbours one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighbouring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence. Their behaviour is quite different from any other behaviour known in chimpanzees: -""About every two weeks, males are drawn by some unknown signal to walk very quietly, single file, into a neighbouring territory to attack a vulnerable male... the overwhelming targets are other males"".249 - -The advantage for the males that triumph is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food. Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare. - -Account of aggression - ""Most Brutal Chimpanzee Society Ever Discovered | Rise of the Warrior Apes"" Research workers recount their findings on YouTube. - -References - -Hominins" -18111,68094,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsya,Matsya,"Hindus believe that the Matsya was the first important avatar of Vishnu. As the Matsya avatar, Vishnu took the form of a big fish. Sometimes, it is said that he took the form of a half-man and half-fish. There is a story about this in Hindu scriptures. The story tells about a demon (an asura). That asura was very wicked. He snatched the Vedas, the holy books of the Hindus, and went deep inside the sea. At this point, Vishnu changed his form. He became a matsya, that is, a fish. He entered the sea and brought back the Vedas. He gave the Vedas to Manu. The Hindu scriptures say that Manu was the first man in the world. He may be compared with Noah or Adam. - -Hinduism -Hindu mythology" -1195,4460,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil,Virgil,"Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was a poet in the Latin language. His poems are about gods and their mythology. Virgil's most famous epic poem is called the Aeneid. - -Life -Tradition is that Virgil was born in the village of Andes, near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Scholars looking at the way he used words think that he may have Etruscan, Umbrian or even a Celtic background. Study of his name has led to beliefs that his family may have been earlier Roman settlers. These modern beliefs are not supported by evidence from his own writings or from writers of his biographies. Some scholars have noted that his nickname, MARO, is an anagram of the two main themes in the Aeneid: AMOR (love) and ROMA (Rome). - -References - -70 BC births -19 BC deaths -Ancient Roman writers" -74,142,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%20%28building%29,Church (building),"A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology. - -The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops. - -History of church buildings - - - -In the early days of Christianity people had to worship in secret. Christian worship was not allowed in the Roman empire, so Christians had to meet in a secret place. Sometimes they met in people’s houses or barns, sometimes they met underground. The first places that were built for Christian worship were small chapels that were cut into a rock where people could worship without being discovered. - -After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages. - -The parts of a church - -There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts: - - The nave is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit. - The aisles are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave. - The transept, if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of Jesus's death on a cross. - The chancel leads up to the altar at the top of the church. The altar is in the sanctuary. The word “sanctuary” means “sacred place”. People were not allowed to be arrested in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the east end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church “faces east”. - Churches will also have a tower or steeple, usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower may be above the centre of the transept. - -In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church. - -Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called “sermons”). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read. - -If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall. - -The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there. - -Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “cantor” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for “mercy”). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time. - -Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest. - -The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”. - -Churches through the ages - -The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries. - -English churches - -In English churches there were several different periods of architecture: - - The Saxon period (700–1050) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of wood. - The Norman period (1050–1190) came from the style called Romanesque which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called “mouldings”. The tops of the pillars looked like cushions, so they were called “cushion capitals”. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top. - Early English or Gothic architecture (1190–1280) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of Salisbury Cathedral. - The Decorated style of architecture (1280–1360)was popular at a time when the plague (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. For that reason, not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time. - The Perpendicular style (1360–1540) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and fan vaulting. This can be seen in Westminster Abbey and King's College Chapel, Cambridge. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period. - -In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used. - -Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building. - -Related pages -Cathedral -Chapel -Choir (music) - -References - - Encyclopædia Britannica, 1973 - -Other websites - - Virtual Church" -15720,60194,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagon,Hexagon,"A hexagon is a polygon with 6 sides and 6 corners (vertices). Like regular triangles and squares, hexagons fit together without gaps, which are known as tesselations. They therefore are often used for tiling floors. They are also quite common in nature. The honeycombs in beehives are hexagons, for example. - -Hexagons: in nature and by humankind - -Related pages - Polygon - Triangle - Square - Pentagon - Heptagon - Octagon - -Other websites - Definition and properties of a hexagon With interactive animation - Cassini Images Bizarre Hexagon on Saturn - Saturn's Strange Hexagon - A hexagonal feature around Saturn's North Pole - ""Bizarre Hexagon Spotted on Saturn"" - from Space.com (27 March 2007) - -6" -4638,14500,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20Rita,Hurricane Rita,"Hurricane Rita was a powerful hurricane in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. It hit the United States' Gulf Coast. At its peak intensity, it was a strong Category 5 storm with sustained winds of 175 miles per hour. It made landfall as a Category 3 storm, and caused more flooding in New Orleans, which already had weakened levees due to Hurricane Katrina. In addition, it caused large power outages. - -Related pages - Hurricane Katrina - -2005 Atlantic hurricane season -Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes -Retired tropical cyclone names -Hurricanes in the United States -2005 in the Bahamas -2005 in Florida -2005 in Cuba -2000s in Louisiana -2005 in Texas -2005 in Mississippi -History of Arkansas -Hurricanes in Texas -Hurricanes in Louisiana -2005 in the United States -Disasters in the United States -September 2005 events" -7616,24823,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smell,Smell,"The term smell may refer to one of the following articles: - - Olfaction, the sense of smell, that is, the ability to perceive odors - Odor - the sensation perceived by the detection of certain chemical compounds by the sense of olfaction - -Basic English 850 words" -24752,96972,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula,Nebula,"A nebula is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases in a galaxy. - -The Persian astronomer, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, mentioned a true nebula for the first time in his book, Book of Fixed Stars (964). He said that there was a ""little cloud"" near the Andromeda galaxy. - -Origin -A nebula is usually made up of hydrogen gas and plasma. It may be the first stage of a star's cycle, but it may also be one of the last stages. - -Many nebulae or stars form from the gravitational collapse of gas in the interstellar medium or ISM. As the material contracts, massive stars may form in the center, and their ultraviolet radiation ionises the surrounding gas, making it visible at optical wavelengths. - -The size of these nebulae, known as H II regions, varies depending on the size of the original cloud of gas. These are sites where star formation occurs. The formed stars are sometimes known as a young, loose cluster. - -Some nebulae are formed as the result of supernova explosions, the death throes of massive, short-lived stars. The materials thrown off from the supernova explosion are ionized by the energy and the compact object that it can produce. One of the best examples of this is the Crab nebula, in Taurus. The supernova event was recorded in the year 1054 and is labelled SN 1054. The compact object that was created after the explosion lies in the center of the Crab Nebula and is a neutron star. - -Other nebulae may form as planetary nebulae. This is the final stage of a low-mass star's life, like Earth's Sun. Stars with a mass up to 8-10 solar masses evolve into red giants and slowly lose their outer layers during pulsations in their atmospheres. When a star has lost enough material, its temperature increases and the ultraviolet radiation it emits can ionize the surrounding nebula that it has thrown off. The nebula is 97% Hydrogen and 3% Helium with trace materials. - -In the past galaxies and star clusters were also called 'nebulae', but no longer. Nebulae can be sorted by what they look like and why we can see them. - -Star-forming regions and diffuse nebulae - -Large regions of ionised hydrogen gas are produced by star-forming regions. Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the Orion complex. In these regions gravitation pulls together gas and dust. Material clumps together to form larger masses, which attract further matter. Eventually this become massive enough to form stars. The material left over may form planets and other planetary system objects. - -Emission nebulae / H II regions -Emission nebulae make their own light. They are often called H II regions, because it is the ionized hydrogen which makes them glow. Usually the gases in an emission nebula are ionized. This makes them emit light and infra-red radiation. - -Reflection nebulae -Reflection nebulae reflect light from nearby stars. - -Dark nebulae -Dark nebulae do not emit light or reflect light. They block the light from stars that are far away. - -Planetary nebulae -Planetary nebulae are quite common, because they are produced by red giant stars late in their lives. These stars usually become white dwarfs, leaving behind an expanding ball of ionized gas, which we see as a roughly circular bright nebula. - -Supernova remnants -A supernova occurs when a high-mass star reaches the end of its life. When nuclear fusion in the core of the star stops, the star collapses and explodes . The expanding shell of gas forms a supernova remnant. The Crab nebula is a supernova remnant which probably exploded in 1054 AD. Light and X-ray emission from supernova remnants comes from ionized gas. There is a huge amount of radio emission called synchrotron emission. This emission originates from high-velocity electrons oscillating in magnetic fields. - -References - -Other websites" -186,359,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair,Hair,"Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Animal hair is usually called fur. Sheep and goats have curly hair, which is usually called wool. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins. - -Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all. - -Functions of hair - -Hair can have different functions: -It can protect against losing body heat. This is thought to be the basic, original function of hair. -It protects against UV radiation, which damages the skin. -It can protect against rain or water. Air can be trapped in the fur, or oil can be secreted by the skin. Both these methods prevent the rain or water from making the body too cold. Aquatic mammals in cold waters usually have blubber (fat) under the skin, and almost no hair. -Defence: hair is modified in mammals like porcupines, for protection. -Hair colouring can perform different functions. It helps to camouflage in some animals, and to signal to others of the same species in some other animals. Examples are: signalling to females for mating purposes and signalling to others for territory control. Signalling danger to other species (aposematic colouring) is also done by, for example, skunks. -Animals can change their hair so they look bigger, or more threatening. This can also be used for mating; which is the case with lions, for example. Also, the male lions' mane also protects their neck from damage when fighting other males. - -False hair -Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have hairs. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The hairs found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes. - -Human hair - -In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from race to race. Asians and native North Americans have the least amount of body hair, while Caucasians tend to have the most. - -Hair color - -Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. It is impossible to have a hair color that is not passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features. - -Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older. - -Genetics and chemistry -Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair. - -The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color. - -One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child. - -The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively. - -The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics). - -Hair texture -Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women. Body hair is limited in women, and thicker in men. - -Hair loss -People have about 100,000 hairs on their head. About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia. - -Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as baldness. Doctors call it ""male pattern baldness"" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old. - -People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried ""cures"" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven ""cures"" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness. - -History and culture - People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and long dark brown hair coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism (it is also good to do this in Islam, but not a requirement). - -Notes - -Basic English 850 words" -18400,69047,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Caine,Michael Caine,"Sir Michael Caine CBE ; (born Maurice Joseph Micklewhite Jr., 14 March 1933) is an English actor, producer, and author. Known for his distinctive cockney accent, Caine has appeared in over 115 movies, and is regarded as a British movie icon. - -His early role in Alfie (1966) earned him an Academy Award nomination. He also starred in The Italian Job (1969) and Battle of Britain (1969). - -His roles in the 1970s included Get Carter (1971), The Last Valley (1971), Sleuth (1972), for which he earned his second Academy Award nomination, The Man Who Would Be King (1975) and A Bridge Too Far (1977). - -In 1986, he received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in Woody Allen's Hannah and Her Sisters. - -Caine played Ebenezer Scrooge in The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992). In 1999, he won a second Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for The Cider House Rules. - -Caine played Nigel Powers, Austin Powers' father in the 2002 parody Austin Powers in Goldmember, and Alfred Pennyworth in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy. He appeared in several other of Nolan's movies, including The Prestige (2006), Inception (2010) and Interstellar (2014). - -He also appeared in Alfonso Cuarón's Children of Men and Matthew Vaughn's action comedy movie Kingsman: The Secret Service. - -Caine is one of only two actors nominated for an Academy Award for acting in every decade from the 1960s to the 2000s, the other one being Jack Nicholson. - -References - -Other websites -The Official Michael Caine website - -Michael Caine's Norfolk childhood -PLAY DIRTY/Caine Special on Location in Spain -Carfax Theatre Horsham Scene of Sir Michael's first professional acting role - -1933 births -Living people -Actors from London -BAFTA Award winning actors -Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners -English movie actors -English stage actors -English television actors -English voice actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors -Military personnel of the Korean War -Screen Actors Guild Award winners -Stage names" -13283,48780,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor%20League%20Baseball,Minor League Baseball,"Minor League Baseball is a level of professional baseball in North America. It is made up a many different teams which play in many leagues and levels of ability. Minor league teams are used by Major League Baseball teams to have a place to put their players who they do not feel are good enough to play in the major league yet. - -There are several different levels of ability in the minor leagues, these levels are (in order from lowest to highest): - Rookie League - Low-A - High-A - AA - AAA - -When a normal player is first drafted or signed by a major league team, he is usually placed in ""Rookie"" League or short season A, however top prospects often start higher. If a player plays good in his league he can be ""called up"" to the next league. If a player does not play well he may be sent back down or cut from the team. This continues until a player gets to the major leagues, although most players never make it that far. This way, players are able to get better at baseball before having to play against tougher opponents. Almost all players in the major leagues had to play in the minor leagues first in order to become good enough to play in the major leagues. Most players spend between 4-5 years before being called up. However, really good players can be called up in less than a year, while some may take more than 10 years to reach the majors. - -Sometimes, major league players who are have been hurt will play a few games in the minor leagues before playing in the major leagues again, in order to see if they feel good enough to start playing again. - -There are also other professional baseball leagues that major league teams do not use to as a place put their players. These are known as ""Independent Leagues"". In these leagues players do not go to higher or lower levels of ability. Major league teams may hire these independent players to play for their major league team. - -Minor league teams generally play in cities that are too small for major league teams. City size usually increases with league level. - -Baseball" -18211,68353,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagianism,Pelagianism,"Pelagianism is a theory named after Pelagius. It is the belief that people are not born with original sin and that mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without Divine aid. For this reason, Adam's sin was there to set a bad example for those that came after him; other than that it had no consequences. Jesus was there to set a good example (much like Adam's bad example) but also to pay the price for our sins. Pelagius believed that because people choose to sin, they are like criminals who need to be pardoned, not victims of an inherited sinful nature. - -Pelagianism was condemned as heresy at the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD. However, some people believe that Pelagius was simply misunderstood. Today there are no known Pelagians, but there are people who follow Celtic Christianity tradition, which respects Pelagius as a good example of Celtic Christian. - -Related pages -Fall of Man - -Other websites -Canons From The Council Of Carthage Against Pelagianism, May 1, 418 -CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pelagius and Pelagianism -Pelagians, Donatists, Monks, Anabaptists and other Perfectionists - a sympathetic look at Pelagianism and similar 'perfectionist' movements -Pelagius Library: Online site dedicated to the study of Pelagius -Pelagianism: The Religion of Natural Man - a critical look at Pelagianism - -Ancient Christianity‎" -12067,44418,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign%20of%20the%20cross,Sign of the cross,"The sign of the cross is a physical gesture made by Catholic and Orthodox Christians, and sometimes also Protestants. It is usually done at the start and end of prayers. - -In the Catholic tradition, the right hand goes from the forehead, to the chest, and then to the left and right shoulders (the order of shoulders does not matter). This is sometimes done while saying ""Father, Son, Holy Spirit."" - -In the Orthodox tradition, the tips of the thumb and the middle and index fingers are put together, and the ring finger and little finger are put against the palm. The first three fingers are for faith in the Trinity, and the other two fingers are for the two natures of Jesus, divine and human. - -Other websites - Why Do Lutherans Make the Sign of the Cross? - from the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America website - The Power of the Sign of the Cross - (Ukrainian church) - The Sign of the Cross - a Catholic perspective - Significance of the Sign of the Cross - -References - -Non-verbal communication -Christian symbols" -1876,6281,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative,Comparative,"Adjectives and Adverbs can be comparative in English and some other languages. When people are talking about two or more nouns, they can compare them (say the differences between them). The word which explains how they compare is called the comparative. They can also compare actions using adverbs. - -Examples: (The comparative is in bold). - John is tall, but Mark is taller - An hour is longer than a minute. - -Many words can be made into a comparative by adding er to the end of the word. -cool - cooler -big - bigger -wet - wetter -dark - darker - -Words that end with the letter 'Y' can still be made into a comparative, but people change the 'Y' to an 'I' and then add 'ER'. -happy - happier -fluffy - fluffier -angry - angrier -costly - costlier - -Some words cannot be made into a comparative by adding 'ER' Instead we use the word more in front. Most of these words have three or more syllables, such as beautiful, reliable. - -If people are not sure about a word, it is always acceptable to say ""more"" (something), such as ""more beautiful"", ""more expensive"". - -Warning: The 'ER' ending and the word ""more"" together cannot be used. -I am happier than you. - Correct. - I am more happy than you. - Correct. - I am more happier - WRONG. (Double comparative) - -Related pages - As - Like - -Grammar" -3547,10656,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionne%20Quintuplets,Dionne Quintuplets,"The Dionne Quintuplets were the first quintuplets (five babies born at the same time from the same mother) to survive after being born. They were born in Ontario, Canada on May 28, 1934 to Elzire and Oliva Dionne. They were: -Annette -Cecile -Emilie (died on August 6, 1954 from an epilepsy seizure) -Marie (died on February 27, 1970 from a blood clot in the brain) -Yvonne (died on June 23, 2001 from cancer) - -The babies were delivered by Dr. Allan Roy Dafoe, who later was given custody of the girls by the Canadian government and the Ontario government housed them in a special theme park-like area, just across the street from the house their parents and 6 other siblings lived in. At one time 6,000 people visited Quintland each day to see the sisters, they also had dolls made out of them, and appeared in commercials for products like corn syrup and Quaker oats like oatmeal. Then in 1943, the girls' father, Oliva, finally got custody of them again and the girls moved back to live with their real family. Dr. Dafone died soon after that. The girls later claimed their father abused them. In 1998 the surviving sisters sued the government of Ontario for being exploited as kids and were rewarded 4 million Canadian dollars. - -1934 births -People from Ontario" -20221,77662,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%20Sulaymaniyah%20Province,As Sulaymaniyah Province,"As Sulaymaniyah (, ) is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Sulaymaniyah. The area is . Almost 1,800,000 people live there. - -Provinces of Iraq" -16775,63999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieran%20Richardson,Kieran Richardson,"Kieran Richardson (born 21 October 1984) is an English football player. He plays for Sunderland, a team in the Premier League in England. - -Club career statistics - -|- -|2002/03||rowspan=""3""|Manchester United||rowspan=""3""|Premier League||2||0 -|- -|2003/04||0||0 -|- -|2004/05||2||0 -|- -|2004/05||West Bromwich Albion||Premier League||12||3 -|- -|2005/06||rowspan=""2""|Manchester United||rowspan=""2""|Premier League||22||1 -|- -|2006/07||15||1 -|- -|2007/08||rowspan=""3""|Sunderland||rowspan=""3""|Premier League||17||3 -|- -|2008/09||32||4 -|- -|2009/10|||| -102||12 -102||12 -|} - -International career statistics - -|- -|2005||4||2 -|- -|2006||4||0 -|- -!Total||8||2 -|} - -References - -1984 births -Living people -English footballers -Sportspeople from London -Premier League players" -21906,83479,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planform,Planform,"In design planform or plan view is a vertical orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane, like a map. - -In aviation, a planform is the shape and layout of an airplane's wing. Of all the myriad planforms used, they can typically be grouped into those used for low-speed flight, found on general aviation aircraft, and those used for -high-speed flight, found on many military aircraft and airliners. - -Gallery - -Related pages -Wing - -Engineering -Aviation" -1565,5409,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth%20%28disambiguation%29,Plymouth (disambiguation),"Plymouth is the name of various places: - - Plymouth, Devon, an English city and the first to bear the name - Places in the United States named after Plymouth, England. - Plymouth, Connecticut - Plymouth, Illinois - Plymouth, Indiana - Plymouth, Iowa - Plymouth, Massachusetts, the first city in New England - Plymouth, Michigan - Plymouth, Minnesota - Plymouth, New Hampshire - Plymouth, New York - Plymouth, North Carolina - Plymouth, Ohio - Plymouth, Pennsylvania - Plymouth, Washington - Plymouth, Wisconsin - Plymouth Township, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania - Plymouth Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania - Plymouth Township, Michigan - - Plymouth, Montserrat - destroyed Montserrat capital - New Plymouth, New Zealand - New Plymouth, Idaho, United States of America - Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania, United States of America - -Other meanings of the word Plymouth are: - Plymouth Argyle F.C. - soccer football club from Plymouth, England. - Plymouth (automobile) - Plymouth Brethren - a religious group - Plymouth Colony - Plymouth County - Plymouth Gin - Plymouth Locomotive Works - Plymouth is a made-for-TV movie about a Moon base" -1207,4473,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Marx,Karl Marx,"Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 in Trier – 14 March 1883 in London) was a German political thinker who wrote about economics and politics. Marx thought that if a place that works together runs on wage-labor, then there would always be class struggle. Marx thought that this class struggle would result in workers taking power. He believed that no economic class—wage workers, land owners, etc. should have power over another. Marx believed that everyone should contribute what they can, and everyone should get what they need. His most famous book was the Communist Manifesto. He wrote it with Friedrich Engels in 1848. The book is about the ideas and aims of communism. His ideas are called Marxism. - -Works - -Das Kapital -His most important work is Das Kapital, or The Capital. It is commonly known in English as simply 'Capital.' He spent many years working on the three parts of the book. Das Kapital describes how ""capitalism"" works and the problems this creates, such as division of labour, alienation and exploitation. The book has led to many arguments between those who agree with the book and those who do not. Marx's ideas have been thought of as responsible for socialist revolutions (like the Russian Revolution). - -Historical materialism -Marx's most popular theory was 'historical materialism', arguing that history is the result of material conditions, rather than ideas. He believed that religion, morality, social structures and other things are all rooted in economics. In his later life he was more tolerant of religion. - -Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 -Marx also wrote the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, a critique of political economy in which he discusses topics such as labor wages, labor rent, and capital profit, and his ideas of how to change the economy, including proletarian socialist revolution and an eventual communist society. - -Biography -Karl Marx was born in Trier in 1818, but he had to move many times because the government did not like his ideas. Marx lived for a long time in London. He died there in 1883. After he died, his friend Engels finished many of his works. - -Many people continue to follow and develop Marx's ideas. - -Related pages -Factors of production -Political economy -Marxism -Friedrich Engels - -References - -Biographies - Friedrich Engels' Biography of Marx - Franz Mehring's Karl Marx: The Story of His Life - Vladimir Lenin's Karl Marx Biography - Francis Wheen's Karl Marx: A Life - Karl Korsch's Karl Marx Biography - Maximilien Rubel's Marx, life and works - -Articles and entries - Dead Sociologists - Karl Marx - Ernest Mandel, Karl Marx (New Palgrave article) - Marx on India and the Colonial Question from anti-caste - Portraits of Karl Marx - The Karl Marx Museum - Marxmyths.org - Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx - Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry - Why Marx is the Man of the Moment - -Other websites - -Bibliography and online texts - - Marx and Engels Internet Archive - Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1843) - On the Jewish Question (1843) - Notes on James Mill (1844) - Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (1844) - Theses on Feuerbach (1845) - The German Ideology [with Engels] (1845-46) - The Poverty of Philosophy (1846-47) - Wage-Labour and Capital (1847) - Manifesto of the Communist Party [with Engels] (1847-48) - Free audiobook from LibriVox (Also available in German) - The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) - Grundrisse (1857-58) - A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) - Writings on the U.S. Civil War [with Engels; compiled] (1861) - Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes (1862) - Value, Price and Profit (1865) - Capital vol. 1 (1867) - The Civil War in France (1871) - Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875) - Notes on Wagner (1883) - Capital, vol. 2 [posthumously, by Engels] (1893) - Capital, vol. 3 [posthumously, by Engels] (1894) - Letters [with Engels; compiled] (1833-95) - Ethnological Notebooks — (1879-80) - - ""The Reality Behind Commodity Fetishism"" (in English) at Sic et Non (in German) - Libertarian Communist Library Karl Marx Archive - Karl Marx Biography - Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org - -1818 births -1883 deaths -19th-century German philosophers -Former Christians -German atheists -German communists -German economists -German historians -German sociologists -Infectious disease deaths in London -Jewish atheists -Jewish German scientists -Jewish German writers -Jewish philosophers -Marxism -People from Rhineland-Palatinate" -8623,29217,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoptolemus,Neoptolemus,"Neoptolemos (or Latin Neoptolemus) is a person in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War. - -Neoptolemus was the son of Achilles and Deidamea. He was needed to win the Trojan War. He killed King Priam and Astyanax, sacrificed Polyxena to his dead father Achilles, and took Helenus and Andromache with him as slaves. - -He was later killed by Orestes because he was going to marry Hermione, who Orestes wanted for himself. - -People in Greek mythology" -13755,50896,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enabling%20Act,Enabling Act,"The Enabling Act (Ermächtigungsgesetz in German) was passed by Germany's parliament (the Reichstag) on 23 March 1933. It was the second major step after the Reichstag Fire Decree through which the Nazis obtained dictatorial powers using largely legal means. The Act enabled Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his cabinet to enact laws without the participation of the Reichstag. - -The formal name of the Enabling Act was Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (""Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Empire""). - -Enabling Act text -As with most of the laws passed in the process of Gleichschaltung, the Enabling Act is quite short, considering its consequences. It is therefore reproduced in full in German and English: - -Notes - -The Enabling Act was passed by the Reichstag on March 23 and proclaimed by the government the following day. Following constitutional procedure for legislation, the law was countersigned by President von Hindenburg, Chancellor Hitler, Minister of Interior Frick, Foreign Minister von Neurath, and Minister of Finance von Krosigk. - -Passage of the Enabling Act -The Nazis wrote the Enabling act to gain complete political power without the need of the support of a majority in the Reichstag and without the need to bargain with their coalition partners. - -Propaganda -Within 24 hours of being appointed chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Hitler skillfully influenced the outcome by propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels who wrote: - - Now it will be easy to carry on the fight, for we can call on all the resources of the State. Radio and press are at our disposal. We shall stage a masterpiece of propaganda. - -In the days leading up to the elections, the Nazis organized street violence to intimidate the opposition and to build fear of communism. The burning of the Reichstag six days before the election was the pivotal event of the campaign. - -Violence -Later that day, the Reichstag assembled under intimidating circumstances, with SA men swarming inside and outside the chamber. Hitler's speech emphasised the importance of Christianity in German culture. This was aimed particularly at appeasing the formerly allied Catholic Centre Party. It partly incorporated the guarantees requested by party chairman Ludwig Kaas. - -All parties except the SPD voted in favour of the Enabling Act. With the Communist delegates removed and 26 of the SPD deputies arrested or in hiding, the final vote was 441 supporting the Enabling Act to 94 (all Social Democrats) opposed. - -Consequences -The Communist Party deputies – and a few Social Democratic deputies as well – were already jailed, and the Communist mandates were declared ""dormant"" by the government shortly after the elections. The remaining free members of parliament were intimidated by the SA surrounding the parliament hall. In the end, only the Social Democrats voted against the bill. - -The British tabloid Daily Express described the Jewish reactions of boycott against Germany as ""Judea Declares War on Germany"" (March 25, 1933). - -Presidential consequences -President von Hindenburg seemed to be pleased with Hitler's firm hand. During the cabinet conference on the Enabling Act, von Hindenburg's representative stated that the aged president was withdrawing from day-to-day affairs of government and that presidential collaboration on the laws decreed as a result of the Enabling Act would not be required. - -Related pages -Enabling act (General) - -References - -Legislation -Nazi Germany -20th century in law -1933 -March events -1930s in Germany" -17623,66579,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus%20Mountains,Caucasus Mountains,"The Caucasus Mountains is a mountain range in Eurasia. They are in the Caucasus region between the Black Sea in the west and the Caspian Sea in the east. The Greater Caucasus divide Europe from Asia. The Lesser Caucasus are south of there. - -Related pages - - Languages of the Caucasus - -Mountain ranges" -9058,30991,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20reactor,Nuclear reactor,"A nuclear reactor is a machine that uses fission to generate heat. There are different designs which use different fuels. Most often, uranium-235 or plutonium-239 are the main components of these fuels. - -Most nuclear reactors are used to make electricity. In nuclear power plants heat from the fission reactions in the reactor changes water into steam. The steam is then used to power electric turbines which make electricity. As with other steam engines, the turbines take energy from the movement of the steam. - -Some reactors are used for other purposes. Some reactors make neutrons for science research and others make radioactive isotopes. Some universities have small nuclear reactors to teach students how reactors work. - -The first nuclear reactor was built in 1942 by a team of scientists led by Enrico Fermi. This was a part of the Manhattan Project which needed the fuel from the reactor to make the atomic bomb. The first nuclear reactor to make electricity was a small experimental reactor built in Idaho in 1951. It made just enough electricity for four light globes. - -Nuclear reactors are expensive to build because of the many safety features they need to have. There is also a problem with the huge amount of radioactive waste from the reactors. However they produce electricity cheaply, and do not pollute the air. There have been serious accidents at several nuclear reactors: Windscale (UK) 1957, Mayak (USSR) 1957, Three Mile Island (USA) 1979, Chernobyl (USSR) 1986 and Fukushima (Japan) 2011. Concerns about safety have limited the growth of nuclear power. There are about 437 reactors around the world which provide about 5% of the world's electricity. - -References - -Other websites -Images for nuclear reactors -Nuclear Power Reactors -Recent videos for nuclear reactors - -Nuclear energy" -20628,79355,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admontite,Admontite,"Admontite is a mineral that is colorless in color and is made of crystals. It is named for Admont, Austria, which is where they found the first example of it. They found the first example of it in a gypsum deposit. Gypsum and calcite both easily scratch this mineral, and it easily breaks as well. Admontite is not radioactive. Admontite is not edible. - -References - -Minerals" -9086,31091,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruwer%20%28municipality%29,Ruwer (municipality),"Ruwer is a municipality (a convention community called Verbandsgemeinde Ruwer) on the River Ruwer. The administrative offices are in the town of Waldrach, and it should not be confused with the nearby town of Ruwer, which is for administrative purposes a part of the city of Trier. - -Members - -Related pages -Ruwer-Hochwald-Radweg - -Other websites - - Homepage of the municipality - Touristinformation Ruwer - -Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate" -24532,95782,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghur%20people,Uyghur people,"The Uyghurs (wee-ger; 维吾尔人) are a Turkic people living mainly in Xinjiang, China. Over 11 million Uyghurs live there, more than any other part of the world. Some Uyghurs seek independence from China. - -There are also many Uyghurs in Beijing, Shanghai and Taoyuan County (Hunan, South-Central China). There are Uyghur diasporic communities in Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan and Mongolia. - -Uyghurs are mainly Muslim and speak Uyghur, a Turkic language. The Uyghur alphabet is based on the Arabic alphabet. - -Uyghurs were originally from present-day Mongolia and immigrated to what is now Xinjiang during the 8th or 9th centuries AD. - -Related pages -Xinjiang internment camps - -References - -Related pages -Turkic peoples -Chinese people -Xinjiang - -Turkic peoples -Ethnic groups in Asia -Xinjiang" -940,3810,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luggage,Luggage,"People use luggage to carry their possessions when travelling. In the United States luggage is often called baggage. - -Types of luggage -A valise is a small bag. It is usually for carrying clothes or accessories. Some other words for this size of luggage are overnight bag, overnight case, and overnighter -A suitcase is a larger bag, most often for carrying clothes -A trunk, also known as a travelling chest or steamer trunk, is a very large, rigid chest that was mostly used when moving across the ocean on a ship; they are much less common in the 21st century - -Travel" -19214,72850,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saar%20%28protectorate%29,Saar (protectorate),"Saar was the name of the Saarland after World War Two, when it was under French control. It became part of West Germany in 1957. - -Related pages - Saarland The modern German state - Saargebiet The League of Nations's protectorate - -Former countries in Europe -20th century in Germany -20th century in France -Saarland -1947 establishments in Europe -1956 disestablishments in Europe" -10595,37723,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudoku,Sudoku,"(sometimes spelled as Su Doku, but also called Number Place or Nanpure) is a puzzle that is very popular in Japan. It was created in Indianapolis in 1979 by Howard Garns and it appeared in Dell Magazines afterwards. - -Sudoku puzzles are solved by logic and no math is required. As seen on the right, it consists of a grid which is usually made up of nine rows, nine columns, and nine boxes that are separated by thicker, darker lines. Some of these boxes will contain numerals from 1 to 9. To solve the puzzle, a person must fill in all the empty squares without using the same numeral twice in each column, row, or box, and without changing the numerals that are already in the grid. - -These puzzles were created to be done using pencil and paper, and there are many books that contain collections of these puzzles with tips and strategies for completing them. They also appear in newspapers and magazines: typically, a different puzzle appears every day and the solution is printed somewhere else or in the next issue. Later, small handheld machines were created that generate Sudoku puzzles for the user to solve. More recently, though, the game can be played on the Internet or on mobile apps. - -Variations -There are many Sudoku variations that have been created since the original Sudoku's release. The grid is most often 9 by 9, but can be different sizes, though, and separated into smaller grids in different ways. For example, there is a 6 by 6 grid with dark lines between the third and fourth columns and between two pairs of rows: the second and third rows, and the fourth and fifth rows. The numerals that must be filled in here are from 1 to 6. - -Because no arithmetic is needed to solve Sudoku puzzles, the numerals can be replaced with letters or symbols. It is only their position that changes the solution to the puzzle, not their value. - -On educational websites, such as Math Playground there are Sudoku games, such as 3-d Sudoku. - -Jigsaw Sudoku -Jigsaw Sudoku (also called Squiggly Sudoku, Odd Sudoku or JigSaw Doku) is just like a regular Sudoku puzzle, except that instead of the lines being perfect, they are different. Like regular Sudoku puzzles, you have to complete the grid. - -Samurai Sudoku -Samurai Sudoku is a Sudoku variation that has 5 overlapping Sudoku grids formed like a big X. These puzzles are big and take a long time to complete. Like regular Sudoku puzzles, you have to complete all 5 grids in order to complete the puzzle. - -Mini Sudoku -Mini Sudoku is played on a 6x6 grid with 3x2 regions. The object is the same as in Sudoku, but the puzzle only uses the numbers 1 through 6. - -Logic 5 -Logic 5 is another Sudoku variation that uses 5x5 grids instead of 3x3 grids, and are in use at the Sudoku World Championships. - -References - -Other websites - – An active listing of Sudoku links. - Father of Sudoku puzzles next move BBC - Internet Sudoku Generator - Sudoku - flash game - Computer Program to solve and generate Sudoku puzzles - Free Sudoku Generator - Sudoku-Coach Step-by-step help and training (Flash-player is required) - Sudoku - Simple Online sudoku Web Site - Eurosudoku - Free Sudoku Project - -Puzzles" -21129,80990,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter%20%28poetry%29,Meter (poetry),"In poetry, meter (British English spelling: metre) means the rhythmic patterns in a verse. - -Fundamentals - -The units of poetic meter, like rhyme, vary from language to language and between poetic traditions. They can involve arrangements of syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. English meter is founded on the patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. In Latin and Greek verse, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, not syllable stresses but syllable lengths are the component parts of meter. - -Poetry" -21441,82040,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice%20Chancellor%20of%20Germany,Vice Chancellor of Germany,"The Vice Chancellor is the deputy of the Federal Chancellor. He acts for the Chancellor if he cannot act, or if there is no chancellor. The Vice Chancellor is also a federal minister, and in a coalition government is usually the leader of the minority party. - -List of Vice Chancellors - -German Empire (Allgemeiner Stellvertreter des Reichskanzlers) -Political Party: - -Weimar Republic (Allgemeiner Stellvertreter des Reichskanzlers) -Political Party: - -Nazi Germany - -Federal Republic of Germany -Political Party: - -Related pages - Government of Germany - -Germany-related lists" -9981,34105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/312,312," - -Events - October 28 – Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and becomes the only Roman Emperor in the West. - Construction of the Arch of Constantine in Rome begun." -18164,68251,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore,Folklore,"Folklore is the body of expressive culture, including stories, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and more within a particular people. This also includes the oral traditions of that culture, subculture, or group. The academic and usually ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristics. - -The famous folk tale is Little Red Riding Hood (in European culture). - -Folklore" -4046,12417,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bangles,The Bangles,"The Bangles are an all-female American rock band. The band started in Los Angeles, California in 1981. The Bangles are best known for their hit (popular) songs ""Walk Like an Egyptian"" (which featured a dance where a person walks by bending the left hand forward and the right hand backward), and ""Manic Monday"". - -Albums - All Over the Place (1984) - Different Light (1986) - Everything (1988) - Doll Revolution (2003) - Sweetheart of the Sun (2011) - -1980s American music groups -1981 establishments in California -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American girl groups -American pop music groups -American rock bands -Musical groups established in 1981 -Musical groups from Los Angeles -Musical groups disestablished in 1989 -1989 disestablishments in the United States -1980s disestablishments in California -Musical groups established in 1999 -1999 establishments in California" -18518,69436,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie%20Andrews,Julie Andrews,"Dame Julie Andrews (born Julia Elizabeth Wells; 1 October 1935) is a British movie and stage actress, singer, theatre director, dancer, and writer. She was born in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey. Andrews was a child actress and singer. She appeared on the West End in 1948. She made her Broadway debut in The Boy Friend in 1954. She starred in the stage musicals My Fair Lady and Camelot with real success. In 1957, she appeared on television in the musical Cinderella. She has also been author to two of her own memoirs. - -Andrews made her movie debut in Mary Poppins in 1964. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for this performance. She appeared in The Sound of Music in 1965. Between 1964 and 1967, Andrews appeared in The Americanization of Emily, Hawaii, Torn Curtain, and Thoroughly Modern Millie. In the 1970s, Andrews had a few commercial disappointments before appearing successfully in 10 (1979) and Victor/Victoria (1982). Her career sagged in the 1990s. Her voice was damaged by a throat operation in 1997. - -Andrews appeared successfully in dramatic roles in The Princess Diaries in 2001, and its sequel The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement in 2004. She had voice roles in the Shrek animated movies. In 2003 and again in 2005, Andrews directed revivals of her first Broadway hit, The Boy Friend, in New York and Connecticut. Andrews has also written children's books. In 2008, she published her autobiography, Home: A Memoir of My Early Years. Andrews has received many awards during her career including an Academy Award, Emmy Award, Golden Globe Award, Grammy Award, BAFTA, People's Choice Award, Theatre World Award, and Screen Actors Guild honors. In 2000, she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) by Elizabeth II for services to the performing arts. - -Movie list - Mary Poppins (1964) - The Americanization of Emily (1964) - The Sound of Music (1965) - Hawaii (1966) - Torn Curtain (1966) - Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967) - Star! (1968) - Darling Lili (1970) - The Tamarind Seed (1974) - 10 (1979) - Little Miss Marker (1980) - S.O.B. (1981) - Viktor/Viktoria (1982) - The Princess Diaries (2001) - Shrek 2 (2003) - The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement (2004) - Shrek the Third (2007) - Enchanted (2007) - Despicable Me (2010) - Aquaman (2018) - -References - -Other websites - -1935 births -Living people -Academy Award winning actors -Actors from Surrey -BAFTA Award winning actors -British child actors -British children's writers -Emmy Award winners -English movie actors -English singers -English stage actors -English voice actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors -Grammy Award winners -Musicians from Surrey -Screen Actors Guild Award winners -Writers from Surrey -People's Choice Award winners -Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire" -15133,57088,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serie%20A,Serie A,"Serie A is the highest football league in Italy. - -Format -From 1929 to 2004, Serie A has got 16 or 18 teams. The Only Exception was in the years from 1946 to 1952, where in the Serie A there were 20-21 teams. - -All the 20 teams play two times against all the other teams from August to May. - -The top four teams in the Serie A qualify for the UEFA Champions League (from the 2017–18 season). - -The 5th and the winner of Coppa Italia qualify for the UEFA Europa League tournament. - -The 6th or the 7th ranked club, depending if the winner of Coppa Italia is qualified yet, joins the preliminary round of the UEFA Europa Conference League. - -The three lowest-placed teams are relegated to Serie B. - -Serie A Clubs - -2021-2022 - -Seasons of Serie A - -Champions - -Related pages - Serie B - Lega Pro Prima Divisione - -Football leagues -Football in Italy -1898 establishments in Italy" -23518,90594,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demmin,Demmin,"Demmin () is a town in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. It was the capital of the former Demmin Rural District. - -World War II -German troops destroyed the bridges over the Peene while retreating from Demmin during World War II. This way, the advance of the Soviet Red Army was slowed down when they arrived in Demmin on April 30, 1945. During that night and the following morning, Demmin was handed over to the Red Army largely without fighting, similar to other cities like Greifswald. - -Although there were only a few pockets of resistance, nearly 900 people committed mass suicides in fear of the Red Army. Coroner lists show that most drowned in the nearby River Tollense and River Peene, where others poisoned themselves. This was fuelled by atrocities and rapes committed by Red Army soldiers until the city commander had the access to the rivers blocked on May 3. - -Famous residents - Joachim Lütkemann (1608-1655), preacher and author - Heinrich Carl von Schimmelmann (1724-1782), merchant and politician - Julius Friedrich Cohnheim (1839-1884), pathologist - Willy Schulz-Demmin (1892-1974), painter - Hans-Adolf Asbach (1904-1976), politician - Willi Laatsch (1905-1997), pedologist - Paul von Maltzahn (born 1945), diplomat - Andy Glandt, banjo player - -Literature - Norbert Buske, Das Kriegsende in Demmin 1945 (German) - The End of the War in Demmin 1945 - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -Demmin Rural District" -1277,4647,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders%20Celsius,Anders Celsius,"Anders Celsius (27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer. Celsius was born in Uppsala in Sweden. Much of his work was in what was later called Geodesy. - -He is more famous for developing the Celsius temperature scale when he worked on meteorology (a science about weather conditions). It later became an the international standard. One of his good friends Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the Fahrenheit scale for the thermometer. - -1701 births -1744 deaths -Astronomers -Meteorologists -Swedish scientists -People from Uppsala" -9400,32151,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xabi%20Alonso,Xabi Alonso,"Xabier ""Xabi"" Alonso Olano (born 25 November 1981), is a Spanish manager and retired footballer. He played as a midfielder. The last club he played for was Bayern Munich. - -Alonso also played for the Spain national team from 2003 until 2014. He retired from football in 2017 and became a manager in 2018 for Real Madrid's youth sectors, which are known as ""La Fábrica"" (the factory). In 2019, he started coaching Real Sociedad's youth sectors. Real Sociedad is also the club where Alonso began his career in 1999. - -Club career statistics - -1 Includes FIFA Club World Cup, FA Community Shield, Supercopa de España and DFL-Supercup. - -International career statistics - -|- -|2003||5||0 -|- -|2004||11||0 -|- -|2005||6||0 -|- -|2006||11||1 -|- -|2007||6||0 -|- -|2008||14||2 -|- -|2009||12||4 -|- -|2010||16||2 -|- -|2011||11||3 -|- -|2012||14||3 -|- -|2013||3||0 -|- -|2014||5||1 -|- -!Total||114||16 -|} - -Managerial statistics - -Honours -Liverpool - FA Cup: 2005–06 - FA Community Shield: 2006 - UEFA Champions League: 2004–05 - UEFA Super Cup: 2005 - -Real Madrid - La Liga: 2011–12 - Copa del Rey: 2010–11, 2013–14 - Supercopa de España: 2012 - UEFA Champions League: 2013–14 - -Bayern Munich - Bundesliga: 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17 - DFB-Pokal: 2015–16 - DFL-Supercup: 2016 - -Spain - FIFA World Cup: 2010 - UEFA European Championship: 2008, 2012 - -Individual - Spanish Player of the Year: 2003 - BBC Goal of the Month: November 2004 - FIFA FIFPro World XI: 2011, 2012 - FIFA FIFPro World XI 2nd team: 2014 - FIFA FIFPro World XI 3rd team: 2013 - FIFA FIFPro World XI 4th team: 2015 - FIFA FIFPro World XI 5th team: 2016 - La Liga Best Midfielder: 2011–12 - UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2012 - UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season: 2013–14 - Bundesliga Team of the Season: 2014–15 - -Decorations - Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit: 2011 - -References - -1981 births -Living people -Spanish footballers -Spanish football managers" -7597,24587,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1686,1686,"Year 1686 was a common year that started on a Tuesday when using the Gregorian calendar. - -Events - - May 4 – The Municipality of Ilagan was founded in the Philippines. - July 17 – A meeting took place at Lüneburg between 'some evangelical Princes and Electors' and representatives of the King of Navarre, the King of Denmark and the Queen of England. The object of this meeting is the formation of an 'evangelical' league of defence against the Catholic League, called the 'Confederatio Militiae Evangelicae'. - July 22 – New York City and Albany, New York are granted city charters by the colonial governor. - September 2 – The forces of the Holy League of 1684 liberate Buda from the Ottoman Turkish rule that leads to the end of Turkish rule in Hungary during the subsequent years. - -Undated - The League of Augsburg is founded. - Russia, Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria join the Holy League against the Ottoman Turkish Empire. - A group of conspirators met at Charborough House in Dorset to plan the overthrow of king James II of England by Parliamentarians and the Dutch William III of Orange-Nassau. - A hurricane saves Charleston, South Carolina, from attack by Spanish vessels. - -Births - - January 16 – Archibald Bower, Scottish historian (died 1766) - January 31 – Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (died 1758) - April 9 – James Craggs the Younger, English politician (died 1721) - April 28 – Michael Brokoff, Czech sculptor (died 1721) - April 29 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (died 1742) - May 24 – Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist and inventor (died 1736) - June 9 – Andrei Osterman, Russian statesman (died 1747) - July 6 – Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (died 1758) - July 9 – Philip Livingston, American politician (died 1749) - July 31 (or August 1) – Benedetto Marcello, Italian composer (died 1739) - August 12 – John Balguy, English philosopher (died 1748) - August 19 – Eustace Budgell, English writer (died 1737) - August 19 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer (died 1768) - October 15 – Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (died 1758) - -Deaths - - January 31 – Jean Mairet, French dramatist (born 1604) - February 10 – William Dugdale, English antiquarian (born 1605) - April 6 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (born. 1614) - April 19 – Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra, Spanish writer (born 1610) - June 23 – William Coventry, English statesman (born c.1628) - July 10 – John Fell, English churchman (born 1625) - July 16 – John Pearson, English theologian (born 1612) - August 13 – Louis Maimbourg, French-born historian (born 1610) - October 26 – John Egerton, 2nd Earl of Bridgewater, English politician (born 1623) - November 11 – Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, French general (born 1621) - November 11 – Otto von Guericke, German physicist and inventor (born 1602) - -References" -6531,20576,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Idol,American Idol,"American Idol is an American reality-singing competition series created by Simon Fuller, produced by 19 Entertainment, and distributed by FremantleMedia North America. It aired on Fox from June 11, 2002 to April 7, 2016, as an addition to the Idols format based on the British series Pop Idol and has since become one of the most successful shows in the history of American television. On March 11, 2018, the 16th season aired on ABC. - -Eventually the American people are allowed to vote by calling or texting, and the person with the fewest votes is off the show. - -The TV show consists of multiple rounds of elimination. The singers can be anyone between the age of 15 and 29 years. - -Host and judges -American Idol has three judges, who give comments on performances. - -The three judges are: - Simon Cowell (Season 1-9) - Randy Jackson (Season 1-12) - Paula Abdul (Season 1-8) - Kara DioGuardi (Season 8-9) - Ellen DeGeneres (Season 9) - Jennifer Lopez (Season 10-11, 13-15) - Steven Tyler (Season 10-11) - Mariah Carey (Season 12) - Keith Urban (Season 12-15) - Nicki Minaj (Season 12) - Harry Connick Jr. (Season 13-15) - Katy Perry (Season 16-) - Luke Bryan (Season 16-) - Lionel Richie (Season 16-) - -Host - -Ryan Seacrest -Brian Dunkleman (Season 1) - -Winners - Season 1 (2002): Kelly Clarkson - Season 2 (2003): Ruben Studdard - Season 3 (2004): Fantasia Barrino - Season 4 (2005): Carrie Underwood - Season 5 (2006): Taylor Hicks - Season 6 (2007): Jordin Sparks - Season 7 (2008): David Cook - Season 8 (2009): Kris Allen - Season 9 (2010): Lee DeWyze - Season 10 (2011): Scotty McCreery - Season 11 (2012): Phillip Phillips - Season 12 (2013): Candice Glover - Season 13 (2014): Caleb Johnson - Season 14 (2015): Nick Fradiani - Season 15 (2016): Trent Harmon - Season 16 (2018): Maddie Poppe - Season 17 (2019): Laine Hardy - Season 18 (2020): Just Sam - Season 19 (2021): Chayce Beckham - -Runners-up - Season 1 (2002): Justin Guarini - Season 2 (2003): Clay Aiken - Season 3 (2004): Diana DeGarmo - Season 4 (2005): Bo Bice - Season 5 (2006): Katharine McPhee - Season 6 (2007): Blake Lewis - Season 7 (2008): David Archuleta - Season 8 (2009): Adam Lambert - Season 9 (2010): Crystal Bowersox - Season 10 (2011): Lauren Alaina - Season 11 (2012): Jessica Sanchez - Season 12 (2013): Kree Harrison - Season 13 (2014): Jena Irene - Season 14 (2015): Clark Beckham - Season 15 (2016): La'Porsha Renae - Season 16 (2018): Caleb Lee Hutchinson - Season 17 (2019): Alejandro Aranda - Season 18 (2020): Arthur Gunn - Season 19 (2021): Willie Spence - -Third place - Season 1 (2002): Nikki McKibbin - Season 2 (2003): Kimberley Locke - Season 3 (2004): Jasmine Trias - Season 4 (2005): Vonzell Solomon - Season 5 (2006): Elliott Yamin - Season 6 (2007): Melinda Doolittle - Season 7 (2008): Syesha Mercado - Season 8 (2009): Danny Gokey - Season 9 (2010): Casey James - Season 10 (2011): Haley Reinhart - Season 11 (2012): Joshua Ledet - Season 12 (2013): Angie Miller - Season 13 (2014): Alex Preston - Season 14 (2015): Jax - Season 15 (2016): Dalton Rapattoni - Season 16 (2018): Gabby Barrett - Season 17 (2019): Madison VanDenburg - Season 18 (2020): Dillon James - Season 19 (2021): Grace Kinstler - -Other contestants - Chris Daughtry - Melinda Doolittle - Jennifer Hudson - Sanjaya Malakar - Cade Fohener - Julia Gargano - -References - -Other websites - - American Idol Official website - -2002 American television series debuts -2000s American television series -2010s American television series - -Fox television series -English-language television programs" -92,171,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheese,Cheese,"Cheese is a dairy product that is made from milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone. - -Many things affect the form, texture, colour and flavour of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is. - -Origin -People have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made. It is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC. - -Production -Cheese is made using milk. The milk of cows, goats, and sheep are most popular. Buffalo, camel, donkey and even hippopotamus milk can also be used. Cheese makers usually cook the milk in large pots. -Most cheeses are acidified by bacteria. This bacteria turns milk sugars (such as lactose) into lactic acid. - -Salt is added, and a substance from the stomach of young cows called rennet. This curdles the cheese and makes it solid. Some makers do not add rennet, but curdle the cheese in other ways. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are made by fermentation of a fungus called Mucor miehei. Other alternatives use species of the Cynara thistle family. - -Other ingredients are added and the cheese is usually aged for a varied length of time. - -Classification -There are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include: - How long the cheese was aged - The texture of the cheese. These include Hard, Soft and Softer. - How the cheese was made - What type of milk was used to make the cheese. This is mainly what animal the milk comes from, such as cows, sheep, and goats. The diet of the animal can also affect the type of cheese made from its milk. - How much fat is in the cheese - What color the cheese is (common colors are yellow, and white) - -There are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues. - -Different types of cheese include: - -References - -Other websites - -Basic English 850 words" -22323,84534,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20%28character%29,Harry Potter (character),"Harry James Potter is the main character in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter fantasy series. The books cover seven years in the life of the orphan who, on his 11th birthday, learns he is a wizard and the son of magical parents Lily and James Potter. He goes to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry to learn magic. Harry soon learns that he is already famous in the world of wizards. He also learns that his fate is connected to Lord Voldemort. Voldemort was an evil wizard who killed Harry's parents, but was believed to have died when he tried to use the Killing Curse on the baby Harry. Rowling said that the idea for the Harry Potter character came to her while riding on a train from Manchester to London in 1990. She decided to make him an orphan after the death of her mother. - -Concept and creation -According to author J. K. Rowling, the idea for both the Harry Potter books and the character came while waiting for a delayed train from Manchester to London in 1990. J.K. Rowling said that in the hours she waited, her idea for ""this scrawny, black-haired, bespectacled boy who didn't know he was a wizard became more and more real to me."" Rowling also decided to make Harry an orphan at a boarding school called Hogwarts. She explained, ""Harry HAD to be an orphan - so that he's a free agent, with no fear of letting down his parents, disappointing them … Hogwarts HAS to be a boarding school - half the important stuff happens at night! Then there's the security. Having a child of my own reinforces my belief that children above all want security, and that's what Hogwarts offers Harry."" - -The death of her mother on 30 December 1990 led Rowling led to write Harry Potter as a boy longing for his dead parents. His pain became ""more deeper, more real"" than in earlier versions because she related to it herself. In a 2000 interview with The Guardian, Rowling also said that the character of Wart in T.H. White's novel The Sword in the Stone is ""Harry's spiritual ancestor."" In that book, a boy called Wart meets the mysterious wizard Merlin. Merlin helps the child grow into a noble, powerful warrior who later becomes King Arthur. She also said that Harry was born on 31 July and has the same birthday as herself. However, she says, Harry is not directly based on any real-life character, ""he came just out of a part of me"". - -Appearances - -First book -Harry first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone) as the book's protagonist, or main character. When Harry was a little over one year old, his parents were killed by the powerful Dark Wizard, Lord Voldemort. Harry survived Voldemort's Killing Curse after his mother died to protect him. The Curse was turned back at Voldemort and ripped his soul from his body. Because of this, Harry has a lightning-bolt shaped scar on his forehead. Rowling has said that creating the story about Harry Potter's past was a matter of reverse planning: ""The basic idea [is that] Harry … didn't know he was a wizard … and so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be, that he wouldn't know what he was… When he was one-year-old, the most evil wizard in hundreds of years attempted to kill him. He killed Harry's parents, and then he tried to kill Harry - he tried to curse him… Harry has to find out, before we find out. And - so - but for some mysterious reason, the curse didn't work on Harry. So he's left with this lightning-bolt shaped scar on his forehead, and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard who has been in hiding ever since"". - -Harry is written as an orphan living unhappily with his only family left, the cruel Dursleys. On his eleventh birthday, Harry finds that he is a wizard when Rubeus Hagrid tells him that he is to go Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. There he learns about his parents and his connection to the Dark Lord. He is sorted into Gryffindor House by the Sorting Hat and becomes friends with classmates Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. Near the end of his first year at Hogwarts, he stops Voldemort's attempt to steal the Philosopher's Stone via Quirinus Quirrell. He also forms rivalries with characters Draco Malfoy, a classmate from an elitist wizard family, and the Potions teacher and head of Slytherin House, Severus Snape. Both feuds continue throughout the series. In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that Draco is based on several schoolyard bullies she had known and Snape on a teacher of hers who abused his power. - -Rowling has said that the Mirror of Erised chapter in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone is her favourite. The mirror reflects Harry's deepest desire, namely to see his dead parents. Her favourite funny scene is when Harry accidentally sets a boa constrictor free from the zoo in the horrified Dursleys' presence. - -Second to fourth books -In the second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Rowling puts Harry against Tom Marvolo Riddle, a memory of Lord Voldemort locked up in a secret diary that Ron's younger sister Ginny Weasley finds in a bathroom. When Muggle (non-magic) parentage students are found being petrified, many think that Harry may be the one behind the attacks, making him become more detached from his classmates. At the height of the book, Ginny Weasley is found to be missing. To rescue her, Harry battles Riddle and the monster he controls that is hidden in the Chamber of Secrets. - -In the third book, called Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Rowling uses time travel as the basis for the book. Harry learns that his parents were sold out to Lord Voldemort by their friend Peter Pettigrew, also accused of framing Harry's godfather Sirius Black for crimes he didn't make, locking him up in the wizarding prison, Azkaban. When Black escapes to find revenge, Harry and Hermione use a Time Turner to save him and a hippogriff named Buckbeak. Pettigrew, and the truth, escape from Sirius, causing him to be on the run from the authorities. - -In the previous books, Harry is written as a child, but Rowling states that in the fourth novel, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, ""Harry's horizons are literally and metaphorically widening as he grows older."" Harry's developing maturity becomes apparent when he becomes interested in Cho Chang, a pretty Ravenclaw student. Tension mounts, however, when Harry is mysteriously chosen by the Goblet of Fire to compete in the dangerous Triwizard Tournament, even though another Hogwarts champion, Cedric Diggory, was already selected. It is actually an elaborate scheme by Lord Voldemort to lure Harry into a deadly trap. During the Tournament's final challenge, Harry and Cedric are teleported to a graveyard. Cedric is killed, and Lord Voldemort, aided by Peter Pettigrew, uses Harry's blood in a gruesome ritual to resurrect Voldemort's body. When Harry duels Voldemort, their wands' magical streams connect, forcing the spirit echoes of Voldemort's victims, including Cedric and James and Lily Potter, to be expelled from his wand through Priori Incancatem. The spirits shortly protect Harry as he escapes to Hogwarts with Cedric's body. For Rowling, this scene is important because it shows how Harry is brave, and by finding Cedric's corpse, he demonstrates selflessness and compassion. Says Rowling, ""He wants to save Cedric's parents additional pain"". She added that preventing Cedric Diggory's body from falling into Voldemort's hands is based on the classic scene in the Iliad where Achilles finds the body of his best friend Patroclus from the hands of Hector. The author said: ""That [Iliad scene] really, really, REALLY moved me when I read that when I was 19. The idea of the desecration of a body, a very ancient idea... I was thinking of that when Harry saved Cedric's body."" She also said that she cried while writing the scene when Harry's dead parents are drawn from Voldemort's wand, the first time she cried while penning her story. - -Fifth and sixth book -In the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the Ministry of Magic has been waging a smear campaign against Harry and Dumbledore, disputing their claims that Voldemort has returned. A new character is introduced when the Ministry of Magic appoints Dolores Umbridge as the latest Hogwarts' Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor (and Ministry spy). Because the paranoid Ministry thinks that Dumbledore is building a wizard army to overthrow them, Umbridge decides not to teach students real defensive magic. She gradually gains more power, eventually seizing control of the school. As a result, Harry's growing angry and erratic behaviour nearly estranges him from Ron and Hermione. Rowling says she put Harry through extreme emotional stress to show his emotional vulnerability and humanity–a contrast to his nemesis, Voldemort. ""[Harry is] a very human hero, and this is, obviously, a contrast, between him, as a very human hero, and Voldemort, who has deliberately dehumanised himself. And Harry, therefore, did have to reach a point where he did almost break down, and say he didn’t want to play anymore, he didn’t want to be the hero anymore – and he’d lost too much. And he didn’t want to lose anything else. So that – Phoenix was the point at which I decided he would have his breakdown."" At Hermione's urging, Harry secretly teaches his classmates real defensive magic to thwart Umbridge and the Ministry, but their meetings are found and Dumbledore is ousted as Headmaster. Harry suffers another emotional blow, when his godfather, Sirius Black is killed during a battle with Death Eaters at the Department of Mysteries, but Harry ultimately defeats Voldemort's plan to steal an important prophecy and helps uncover Umbridge's sinister motives. Rowling stated: ""And now he [Harry] will rise from the ashes strengthened."" A sideplot of Order of the Phoenix involves Harry's romance with Cho Chang, but the relationship quickly unravels. Says Rowling: ""They were never going to be happy, it was better that it ended early!"" - -In the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince Harry enters a tumultuous puberty that, Rowling says, is based on her and her younger sister's own difficult teenage years. Rowling also made an intimate statement about Harry's personal life: ""Because of the demands of the adventure that Harry is following, he has had less sexual experience than boys of his age might have had"". This inexperience with romance was a factor in Harry's failed relationship with Cho Chang. Now his thoughts concern Ginny Weasley, Ron's sister, a vital plot point in the last chapter when Harry ends their budding romance to protect her from Voldemort. - -A new character appears when former Hogwarts Potions master Horace Slughorn returns to replace Severus Snape, who takes over the Defence Against the Dark Arts post. Harry excels in Potions by using an old textbook once belonging to a talented student known only as, ""The Half-Blood Prince."" The book contains many handwritten notes, revisions, and new spells; Hermione, however, believes Harry using it is cheating. Through private meetings with Dumbledore, Harry learns about Lord Voldemort's orphaned youth, his rise to power, and how he splintered his soul into Horcruxes to achieve immortality. Two Horcruxes have been destroyed, and Harry and Dumbledore locate another, although it is a fake. When Death Eaters invade Hogwarts, Snape kills Dumbledore. As Snape escapes, he proclaims that he is the Half-Blood Prince–Harry's admired mentor is actually his hated enemy. It now falls upon Harry to find and destroy Voldemort's remaining Horcruxes and to avenge Dumbledore's death. In a 2005 interview with NBC anchorwoman Katie Couric, Rowling stated that [after the events in the sixth book] Harry has, ""taken the view that they are now at war. He does become more battle hardened. He’s now ready to go out fighting. And he’s after revenge [against Voldemort and Snape]."" - -Final book -In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry, Ron and Hermione leave Hogwarts to complete Dumbledore's task: to search for and destroy Voldemort's remaining four Horcruxes, and then find and kill the Dark Lord. The three put themselves against Voldemort's newly formed totalitarian police state, an action that tests Harry's courage and moral character. According to J.K. Rowling, a telling scene in which Harry uses Cruciatus and Imperius (unforgivable curses for torture and mind-control) on Voldemort's servants shows a side to Harry that is ""flawed and mortal."" However, she explains that, ""He is also in an extreme situation and attempting to defend somebody very good against a violent and murderous opponent"". - -Harry comes to recognise that his own single-mindedness makes him predictable to his enemies and often clouds his perceptions. When Severus Snape is killed by Voldemort later in the story, Harry realises that Snape was not the traitorous murderer he believed him to be, but a tragic anti-hero who was loyal to Albus Dumbledore. In Chapter 33 (""The Prince's Tale"") Snape's memories show that he loved Harry's mother Lily Evans, but their friendship ended over his association with future Death Eaters and ""blood purity"" beliefs. When Voldemort killed the Potters, a grieving Snape vowed to protect Lily's child, although he loathed young Harry for being James Potter's son. It is also revealed that Snape did not kill Albus Dumbledore, but carried out Dumbledore's prearranged plan. Dumbledore, who was dying from a slow-spreading curse, wanted to protect Snape's position within the Death Eaters and spare Draco Malfoy from completing Voldemort's task to murder him. - -To defeat Harry, Voldemort steals the Elder Wand from Dumbledore's tomb. It is the most powerful wand ever created, and he twice casts the Killing Curse on Harry with it. The first attempt merely stuns Harry into a deathlike state. In the chapter ""King's Cross"", Dumbledore's spirit tells Harry that when Voldemort failed to kill baby Harry and disembodied himself, Harry became an unintentional Horcrux; Voldemort could not kill Harry while the Dark Lord's soul shard was within Harry's body. Voldemort's second Killing Curse also fails because Voldemort used Harry's blood in his resurrection. Voldemort's soul shard within Harry was destroyed because Harry willingly faced death. In the next chapter, ""The Flaw in the Plan"", it is established that Harry, not Voldemort, became the Elder Wand's true master. In the book's climax, the Elder Wand disobeys the Dark Lord's command and rebounds the curse onto Voldemort, killing him. J.K. Rowling said, the difference between Harry and Voldemort is that Harry willingly accepts mortality, making him stronger than his nemesis. ""The real master of Death accepts that he must die, and that there are much worse things in the world of the living."" - -After Voldemort's defeat, Harry joins the Auror Office for a revolutionised Ministry of Magic. Ten years afterwards, Harry is appointed department head by new Minister of Magic Kingsley Shacklebolt. Ron, who helped George run the Weasley Wizarding Wheezes Joke Shop for a time, is also an Auror. In the end, Rowling said his old rival Draco Malfoy has overcome his animosity after Harry saved his life three times in the seventh book. - -In the Deathly Hallows epilogue, set nineteen years after Voldemort's death (i.e. 2017), Harry and Ginny are married and have three children: James Sirius, Albus Severus, and Lilly Luna. - -Movie appearances - -In the eight Harry Potter movies from 2001-2011, Harry Potter has been played by British actor Daniel Radcliffe. Radcliffe was asked to audition for the role of Harry Potter in 2000 by producer David Heyman, while in at a play titled Stones in His Pockets in London. The Harry Potter role has earned much money for Radcliffe. As of 2007, he has an estimated wealth of £17 million. - -In a 2007 interview with MTV, Radcliffe stated that, for him, Harry Potter is a classic coming of age character: ""That's what the movies are about for me: a loss of innocence, going from being a young kid in awe of the world around him, to someone who is more battle-hardened by the end of it."" He also said that for him, important factors in Harry's psyche are his survivor's guilt about the death of his parents and his lingering loneliness. Because of this, Radcliffe talked to a bereavement counsellor to help him prepare for the role. Radcliffe was quoted as saying that he wished for Harry to die in the books, but he clarified that he, ""can't imagine any other way they can be concluded"". After reading the last book, where Harry Potter and his friends survive and have children, Radcliffe stated to be glad about the ending and lauded author J. K. Rowling for the conclusion of the story. - -Radcliffe stated that the most often repeated question he has been asked is how Harry Potter has influenced his own life, to which he regularly answers it has been ""fine"", and that he did not feel pigeonholed by the role, but rather sees it as a huge privilege to portray the character of Harry Potter. - -Characterisation -According to author J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter is strongly guided by his own conscience, and has a keen feeling of what is right and what is wrong. Having ""very limited access to truly caring adults"", Rowling said, Harry ""is forced to make his own decisions from early age on."" He ""does make mistakes"", she conceded, but in the end, he does what his conscience tells him to do. According to Rowling, one of Harry's pivotal scenes came in the fourth book when he protects his dead schoolmate Cedric Diggory's body from arch villain Lord Voldemort, because it shows he is brave and unselfish. - -Rowling also said that Harry's two worst character flaws are ""anger and occasional arrogance"", but that Harry is also innately honourable. ""He's not a cruel boy. He's competitive, and he's a fighter. He doesn't just lie down and take abuse. But he does have native integrity, which makes him a hero to me. He's a normal boy but with those qualities most of us really admire."" After the seventh book, Rowling commented that Harry has the ultimate character strength, being able to do what even Voldemort can not: he is not afraid of death. - -Rowling has also maintained that Harry is a suitable real-life role model for children. ""The advantage of a fictional hero or heroine is that you can know them better than you can know a living hero, many of whom you would never meet […] if people like Harry and identify with him, I am pleased, because I think he is very likeable."" - -Outward appearance -Rowling also gave Harry Potter an uncanny outward appearance. Throughout the entire series, Harry sports his father's perpetually untidy black hair, his mother's green eyes, and a lightning bolt-shaped scar on his forehead because of his encounter with Lord Voldemort and round, thick eyeglasses. She explained that this image simply came to her when she first thought up Harry Potter, seeing him as a ""scrawny, black-haired, bespectacled boy"". - -In the books, Harry's scar serves as an indicator of Voldemort's presence: it burns when the Dark Lord is near or feeling particularly murderous or exultant. According to Rowling, by attacking Harry when he was a baby, Voldemort gave him ""tools (that) no other wizard possessed – the scar, and the ability it conferred, provided a magical window into Voldemort's mind."" Asked why Harry's forehead scar is lightning bolt-shaped, Rowling said, ""to be honest, because it’s a cool shape,"" and joked, ""I couldn’t have my hero sport a doughnut-shaped scar."" - -Abilities and interests -In the books, Harry is categorised as a ""half-blood"" wizard in the series, because although both his parents were magical, his mother, Lily Evans, was ""Muggle-born"". According to Rowling, to characters for whom wizarding blood purity matters, Lily would be considered ""as loathsome as a Muggle"", and derogatively referred to as a ""Mudblood"". - -Throughout the series, Rowling wrote Harry Potter as a gifted wizard apprentice. She stated in a 2000 interview with South West News Service that Harry Potter is ""particularly talented"" in Defence Against the Dark Arts, and also good in Quidditch. Rowling said in the same interview that until about halfway through the third book, his good friend Hermione Granger –written as the smartest student in Harry's year– would have beaten Harry in a magical duel. From the fourth book onwards, Rowling admits Harry has become quite talented in the Defence Against the Dark Arts and would beat his friend Hermione in a magical duel. His power is evident from the beginning of the series; specifically, Harry shows immediate command of a broomstick, produces a Patronus at an early age and survives several confrontations with Voldemort. Harry is able to speak and understand Parseltongue, a language associated with Dark Magic, which, according to Rowling, is because he harbours a piece of Lord Voldemort's soul. After Voldemort destroys that soul piece in the seventh book's climax, Harry loses the ability to speak Parseltongue. Harry ""is very glad"" to have lost this gift. - -According to Rowling, Harry's favourite book is Quidditch Through the Ages, an actual book that Rowling wrote (under the pseudonym Kennilworthy Whisp) for the Comic Relief charity. - -Possessions - -When Harry's parents were murdered by Lord Voldemort, they left behind a large pile of wizard's gold, used as currency in the world of magic, in a vault in the wizarding bank, Gringotts. This becomes Harry's source of paying for all of his Hogwarts textbooks, wizarding clothing, and spending money. - -As is the case with most wizards in the Harry Potter series, his wand is among his most valued magical items. Harry's is made of holly, a wood Rowling chose because it is said to get rid of evil. It forms a deliberate contrast to the wand of his nemesis Lord Voldemort, whose wand is made of yew, which symbolises death. Rowling states she later learned that in the Celtic calendar a type of wood is assigned to each month; and Harry's fictional birthday (31 July) is linked to holly. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger also happened to get wands made from the appropriate woods identified the Celtic calendar, according to their fictional birth months. - -Another valued and useful possession is Harry's Cloak of Invisibility. In his first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, he gets it anonymously as a Christmas gift. He later learns it was given by Albus Dumbledore, who had it in turn from Harry's father. - -Harry also owns half of a pair of two-way mirrors, given by his godfather Sirius Black, as a means of maintaining covert communications. In Book 7, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, when Harry and several friends are captured at Malfoy Manor, which Lord Voldemort was using as his headquarters, Harry uses the mirror to communicate with Aberforth Dumbledore, who sends rescue in the form of Dobby the House Elf. - -After Sirius' death, all of his remaining possessions were passed along to Harry. This included the Black family residence, located at Number Twelve Grimmauld Place, and all the contents and furnishings of the house, including Kreacher (the old Black family House Elf). Harry also inherited the remainder of Sirius' wealth in wizard's gold at Gringotts. - -Another notable possession of Harry's is a magical knife, given to him by Sirius Black. The knife has the power to open most mechanical locks and magical seals. The knife was destroyed when Harry attempted to use it on a lock in the Department of Mysteries, when instead of opening the desired lock, an enchantment destroyed the knife's blade. - -By the end of Deathly Hallows, Harry possesses all three Deathly Hallows: the Cloak of Invisibility, the Resurrection Stone, and the Elder Wand, They are three of the most powerful magical items in all of the wizarding-world. However, Harry lost the Resurrection Stone inside the Forbidden Forest, and decides to leave it there. Harry also takes the Elder Wand and lays it with Dumbledore's body, so the power of the wand might be extinguished if he dies a natural death.(In the movie, Harry destroys it by snapping it in half.) However, the new portrait of Dumbledore in the Headmaster's Office agrees that Harry should keep the Invisibility Cloak for himself, since it was his father's. - -Throughout most of the books, Harry also has a pet owl named Hedwig, used to deliver and get messages and packages. When Hedwig is killed in the seventh book, the author said she expected the strong emotional reaction of her readers: ""The loss of Hedwig represented a loss of innocence and security. She has been almost like a cuddly toy to Harry at times. I know that death upset a lot of people!"" - -Family -In the novels, Harry is the only child of James and Lily Potter, but orphaned as an infant. Rowling made Harry an orphan from the early drafts of her first book. She felt an orphan would be the most interesting character to write about. However, after her mother's death, Rowling wrote Harry as a child longing to see his dead parents again, incorporating her own anguish into him. Harry's aunt and uncle kept the truth about their deaths from Harry, telling him they died in a car accident. Through his marriage to Ginny Weasley, Harry links the Peverell and the House of Black families. It is unknown whether there have been other links between the two families' history, but this is possible, as they are among the most prominent wizarding families. - -In popular culture - -In 2002, Harry Potter was voted No. 85 among the ""100 Best Fictional Characters"" by Book magazine and also voted the 35th ""Worst Briton"" in Channel 4's ""100 Worst Britons We Love to Hate"" program. In addition, Harry Potter is spoofed in the Barry Trotter series by American writer Michael Gerber, where a ""Barry Trotter"" appears as the eponymous anti-hero. On his homepage, Gerber describes Trotter as an unpleasant character who ""drinks too much, eats like a pig, sleeps until noon, and owes everybody money."" The author stated ""[s]ince I really liked Rowling's books […] I felt obligated to try to write a spoof worthy of the originals."" - -In real life, Harry's iconoclastic appearance has become cult. According to halloweenonline.com, Harry Potter sets were the fifth-best selling Halloween costume of 2005. In addition, wizard rock bands like Harry and the Potters and others regularly dress up in the style of Harry Potter, sporting painted forehead scars, black wigs and round bottle top glasses. - -Wizard rock is a musical movement dating from 2002 that consists of at least 200 bands made up of young musicians, playing songs about Harry Potter. The movement started in Massachusetts with the band Harry and the Potters, who cosplay as Harry during live performances - -Harry Potter appears in the Robot Chicken episode ""Nutcracker Sweet"" voiced by Seth Green. He is shown to have Firebolt in a delicate place on himself. Quinton Flynn voices Harry Potter in the episode ""Password: Swordfish."" When the threat of the puberty creature Pubertis is known, Harry sees Dumbledore about this and receives a stone that might help him fight Pubertis. Upon confrontation with Pubertis, he rubs the stone two times, which summons ghosts to punch it. When it comes to the third time, (the stone starts ""chafing"") Dumbledore appears and tells Harry that the stone can only be warmed up three times (four if you take a week off) and that Pubertis cannot be destroyed since it lives in everyone. - -In Epic Movie, a 2007 parody movie, he is played by Canadian comedian Kevin McDonald, whereas Harry is portrayed as being somewhat of a pervert as seen when Harry tries to touch Susan Pevensie's breasts. - -Episodes of The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy has spoofed Harry as Nigel Planter. Unlike Harry, Nigel has an L-shaped scar on his forehead. - -In an episode of The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Potter is referenced trice, once when Jimmy is watching a reel of movies rapidly (Where Hagrid says ""You're a Wizard, Harry"") and later in the filming for Jimmy's movie, as Jimmy plays a parody of Harry, called ""Terry Bladder"". - -Wizards of Waverly Place once referenced Harry, as Justin was wearing a robe and glasses like Harry, to which Alex comments on with trying to guess who he looks like (""Barry something"", ""Jerry something"", etc.) - -References - -Other websites -Harry Potter Quotes for a Braver You -Harry Potter: Quick facts from the HP lexicon - Harry Potter quotes from Mugglenet - 123 Inspiring Quotes From The Harry Potter Series - Harry Potter Bibliography: Research and Criticism - Harry Potter biography at The Harry Potter Encyclopedia - -Fictional characters introduced in 1997 -Harry Potter characters" -2142,7296,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford,Oxford,"Oxford is a city in England. It is on the River Thames. It is a very old city. It is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom. Some of its buildings were built before the 12th century. It is famous for its university, Oxford University, which is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. - -About 150,200 live in Oxford. Two rivers run through the city, the Cherwell and the Thames. These two rivers meet south of the city centre. - -Besides its university, there are some buildings famous for their architecture (the style in which they were built), like the Radcliffe Camera. There are also lots of museums and other places for tourists to visit. - -The south and east of the city are less wealthy and have fewer students. Cowley used to be a separate town and has a large car factory, and Blackbird Leys is an area of mainly council housing. - -Transport - -Rail -Oxford has a station in the centre of the city and a station on the outskirts of the city. - -References - -Other websites - Oxford - Citizendium - -County towns in England" -14942,56331,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20quantity,Physical quantity,"In physics, a physical quantity is any physical property that can be quantified, that is, be measured using numbers. Examples of physical quantities are mass, amount of substance, length, time, temperature, electric current, light intensity, force, velocity, density, and many others. A physical quantity is always measured of natural non-living objects (Inanimate objects) - -The foundation of physics rests upon physical quantities in term of which the laws of physics are expressed. Therefore, these quantities have to be measured accurately. Physical quantities are often divided into two categories; base quantities and derived quantities. Derived quantities are those quantities which are derived from other physical quantities. Examples of derived quantities are force, velocity, acceleration etc. - -Physics -Measurement" -19559,74847,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemgo,Lemgo,"Lemgo is a city in the Lippe district in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with a population of c. 42,000. - -References - -Other websites - Stadt Lemgo - -Lippe Rural District" -15241,57696,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single%20transferable%20vote,Single transferable vote,"Single transferable vote (STV for short) is a type of voting system that gives proportional representation. It is used to elect more than one person (though it becomes Instant Runoff Voting in one-winner elections), and voters rank the candidates when voting. - -How to vote in an STV election - -Write a number ""1"" next to your favourite candidate, a number ""2"" next to your second favourite, a number ""3"" next to your third favourite and so on. - -How votes are counted - -Each candidate needs a certain number of votes to be elected. This number depends on how many people are voting and on how many people are to be elected. - -Then the number ""1"" votes for each candidate are counted. But it can happen that one candidate or several candidates have more than the needed number of votes. These candidates are elected. But since they have more votes than they needed, they pass on the votes which they do not need to other candidates. Which candidate or candidates get those ""surplus"" votes depends on the voters' number of ""2"" votes given on the ballots papers of the candidates that have already been elected. If those number ""2"" votes make another candidate win and give them too many votes, this new ""surplus"" is passed on again, using number ""3"" votes, and so on. - -If not enough candidates have been elected so far, the candidate with the fewest votes is excluded. Votes for this candidate are passed on to the candidate given as the next preference of each of his voters (the next higher number in each listing of candidates). This may help to elect another candidate. If not, the next candidate which now has the fewest votes is excluded. - -Passing on the ""surplus"" votes and excluding the weakest candidates goes on until the needed number of candidates has been elected. - -Places that use STV -Cambridge, Massachusetts -Ireland -Malta -New Zealand -Australia -Northern Ireland -Scotland -India - -Other websites - -STV Action a website that says STV should be used for all elections -VoteScotland.com a website about elections in Scotland - -Voting systems" -2389,7732,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/January%2030,January 30," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1018 - The Peace of Bautzen is signed between Poland and Germany. - 1607 - Massive flooding hits the coasts of the Bristol Channel and Severn Estuary in England, killing around 2,000 people. - 1648 – The Treaty of Münster is signed, ending the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain. - 1649 – King Charles I of England is beheaded. - 1661 – Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England is formally executed – after having been dead for two years. - 1667 - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth cedes Kiev, Smolensk and western Ukraine to the Tsardom of Russia. - 1790 – The first boat specialized as a lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne. - 1806 - The original Lower Trenton Bridge, spanning the Delaware River between Morrisville, Pennsylvania and Trenton, New Jersey, is opened. - 1820 – Edward Bransfield lands on the Antarctic mainland. - 1826 - The Menai Suspension Bridge, connecting the island of Anglesey and mainland Wales, is opened. - 1835 – A mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence attempts to assassinate President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol—the first assassination attempt against a President. Both of Lawrence's pistols misfire, and Jackson proceeds to beat his would-be assassin with his cane. - 1841 - A fire destroys two-thirds of the city of Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. - 1847 – Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco. - 1862 – The first American ironclad warship, the USS Monitor is launched. - 1869 - The University of Idaho is started. - 1889 – Archduke Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown, is found dead with his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera in Mayerling. How they died remains a mystery. - 1900 – United Kingdom forces fighting Boers in South Africa ask for reinforcements. - -1901 2000 - 1902 - The United Kingdom and Japan sign the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. - 1911 – The destroyer USS Terry makes the first airplane rescue at sea saving the life of James McCurdy 10 miles from Havana, Cuba. - 1911 – The Canadian Naval Service becomes the Royal Canadian Navy. - 1913 – House of Lords rejects Irish Home Rule Bill. - 1925 – Government of Turkey throws Patriarch Constantine VI out of Istanbul. - 1933 – Adolf Hitler is sworn in as Chancellor of Germany. - 1933 – The first of 2,956 episodes of The Lone Ranger radio series airs on station WXYZ in Detroit, Michigan. - 1942 - World War II: Japanese forces invade the island of Ambon in what is now Indonesia. - 1944 – World War II: United States troops invade Majuro, Marshall Islands. - 1945 – The Wilhelm Gustloff sinks in the Baltic Sea in the deadliest maritime disaster in known history, killing roughly 9,000. - 1948 – Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated in Delhi by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist. - 1948 – 1948 Winter Olympics open in St. Moritz, Switzerland. Because of World War II a few years previously, German and Japanese athletes are not allowed to take part. - 1956 - Martin Luther King, Jr.'s home is bombed in retaliation for the Montgomery Bus Boycott. - 1959 - The ship MS Hans Hedtoft strikes an iceberg on her first voyage and sinks, killing 95 people on board. - 1962 – Two of the high-wire Flying Wallendas are killed when their famous seven-person pyramid collapses during a performance in Detroit, Michigan. - 1964 – Ranger 6 is launched by NASA. Its mission is to carry television cameras and to crash-land on the moon. - 1964 - Nguyen Khanh takes power in South Vietnam, removing Duong Van Minh's military junta from power. - 1965 - The funeral of Winston Churchill takes place in London. Over a million people line the streets to say farewell. - 1968 – Vietnam War: The Tết Offensive begins when NLF forces launch series of a surprise attacks in South Vietnam. - 1969 – The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records in London. The impromptu concert is broken up by the police. - 1972 – Bloody Sunday: United Kingdom British Paratroopers murder fourteen Roman Catholic civil rights /anti internment marchers in Northern Ireland- Bloody Sunday (1972) - 1972 – Pakistan withdraws from the Commonwealth of Nations. - 1975 – First faroese stamp issued - 1983 – Super Bowl XVII: The Washington Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins, 27-17, thus winning their first NFL championship since 1942. - 1989 – The American embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan closes. - 1994 – Péter Lékó becomes the youngest grand master in chess. - 1994 – The Dallas Cowboys win their fourth Super Bowl title, 30-13 over the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII. - 1995 – Workers from the National Institutes of Health announce the success of clinical trials testing the first preventive treatment for sickle-cell disease. - 1996 – Suspected leader of the Irish National Liberation Army Gino Gallagher is killed while in line for his unemployment benefit. - 2000 – Off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya Airways Flight 431 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean, killing 169. - 2000 – In Super Bowl XXXIV, the St. Louis Rams defeat the Tennessee Titans, 23-16. - -From 2001 - 2002 – Slobodan Milošević accuses the United Nations war crimes tribunal of an ""evil and hostile attack"" against him. - 2003 – Belgium legally recognizes same-sex marriage. - 2005 – Amid violence and threats to boycott the results, Iraq holds an election for its National Assembly, the country's first free election since 1953. - 2007 - Microsoft Windows Vista is released. - 2015 - 55 people are killed in a bomb attack in Shikarpur, Southern Pakistan. - 2016 - 39 people drown as a boat carrying refugees sinks in the Mediterranean Sea. - 2016 - Tennis: Angelique Kerber becomes the first German woman since Steffi Graf to win a Grand Slam singles title, defeating Serena Williams in three sets to win the Australian Open. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 58 BC – Livia Drusilla, wife of Roman Emperor Augustus (d. 29) - 133 – Marcus Severus Didius Julianus, Roman Emperor (d. 193) - 1563 - Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologian (d. 1641) - 1628 - George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English diplomat (d. 1687) - 1661 - Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741) - 1697 - Johann Joachim Quantz, German flautist (d. 1773) - 1720 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (d. 1778) - 1736 - James Watt, Scottish engineer (d. 1819) - 1754 - John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (d. 1829) - 1775 - Walter Savage Landor, English writer and poet (d. 1864) - 1781 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (d. 1838) - 1816 – Nathaniel Prentice Banks, American politician, Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1894) - 1822 - Franz Ritter von Hauer, Austrian geologist (d. 1899) - 1841 - Félix Faure, French politician (d. 1899) - 1841 - Sam Lloyd, American game inventor and puzzle specialist (d. 1911) - 1845 - Jose Domingo de Obaldia, 2nd President of Panama (d. 1910) - 1846 - F. H. Bradley, British philosopher (d. 1924) - 1852 - Ion Luca Caragiale, Romanian playwright and poet (d. 1912) - 1862 - Walter Damrosch, German conductor and composer (d. 1950) - 1875 - Walter Middelberg, Dutch rower (d. 1944) - 1878 – Anton Hansen Tammsaare, Estonian writer (d. 1940) - 1882 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, 32nd President of the United States (d. 1945) - 1884 - Pedro Pablo Ramirez, President of Argentina (d. 1962) - 1888 - Beatrice Brigden, Canadian activist (d. 1977) - 1889 – Jaishankar Prasad, Indian poet and dramatist (d. 1937) - 1890 - Bruno Kastner, German actor (d. 1932) - 1894 – Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria (d. 1943) - 1895 – Wilhelm Gustloff, German leader of the Swiss Nazi Party (d. 1936) - 1899 – Max Theiler, South African virologist (d. 1972) - 1900 - Isaac Dunayevsky, Soviet composer (d. 1955) - -1901 1950 - 1901 – Rudolf Caracciola, German racing driver (d. 1959) - 1910 - Chidambaram Subramaniam, Indian politician (d. 2000) - 1911 – Roy Eldridge, American jazz musician (d. 1989) - 1912 – Werner Hartmann, German physicist (d. 1988) - 1913 - Percy Thrower, English gardener and television host (d. 1988) - 1913 - Amrita Sher-Gil, Indian painter (d. 1941) - 1915 – John Profumo, British politician (d. 2006) - 1917 - Paul Frère, Belgian racing driver, journalist and author (d. 2008) - 1920 - Michael Anderson, British director - 1920 - Delbert Mann, American director (d. 2007) - 1924 – Lloyd Alexander, American writer (d. 2007) - 1925 - Douglas Engelbart, American inventor (d. 2013) - 1927 – Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1986) - 1928 – Hal Prince, American stage producer and director - 1929 - Lucille Teasdale-Corti, Canadian physician, surgeon and aid worker (d. 1996) - 1929 - Isamu Akasaki, Japanese scientist, joint-winner of the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics - 1930 – Gene Hackman, American actor - 1930 - Janis Krumins, Latvian basketball player (d. 1994) - 1930 - Egon Klepsch, German politician (d. 2010) - 1931 - Shirley Hazzard, Australian-American writer (d. 2016) - 1932 - Knock Yokoyama, Japanese comedian and politician - 1934 - Tammy Grimes, American actress and singer (d. 2016) - 1934 - Giovanni Battista Re, Italian cardinal - 1935 - Richard Brautigan, American writer (d. 1984) - 1935 - Jean Tiberi, former Mayor of Paris - 1936 - Horst Jankowski, German pianist (d. 1998) - 1937 – Vanessa Redgrave, British actress - 1937 – Boris Spassky, Russian chess player - 1937 - Ed Hansen, American movie director and editor (d. 2005) - 1938 – Islam Karimov, President of Uzbekistan (d. 2016) - 1940 - Mitch Murray, English songwriter and producer - 1941 - Gregory Benford, American science fiction writer - 1941 – Dick Cheney, 46th Vice President of the United States - 1945 - Meir Dagan, Israeli general (d. 2016) - 1945 - Michael Dorris, American author (d. 1997) - 1946 - John Bird, Baron Bird, English social entrepreneur - 1947 - Steve Marriott, English musician (d. 1991) - 1947 - Malgorzata Braunek, Polish actress (d. 2014) - 1948 - Sergio Cofferati, Italian politician - 1949 – Peter Agre, American biologist - 1949 - Jaak Salumets, Estonian basketball player and coach - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Phil Collins, British singer and musician - 1955 – John Baldacci, American politician, 73rd Governor of Maine - 1955 - Curtis Strange, American golfer - 1956 - Keiichi Tsuchiya, Japanese racing driver - 1956 - Darko Rundek, Croatian musician, actor and theatre director - 1956 - Jeremy Gittins, English actor - 1957 - Payne Stewart, American golfer (d. 1999) - 1959 – Irina Pudova, Yakut ballerina - 1960 - Eddie Jones, Australian rugby union player and coach - 1961 - Liu Gang, Chinese physicist and computer scientist - 1961 – Dexter Scott King, son of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Coretta Scott King - 1962 – King Abdullah II of Jordan - 1963 - Tina Malone, English actress - 1964 - Otis Smith, American basketball player - 1965 - Julie McCullough, American model and actress - 1967 - Jay Gordon, American musician - 1967 - Sergey Tchepikov, Russian biathlete - 1968 – King Felipe VI of Spain - 1968 - Trevor Dunn, American musician - 1969 - Alexey Dreev, Russian chess player - 1971 - Darren Boyd, British actor - 1972 - Jennifer Hale, Canadian-American actress and comedienne - 1974 – Christian Bale, British actor - 1974 – Olivia Colman, British actress - 1974 – Jemima Khan, British socialite - 1975 - Yumi Yoshimura, Japanese singer - 1975 – Juninho Pernambucano, Brazilian footballer - -From 1976 - 1976 – Cristian Brocchi, Italian footballer - 1978 - Romesh Ranganathan, English comedian - 1979 - Davide Simoncelli, Italian cross-country skier - 1979 - Trevor Gillies, Canadian ice hockey player - 1980 – Wilmer Valderrama, American actor and producer - 1981 – Dimitar Berbatov, Bulgarian footballer - 1981 – Peter Crouch, English footballer - 1981 - Mathias Lauda, Austrian racing driver - 1982 - DeSagana Diop, Senegalese basketball player - 1983 - Ben Maher, English equestrian - 1984 – Kid Cudi, American Hip hop performer - 1987 – Arda Turan, Turkish footballer - 1987 - Phil Lester, English YouTuber, vlogger and radio personality - 1987 – Rebecca Quin, Irish professional wrestler better known as Becky Lynch - 1990 – Jake Thomas, American actor - 1990 - Yoon Bo-ra, South Korean singer - 1993 - Katy Marchant, English track cyclist - 1995 - Misaki Iwasa, Japanese singer (AKB48) - 1995 - Viktoria Komova, Russian gymnast - 1995 - Danielle Campbell, American actress - 1995 - Jack Laugher, English diver - 2000 - Benee, New Zealand singer - 2005 – Prince Hashem bin Al Abdullah II of Jordan - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 680 - Bathild, Frankish Queen (b. 626) - 1030 - William V, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 969) - 1181 – Emperor Takakura of Japan (b. 1161) - 1314 - Nicholas III of Saint Omer - 1384 – Louis II of Flanders (b. 1330) - 1649 – King Charles I of England, Ireland and Scotland (b. 1600) - 1730 – Tsar Peter II of Russia (b. 1715) - 1836 – Betsy Ross, American seamstress (b. 1752) - 1867 – Emperor Komei of Japan (b. 1831) - 1869 - William Carleton, Irish novelist (b. 1794) - 1889 – Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria (b. 1858) - 1889 – Baroness Marie Vetsera, mistress of Austrian Crown Prince Rudolf (b. 1871) - -1901 2000 - 1913 - James Henderson Berry, Governor of Arkansas (b. 1841) - 1926 - Barbara La Marr, American actress (b. 1896) - 1927 - Simeon Eben Baldwin, American politician, 65th Governor of Connecticut (b. 1840) - 1928 – Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Danish doctor, won the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1867) - 1929 - La Goulue, French dancer (b. 1866) - 1934 - Frank Nelson Doubleday, American publisher (b. 1862) - 1948 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian spiritual leader and advocate of non-violence (assassinated) (b. 1869) - 1948 – Orville Wright, American aviation pioneer (b. 1871) - 1951 – Ferdinand Porsche, Austrian automobile engineer (b. 1875) - 1958 - Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (b. 1878) - 1958 – Ernst Heinkel, German engineer (b. 1888) - 1963 - Francis Poulenc, French composer (b. 1899) - 1969 – Dominique Pire, Belgian monk (b. 1910) - 1980 - Professor Longhair, American musician (b. 1918) - 1982 – Stanley Holloway, British actor (b. 1890) - 1982 – Lightnin' Hopkins, American musician (b. 1912) - 1984 - Luke Kelly, Irish singer (The Dubliners) (b. 1940) - 1986 - Ivan Papanin, Russian explorer (b. 1894) - 1989 - Alfonso, Duke of Anjou and Cadiz, Spanish royal and claimant to the French throne (b. 1936) - 1991 – John Bardeen, American physicist (b. 1908) - 1995 – Gerald Durrell, British naturalist (b. 1925) - 1999 – Huntz Hall, American actor (b. 1919) - -From 2001 - 2006 – Coretta Scott King, American civil rights activist (b. 1927) - 2007 – Sidney Sheldon, American writer and screenwriter (b. 1917) - 2008 – Jeremy Beadle, British television presenter (b. 1948) - 2009 – Ingemar Johansson, Swedish boxer (b. 1932) - 2009 – Sune Jonsson, Swedish writer, movie maker and photographer (b. 1930) - 2009 - H. Guy Hunt, 49th Governor of Alabama (b. 1933) - 2011 – John Barry, British movie score composer (b. 1933) - 2013 - Patty Andrews, American singer (b. 1918) - 2014 - Jack Stoddard, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1926) - 2014 - The Mighty Hannibal, American singer, songwriter and record producer (b. 1939) - 2014 - Arthur Rankin, Jr., American animator, director, producer and writer (b. 1924) - 2015 - Gerrit Voorting, Dutch road bicycle racer (b. 1923) - 2015 - Zhelyu Zhelev, 2nd President of Bulgaria (b. 1935) - 2015 - Geraldine McEwan, English actress (b. 1932) - 2015 - Carl Djerassi, Austrian-American chemist, novelist and playwright (b. 1923) - 2016 - Frank Finlay, British actor (b. 1926) - 2016 - T. N. Gopakumar, Indian journalist (b. 1957) - 2016 - Georgia Davis Powers, American civil rights activist and politician (b. 1923) - 2016 - Francisco Flores Pérez, President of El Salvador (b. 1959) - 2016 - Mohammad Salimi, Iranian general (b. 1937) - 2017 - Marta Becket, American dancer, painter and choreographer (b. 1924) - 2017 - David Burhani, Tanzanian footballer (b. 1990) - 2017 - Carmen Contreras-Bozak, American World War II veteran (b. 1919) - 2017 - Mario R. Ramil, Filipino-born American justice (b. 1946) - 2018 - Rolf Schafstall, German footballer (b. 1937) - 2018 - Mark Salling, American actor and singer (b. 1982) - 2018 - Clyde Scott, American football player and hurdler (b. 1924) - 2018 - Kevin Towers, American baseball executive (b. 1961) - 2018 - Terry Van Ginderen, Belgian television and music producer (b. 1931) - 2018 - Azeglio Vicini, Italian footballer (b. 1933) - 2018 - Louis Zorich, American actor (b. 1924) - 2019 - Stewart Adams, British chemist, inventor of ibuprofen (b. 1923) - 2019 - Per Jorsett, Norwegian sports reporter (b. 1920) - 2019 - Dick Miller, American actor (b. 1928) - -Observances - Observances related to the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi - Martyrs' Day (India) - School Day of non-violence and Peace (Spain) - -Days of the year" -12596,46343,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism,Trotskyism,"Trotskyism is the form of communism that is based on the ideas of Leon Trotsky. Trotsky described himself as an ""orthodox Marxist"". This is a different way of seeing the ideas of Karl Marx than the way other communists like Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin saw them. The biggest difference is in Trotsky's idea that there needs to be an international ""permanent revolution"". A permanent revolution is the idea that proletarian revolution needed to spread in countries worldwide, even where capitalism was not as advanced as only the proletarian revolution could carry out the tasks of the unfinished bourgeois revolutions in these countries. This is different to the Stalinist idea of trying to preserve a single nation's revolution from within. Trotsky also supported a less authoritarian government and more democracy. - -The largest Trotskyist organizations today are the Reunified Fourth International, International Socialist Tendency, the International Communist League, and the Committee for a Workers' International. - -Communism -Marxism" -6589,20764,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect%20number,Perfect number,"A number is called a perfect number if by adding all the positive divisors of the number (except itself), the result is the number itself. - -6 is the first perfect number. Its divisors (other than the number itself: 6) are 1, 2, and 3 and 1 + 2 + 3 equals 6. Other perfect numbers include 28, 496 and 8128. - -Perfect numbers that are even - -Euclid discovered that the first four perfect numbers are generated by the formula 2n-1(2n - 1): - -for n = 2: 21(22 - 1) = 6 -for n = 3: 22(23 - 1) = 28 -for n = 5: 24(25 - 1) = 496 -for n = 7: 26(27 - 1) = 8128 - -Euclid saw that 2n - 1 is a prime number in these four cases. He then proved that the formula 2n-1(2n - 1) gives an even perfect number whenever 2n - 1 is prime (Euclid, Prop. IX.36). - -Ancient mathematicians made many assumptions about perfect numbers based on the four they knew. Most of the assumptions were wrong. One of these assumptions was that since 2, 3, 5, and 7 are precisely the first four primes, the fifth perfect number would be obtained when n = 11, the fifth prime. However, 211 - 1 = 2047 = 23 × 89 is not prime and therefore n = 11 does not give a perfect number. Two other wrong assumptions were: - -The fifth perfect number would have five digits since the first four had 1, 2, 3, and 4 digits respectively. -The perfect numbers would alternately end in 6 or 8. - -The fifth perfect number () has 8 digits. This falsifies the first assumption. For the second assumption, the fifth perfect number indeed ends with a 6. However, the sixth (8 589 869 056) also ends in a 6. It is straightforward to show the last digit of any even perfect number must be 6 or 8. - -In order for to be prime, it is necessary that should be prime. Prime numbers of the form 2n - 1 are known as Mersenne primes, after the seventeenth-century monk Marin Mersenne, who studied number theory and perfect numbers. - -Two millennia after Euclid, Euler proved that the formula 2n-1(2n - 1) will yield all the even perfect numbers. Therefore, every Mersenne prime will yield a distinct even perfect number–there is a concrete one-to-one association between even perfect numbers and Mersenne primes. This result is often referred to as the ""Euclid-Euler Theorem"". Till January 2013, only 48 Mersenne primes are known. This means there are 48 perfect numbers known, the largest being 257,885,160 × (257,885,161 - 1) with 34,850,340 digits. - -The first 42 even perfect numbers are 2n-1(2n - 1) for -n = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941, 11213, 19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269, 2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917, 20996011, 24036583, 25964951 -The other 7 known are for n = 30402457, 32582657, 37156667, 42643801, 43112609, 57885161, 74207281. -It is currently not known whether there are others between them. - -It is still not known if there are infinitely many Mersenne primes and perfect numbers. The search for new Mersenne primes is the goal of the GIMPS distributed computing project. - -Since any even perfect number has the form 2n-1(2n - 1), it is a triangular number, and, like all triangular numbers, it is the sum of all natural numbers up to a certain point; in this case: 2n - 1. Also, any even perfect number except the first one is the sum of the first 2(n-1)/2 odd cubes: - -Perfect numbers that are odd - -It is not known whether there are any odd perfect numbers. Various results have been obtained, but none that has helped to locate one or otherwise resolve the question of their existence. Carl Pomerance has presented a heuristic argument which suggests that no odd perfect numbers exist. Also, it has been conjectured that there are no odd Ore's harmonic numbers. If true, this would mean that there are no odd perfect numbers. - -Any odd perfect number N must satisfy the following conditions: - N > 10300. It is likely that, in the near future, it will be proven that N > 10500. - N is of the form - -where: - q, p1, ..., pk are distinct primes. - q ≡ α ≡ 1 (modulo 4) (Euler). - -Proof -Let be odd perfect number. Since divisor function is multiplicative, -. - - must be an even not divisible by 4 and all the remaining must be odd. - -forces . - Either qα > 1020, or > 1020 for some j (Cohen 1987). - N < (Nielsen 2003). - The relation ≡ ...≡ ≡ 1 (modulo 3) is not satisfied (McDaniel 1970). - The smallest prime factor of N is less than (2k + 8) / 3 (Grün 1952). - - The largest prime factor of N is greater than 108 (Takeshi Goto and Yasuo Ohno, 2006). - The second largest prime factor is greater than 104, and the third largest prime factor is greater than 100 (Iannucci 1999, 2000). - N has at least 75 prime factors; and at least 9 distinct prime factors. If 3 is not one of the factors of N, then N has at least 12 distinct prime factors (Nielsen 2006; Kevin Hare 2005). - -Minor results -Even perfect numbers have a very precise form; odd perfect numbers are rare, if indeed they do exist. There are a number of results on perfect numbers that are actually quite easy to prove but nevertheless superficially impressive; some of them also come under Richard Guy's Strong Law of Small Numbers: -Every odd perfect number is of the form 12m + 1 or 4356m + 1089 or 468m + 117 or 2916m + 729 (Roberts 2008). -An odd perfect number is not divisible by 105 (Kühnel 1949). -Every odd perfect number is the sum of two squares (Stuyvaert 1896). -A Fermat number cannot be a perfect number (Luca 2000). -The only even perfect number of the form　 is 28 (Makowski 1962). -By dividing the definition through by the perfect number N, the reciprocals of the factors of a perfect number N must add up to 2: -For 6, we have ; -For 28, we have , etc. - The number of divisors of a perfect number (whether even or odd) must be even, since N cannot be a perfect square. -From these two results it follows that every perfect number is an Ore's harmonic number. - -Related concepts -The sum of proper divisors gives various other kinds of numbers. Numbers where the sum is less than the number itself are called deficient, and where it is greater than the number, abundant. These terms, together with perfect itself, come from Greek numerology. A pair of numbers which are the sum of each other's proper divisors are called amicable, and larger cycles of numbers are called sociable. A positive integer such that every smaller positive integer is a sum of distinct divisors of it is a practical number. - -By definition, a perfect number is a fixed point of the restricted sum-of-divisors function s(n) = σ(n) − n, and the aliquot sequence associated with a perfect number is a constant sequence. - -References - - Graeme L. Cohen, On the largest component of an odd perfect number, Journal of the Australian Mathematical Society, vol. 42 (1987), no. 2, pp. 280–286. - Euclid, Elements, Book IX, Proposition 36. See D.E. Joyce's website for a translation and discussion of this proposition and its proof. - Takeshi Goto and Yasuo Ohno, Odd perfect numbers have a prime factor exceeding 108. Preprint, 2006. Available from Takeshi Goto's webpage ""Largest prime factor of an odd perfect number"". - Otto Grün, Über ungerade vollkommene Zahlen, Mathematische Zeitschrift, vol. 55 (1952), pp. 353–354. - Kevin Hare, New techniques for bounds on the total number of prime factors of an odd perfect number. Preprint, 2005. Available from his webpage . - Douglas E. Iannucci, The second largest prime divisor of an odd perfect number exceeds ten thousand, Mathematics of Computation, vol. 68 (1999), no. 228, pp. 1749–1760. - Douglas E. Iannucci, The third largest prime divisor of an odd perfect number exceeds one hundred, Mathematics of Computation, vol. 69 (2000), no. 230, pages 867–879. - H.-J. Kanold, Untersuchungen über ungerade vollkommene Zahlen, Journal für die Reine und Angewandte Mathematik, vol. 183 (1941), pp. 98–109. - Ullrich Kühnel, Verschärfung der notwendigen Bedingungen für die Existenz von ungeraden vollkommenen Zahlen, ""Mathematische Zeitschrift"", vol. 52 (1949), 201—211. - Florian Luca, The anti-social Fermat number, Amer. Math. Monthly 107 (2000), pp. 171–173. - W. L. McDaniel, The non-existence of odd perfect numbers of a certain form, Archiv der Mathematik (Basel), vol. 21 (1970), pp. 52–53. - Pace P. Nielsen, ""An upper bound for odd perfect numbers,"" Integers, vol. 3 (2003), A14, 9 pp. - Pace P. Nielsen, Odd perfect numbers have at least nine different prime factors, Mathematics of Computation, in press, 2006. - T. Roberts, ""On the Form of an Odd Perfect Number"", Australian Mathematical Gazette, 35:4 (2008), p244. - R. Steuerwald, Verschärfung einer notwendigen Bedingung für die Existenz einer ungeraden vollkommenen Zahl, S.-B. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 1937, pp. 69–72. - Tomohiro Yamada, Odd perfect numbers of a special form, Colloq. Math. vol. 103 (2005), pp. 303–307. - -Other websites - - David Moews: Perfect, amicable and sociable numbers - Perfect numbers - History and Theory - Perfect Number - from MathWorld - List of Perfect Numbers at the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences -List of known Perfect Numbers All known perfect numbers are here. -OddPerfect.org A projected distributed computing project to search for odd perfect numbers. - -Number theory -Integer sequences" -22781,86382,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbelo,Barbelo,"Barbelo is a goddess in Gnosticsm. She is also called Thought, Providence, Forethought, or Foreknowledge. She is believed to be the first emanation of Bythos. - -In the Apocryphon of John, a writing in the Nag Hammadi Library, Barbelo is described as ""The first power, the glory, Barbelo, the perfect glory in the aions, the glory of the revelation."" - -The Apocryphon of John continues: - -""This is the first thought, his image; she became the womb of everything, for it is she who is prior to them all, the Mother-Father, the first man (Anthropos), the holy Spirit, the thrice-male, the thrice-powerful, the thrice-named androgynous one, and the eternal aeon among the invisible ones, and the first to come forth."" - -Relation to other systems of thought -The Gnostic account of Barbelo is quite similar to Tantric thought. In Kashmir Shaivism, Shakti is similarly the second Tattva or first emanation of Shiva. - -References - The Nag Hammadi Library. The Apocryphon of John Retrieved Oct. 21, 2004. - -Gods and goddesses" -20465,78617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manor%20house,Manor house,"A manor house or fortified manor-house is a country house, which has historically formed the centre of a manor (see Manorialism). The term is sometimes used for relatively small country houses which belonged to gentry families, as well as to grand stately homes, particularly as a technical term for minor late medieval castles more intended for show than for defence. - -In general terms, the manor house was the house of a feudal lord of a manor, which he occupied only on occasional visits if he held many manors. Although not built with strong fortifications as castles were, many manor houses were partly fortified: they were enclosed within walls or ditches. Often the farm buildings were within these walls as well. Many manor houses had small gatehouses and watchtowers. - -The main feature of the manor house was its great hall. By the beginning of the 16th century, manor houses as well as small castles began to acquire the character and amenities of the residences of country gentlemen. This late 16th century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France and the many country mansions of the Elizabethan and Jacobean styles in England. - -In France, the terms château or manoir are often used to describe a French manor house. Maison-forte is another French word to describe a strongly fortified manor house. In the western France provinces of Brittany and Normandy, certain large manors enjoyed real means of protection. - -In modern usage, the term manor or manor house is often used, especially outside Europe, to mean simply either a country house or indeed any other house considered to resemble one, without any reference to age or to the historical sense of the term. - -Related pages - Mansion - Reality TV show recreating life in an Edwardian manor house. - -Other websites - Estonian Manors Portal - the English version gives the brief overview of 438 best preserved manor houses in Estonia. - -Houses" -5271,17224,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizmondo,Gizmondo,"Gizmondo is a handheld video game system. It is made by Tiger Telematics. It has GPRS and GPS. GPRS is used to go on the Internet, and GPS is where you can see where you are. Some games use the Gizmondo's GPS. It has a camera. It can also send text (words) and multimedia (pictures and videos and music) messages, play MP3/WAV/MIDI music and WMA/MP4 video, and play games. MP3, WAV, and MIDI are ways to keep music, and WMA and MP4 are ways to keep videos. - -Releases -The Gizmondo came out in the United Kingdom in March 2005 for £229. It came out in the USA in October 22, 2005. Games include Agaju: the Sacred Path, Colors, and Chicane. - -In February 2006, the company was forced into bankruptcy and stopped making the Gizmondo. - -Handheld video games" -22075,83877,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlinsbach%20%28disambiguation%29,Erlinsbach (disambiguation),"Erlinsbach is the name of two municipalities in Switzerland: - - Erlinsbach, Aargau - Erlinsbach, Solothurn" -21203,81151,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranno,Aranno,"Aranno is a municipality of the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in southern Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - Aranno profile on the Cantonal Administration site - -Municipalities of Ticino" -1496,5160,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower%20of%20London,Tower of London,"The Tower of London is an ancient Norman stone fortress in London, England. It stands on the bank of the River Thames, in the oldest part of the city. - -It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - -History -The fortress was built by William the Conqueror, King William I, starting in 1078. The moat was built by Richard I, using water diverted from the River Thames. - -The Tower had many uses. Its main function was to protect Norman rule in the years after the conquest. It was a prison, and a place of execution. Today, the Crown Jewels are kept there. This is the collection of jewels owned by the British state, and sometimes worn by the monarch. There is also a museum of armour. - -Only the most important people were executed (by axe) inside the Tower of London. Among the most famous were: - -George, Duke of Clarence (1478) -Anne Boleyn, Queen of England (1536) wife of King Henry VIII -Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex (1540) -Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (1541) -Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford (1542) -Catherine Howard, Queen of England (1542), wife of King Henry VIII -Lady Jane Grey (1554) -Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1601) - -The Tower of London has a collection of ravens, large black birds of the Crow family. They are taken care of by the staff who work there. The ravens' wing feathers are kept short so they cannot fly away. This is because a legend (story) says that if the ravens leave the Tower, the Tower and the Kingdom will fall. - -The closest Underground station to the Tower of London is Tower Hill. - -Escape attempts -Ranulf Flambard: 1100, successfully escaped. Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ap Iorwerth: 1244, fell from the tower and died during escape attempt. - -Related pages -List of World Heritage Sites of the United Kingdom - -References - -Other websites - - Tower of London website - -London, Tower of -Buildings and structures in London -Royal residences in the United Kingdom -World Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom -Towers in the United Kingdom -London Borough of Tower Hamlets" -18272,68605,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffy%20Summers,Buffy Summers,"Buffy Summers is the main character of the Buffy the Vampire Slayer franchise. She is played by Sarah Michelle Gellar and created by Joss Whedon. - -Biography -Buffy Summers moved from Los Angeles to Sunnydale for her second year in high school, where she met Rupert Giles, Willow Rosenberg and Xander Harris, where they become known as the Scooby Gang. - -Reception -Buffy is considered a feminist icon of the 1990s and one of the most significant. - -Angel (TV series) characters -Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters -Fictional characters introduced in 1992 -Whedonverse" -2100,7184,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950,1950,". - -Events - January 5 – U.S. Senator Estes Kefauver introduces a law asking for the government to study crime in the U.S. - January 9 – The Israeli government say's that the People's Republic of China is a country - January 11 – Huk guerrillas attack the town of Hermosa in Bataan, Philippines. - January 12 – British submarine Truculent crashes into a Swedish oil tanker in River Thames – 64 people died. - January 13 – Finland is friendly with the People's Republic of China - January 15 – Volcanic cloud kills 5000 in Mount Lamington, New Guinea - January 17 – The Great Brinks Robbery – 11 thieves steal more than $2 million from an armored car in Boston, Massachusetts - January 23 – The Knesset passes an agreement that says Jerusalem is the capital of Israel. - January 24 – Cold War: Klaus Fuchs tells about his wartime espionage at Los Alamos to British interrogators – formally charged February 2 - January 28 – Somaliland is put under Italian rule - January 29 – Lord Balfour disagrees with the fact that rationing is still in force in Britain - January 31 – President Harry S. Truman announces a program to develop the hydrogen bomb - January 31 – Last Kuomintang troops surrender in continental China - June 5- The Korean War begins - October 2 – Charles M. Schulz publishes the first Peanuts comic strip. - -Births - January 3 – Victoria Principal, Japanese-American actress - January 17 – Richard L. Anderson, American sound editor - February 25 - Neil Jordan, Irish director - March 20 - Carl Palmer, English drummer (Emerson, Lake & Palmer) - March 27 - Tony Banks, English keyboardist (Genesis) - April 5 - Agnetha Fältskog, Swedish singer-songwriter and musician (ABBA) - April 12 – Maia Danziger, American actress - April 12 - Larry Kemp, American sound editor - May 9 - Tom Petersson, American bass guitarist (Cheap Trick) - May 13 – Stevie Wonder, American musician - May 13 - Danny Kirwan, English guitarist (Fleetwood Mac) (d. 2018) - May 17 - Howard Ashman, American playwright and lyricist (d. 1991) - May 22 – Bernie Taupin - June 21 - Joey Kramer, American drummer (Aerosmith) - July 28 - Tom Cotcher, Scottish actor - September 10 - Joe Perry, American guitarist (Aerosmith) - September 28 - John Sayles, American filmmaker - October 1 – Randy Quaid, American actor - October 2 - Mike Rutherford, English singer-songwriter and musician (Genesis) - October 2 - Lucas Fuego, Slovak politician and doctor - October 3 - John Curulewski, American guitarist (Styx) (d. 1988) - October 31 – John Candy, Canadian actor (d. 1994) - December 18 - Gillian Armstrong‏‎, Australian director - December 29 - László-Braun Rátót, Hungarian politician of German ethnicity - -Deaths - January 21 – George Orwell, English writer (b. 1903) - April 7 - Walter Huston, Canadian actor (b. 1883) - November 2 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer (b. 1856) - December 30 – Arthur Davidson, American business man (b. 1881) - June 22 – Lonnie Moon - -Awards - -Movies released - All About Eve - Annie Get Your Gun - Cinderella - King Solomon's Mines - Sunset Boulevard - - Hit songs - ""A-Razz-A-Ma-Tazz"" – Georgia Gibbs - ""All My Love (Bolero)"" – Patti Page - ""Are You Lonesome Tonight?"" – Al Jolson - ""Ballin' The Jack"" – Georgia Gibbs - ""Ballin' The Jack"" – Danny Kaye - ""Be My Love"" – Mario Lanza - ""Bewitched"" – Doris Day - ""Black Lace"" – Frankie Laine - ""Boo-Hoo"" – Guy Lombardo & The Lombardo Trio - ""A Bushel And A Peck"" – Perry Como & Betty Hutton - ""Can Anyone Explain? (No, No, No!)"" – The Ames Brothers - ""Chattanoogie Shoe Shine Boy"" – Red Foley - ""Cry Of The Wild Goose"" – Frankie Laine - ""Daddy's Little Girl"" – The Mills Brothers - ""Dear, Dear, Dear"" – Frankie Laine - ""Dream A Little Dream Of Me"" – Frankie Laine - ""A Dreamer's Holiday"" – Buddy Clark & The Girlfriends - ""Enjoy Yourself"" – Guy Lombardo (Kenny Gardner& The Lombardo Trio vocals) - ""Goodnight, Irene"" – The Weavers with Gordon Jenkins - ""Harbor Lights"" – Sammy Kaye - ""Here Comes Santa Claus"" – Andrews Sisters - ""L'Hymne A L'Amour (Hymn To Love)"" – Édith Piaf - ""I Can Dream, Can't I?"" – The Andrews Sisters - ""I Love You For That"" – Patti Page & Frankie Laine - ""I Wanna Be Loved"" – The Andrews Sisters - ""If I Knew You Were Comin' I'd've Baked a Cake"" – Eileen Barton - ""I'm Moving On"" – Hank Snow - ""It Isn't Fair"" – Sammy Kaye (Don Cornell vocal) - ""Let's Go West Again"" – Al Jolson - ""A Man Gets Awfully Lonesome"" – Frankie Laine - ""Mona Lisa"" – Nat King Cole - ""Music, Maestro, Please"" – Frankie Laine - ""Music! Music! Music!"" – Teresa Brewer - ""My Heart Cries For You"" – Guy Mitchell - ""Nevertheless"" – The Mills Brothers - ""No Other Love"" – Jo Stafford - ""The Old Piano Roll Blues"" Al Jolson & The Andrews Sisters - ""Patricia"" – Perry Como - ""Play A Simple Melody"" – Gary Crosby & Friend (Bing Crosby) - ""Rag Mop"" – The Ames Brothers - ""Red Hot Mama"" – Georgia Gibbs - ""The Roving Kind"" – Guy Mitchell - ""Sentimental Me"" – The Ames Brothers - ""Sleepy Ol' River"" – Frankie Laine - ""Someday"" – The Mills Brothers - ""Someday"" – Vaughn Monroe - ""Sometime"" – The Mariners - ""Stars & Stripes Forever"" – Frankie Laine - ""Swingin' In A Hammock"" – Guy Lombardo (Don Rodney & The Lombardo Trio vocals) - ""The Tennessee Waltz"" – Patti Page - ""There's No Tomorrow"" – Tony Martin - ""The Thing"" – Phil Harris - ""The Third Man Theme"" – Anton Karas - ""The Third Man Theme"" – Guy Lombardo - ""With My Eyes Wide Open I'm Dreaming"" – Patti Page - - New books - Across the River and Into the Trees – Ernest Hemingway - The Adventurer – Mika Waltari - Beetlecreek – William Demby - Cabbagetown – Hugh Garner - The Cardinal – Henry Morton Robinson - The Child Who Never Grew – Pearl S. Buck - The Disenchanted – Budd Schulberg - The Door in the Wall – Marguerite de Angeli - The Town and the City – Jack Kerouac - Floodtide – Frank Yerby - Florence Nightingale – Cecil Woodham-Smith - The Grass Is Singing – Doris Lessing - I, Robot – Isaac Asimov - Joy Street – Frances Parkinson Keyes - Jubilee Trail – Gwen Bristow - Kon-Tiki – Thor Heyerdahl - The Liberal Imagination – Lionel Trilling - The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe – C. S. Lewis - The Little World of Don Camillo – Giovanni Guareschi - The Martian Chronicles – Ray Bradbury - Parade's End – Ford Madox Ford - The Parasites – Daphne du Maurier - Reading and Criticism – Raymond Williams - Scenes from Provincial Life – William Cooper - Star Money – Kathleen Winsor - Summer In The Country – Edith Templeton - La vida breve (A Brief Life) – Juan Carlos Onetti - The Voyage of the Space Beagle – A. E. van Vogt - The Wall'' – John Hersey" -18315,68732,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf%20of%20Bothnia,Gulf of Bothnia,"The Gulf of Bothnia is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It is situated between Finland's west coast and Sweden's east coast. In the south of the gulf lie the Åland Islands, between the Sea of Åland and the Archipelago Sea. Gulf of Bothnia is often divided into three parts which are called in Finnish language: - -Perämeri, northest part -Merenkurkku -Selkämeri, southest part - -Other websites - -Bothnia -Atlantic Ocean -Geography of Finland -Geography of Sweden" -5293,17333,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia,Philadelphia,"Philadelphia is the sixth-largest city in the United States and the largest city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. In spoken English, the city is sometimes called Philly. - -The population of the city was 1,517,550 people in 2000, in 2010 census it was up to 1,526.006 people. Philadelphia was the capital of the United States from 1790 to 1800. It was replaced by Washington, D.C. in 1800 after the White House was built. - -Philadelphia is famous because it has many places tourists like to visit, like the Liberty Bell, Independence Hall, and Christ Church. - -History -Before Europeans came to the area, Philadelphia was home to the Lenape people. The first Europeans to come were the Dutch, who built towns and a fort in the area. The English took over the city in 1664. In 1681, Charles II of England gave a large piece of land to William Penn, to pay back some money he owed to Penn's father. William Penn had a dream of a land where people would be free to live and work no matter what religion they were. He built a city in the new land called Philadelphia. - -Soon Philadelphia was the largest city in North America. The first library and the first hospital in the country were built in Philadelphia. Many ships sailed in and out of the city's port, and people came to the city to buy and sell all sorts of things. - -One of the most famous people in Philadelphia was Benjamin Franklin. He started a newspaper and invented many things, such as bifocal glasses. He started a library that was free for everyone to use, and also a free hospital. He helped to write the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. - -In 1774, the Continental Congress met in Philadelphia to talk about their disputes with the United Kingdom. The British were not happy about this and soon a war began, called the American Revolutionary War. In 1776, the Americans again met in Philadelphia and signed the Declaration of Independence. - -In 1777 George Washington lost the Battle of Germantown and Philadelphia was occupied by British troops. They left in 1778. After the war was won, a Constitutional Convention (United States) met in Philadelphia in 1787 to write the United States Constitution which states the most important laws of the United States. - -Geography - -Philadelphia is in the state of Pennsylvania, named after William Penn. It is on the west bank of the Delaware River, across from New Jersey. Another big river, the Schuylkill, flows into the Delaware River at Philadelphia. The city has only a few small hills, and most of it is flat. The summers are usually hot in Philadelphia and the winters are normal to cold. - -Culture - -Philadelphia has a large art museum, the Philadelphia Museum of Art. It also has some smaller museums of art, such as the Academy of Fine Arts, and the Barnes Foundation. The Franklin Institute is a science museum named after Benjamin Franklin. The Philadelphia Orchestra is famous for its concerts. Some famous jazz musicians, such as John Coltrane, came from Philadelphia. Most of the skyscrapers in downtown Philadelphia were designed by Louis Kahn. - -Independence National Historic Park is in the oldest part of Philadelphia. Most of the buildings from the time when American was fighting for its freedom are there. Independence Hall is where the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States were written. Nearby is a building where the Liberty Bell is kept. In the same neighborhood, there are many houses dating from the days of the American Revolution. Elfreth's Alley is one of the oldest streets in the United States. Christ Church is the church where many famous early Americans worshipped. - -Well-known people from Philadelphia -Born in Philadelphia - Grace Kelly (d. 1982), princess of Monaco, American actress - Stan Getz (d. 1991), musician, saxophone player - Pete Conrad (d. 1999), astronaut - C. Delores Tucker (d. 2005), civil rights activist, politician - Arthur Penn (d. 2010), director of film and television - Sidney Lumet (d. 2011), director of film - Angelo Dundee (d. 2012), trainer of boxing - Herbert Scarf (d. 2015), mathematician - Vera Rubin (d. 2016), astronomer - Edith Windsor (d. 2017), lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights activist - Jimmy Heath (died 2020), musician, jazzmusician - Noam Chomsky (1928-), linguist - Richard T. Schulze (1929-), politician - Bill Cosby (1937-), comedian - -Images - -References - -Other websites -Philadelphia around 1770 - -1680s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies -1682 establishments -County seats in Pennsylvania - -Former capitals of the United States" -1664,5629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Exe,River Exe,"The River Exe is a river in the county of Devon in England. It usually flows directly south through the city of Exeter. The island had many mills making paper and textiles, and also created valuable land by draining the marshlands. The wide estuary of the River Exe is a ria (drowned river valley). - -The name of the city of Exeter means ""castle on the river Exe"". - -References - The Leats of Exeter - A Short History - -Rivers of England -Devon" -17392,66000,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limonite,Limonite,"Limonite is a mineral, from which trace amounts of iron can be extracted. - -Minerals" -5269,17207,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community,Community,"A community is a collection of living creatures that share a common habitat. They are frequently interested in the same things. People in human groups share some of the same values and needs, which has an impact on the group's and individuals' identities. Despite the fact that communities are established on personal interests, each individual is unique in their own manner, which is the primary source of social variety in a community." -20758,79864,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/67%20%28number%29,67 (number),"Sixty-seven is a number. It comes between sixty-six and sixty-eight, and is an odd number. It is also a prime number. - -Integers -Prime numbers" -8261,27594,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goaltender,Goaltender,"For the similar jobs in other sports, see Goalkeeper. - -The goaltender (also known colloquially as goalie or netminder) in ice hockey is the player who defends his team's goal net by stopping shots of the puck from entering his team's net, thus stopping the other team from scoring. They usually stay close to the net. - -At the very end of a game, if a team is losing by one goal, teams may take their goaltender out of the game and replace him with another player. This makes it more likely that they will score a goal, however, it is also much easier for the other team to score without anybody defending the goal. - -Ice hockey positions" -8164,27196,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20race,Master race,"Master race is an idea that one group of people is better than all other people. A group of people may believe themselves to be better because of their history, race, culture or some other reason. The idea first appeared in the 19th century. It was also used at different times in the 20th century, for example by the Nazi party and during Apartheid in South Africa. - -History -This idea mostly began in the 19th century. It is not a theory liked by any scientists today. It claims there is a hierarchy of races (or that some races are better than others). It was also claimed that at the bottom of the hierarchy were black-skinned people from Africa and Aborigines from Australia, while pale-skinned Nordic people were at the top of the hierarchy. - -Writers who started this idea -Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882) believed that cultures become bad when races mix. In his book Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races (, 1853–55), de Gobineau states that the mix of races has a bad influence on culture. In his view, the development of culture is linked to that of race. When empires are created, this leads to a mixing of races. According to de Gobineau, this would lead to degeneration and the downfall of the respective empire. - -During this time, Charles Darwin started to develop his ideas about evolution. Social Darwinism is the attempt to use these concepts to predict the development of societies. Houston Steward Chamberlain believed the Germanic race was there ""to save the world"". - -In colonialism, the concept was helpful too. Germany and Great Britain had many colonies. They would pick an ethnic group and say that this was better than the other groups. This would then lead to an indirect rule in the respective colony. People who conducted African studies in Germany developed a whole system, to make this easier. The Hamitic theory said that the Hamitic people were superior and should rule over the other Negroid people in Sub-Saharan Africa. John Hanning Speke (1827-64) and Charles Gabriel Seligman (1873-1940) were among the most prominent people with this idea. People such Johann Ludwig Krapf, Karl Richard Lepsius, or Carl Meinhof used the study of languages in this context. They said that languages that had a grammatical genus were Hamitic, those that did not were Negroid. Using these criteria to find suitable candidates for indirect rule also led to problems: According to the theory, the Maasai were Hamitic, and should rule in German East Africa. Fortunately, they were unable to make such a system for political and economic reasons. The explanation was that ""out of bad luck"", the Maasai were a Hamitic people kept at a lower level of social development. In their place, the Swahili were picked, as the ""next-higher"" people. In German South-West Africa, there was a similar problem: The theory identified the Khoikhoi as Hamitic, but they were too few to rule the country. For this reason, the Ovambo were picked for an indirect rule. - -Arthur Schopenhauer liked this idea, but had the idea of ""Übermensch"": He said that the White race had become what it was though hardship and bad conditions in the North. Others who liked his theory were Guido von List and Lanz von Liebenfels. - -""Aryans"", Hitler's ""Master race"" -Hitler and his supporters, the Nazi party, took power in Germany in 1933. They were Social Darwinists, Social Darwinists believe that human races are stronger or weaker than each other. They believed that the stronger races would prove themselves better in the long run, this concept was called ""survival of the fittest"". Nazis believed that their race the Aryans were stronger than all the other races, because of this, they believed the Aryans would one day rule over the weaker races. The Nazis made laws that were based on their ideas of race. They prevented marriage between races so that the Aryan race would not become mixed with other ""weaker"" races because they believed it would weaken the master race. They claimed that ""Aryans"" were the ""master race"". They also made propaganda that blamed Jews for many things. Jews were considered by Nazis, a weak race whose weak values would infect the better values of the Aryan race. German Jews were not allowed to own property. In many cases, they were attacked and killed because of their Race. When Germany invaded other countries in Europe, they also started putting people into concentration camps. This systematic killing is known as The Holocaust today. - -To help increase the numbers of Aryans, the Nazis set up special homes called ""Lebensborn"". These were for unmarried pregnant woman who were likely to have children that had Nordic or Aryan qualities. This mainly meant fair skin, blond hair, blue eyes. Though slight differences could still be considered Aryan as lots of people in Germany at the time had dark hair and eyes. Heinrich Himmler believed that this would help create more members of the master race. He arranged for nine Lebensborn homes to be built in Germany, and another ten in Norway. There were also Lebensborn in France, Belgium and Luxembourg. About 20,000 children were born in these homes during the Third Reich. - -Related pages - Mein Kampf - Racism - -References - -Nazism -Race -Fascism" -1840,6166,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduke%20Franz%20Ferdinand%20of%20Austria,Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,"Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef of Austria, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Este (Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef; ) (18 December 1863 – 28 June 1914) was an Archduke (like a prince) of Austria and, from 1896 until his death, next in line to be the emperor of the former country called Austria-Hungary. He was killed in the city Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip. Because of this, Austria declared war against Serbia, which started the first World War. - -On 28 June 1914, Franz Ferdinand went to Sarajevo in Bosnia for a trip. He was traveling to the Town Hall at 10pm with his wife, Sophie, in the third car of a motorcade in a roofless limousine. Franz Ferdinand had jokingly mentioned that he wouldn’t be surprised if there was a few bombs waiting for him on his trip. On his way to the Town Hall the first man to try to assassinate the Archduke, Grabez, was standing waiting for Ferdinand to try and shoot him but he froze and let the car pass. He went home afterwards and hid his gun and bomb but was later arrested. - -On the same route to the Town Hall a man, also from the Black Hand, called Cabrinovic threw a bomb at the car injuring lots of Ferdinand's staff but he failed to kill the Archduke himself so he tried to swallow cyanide and jump into the river Miljacka but failed to die and got arrested. The Archduke was shocked but headed to the Town Hall anyway and did his speech whilst the paper was covered in the blood of his assistant who was injured in the bomb. After his speech he decided to go to the hospital to visit the 20 people injured in the bomb. As the driver took a turn to head to the hospital Princip jumped out and shot Sophie in the abdomen who collapsed and died instantly then shot the Archduke in his neck and in his leg. He died on the way to the hospital. Ferdinand's last words were “Sophie! Sophie! Don’t die! For our children! -Princip was sentenced to twenty years in prison, the maximum for his age, and was imprisoned at the Terezín fortress. The man who threw the bomb, Cabrinovic, was also sentenced to 20 years in prison. - -|} - -Other websites - -Archduke Francis Ferdinand d'Este -Franz Ferdinand essay - -References - -1863 births -1914 deaths -Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria -Assassinated people -Habsburg Dynasty -Murders by firearm -World War I people" -3964,12281,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnolia,Magnolia,"Magnolia can mean: - -A magnolia (tree), that blooms white flowers, which are also called Magnolias -Magnolia (movie), 1999 movie -Magnolia, Arkansas -Magnolia, Iowa -Magnolia Hall hitopia" -15513,59132,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport%20Club%20Corinthians%20Paulista,Sport Club Corinthians Paulista,"S.C. Corinthians Paulista is a football club which plays in Brazil. - -History -Football (soccer) had already established itself as the popular new sport in Brazil and when the dry season came and the fields dried out they were soon filled with lovers of the new game. São Paulo's sporting elite had formed several clubs,Germânia, Paulistano and Campos Elíseos among them, but access to the game was still largely restricted to the city's well off. - -First members - -So a group of working class fans - painter and decorators Joaquim Ambrósio, Antônio Pereira and César Nunes; cobbler Rafael Perrone; driver Anselmo Correia; foundry worker; Alexandre Magnani: cook Salvador Lopomo; labourer João da Silva and tailor Antônio Nunes - decided to start their own team. Bataglia decided to get involved he was named the club's first president. - -Name -The new club needed a name. Joaquim Ambrósio suggested they call themselves after the Corinthians Casuals Football Club, the famous English team that was then on tour in Brazil. The press and fans in Brazil who were following the tour shortened the English club's name to Corinthian's Team and so the founders did away with the aopstrophe and the club won its elegant name Corinthians. - -Nickames -Corinthians is also known as Big Team, Coringão, The Musketeer and Champion of the Champions. - -Colours -Finally, the club picked colours. The club's first strip was beige with black trim and had the distinctive letters ""C"" and ""P"" for Corinthians Paulista. However, when the strips were washed, the black bled into the beige. The directors could not afford to keep buying new strips every time the colours ran so they decided to change their colours. They swapped the beige for white. In present-day, the colours of Corinthians are Black and White. - -Stadium -The name of Corinthians´s stadium is Arena Corinthians, also known as Itaquerão and with a capacity crowd of 68,000. - -1st match -The team from Varzea Paulista. Playing away from home in their first match, Corinthians were expected to lose heavily but they showed they were not there just to make up the numbers and they battled hard before narrowly going down by a goal to nil. - -Second match and first win -The defeat turned out to be a one-off. Four days later, Corinthians proved they would be a name to be reckoned with and beat Estrela Polar 2-0. The honour of scoring the club's first goal went to striker Luís Fabi, who wrote himself into the history books by grabbing the opener. They followed the match with an unbeaten streak that lasted two years. - -The ""big league"" -They then won 1-0 away at Minas Gerais and then beat São Paulo do Bexiga 4-0 at home. They had secured their place in the big league. - -Things got even better the following year and in 1914 a dynasty took hold. In just their second Paulista Championship, Corinthians destroyed the competition and won all 10 games, scoring 39 times in the process. Neco ended the tournament's top goalscorer with 12 goals. - -Threepeats -Corinthians picked up yet another Paulista Championship in 1922 but this victory had something special about it. The winner took the title not only of Paulista Champions but also of Centenary Champions, a title they would hold for at least the next 100 years. - -By this time, winning the Paulista was becoming routine. The team won the league three years in a row in 1922, 1923 and 1924 under the command of Neco, the club's first great idol, and would do so again in 1928, 1929 and 1930. - -Rivalry -The great and only rival of Corinthians is Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras. This is the most derbie and traditional rivalry in Brazilian football. The fans of Corinthians called Palmeiras as a pig and the fans of palmeiras called Corinthians as a skunk. - -Problems -However, and between 1931 and 1934 a series of bad results left the team trailing. Corinthians lost to all their big rivals of the time and failed to make an impression in the league, never finishing higher than fourth. - -Solutions -The turnaround came in 1937, and for the rest of the decade there was only one team in the state. Corinthians won the Paulista Championship in 1937, 1938 and 1939 to become the first team ever to win three back-to-back titles three times. Even today, no other team has managed to equal such a feat. The man who led the way was centre-forward Teleco. One of the club's greatest ever goalscorers, he topped the scoring charts in 1937 and 1939. The former year he scored almost half the club's goals, while in the latter he got an amazing 60 percent. - -100th Goal -The 100-goal attack made history not only for the club but also for the league. In 1951, a front line made up of Carbone, Cláudio, Luizinho, Baltazar and Mário scored 103 goals in 30 games in the Paulista Championship, an average of 3.43 per game. The title was theirs, as was the trophy for top goalscorer, which went to Carbone, who got 30 of the team's goals. - -Awards -In the years that followed, more titles were added to the growing trophy room at Parque São Jorge. In 1952, the Timão won the Paulista Championship for the second successive year, with Baltazar finishing top scorer. In 1953, they took the Rio-São Paulo title and the Little World Cup - the club's first international title - and in 1954 they walked off with another Rio-São Paulo as well as the Paulista do IV centenário de São Paulo. In 1956 and 1957, they won the Invencible Trophy, the cup given to the team that went the longest number of games undefeated. - -The Corinthians Invasion -In 1976, Corinthians almost won their first Brazilian League title and the club's fans played a starring role in one of the most memorable moments in footballing history. Corinthians were drawn against Fluminense in the semi-finals of the league play offs at the Maracanã. More than 70,000 Corinthians fans made the six-hour trip up the motorway to Rio de Janeiro in a massive convoy that was christened the ""Corinthians Invasion."" - -10.13.1977 -Corinthians won the first game but lost the second and so needed to win a third and deciding match to take the title. It was quite a struggle, with the match goalless until the 81st minute. Then, a Zé Maria free kick was directed onto the bar by Vaguinho. Wladimir headed the rebound back towards goal where Oscar was on hand to knock it off the line. The ball fell to Basílio in the area and he hammered it into the net and gave Corinthians the goal they so desperately wanted. The 1977 Paulista Championship was theirs. - -The Democracy team -The Timão was always one of the most important clubs in Brazil. But the Corinthians Democracy movement was unique in world football. Through organisation, team spirit and democracy, they did something no other team has managed before or since. When players as politically and socially conscientious as Sócrates, Wladimir, Casagrande and Zenon get together then there are bound to be changes in the dressing room. Those four stars were the driving force behind the greatest ideological movement in the history of Brazilian football: Corinthians Democracy. And this in the middle of the country's military dictatorship. Corinthians Democracy did something that seemed impossible. Through football, the most popular sport in the country, they got people talking about all sorts of important and relevant questions concerning society, democracy and the end of military rule. In addition to that not inconsiderable feat, they showed that it was possible to create a society in which everyone's opinions are heard and respected and where democracy, through the imposition of the wishes of the majority, could prevail. They won the Paulista Championship in 1982 and 1983, beating city rivals São Paulo both times. In 1982, they battled back after losing the first game 3-2 to take the next two matches 1-0 and 3-1 and lift the trophy. The next year they won again, thanks to a series of brilliant performances from Sócrates. The good doctor scored all the team's goals in the semi-finals against Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras (1-1 and 1-0) as well as in the final against São Paulo Futebol Clube (1-0 and 1-1). His four goals brought the team their 19th Paulista Championship. - -Glorious Decade -The 1990s was to prove a glorious decade for Corinthians, who captured three Brazilian Championships (in 1990 beating São Paulo Futebol Clube, in 1998 beating Cruzeiro and in 1999 led the championship since the beginning at the finished and beating Atlético Mineiro at the final game), three State Championships (in 1995 beating Palmeiras, in 1997 beating São Paulo and 1999 beating Palmeiras again) and a Brazilian Cup (in 1995 beating Grêmio) in quick succession. - -FIFA Club World Championship -In 2000, Corinthians, who captured FIFA Club World Championship victory against Vasco da Gama(win 4-3 on penalties) at the Maracanã Stadium. This match had attendance of 73,000 peoples. This is the most important title of Corinthians. Corinthians played the final game with Dida, Índio, Fábio Luciano, Adílson & Kléber; Vampeta (Gilmar), Rincón, Marcelinho Carioca & Ricardinho (Edu); Edílson (Fernando Baiano) & Luizão. -Coach: Oswaldo de Oliveira - -New Era -The final months of 2004 marked a new era for the Timão and for Brazilian football. The partnership between MSI and Corinthians revolutionised the game and brought internationalists like Carlos Tévez, Javier Mascherano, Roger, Carlos Alberto and Gustavo Nery to the club. The future was bright for the club and fans could not help but feel optimistic they would enjoy many more triumphs in the coming years. - -And so it proved, with success coming quicker than they could have hoped for. Led by Argentine star Carlos Tévez, the Timão had a sensational league campaign in 2005 and won their fourth Brazilian League Title in 2005. - -More signings -More new signings were made in 2006 with Ricardinho, Rafael Moura and goalkeeper Silvio Luiz coming to the club in a bid to strengthen a squad that would be competing for another Brazilian League title and the Copa Libertadores. - -Honours - 2 FIFA Club World Championship: 2000, 2012. - 1 Trophy Ramón de Carranza: 1996. - 1 Trophy International Charles Müller: 1955. - 1 Little World Cup: 1953. - 6 Brazilian Championships: 1990, 1998, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2015. - 1 Brazilian Championship B: 2008 - 3 Brazilian Cups: 1995, 2002, 2009. - 5 Rio-São Paulo Tournaments: 1950, 1953, 1954, 1966, 2002. - 27 São Paulo State Championships: 1914, 1916, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1988, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2009, 2013. - 1 Libertadores Cup: 2012. - -Players -As July 24, 2012. - -First team squad - -Legendary players -Neco (1913-30), Teleco (1933-44), Servílio (1938-48), Domingos da Guia (1944-48), Cláudio (1945-57), Baltazar (1947-58), Luizinho (1949-62 & 1964-67), Gilmar (1951-61), Rivelino (1965-74), Sócrates (1978-84), Daniel González (1982), Dunga (1984-85), Neto (1989-93), Carlos Gamarra (1998-99), Dida (1999-2001), Marcelinho Carioca (1993-97, 1998-2001), Edílson (1997-2000), Luizão (1999-2002), Carlos Tévez (2005-06), Ronaldo (2009), Roberto Carlos (2010), Emerson Sheik (2011-2012). - -References - -Other websites - Official Home Page (in Portuguese) - FIFA Home Page - About Corinthians vs. Palmeiras - -Football clubs in São Paulo (state) -1910 establishments in South America -1910s establishments in Brazil" -2192,7402,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic%20Park%3A%20Operation%20Genesis,Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis,"Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis is a video game for the PC and PlayStation 2. The goal of the game is to create a theme park and keep the park guests safe. The player can choose the island they build on and what dinosaurs to place in their park. They can choose up to 25 dinosaurs to add to the park. After the park is created, they can play 12 missions. After winning all missions, a game option called Site B is unlocked. With Site B, the player can create an island without any fences or people, just like the 3rd Jurassic Park movie. - -2003 video games -Jurassic Park -PlayStation 2 games -Xbox games" -21026,80715,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glarus,Glarus,"Glarus could mean different places. - Glarus is one the Cantons of Switzerland. - Glarus is also the capital city of the Canton of Glarus." -17446,66208,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act%20of%20Parliament,Act of Parliament,"An Act of Parliament or Act is law made by the parliament (see legislation). - -Bills -An Act of Parliament normally starts as a proposed law known as a Bill. The Bill will then be introduced into the Parliament (House of Commons, House of Representatives, House of Lords or the Senate) for debate and possible approval and enactment. - -Bills that contain provisions significantly relating to taxation or public expenditure are introduced into the House of Commons in the UK; in Canada and Ireland, this is the law. - -In the United Kingdom, Law Commission bills and consolidation bills start in the House of Lords. - -In some countries, such as Spain and Portugal, a Bill has different names depending on whether it comes from the government (e.g. ""Project"") or from the Parliament (e.g. ""Proposition"" or Private Member's Bill). - -An Act may be introduced to parliament also by means of a private bill. - -Related pages - Constitution - Constitutional economics - -Other websites - All Acts of Parliament (since 1988) and Statutory Instruments are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the Office of Public Sector Information ( OPSI). - Parliamentary Stages of a Government Bill (pdf) from the House of Commons Information Office. - Acts of Parliament (since 1267) revised to date are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the Department of Constitution Affairs ( SLD). - -Law" -9937,33972,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization,Romanization,"Romanization, or Latinization, is how words and languages that normally do not use the Latin alphabet are converted into Latin letters. That allows people who do not know the original writing system to read the sounds of the language. Romanization is one way to show the pronunciation of the language's words. - -There are often several standards for romanizing one language. For the Russian language ,the Soviet Union invented several systems, and the United Nations and the International Organization for Standardization invented two of the others. Methods for Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese are similarly diverse. Some romanization systems are based on transcription, some are based on transliteration, and some are based on both. - -Transcription occurs when the effect at the end is that both the original and the transcribed version sound the same, whether or not each letter alone in one text matches the corresponding letter in the other one. - -Transliteration occurs when the effect at the end is for the letters to match one to one, whether or not the sound is the same. - -Related pages - Romanization of Bulgarian - Romanization of Japanese - -Other websites - UNGEGN Working Group on Romanization Systems - U.S. Library of Congress Romanization Tables in PDF format - Java romanization app - One of the few books with lists of romanizations is ALA-LC Romanization Tables, Randall Barry (ed.), U.S. Library of Congress, 1997, . - Microsoft Transliteration Utility – A free tool for making and using transliteration systems from any alphabet to any other alphabet. - G. Gerych. Transliteration of Cyrillic Alphabets. Ottawa University, April 1965. 126 pp. - -Romanization -Culture" -8189,27285,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal%20rights,Animal rights,"Animal rights is a term used for the general belief that non-human animals deserve rights. Most people that support animal rights believe that humans should not use animals in food, clothing, experimentation, and entertainment. - -People that support animal rights also believe that just as you have human rights simply because you are a human, other animals deserve animal rights simply because they are an animal. - -Related pages - -Speciesism -Veganism -Vegetarianism -Animal cruelty -Animal Farm (novel) -Animal Rights Militia -Animal rights movement -Animal Rights (song) - -Other websites -Animal Rights Library - - -Political movements" -2430,7817,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Jackson,Andrew Jackson,"Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) became a General in the War of 1812 and was considered to be a war hero. He became the seventh president of the United States of America. He was the first Democrat and is on the twenty dollar bill. His nickname was ""Old Hickory"". He forced many Native Americans to leave their homeland so white people could live there, and many died. This was called the Trail of Tears. - -Early life -As a boy Andrew Jackson was a messenger for the Continental Army. The British caught him and mistreated him. - -He was the first U.S. president who was not born into a rich family. He was not a rich man and did not have a college education. He moved to Tennessee and became a politician. - -Marriage -In 1791, he fell in love with Rachel Donelson Robards. They went through a marriage ceremony. However, the marriage was not legal because she had not been granted a divorce from her first husband. Therefore, they married legally three years later. They had no children, but they adopted several. He became rich and owned a large plantation. - -Politics -In the 1790s Jackson was a member of the United States House of Representatives, the United States Senate, and the Supreme Court of Tennessee. In the 1800s he commanded the Tennessee Militia and fought Indians. During the War of 1812 he became a general and won the Battle of New Orleans which made him very famous. In 1823 he returned to the Senate. - -Andrew Jackson reorganized the Democratic Party and was its leader. - -In 1828, he defeated John Quincy Adams in the Presidential Election of 1828, he became president on March 4, 1829, and four years later he was re-elected to a second term as president. In 1832 South Carolina declared secession from the United States. Jackson threatened war, and then compromised. - -In January 1835, Jackson was almost assassinated when an unemployed painter wanted to shoot him but both his guns jammed. He is the first president to have had an attempted assassination. - -During his presidency, he signed the Indian Removal Act which allowed the U.S. government to violently force the Native Americans to move from their land and go west. Many Native Americans were killed and the path they walked to get to the west was called the Trail of Tears. - -Andrew Jackson was against the national bank of the United States because he felt that banks and their banknotes were for rich and powerful people and did not serve the interests of the common man. The national bank expired during Jackson's presidency. Jackson chose not to continue the bank. - -On March 4, 1837, Andrew Jackson finished his second term. After that, vice-president Martin Van Buren was elected president and continued many of the things Jackson did. Jackson was a big influence on other Democrats during the 1800s. - -Legacy -Jackson's legacy among historians is mixed. Some have liked him because he was against aristocrats, bankers, businessmen, the British Empire, cities, and paper money, and in favor of ordinary country people. Some have disliked him for the same reasons and because he was in favor of war and slavery, and against Indians. - -References - -Other websites - Jackson's White House biography - -1767 births -1845 deaths -Deaths from tuberculosis -Deaths from heart failure - -US Democratic Party politicians -Presidents of the United States -United States senators from Tennessee -United States representatives from Tennessee -Politicians from South Carolina -Military people from Tennessee -19th-century American politicians -18th-century American politicians" -9171,31476,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krusty%20Krab,Krusty Krab,"The Krusty Krab is a fictional fast food restaurant in the television series, ""SpongeBob SquarePants"". It is in the city of Bikini Bottom. The restaurant is run by a crab, Eugene H. Krabs. The other two workers at the restaurant are SpongeBob SquarePants (fry cook), and Squidward Tentacles (cashier). The fast food that is sold are the popular Krabby Patty (which are similar to hamburgers but made of krill), and others such as French fries, and drinks. - -SpongeBob SquarePants -Fictional buildings and structures - -en:SpongeBob SquarePants#Setting" -2753,8642,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s%20disease,Alzheimer's disease,"Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a brain disease that slowly destroys brain cells. As of now, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. With time, the different symptoms of the disease become more marked. Many people die because of Alzheimer's disease. The disease affects different parts of the brain but has its worst effects on the areas of the brain that control memory, language, and thinking skills. Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of senile dementia accounting for up to 70% of cases. - -The clinical symptoms of AD usually occurs after age 65, but changes in the brain which do not cause symptoms and are caused by Alzheimer's, may begin years or in some cases decades before. Although the symptoms of AD begin in older people it is not a normal part of aging. - -At this time there is no cure for Alzheimer's, but there are treatments that can help some patients with the signs and symptoms so they do not affect them as badly. There are also treatments which slow down the disease so the damage to the brain does not happen as quickly. There are also certain personal habits that people can learn which may help to delay the onset of the disease. - -While it is not yet known exactly what causes Alzheimer's disease, there are a number of risk factors which may make a person more likely to get it. Some of these risk factors are genetic; changes to four different genes have been found which increase the risk. - -The current lifetime risk for a 65-year-old person to get Alzheimer's disease is estimated to be at 10.5%. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States causing about 83,500 deaths a year. In 2007, there were more than 26.6 million people throughout the world who were affected by AD. - -Alzheimer's disease was named after Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist who first described the disease after studying the case of a middle-aged woman, Auguste Deter, who was a patient at a hospital in Frankfurt, Germany in 1906. The disease was named Alzheimer's disease in 1910 by Dr. Emil Kraepilin a co-worker of Alzheimer. - -Tangles and plaque - -Two of the main features found in the brains of people with of Alzheimer's disease, are neurobrillary tangles ('tangles' for short), which are made up of a protein called tau, and senile plaques (which are made mostly from another protein called beta-amyloid, they are also sometimes called beta-amyloid bundles or 'bundles' for short). The tau proteins that form the tangles previously held together a structure inside the neurons called a microtubule which is an important part of the neuron; it forms part of the cytoskeleton (cell skeleton) which is what maintains a cell's shape, and microtubules plays a part in cell communication. - -Both tangles and plaques may be caused by other diseases, such as Herpes simplex virus Type 1 which is being investigated as a possible cause or contributor in developing Alzheimer's. It is not known for sure if tangles and plaques are part of what causes Alzheimer's, or if they are the results. - -Microtubules - -Microtubules are made of a protein called tubulin. The tubulin is polymerized, which is when molecules form the same shapes over and over again that are linked together in groups, and these groups are linked together. They can form long chains or other shapes; in this case the polymerized tubulin forms microtubules. The microtubules are rigid tubes like microscopic straws which are hollow inside. Microtubules help keep the shape of the neuron, and are inolved in passing signals through the neuron. - -Tau - -Tau is a protein that is found mostly in the neurons of the central nervous system. They help hold together the microtubules within the neurons. and when changes happen in the way the tau proteins are supposed to work the microtubules break apart. The tau proteins which are no longer holding the microtubules together form strands called fibrils, which then clump together inside the neuron to make what are called neurofibrillary tangles . These clumps, also known as 'tau tangles', are all that remain after a neuron has died. - - -Beta-amyloid - -Beta-amyloid(Aβ) (also called 'amyloid beta') plaques start with a protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP). APP is one of the proteins that make up a cell's membrane or outer covering, that protects the cell. In this case a neuron.. As it is made inside the cell, APP sticks out through the membrane of the cell. - -In different parts of the of cell including the outermost part of the cell membrane, chemicals called enzymes snip the APP into small pieces. These enzymes that do the snipping are alpha-secretase, beta-secretase, and gamma-secretase. Depending on which enzyme is doing the snipping and what parts of the APP are snipped, two different things can happen. One that is helpful and one that causes the formation of beta-amyloid plaques. - -The plaques are formed when beta-secretase snips the APP molecule at one end of the beta-amyloid peptide, releasing sAPPβ from the cell. Gamma-secretase then cuts the pieces of APP that is left and, still sticking out of the neuron’s membrane, at the other end of the beta-amyloid peptide. After this snipping the beta-amyloid peptide is released into the space outside the neuron and begins to stick to other beta-amyloid peptides. These pieces stick together to form oligomers. Different oligomers of various sizes are now floating around in the spaces between the neurons, which may be responsible for reacting with receptors on neighboring cells and synapses, affecting their ability to function. - -Some of these oligomers are cleared from the brain. Those that are not cleared out clump together with more pieces of beta-amyloid. As more pieces clump togther the oligomers get bigger larger, and the next size up are called protofibrils and the next size after that are called fibrils. After a while, these fibrils clump together with other protein molecules, neurons and non-nerve cells floating around in the space between the cells and form what are called plaques. - -Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) - -Deposits of beta-amyloid also form in the walls (in the tunica media, the middle layer, and tunica adventitia or tunica externa, the outer layer) of small and mid-sized arteries (and sometimes veins) in the cerebral cortex and the leptomeninges (the leptomeninges are the two inner layers - pia mater and arachnoid - of the meninges, a protective 3-layer membrane covering the brain.) - -CAA is found in 30% of people over the age of 60 years who do not have any dementia but is found in 90%-96% of people with Alzheimer disease and is severe in one third to two thirds of these cases. - -Stages - -The first area of the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's is the ""transentorhinal region"" which is part of the medial temporal lobe located deep within the brain. Neurons start dying in this area first. It then spreads into the adjacent entorhinal cortex (EC) which acts as a central hub, for a widespread network that handles signals for memory and movement(like a main train station with train tracks going to different areas). - -The EC is the main area for communication between the hippocampus, and the neocortex - which is the outer portion of the brain responsible for higher functioning such as how the brain perceives information from the five senses; (smell, sight, taste, touch and hearing; Ex. seeing a person's face and recognizing them,) generating motor commands (Ex, moving and arm or leg, walking, running) spatial reasoning, conscious thought and language. - -The disease then spreads into the hippocampus which is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is involved in forming new memories, organizing them, and storing them for later recall. It is also where emotions and senses, such as smell and sound are attached to specific memories. Example 1.: A memory might make you happy or sad. Example 2.: A smell might bring up a certain memory. - -The hippocampus then sends memories to the different parts of the cerebral hemisphere where they are placed in long-term storage and it helps retrieve them when necessary. Example: An adult trying to remember the name of a classmate from kindergarten. - -In addition to handling memory the hippocampus is also involved in emotional responses, navigation (getting around) and spatial orientation (knowing your sense of place as you move around Example: Knowing your way around your bedroom even with the lights off). - -There are actually two parts of the hippocampus which is shaped like a horseshoe with one in the left part of the brain and the other in the right part of the brain. - -Diagnosis - -Preclinical -Red Blue Green Purple Orange Purple Orange Green Blue Red - -Blue Orange Purple Green Red Purple Green Red Blue Orange - -The Stroop Color–Word Test -This is a short example of the test. The test is used to measure different cognitive functions such as selective attention. - -Naming the colors of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second, because in the first set, the colors match the words, in the second set they do not. So a person has to pay more attention. - -People having problems with attention as may happen in early-stage Alzheimer's tend to do poorly on this test.Cognitive Neuropsychology Of Alzheimer's Disease. Eds. Robin G. Morris, James T. Becker. Oxford University Press, USA; 2 edition (2005) pp-109-110 - -With current research using advances in neuroimaging such as FDG-PET and PIB-PET scans, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays, it is now possible to detect the beginning processes of Alzheimer's disease that occur before symptoms begin. The research suggests that clinically normal older people (no symptoms at all) have biomarker evidence of amyloid beta (Aβ) build-up in the brain. This amyloid beta (Aβ) is linked to changes in the structure of the brain and how it works that is the similar to what is seen in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) - which may lead to Alzheimer's - and people with Alzheimer's. - -These small preclinical changes (no symptoms) in the brain may occur many years, to even a few decades before a person is diagnosed with Alzheimer's. With a stage where there is some memory loss, or mild cognitive impairment. These changes put a person at risk of developing the clinical symptoms of full-blown Alzheimer's but not everyone who has these changes will get the disease. Even though there is no cure for Alzheimer's, there are new treatments which are being developed which would work better in the very first stages of the disease. - -At this time exactly what makes up the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's is still being researched, such as why some people with go on to develop Alzheimer's and others do not. So the term preclinical phase is being used for research only. There is a worldwide effort in various countries doing research in this area known as the World Wide Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (WW-ADNI) which is the umbrella organization for neuroimaging studies being carried out through the North American ADNI, European ADNI (E-ADNI), Japan ADNI, Australian ADNI (AIBL), Taiwan ADNI, Korea ADNI, China ADNI and Argentina ADNI. - -Beginning stages - -""Misdiagnosis in very early stages of Alzheimer's is a significant problem, as there are more than 100 conditions that can mimic the disease. In people with mild memory complaints, our accuracy is barely better than chance,"" according to study researcher P. Murali Doraiswamy, MBBS, professor of psychiatry and medicine at Duke Medicine, ""Given that the definitive gold standard for diagnosing Alzheimer's is autopsy, we need a better way to look into the brain."" - -History - -In 1901, a 51-year-old woman named Auguste Deter, was committed to the City Asylum for the Insane and Epileptic, (Städtischen Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische) in Frankfurt am Main, Germany which had the nickname ""Irrenschloss"" (Castle of the Insane). She was married and had a normal life until eight months prior to her commitment, when she started having psychological and neurological problems, such as problems with memory and language, paranoia, becoming disorientated and having hallucinations. - -She was studied by a doctor on staff named Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915). Alzheimer became interested in her case because of her age; while the effects of senile dementia were known at the time, they usually did not start until a person was in their early to mid-sixties. Her case was also notable because of the rapid onset of dementia, only eight months, from the first reported symptoms, until she was committed. - -While conducting one of his examinations of Ms. Deter, he asked her to perform a series of simple writing tasks. Unable to do what was asked such as write her name, she said ""I have lost myself, so to speak"" (""Ich habe mich sozusagen selbst verloren""). - -Alzheimer left the hospital in Franfkurt in 1902 to begin working with Emil Kraepelin at the Psychiatric University Hospital in Heidelberg-Bergheim, and in 1903 both he and Kraepelin began working at Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich. - -When Ms. Deter died of septicemia on 8 April 1906, Alzheimer was informed and her brain was sent to Munich for him to study. Studying samples of her brain under a microscope he noticed neurofibriallry tangles and bundles made up of beta-amyloid plaque, which are two of the main features of the disease. On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer presented the results of his findings in Auguste's case at the Conference of South-West German Psychiatrists in Tübingen, and he published his findings in the case in 1907. - -In 1910, Emil Kraepelin named the disease 'Alzheimer's disease'. Alzheimer's disease usually beigins affecting people between ages 60–65, in Ms. Deter's case - who was 55-years-old when she died - she had a form of what is now known as Early-onset Alzhiemer's disease. - -Famous cases - -Anyone can get Alzheimer's disease, rich people or poor famous people and unfamous people. Some of the famous people who have gotten Alzheimer's disease are former United States President Ronald Reagan and Irish writer Iris Murdoch, both of whom were the subjects of scientific articles examining how their cognitive capacities got worse with the disease. - -Other cases include the retired footballer Ferenc Puskás, the former Prime Ministers Harold Wilson (United Kingdom) and Adolfo Suárez (Spain), the actress Rita Hayworth, the Nobel Prize-winner Raymond Davis, Jr., the actors Charlton Heston and Gene Wilder, the novelist Terry Pratchett, politician and activist Sargent Shriver, the Blues musician B.B. King, director Jacques Rivette, Indian politician George Fernandes, -and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics recipient Charles K. Kao. In 2012, Nobel Prize writer Gabriel García Márquez was diagnosed with the disease. Former Finnish President Mauno Koivisto died of the disease in May 2017. Country singer Glen Campbell died of the disease in August 2017. - -References - -Other websites - video - - - - -Diseases -Dementia" -13955,51708,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore%20%28video%20game%29,Spore (video game),"Spore is a computer game made by Will Wright. He also made The Sims and SimCity. It consists of five phases of gameplay, the cell, creature, tribal, civilization and space phases. It is a game in which the player is able to create and evolve a species from a germ into a galactic superpower. It was released on September 7, 2008 in America, and September 5 in Europe. -Initially, it was going to be 6 different phases, but they merged the city and civilization phases, so it's only 5 phases now. - -One of the biggest parts of the game is the different editors. Almost all things in the game can be made by the player, from buildings in the civilization phase to the creature in the creature phase. The player uses different parts that he can place as he wants. He can also change things like size and ""stretch"" the parts. All these things made by players can be uploaded as pictures to the ""sporepedia"". A picture has all the info needed for the game to make the thing, and is very small in size, usually less than 30 kilobytes. This means, that a player can find a picture of a car made in Spore that he likes, copy it, and put it in the Spore folder. Then they can play with it. - -All the different phases of the game offer many choices. Roughly, the player can choose to be peaceful, aggressive, or both. For example, in the creature phase, there is a choice to eat other animals, just fruit, or both. And in the civilization phase, there is a choice to be military, religious, economic, or a little of all of them. - -2008 video games -Nintendo DS games -Wii games" -16931,64401,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepchild,Stepchild,"Stepchild could mean: -The daughter or son in a stepfamily -""Stepchild"", a song by Solomon Burke from his 2002 album Don't Give Up on Me -""Stepchild"", a song by Billie Jo Spears from her 1969 album Miss Sincerity" -17836,67225,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmarks,Landmarks,"4 famous landmarks from World Famous paint the night parade - - -Originally, a landmark literally meant a prominent, easily identified geographic point, (like a mountain, a cliff, or a river) used by explorers and others to find their way back or through an area. - -In modern use, it includes anything that can be recognized easily, such as a monument, building, or other structure. In American English it is the main word used to call places that are tourist attractions because they are beautiful, or big, or they have historical importance. Some, such as National Landmarks, are on official lists of landmarks. Landmarks in the British English are normally used for casual navigation, such as giving directions to someone to get somewhere. This is done in American English as well. - -List of important landmarks -Landmarks also can be of two different categories: natural (e.g., physical features such as waterfalls and mountains), and structures constructed by humans. Many of them are World Heritage Sites. - -Some important landmarks across the world today include: - -Natural phenomena - Amazon Rainforest, Brazil/Peru / -Angel Falls, Canaima National Park, Gran Sabana, Bolivar State, Venezuela -Cotton Tree, Freetown, Sierra Leone -The Cliffs of Moher, Co. Clare, Ireland -Galápagos Islands, Galápagos Province, Ecuador -Giants Causeway, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom -Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA -Great Barrier Reef, Coral Sea, Queensland, Australia -The Great Blue Hole, Belize -Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee/North Carolina, USA -Iguazu Falls, Paraná/Misiones, Brazil/Argentina / -Matterhorn, Alps, Switzerland/Italy / -Milford Sound, South Island, New Zealand -Mont Saint Michel, France -Monument Valley, Arizona, USA -Mount Cook, South Island, New Zealand -Mount Everest, Himalayas, Nepal/China / -Mount Fuji, Chūbu region, Honshū, Japan -Mount Kilimanjaro, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania -Niagara Falls, Ontario/New York, Canada/USA / -Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA -Pantanal, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil -Stone Mountain, Atlanta, Georgia, USA -Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia -Southern Patagonian Ice Field, Southern Patagonic Andes, Argentina/Chile, / -Table Mountain, Cape Town, South Africa -The Twelve Apostles (Victoria), Victoria, Australia -The Three Sisters,, Australia -Torres del Paine, Magallanes, Chile -Uluru, Northern Territory, Australia -Victoria Falls, Zambia/Zimbabwe / - -Constructed features - -Africa -Great Pyramid of Giza, Sphinx, Egypt -Abu Simbel, Aswan, Egypt -Nubian Monuments Philae, Aswan, Egypt -Hassan II Mosque, Casablanca, Morocco -Great Mosque of Djenné, Djenné, Mali -Tomb of Askia, Gao, Mali - -Asia -Baalbek, Baalbeck, Lebanon -Persepolis, Fars, Iran -Azadi Tower, Tehran, Iran -Taj Mahal, Agra, India -Gateway of India, Mumbai, India -Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar, India -Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban, Dhaka, Bangladesh -The Great Wall of China, Beijing, China -Tiananmen Square/Forbidden City, Beijing, China -Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China -Beijing National Stadium, Beijing, China -Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region, China -The Terracotta Army, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China -Shanghai Tower, Shanghai, China -Shanghai World Financial Center, Shanghai, China -Oriental Pearl Tower, Shanghai, China -Leshan Giant Buddha, Sichuan, China -Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre, Hong Kong -Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong -Two International Finance Centre, Hong Kong -International Commerce Centre, Hong Kong -Langham Place , Hong Kong -63 Building/N Seoul Tower, Seoul, South Korea -Gyeongbokgung Palace, Seoul, South Korea -Golden Pavilion, Kyoto, Japan -Tokyo Tower, Tokyo, Japan -Tokyo Skytree, Tokyo, Japan -Grand Palace, Bangkok, Thailand -Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia -Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan -Sigiriya Fortress, Sigiriya, Sri Lanka -Angkor Wat, Angkor, Cambodia -Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia -Burj Al Arab, Dubai, UAE -Emirates Office Tower, Dubai, UAE -Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE -The Palm, Dubai, UAE -The World (archipelago), Dubai, UAE -Petra, Arabah, Aqaba Governorate, Jordan -Western Wall, Jerusalem, Israel -Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, Israel -Azrieli Center, Tel Aviv, Israel -Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey -Masjid al-Haram, Mecca, Saudi Arabia - -Europe -Irish Government Buildings, Dublin, Ireland -Newgrange, Co. Meath, Ireland -The Customs House, Dublin, Ireland -The Spire of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland -Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, Hungary -The Parthenon, Athens, Greece -The White Tower of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece -Eiffel Tower, Paris, France -Louvre, Paris, France -Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France -Sacré-Cœur Basilica, Paris, France -The Colosseum, Rome, Italy -Leaning Tower of Pisa, Pisa, Italy -St Mark's Square, Venice, Italy -Pompeii, Campania, Italy -Big Ben, London, United Kingdom -Stonehenge, Wiltshire, United Kingdom -Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth, United Kingdom -Eden Project, Cornwall, United Kingdom -Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, United Kingdom -Angel Of The North, Bristol, United Kingdom -Roman Baths, Bath, United Kingdom -London Eye, London, United Kingdom -Millenium Dome, The 02, London, United Kingdom -Tower Bridge, London, United Kingdom -St Paul's Cathedral, London, United Kingdom -Trafalgar Square, London, England, United Kingdom -The Shard, London, United Kingdom -Palace of the Parliament, Bucharest, Romania -Red Square/Saint Basil's Cathedral, Moscow, Russia -Mamayev Kurgan, Volgograd, Russia -Saint Isaac's Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, Russia -Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia -Peter and Paul Fortress, Saint Petersburg, Russia -Grand Place, Brussels, Belgium -Atomium, Brussels, Belgium -Kölner Dom, Cologne, Germany -Frauenkirche, Munich, Germany -Neuschwanstein Castle, Bavaria, Germany -Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, Germany -Reichstag Building, Berlin, Germany -Fernsehturm, Berlin, Germany -Torre de Belém, Lisboa, Portugal -Sagrada Família, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain -Mezquita de Córdoba, Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain -Alhambra, Granada, Andalusia, Spain -City of Arts and Sciences, Valencia, Spain -St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City -Pobednik, Belgrade, Serbia -Palace on Dam square, Amsterdam, Netherlands -Amsterdam Central Station, Amsterdam, Netherlands -Market Hall, Rotterdam, Netherlands -Delta Works, Zeeland, Netherlands - -North America -CN Tower, Toronto, Ontario, Canada -Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California, USA -Statue of Liberty, Liberty Island, New York City, New York, USA -Mount Rushmore, South Dakota, USA -Hollywood Sign, Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, USA -Gateway Arch, St. Louis, Missouri, USA -Hoover Dam, Colorado River, Arizona\Nevada, USA -One World Trade Center, New York City, New York, USA -432 Park Avenue, New York City, New York, USA -30 Hudson Yards, New York City, New York, USA -Empire State Building, New York City, New York, USA -Sears Tower, Chicago, Illinois, USA -Faneuil Hall, Boston, Massachusetts, USA -White House, Washington, D.C., USA -Capitol, Washington, D.C., USA -Renaissance Center, Detroit, Michigan, USA -Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA -Chichen Itza, Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico - -Central and South America -Statue of Christ the Redeemer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil -Macchu Picchu, Urubamba Valley, Peru -Moais, Eastern Island, Chile -Historic Town of Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais State, Brazil -Panama Canal, Panama -Tikal, Department of El Petén, Guatemala - -Australia - Sydney Opera House, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia - Sydney Harbour Bridge, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia - Sydney Tower, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia - Eureka Tower, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia - Flinders Street Station, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia - Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia - Federation Square, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia - Q1, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia - Bell Tower, Perth, Western Australia, Australia - -Geography" -3752,11309,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta,Sparta,"Sparta was a Greek city-state. It is the capital of the Laconia prefecture. It is in the south of Peloponnese peninsula. During antiquity, it was extremely powerful. Today, it is a small city. 16,726 people lived there according to the 2001 census. - -It was also known as Lacedaemon. - -The word Spartan is used to describe somebody who lives a simple life or somebody who suffered a lot without crying or showing that they suffered. It can also mean a life of simplicity, without anything fancy or costly. - -Sparta is in the mountainous region of Laconia. This is in the south-east of the Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Evrotas River. The river flows through a valley with mountains on each side. To the west is the Taygetus Range (highest point 2407 m) and to the east is the Parnon Range (highest point 1935 m). Because the ancient Spartans had such good natural defenses, they did not need city walls. - -Ancient Sparta -In Ancient Greece, Sparta was a city-state with a very strong army and a government that was well led. Sparta was known as one of the strongest city-states in Greece. Only the strongest survived in Sparta, male or female. The Spartans killed weak children. If they believed that a baby was too weak, they left it out to die of exposure beside a slope on Mount Taygetus. This place was called the Apothetae, which meant 'the place of rejection'. - -Sparta had a government with checks and balances. The executive branch was led by two kings. The legislative branch was led by the citizens. and the judicial branch was controlled by the elders. There was also a committee of five men who were in charge of the education process that young boys and girls went through. Boys and girls were taken from their parents at the age of 7. Boys went to live in barracks with other boys their age. Girls went to school to learn gymnastics, wrestling, and other activities, so they could become strong, healthy mothers for future soldiers. - -Laconophilia - -Laconophilia is love or liking of Sparta and of the Spartan culture. Sparta was often admired when it ruled. Long ago, ""Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered (thought) the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice"". Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as a good state, strong, brave, and free. - -Sparta was also seen as a model of social purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France. - -Adolf Hitler thought Sparta was very good. He said in 1928 that Germany should be like them by making smaller ""the number allowed to live"". The Spartans had created ""the first racialist state"". - -Customs -Young Spartans boys were taken from their homes at the age of seven to begin a military life. The Spartans became soldiers at age 20, citizens at age 30, and retired at age 60. Men trained hard to become warriors of the Spartan army. Women were encouraged to keep healthy so that they could produce healthy, fit babies to grow up to be strong. Spartans saw little moral value in the concept of childbirth; unless the child was fit to become a Spartan, he would die. - -Spartan men married when they were 30 years old. Plutarch writes of the strange custom of the Spartans for their wedding night: -The custom was to capture women for marriage...The...'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head...then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom...first had dinner...then would slip in...lift her and carry her to the bed. The husband kept on visiting his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. Only Spartans did these customs. Some people think that the cutting off of the wife's hair was a ceremony that showed she was going into a new life. - -History -Sparta conquered the people of Messenia and Lakonia (the surrounding countryside) at around 680560 BC. These people became known as the helots. They were not slaves: they were serfs. They had a lower position in society, like serfs in mediaeval Europe. - -Helots spent their lives farming their Spartan masters kleros (land granted to Spartan citizens). The Spartan poet Tyrtaios says helots were allowed to marry and keep half the fruits of their labor. At most times, the helots outnumbered their Spartan masters 10 to 1. They rebelled often, but they were never able to overthrow their oppressors. - -Once a Spartan reached the age of 20, he or she would then become a homoios. A homoios was a member of the ruling class (a citizen). Both men and women were citizens. Sparta was an unusual society for women's rights, because women were considered to be equal. - -The Spartan army used the phalanx formation. This contributed to the many battles Sparta won. Their most famous loss is the Battle of Thermopylae where 300 Spartans held off a large Persian army for a week. - -References - - -Cities in Greece -Ancient Greek cities" -3793,11360,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen-Chari%20%28prefecture%29,Moyen-Chari (prefecture),"Moyen-Chari was one of fourteen prefectures of Chad. The capital of Moyen-Chari was Sarh. Since 2002, Chad is divided into regions. - -Prefectures of Chad" -14697,55422,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigues-Mortes,Aigues-Mortes,"Aigues-Mortes (French for ""dead waters"") is a city in the south of France. It is in the Languedoc-Roussillon region. It was originally founded by the Romans in the year 102 BC. The first records mentioning it under its current name date from the 10th century. Louis IX of France rebuilt the port in the 13th century. It was the only French port of the Mediterranean at that time. The city is laid out as a bastide. It was the starting point for the Seventh Crusade (1248) and Eighth Crusade (1270). Due to changes of the coastline, the city is several miles from the sea. It is linked to the sea through a canal, nowadays. It has well-preserved city walls. In 1999, about 6.000 people lived there. Aigues-Mortes is about 35 km from Nîmes. - -Bastides -Communes in Gard" -7065,22369,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1048,1048," - -Events - The city of Oslo is founded by Harald Hardråde of Norway. - Battle of Pasinler – Seljuks defeat a force of Byzantines and Georgians. - Benedict IX driven from Rome, ending his third and final pontificate." -14545,54860,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Paul%27s%20Cathedral,St Paul's Cathedral,"St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican church in the City of London. The original version was built by Mellitus in 604 AD. He was Bishop of the East Saxons. - -In 962 and 1087, the cathedral burnt down and was built again. Before today's version of the cathedral, there were four others. The earlier ones burnt down. - -Today's cathedral is made of limestone. It was built after the Great Fire of London in 1666 had destroyed the ""Old St Paul's"". Its architect was Sir Christopher Wren, who designed a further 50 churches. Wren designed it in the Renaissance style. St Paul's is a popular tourist attraction and is still used as a church today. It is the cathedral of the Church of England Diocese of London. -It is 365 feet (111 meters) high to the cross on top. - -Buildings and structures in London -Anglican Cathedrals -Cathedrals in England -City of London -Churches in the United Kingdom" -15754,60315,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criss%20Angel%20Mindfreak,Criss Angel Mindfreak,"Criss Angel Mindfreak is an American television program. The program is hosted by illusionist Criss Angel. Angel performs many different types of stunts and illusions on the program such as street magic, levitation, and setting himself on fire. The program was first shown on July 20, 2005. It is shown and distributed by the A&E network. - -Other websites - Official Criss Angel website - Official Criss Angel Mindfreak TV Series website at A&E - Titles & Air Dates Guide of Criss Angel Mindfreak at epguides.com - -2005 American television series debuts -2010 American television series endings -2000s American television series -2010s American television series -American reality television series -Magic -English-language television programs" -11375,41275,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodeo,Rodeo,"A rodeo is a North American sport. It is a collection of several similar activities that came from the history of the day-to-day lives of Mexican vaqueros (cowboys) and American cowboys. It has events that came from the handling of cattle, and the riding and training of horses. Rodeos started as a competition between the cowboys to see who was the best. Over time it has gone from taking a collection of money for the person who won to today's large professional competitions such as the National Finals Rodeo with a lot of money for the winners. - -Equestrian sports" -12137,44749,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6tnar,Jötnar,"A Jotun or Jötun in Norse mythology, is a giant. Groups of them are called Jötnar. Many are very large and strong; some are not. Sometimes however, gods and Jötnar would marry. The Frost giant's stronghold is called Utgardr and it is in Jötunheimr, the name for their realm. This is one of the nine Norse realms. Jötunheim is separated from Midgard, or Earth, by high mountains, and large forests. Outside their home world, giants seem to prefer to live in caves. - -Norse mythology" -24985,98249,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20March,Long March,"The Long March is the retreat of Mao Zedong and the Communists in 1934-35. The communists went to their stronghold away from Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists. Here they were able to join together and start fighting again to beat the Nationalists. They trekked 6,000 miles over 370 days, and only 8,000 survived out of 100,000 people. However, because they had survived such a difficult trial together the survivors were very dedicated and created a more cohesive group. Mao Zedong rose up as a leader during this time. - -The long march was over 12400 km, in one year. About 300,000 people started, and fewer than 10% finished. They climbed some mountains more than 4000 meters high, - -Background -Before the Long March, China had two sides: the nationalists and the communists. Both sides wanted to rule the country. This brought the Chinese Civil War. Chinese nationalists used 500,000 soldiers to remove the communists from Jiang Xi. They failed four times before. Now the nationalists changed the way to attack the communists, using encirclement (make a circle around the enemy army) to stop them from running away. The Communists leader Borgu tried to fight 500,000 soldiers face to face. But the problem is that the Jianxi communists just had 86,000 soldiers and more than half of them just had a broadsword and no guns. They failed to push the nationalist army back, so they tried to go to meet another communist army in Shaanxi. - -How it changed China’s history -The Long March was an important event in Chinese history. It made the China communists army survival and change the way they fight the capitalism. The communists also choose Mao Zedong to became the leader of the communists and all the red armies in china (china communists army), They should listen Mao Zedong to fight. It was a point for the communists decide fight and live in the countryside and use guerrilla to fight with the nationalists. - -The Long March also made the nationalists follow the communists and kill some local warlord leaders so they controlled more parts of China. They followed the communists all the way to ShaanXi and killed a lot of red army soldiers so that after World War II, the communists had very few soldiers. They took four years to get more soldiers so they could win the civil war. - -Different opinions about the march's result -The communists' believed they won by making a lot of soldiers survive and successfully meet the Communists party in Shaanxi. They also said it is so successful to run away from 100,000 soldiers encirclement and about 200,000 soldiers hunt between the long march. - -The Nationalists' thought they were successful because the communists were running away from the battle and were forced to move to the other side of China. They killed at least half of the Red Army soldiers in China. - -The reason they have different opinions is because their goals were very different: the Communists just wanted to survive the Nationalist army's attack. The Nationalists' goal was to destroy the Red Army in Jian Xi, making the communists weaker than before. It took the communists four years to rebuild their army and win the civil war. - -References - -1934 -1935 -1930s in China" -23295,89097,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20%28disambiguation%29,Chicago (disambiguation),"Chicago, Illinois is the third largest city in the United States of America. - -Chicago may also mean: - The University of Chicago - Chicago (band), a pop-rock-jazz band - Their second album, Chicago, released in 1970 - Chicago (CTA), stations on the Chicago Transit Authority's 'L' system, all named for their location on Chicago Avenue - Chicago (CTA Brown Line) - Chicago (CTA Red Line) - Chicago (CTA Blue Line) - Chicago (typeface), a classic Apple Macintosh font - Chicago house, a genre of electronic dance music - Chicago Powerfest, a metal festival held annually near Chicago - Windows 95, codenamed ""Chicago"" - Chicago Manual of Style, published by the University of Chicago - USS Chicago, the name given to several United States Navy vessels - 334 Chicago, an asteroid - Chicago (poker game), a Swedish poker game (or any one of several stud poker variants, including ""Chicago,"" ""Big Chicago,"" and ""Little Chicago"") - Chicago, Western Cape, a suburb of Paarl, South Africa -Club Atlético Nueva Chicago -There are several Chicago schools of thought, generally named after distinguished programs of the University of Chicago. These include: - Chicago school (architecture) - Chicago school (economics) - Chicago school (literary criticism) - Chicago school (sociology) - -In Entertainment: - Chicago (band) - Chicago, a play by Maurine Dallas Watkins, first performed in 1926 - Chicago (1927 film), based on the 1926 play - Chicago (musical), first performed in 1975, based on the 1926 play - Chicago (2002 film), based on the 1975 musical - Chicago (magazine), published by the Tribune Company - Chicago (art magazine) - Chicago (album), by rock band Chicago - ""Chicago"" (1957 song), by Fred Fisher - ""Chicago"" (1970 song), by Graham Nash - ""Chicago"" (2005 song), by Sufjan Stevens - ""Chicago"" (2006 song), by Clueso - ""Chicago"" (poem), by Carl Sandburg - ""Chicago"" (Prison Break episode), the 38th episode of the American television series Prison Break - Chicago (Sam Shepard play), a 1965 play by Sam Shepard - Chicago (Trance artist)" -2081,7127,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity,Humidity,"Humidity means water vapor in the air, but not to liquid droplets in fog, clouds, or rain. Deserts usually have low humidity, and tropical regions have high humidity. The word ""humid"" often means that the humidity is high, which gives the feeling of being very damp (wet air), stuffy, or even sweltering when the temperature is also high. When the humidity is low, the air can be said to be ""not humid"" or ""dry."" - -Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. - -The term ""relative humidity"" is used to note the amount of humidity as a percent, from 0-100%. Meteorologists use hygrometers to measure the humidity in the air. - -Humidity affects the rate of evaporation. With a higher humidity, the rate of evaporation is less. - -Related pages - Dew point -Relative humidity - -Meteorology -Weather measurements" -9486,32488,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatine%20Hill,Palatine Hill,"Palatine Hill (Latin: Palatium) also named the Sun Hill was the hill that Rome was built on. Rome later extended to include the seven hills: - -Palatine -Aventine -Capitoline -Quirinal -Viminal -Esquiline -Caelian - -Etymology -According to Livy (59 BC – 17) the Palatine hill got its name from the Arcadian settlement of Pallantium. The term palace itself stems from Palatium. - -Rome -Hills" -11805,43296,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypsilophodon,Hypsilophodon,"Hypsilophodon was a small, fast-running, plant-eating dinosaur. It lived 125 million years ago, was 2.3 metres long (7/8 feet), including tail, and weighed about the same as a man. - -It was originally thought to be a young Iguanodon which could climb trees. Later it was realised to be a different species, and to be a running dinosaur, not adapted for climbing. - -Palaeobiology -Like most small dinosaurs, Hypsilophodon was bipedal and ran on two legs. Its entire body was built for running; a light-weight, low, aerodynamic posture, long legs and stiff tail for balance. All this would have allowed it to travel remarkably fast for its size. - -Hypsilophodon fed on low-growing vegetation, most likely preferring young shoots and roots in the manner of modern deer. The structure of its skull, with the teeth set far back into the jaw, strongly suggests that it had cheeks, an advanced feature that would have facilitated the chewing of food. There were twenty-eight to thirty ridged teeth in the animal's jaw which, due to their alternate arrangement, appear to have been self-sharpening. As in almost all dinosaurs and certainly all the ornithischians, the teeth were continuously replaced. - -The level of parental care in this dinosaur has not been defined, although a neatly-arranged nest has been found, suggesting that some care was taken before hatching. Fossils of large groups have been found, so it is likely that the animals moved in herds. For these reasons, the hypsilophodonts, particularly Hypsilophodon, have often been referred to as the ""deer of the Mesozoic"". - -Despite living in the Cretaceous, Hypsilophodon had a number of primitive, or basal, features. For example, there were five fingers on each 'hand' and four on each foot. Most dinosaurs had fewer digits by the Cretaceous period. Also, although it had a beak, Hypsilophodon still had pointed triangular teeth in the front of the jaw. Most herbivorous dinosaurs had, by this stage, lost the front teeth altogether (although there is some debate as to whether these teeth may have had a specialized function in Hypsilophodon). - -The group Hypsilophodontidae remained the same from the Upper Jurassic to the end of the Cretaceous. It is possible that this was because the animals were almost perfectly adapted to their lifestyle, therefore selective pressure, it is assumed, was low. - -Hypsilophodontidae -The family named after Hysilophodon has these genera: - -Agilisaurus -Anabisetia -Atlascopcosaurus -Drinker -Fulgurotherium -Gasparinisaura -Gongbusaurus (= Eugongbusaurus) -Hexinlusaurus. -Hypsilophodon -Jeholosaurus -Leaellynasaura -Notohypsilophodon -Orodromeus -Othnielosaurus. -Koreanosaurus. -Parksosaurus -Qantassaurus -Thescelosaurus -Yandusaurus -Zephyrosaurus - -References - -Hypsilophodontidae" -22300,84476,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgona%2C%20Italy,"Gorgona, Italy","Gorgona is an island in the Tuscan Archipelago, a group of islands off the west coast of Italy. - -It is one of only five islands in the world on which the Corsican Finch is found.The island is famous for its anchovies. Tradition holds that monks from Gorgona rescued the relics of Saint Julia of Corsica before they were carried to the mainland in the 8th century. - -Islands of Italy" -4532,14179,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20of%20Arc,Joan of Arc,"Saint Joan of Arc or The Maid of Orléans (Jeanne d'Arc, c.1412 – 30 May 1431) is a national heroine of France. She is also a Catholic saint. She was a peasant girl born in the east of France. Joan said that she had visions from God. In these visions, she said that God told her to take back her home, which was then under English rule late in the Hundred Years' War. Many quick military victories made her famous. In 1430, soldiers of Burgundy captured her and gave her to her English enemies. - -Joan of Arc has remained an important figure in Western civilization. Famous writers like Shakespeare, Tchaikovsky, Mark Twain, and Voltaire wrote about her. She appears in video games, television, movies, songs, and dances. - -Visions of Joan of Arc -When Joan of Arc was put on trial, she said no to the customary courtroom rules about a witness's oath. She said she would not answer every question about her visions. She complained that the normal witness oath would not be right because she had an oath that she had given to the king. It is not known how much the record which reports this has been changed by dishonest court officials or her possible lies to protect state secrets. Some historians simply say that her belief in her duty was more important than where the visions came from. - -Most people say that she was healthy and that she was not crazy. Recently, people have tried to explain her visions through things like epilepsy, migraine, tuberculosis, and schizophrenia. None of these guesses have been greatly supported. This is because, even though seeing visions can be through different diseases, other facts of Joan's life do not agree with these ideas. Two experts who studied a teberculoma hypothesis in the medical journal Neuropsychobiology said: ""It is difficult to draw final conclusions, but it would seem unlikely that widespread tuberculosis, a serious disease, was present in this 'patient' whose life-style and activities would surely have been impossible had such a serious disease been present."" Ralph Hoffman, professor of psychology at Yale University, points out that visions, like ""hearing voices"" are not always signs of mental illness. He says that her religious inspiration was possibly a reason. However, he does not say any other reasons. - -Nonetheless, the court of Charles VII was obsessed about her mental health. - -Execution -Joan was tried by a French inquisitorial tribunal under English control. The Church said Joan should be killed for wearing men's clothes even after being warned not to. Joan agreed to wear women's clothes. She wore male clothes again. This might have been to protect herself from being attacked. It could also have been, as Jean Massieu said, because her dress had been stolen and she was left with nothing else to wear. - -She was burned on a stake on 30 May 1431, at age 19. After she died, the English showed people her burnt body so no one could say she had escaped alive. Then they burned the body two times again to turn it into ashes. They put what was left of her in the Seine. The executioner, Geoffroy Therage, later said that he ""...greatly feared to be damned."" - -Notes - -Sources - -Other websites - International Joan of Arc Centre - Joan of Arc- Maid of Heaven - -1410s births -1431 deaths -Christian saints -Hundred Years' War -French people" -11606,42360,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin%20Schr%C3%B6dinger,Erwin Schrödinger,"Erwin Schrödinger (Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger, 12 August 1887, Vienna-Erdberg 4 January 1961, Vienna) was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist. He was one of the founding fathers of quantum theory and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933. - -Life -Schrödinger went to the Academic Gymnasium from 1898 to 1906. -Afterwards he studied mathematics and physics in Vienna and wrote his habilitation up from 1910. - -He was a soldier in World War I. Afterwards he got professorships in Zürich, Jena, Breslau and Stuttgart. In 1920 he married. -In 1927 he went to Berlin to fellow Max Planck. - -After the take-over of power by the Nazis, Schrödinger left Germany and got a new professorship in Oxford. -In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize. -Three years later he returned to Austria and became professor in Graz. -In 1938 he had to leave Austria, because the Nazis had taken over government. -He went to Dublin and became director of the School for Theoretical Physics. - -In 1956 he returned to Vienna and got a professorship for Theoretical Physics. -He died of tuberculosis in 1961. - -Important work -Schrödinger's most important work is the wave mechanics – a formulation of quantum mechanics, and especially the Schrödinger equation. He also worked on the field of biophysics. He invented the concept of negentropy and helped to develop molecular biology. - -Related pages - Schrödinger's cat - -Other websites - - Biography in the Österreichische Zentralbibliothek für Physik (Austrian Central Library of Physics) - Original sound from the Austrian Mediathek: Erwin Schrödinger, Was ist Materie? - Are there quantum jumps? (Schrödingers opinion on quantum physics 1950) - -1887 births -1961 deaths -Scientists from Vienna -Theoretical physicists -Austrian Nobel Prize winners -Austrian physicists" -19800,75739,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20von%20Hindenburg,Paul von Hindenburg,"Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German field marshal and statesman. - -Hindenburg retired from the army in 1911. He rejoined the German army at the start of the First World War. He became famous when he won the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914. - -Hindenburg retired again in 1919, but returned to public life one more time in 1925 to be elected as the second President of Germany. - -He was 84 years old and in poor health, but deciced to run for re-election in 1932 as the only candidate who could defeat Adolf Hitler, because he saw him as a dangerous extremist. He tried to stop Hitler's and the Nazi Party's rise to power, but Franz von Papen persuaded Hindenburg, that the Conservative elite and the military could control Hitler when he becomes Chancellor of Germany and that the other more dangerous alternative was Communist rule. - -As a result, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. But von Papen's belief in controlling Hitler and his assurances to Hindenburg did not happen, because Hitler started to control them and gain more power. In March he signed the Enabling Act of 1933 which gave special powers to Hitler and his government. - -With this act, Hitler became a dictator in the next months, and crushed all opposition and banned all political parties, except the Nazi Party by the summer of 1933. Hindenburg died the next year, after which Hitler declared the office of President vacant and made himself Führer (Head of State and Head of Government) of Germany. - -The famous zeppelin Hindenburg that was destroyed by fire in 1937 had been named in his honour, as is the causeway joining the island of Sylt to mainland Schleswig-Holstein, the Hindenburgdamm, built during his time in office. - -Presidency - -1925 election -In 1925, Hindenburg had no interest in running for public office. After the first round Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, one of the leaders of the DNVP, visited Hindenburg and asked him to run. - -Hindenburg eventually agreed to run in the second round of the elections as a non-party independent, although he was a conservative. Because he was Germany's greatest war hero, Hindenburg won the election in the second round of voting held on 26 April 1925. - -He was helped when the Bavarian People's Party (BVP), switched its support from Marx, the SPD candidate and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) to did not withdraw its candidate, Ernst Thälmann. If they had their supporters would most likely have voted for the SPD and Hindenburg may not have won. - -First term - -Hindenburg tried to stay out of day-to-politics, and be a ceremonial president. He liked the monarchy, but took his oath to the Weimar Constitution seriously. - -Hindenburg often complained that he missed the quiet of his retirement and, that politics was full of ideas like economics that he did not understand. - -His advisers included his son, Oskar, his old army aide General Wilhelm Groener, and General Kurt von Schleicher. The younger Hindenburg served as his father's aide-de-camp and controlled politicians' access to the President. - -Schleicher came up with the idea of Presidential government, and the ""25/48/53 formula"". - -Under a ""Presidential"" government the chancellor is responsible to the president), and not the Reichstag. The ""25/48/53 formula"" was the three articles of the Constitution that could make a ""Presidential government"" possible: - Article 25 allowed the President to dissolve the Reichstag. - Article 48 allowed the President to sign into law emergency bills without the consent of the Reichstag. (The Reichstag could cancel any law passed by Article 48 by a simple majority within sixty days of its signing). - Article 53 allowed the President to appoint the Chancellor. - -Schleicher's wanted to have Hindenburg appoint a chancellor that Schleicher chose. If that chancellor needed any laws he could use article 48. If the Reichstag should threaten to cancel any of those laws, Hindenburg could threaten a dissolution, and call new elections. Hindenburg did not like the idea, but was pressured into going along with them by his son and his other advisors. - -Presidential government -The first try at ""presidential government"" in 1926–1927 failed for lack of political support. During the winter of 1929–1930, Schleicher had a series of secret meetings with Heinrich Brüning, the leader of the Catholic Center Party (Zentrum). - -Schleicher then set about splitting the ""Grand Coalition"" government of the Social Democrats and the German People’s Party. As a result, the government fell in March 1930 and Brüning was named Chancellor by Hindenburg. - -Brüning's first act was to introduce a budget calling for steep spending cuts and sharp tax increases. When the budget was defeated in July, Brüning had Hindenburg sign the budget as an emergency law under Article 48. When the Reichstag voted to cancel the budget, Brüning had Hindenburg dissolve Reichstag only two years into its mandate, and had the budget passed again by Article 48. The Nazis got 17% of the vote in the September 1930 elections. The Communist Party of Germany also made gains. - -Brüning ruled through Article 48; the Social Democrats never voted not to cancel his Article 48 bills in order not to have another election that could only benefit the Nazis and the Communists. - -1932 Election - -In the first round of the election held in March 1932, Hindenburg was the frontrunner, but did not have an absolute majority. In the runoff election of April 1932, Hindenburg beat Hitler for the Presidency. - -After the presidential elections had ended, Schleicher held a series of secret meetings with Hitler in May 1932, and thought that Hitler had agreed to support the new ""presidential government"" Schleicher was building. - -In May 1932 Schleicher had Hindenburg sack Groener as Defence Minister to humiliate both Groener and Brüning. On 31 May 1932, Hindenburg sacked Brüning as Chancellor and replaced him with Schleicher's suggestion, Franz von Papen. - -von Papen's government openly wanted to destroy German democracy. Like Brüning's government, von Papen's government was a ""presidential government"" that governed through the use of Article 48. - -As Schleicher wanted, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag and set new elections for July 1932. Schleicher and von Papen both believed that the Nazis would win the majority of the seats and would support von Papen's government. - -The Nazi party did become the largest party in the Reichstag, and expected Hitler would be Chancellor. When Hindenburg met Hitler on 13 August 1932, in Berlin, Hindenburg rejected Hitler's demands for the Chancellorship. - -The minutes of the meeting were kept by Otto Meißner, the Chief of the Presidential Chancellery. According to the minutes: - -Hindenburg issued a press release about his meeting with Hitler that seemed to say that Hitler had demanded absolute power and that the President had refused. Hitler was enraged by this press release. - -When the Reichstag met in September 1932, its first and only act was to pass a massive vote of no-confidence in von Papen’s government. In response, von Papen had Hindenburg dissolve the Reichstag for elections in November 1932. In the 1949 constitution, a vote of no confidence must be accompanied by the election of a new chancellor, so this could not happen. - -In the second Reichstag elections of 1932 the Nazis lost some support, but stayed the largest party in the Reichstag. There ensued another round of talks between Hindenburg, von Papen, von Schleicher on the one hand and Hitler and the other Nazi leaders on the other. - -Hitler still demanded that Hindenburg give him the Chancellorship. Hindenburg could not accept this, so von Papen suggested Hindenburg declare martial law and do away with democracy. - -Von Papen got Oscar Hindenburg to support the plan, and they persuaded the president to ignore his oath to the Constitution and go along with this plan. Schleicher saw von Papen as a threat so he blocked the martial law plan by saying it would make the Nazi SA and the Communist Red Front Fighters rebel, and that the Poles would invade and the Reichswehr would be unable to cope. - -Hindenburg hated the idea of Hitler as Chancellor, but under pressure from Meißner, von Papen and Oskar Hindenburg the President decided to appoint Hitler Chancellor. On the morning of 30 January 1933, Hindenburg swore Hitler in as Chancellor at the Presidential Palace. - -The Machtergreifung -Hindenburg played key role in the Nazi Machtergreifung (Seizure of Power) in 1933. He was not involved in the planning, but did not stop Hitler. In the ""Government of National Concentration"" headed by Hitler, the Nazis were in the minority. Most of the ministers were from the von Papen and von Schleicher governments. Besides Hitler, the only other Nazi ministers were Hermann Göring and Wilhelm Frick. - -Hindenburg thought that the Nazis' power was limited, especially as his favourite politician, von Papen, was the Vice-Chancellor and the Reich Commissioner for Prussia. - -Hitler's first act as Chancellor was to ask Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag so that the Nazis and D.N.V.P. could increase their number of seats, Hindenburg agreed. - -In early February 1933, von Papen had an Article 48 bill signed into law that limited the freedom of press. After the Reichstag fire, Hindenburg signed into law the Reichstag Fire Decree. - -At the opening of the new Reichstag on 21 March 1933, at the Kroll Opera House, the Nazis staged an elaborate ceremony, in which Hindenburg played the leading part, that was meant to mark the continuity between the Prussian-German tradition and the new Nazi state. - -The ceremony at the Kroll Opera House had the effect of reassuring many Germans, especially conservative Germans, that life would be fine under the new regime. On 23 March 1933, Hindenburg signed the Enabling Act into law. - -Hindenburg was still very popular, but his health was getting worse. The Nazis made sure that whenever Hindenburg did appear in public Hitler was with him, and that Hitler was always very respectful to the President. The Nazi propagandists hoped people would think Hindenburg liked Hitler, and Hitler would become more popular. - -The only time Hindenburg ever tried to stop a Nazi bill was in early April 1933. The Reichstag had passed a Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. This said that all Jewish civil servants working for the Reich, the Länder, or the local districts should be sacked immediately. - -Hindenburg refused to sign this bill into law unless all Jewish veterans of World War I, Jewish civil servants who served in the civil service during the war and those Jewish civil servants whose fathers were veterans were allowed to stay in office. Hitler agreed, in order to get the law signed, even though he believed that the Jews had tried to undermine Germany during the Great War. It was Hindenburg who said that Germany lost the First World War because of politicians and others ""stabbing the Army in the back"". Hindenburg did not believe the story. He said it so that his wartime deputy Erich von Ludendorff would not write bad things in his memoirs. But Hitler did believe the story, and used it to gain power. - -Hindenburg stayed president until he died from lung cancer at his home in Neudeck, East Prussia on 2 August 1934. - -One day before Hindenburg's death, Hitler flew to Neudeck and visited him. Hindenburg, old and senile, thought he was meeting Kaiser Wilhelm II, and called Hitler ""Your Majesty"". - -He would be Germany's last president until 1945, when Karl Dönitz was appointed president in Hitler's last will. Following Hindenburg's death, Hitler declared the office of President to be permanently vacant, effectively merging it with the office of Chancellor under the title of Leader and Chancellor (Führer und Reichskanzler), making himself Germany's Head of State and Head of government. - -Burial -Hindenburg was buried in the Tannenberg memorial near Tannenberg, East Prussia (today: Stębark, Poland). But Hindenburg always said he wanted to be buried next to his wife. In 1945, German troops removed his and his wife's coffins, to save them from the approaching Soviet troops, and blew up the memorial with explosives. - -References - -Sources - Asprey, Robert The German High Command at War: Hindenburg and Ludendorff Conduct World War I, New York, New York, W. Morrow, 1991. - Bracher, Karl Dietrich Die Aufloesung der Weimarer Republik; eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie Villingen: Schwarzwald, Ring-Verlag, 1971. - Dorpalen, Andreas Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1964. - Eschenburg, Theodor ""The Role of the Personality in the Crisis of the Weimar Republic: Hindenburg, Brüning, Groener, Schleicher"" pages 3–50 from Republic to Reich The Making Of The Nazi Revolution edited by Hajo Holborn, New York: Pantheon Books, 1972. - Feldman, G.D. Army, Industry and Labor in Germany, 1914-1918, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966. - Görlitz, Walter Hindenburg: Ein Lebensbild, Bonn: Athenäeum, 1953. - Görlitz, Walter Hindenburg, eine Auswalh aus Selbstzeugnissen des Generalfeldmarschalls und Reichpräsidenten, Bielefeld: Velhagen & Klasing, 1935. - Hiss, O.C. Hindenburg: Eine Kleine Streitschrift, Potsdam: Sans Souci Press, 1931. - Jäckel, Eberhard Hitler in History, Hanover N.H.: Brandeis University Press, 1984. - Kershaw, Sir Ian, Hitler. 1889-1936: Hubris New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1998; German edition, Munich, 1998, p. 659. - Kitchen, Martin The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916-1918, London: Croom Helm, 1976. - Maser, Werner Hindenburg: Eine politische Biographie, Rastatt: Moewig, 1990. - Noakes, Jeremy & Pridham, Geoffrey (editors) Nazism 1919-1945 Volume 1 The Rise to Power 1919-1934, Department of History and Archaeology, University of Exeter, United Kingdom, 1983. - Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John Hindenburg: the Wooden Titan, London : Macmillan, 1967; New York, Morrow, 1936. - Turner, Henry Ashby Hitler's thirty days to power : January 1933, Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley, 1996. - -Other websites - - Out Of My Life by Paul von Hindenburg at archive.org - Date of retirement - -1847 births -1934 deaths -Cancer deaths in Germany -German generals -German military personnel of World War I -People from former German territories -People from Poznań -Presidents of Nazi Germany -Presidents of the Weimar Republic" -16012,61482,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangui,Bangui,"Bangui is the capital city of Central African Republic. It is the largest city in the country. The city has a population of 531,763 people. Most of the population of the Central African Republic lives in the western parts of the country, near Bangui. - -History -The city was founded in 1889 in what was then the French colony Haut-Oubangui ('Upper Ubangi'). The colony was later renamed Oubangui-Chari and made part of French Equatorial Africa. The city grew around the French military post on the Ubangi river. Bangui served as an administration center for the colony and is now the administrative center of the CAR. - -Much violence in Bangui came after the March 1981 elections. These elections took place after the French removed Jean-Bedel Bokassa from office and replaced him with David Dacko. People who did not like Dacko attacked Bangui and made Dacko leave the country. Andre Kolingba then formed the Comité Militaire pour le Redressement National. - -About 200 Central African Republic soldiers mutinied in Bangui in May 1996. They wanted back pay and for dictator Patassé to be removed from control of the country. French soldiers in the country stopped them and returned Patassé to power. More than 50 people were killed during this time. - -Geography and Climate -Bangui is on the northern banks of the Ubangi River. It is just below a series of rapids. The Congolese town of Zongo is on the opposite side of the river from Bangui. The city centre is near the river. It has a large triumphal arch, the Presidential Palace and the central market. North of the city lie rolling hills. - -The Central African Republic is just north of the Equator. Because of this, the daily high temperatures rarely fall below the high 80s Fahrenheit. The rainy season lasts from May until October. Bangui, being in the south of the country and closest to the Equator, is slightly hotter and wetter than the northern parts of the country. - -Economy -Bangui is an administrative, trade, and commercial center. Bangui makes textiles, food products, beer, shoes, and soap. The main exports are cotton, timber, coffee, and sisal. Unemployment in the city was near 23% as of 2001. - -Transportation -Bangui is a river port. It is served by Bangui M'Poko International Airport. The port handles the most of the country's trade with other countries. River ferries sail to Brazzaville and Zongo. Roads connect the city to Cameroon, Chad, and Sudan. - -Culture -Several periodicals and three daily newspapers publish in Bangui. Other things to see in Bangui include Boganda Museum and Bokassa Palace. - -Education -Bangui is home to the University of Bangui. It was founded in 1970. The University of Bangui is the only non-agricultural college in the Central African Republic. - -Notes and references - -Capital cities in Africa -Central African Republic" -22286,84440,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubit,Cubit,"Cubit is the name for any one of many units of measure used by various ancient peoples and is among the first recorded units of length. - -The cubit is based on measuring by comparing – especially rope and textiles, but also for timber and stone – to one's forearm length. The Egyptian hieroglyph for the unit shows this symbol. It was used through antiquity, the Middle Ages up to early modern times. - -The distance between thumb and another finger to the elbow on an average person is about 24 digits or 6 palms or 1½ feet (45.72 cm or 18 inches). This so-called ""natural cubit"" of 1½ feet is used in the Roman system of measures and in different Greek systems. - -Over time, units similar in type to the cubit have measured: - 6 palms  =  24 digits, i.e. ~45.0 cm or 18 inches (1.50 ft) - 7 palms  =  28 digits, i.e. ~52.5 cm or 21 inches (1.75 ft) - 8 palms  =  32 digits, i.e. ~60.0 cm or 24 inches (2.00 ft) - 9 palms  =  36 digits, i.e. ~67.5 cm or 27 inches (2.25 ft) - -From late antiquity, the Roman ulna, a four-feet-cubit (about 120 cm) is also known. This is the measure from a man's hip to the fingers of the outstretched opposite arm. - -The English yard has a long legal history, but its origin is not known. The English ell is essentially a kind of great cubit of 15 palms, 114 cm, or 45 inches (3.75 ft). - -Related pages - Units of measurement - -References - - Recovery of the ancient system of length units by Dieter Lelgemann , former Director of the Institute for Geodesy and Geo-Information Technology, TU Berlin . - On the ancient determination of meridian arc length by Eratosthenes of Kyrene. Dieter Lelgemann, WS – History of Surveying and Measurement, Athens, Greece, May 22-27, 2004. - -Other websites - Measurements of the Nippur Ell, now in a museum in Istanbul (Turkey). - -Units of length" -20420,78449,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry%20Tortugas,Dry Tortugas,"The Dry Tortugas are a small group of islands. They are at the end of the Florida Keys, United States. They are about west of Key West, and west of the Marquesas Keys, at , the closest islands. Still farther west is the Tortugas Bank, which is now underwater. The islands were discovered in 1513 by Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. They are an unincorporated area of Monroe County, Florida and belong to the Lower Keys Census County Division. With their surrounding waters they make up the Dry Tortugas National Park. - -Other websites - Topographic and Floristic Change of the Dry Tortugas Keys, with description and areas of keys - Dry Tortugas National Park by Park Vision A Photographic Guide to the Park. - Dry Tortugas Satellite View Google Maps - History and Ecology of Mangroves in the Dry Tortugas - -Florida Keys -National parks in the United States -Biosphere reserves" -10941,39304,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche,Porsche,"Dr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, usually shortened to Porsche AG () or simply Porsche, is a German sports car manufacturer based in Zuffenhausen. Porsche was created in 1931 as a design engineering department by Ferdinand Porsche. - -Former models - Porsche 356 - Porsche 914 - Porsche 924 - Porsche 928 - Porsche 959 - Porsche 944 - Porsche Carrera GT - - Porsche 918 - -Current models - Porsche 911 - Porsche Boxster - Porsche Cayman - Porsche Cayenne - Porsche Panamera - Porsche Macan - -Other websites - - Spec for all road going Porsche models - -Automobile companies of Germany -Stuttgart" -7580,24507,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1716,1716," - -Events - August 5 – In the Battle of Peterwardein 40.000 Austrian troops of Prince Eugene of Savoy defeat 150,000 Ottoman Turks under Darnad Ali Pasha - Pirate Edward Teach the ""Blackbeard"" raids shipping in the Caribbean - Natchez, one of the oldest towns on the Mississippi, founded. - Crieff, Scotland burned to the ground in revenge for the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. - Kangxi Dictionary published this year. This dictionary lays the foundation of most references to Han characters studies nowadays." -4548,14204,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurent%20Clerc,Laurent Clerc,"Laurent Clerc (born Louis Laurent Marie Clerc December 26, 1785 in France - July 18, 1869) co-founded the first school for the deaf (people who cannot hear) in the United States. - -Deaf people in America respected Clerc and call him the ""Father of the Deaf"" because he founded the first school for the deaf in America in Hartford, Connecticut. Clerc and Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet founded that school on April 15, 1817 in an old hotel. The school moved to its present location in 1821 and is now named The American School for the Deaf. The American School for the Deaf is the oldest school for the deaf in the United States. - -Other websites -Name sign for Laurent Clerc -http://ia300102.us.archive.org/3/items/Laurent_Clerc/clerc.mpg - -1785 births -1869 deaths -French educators" -17801,67156,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errol%20Flynn,Errol Flynn,"Errol Leslie Thomson Flynn (20 June 1909 – 14 October 1959) was an Australian-American movie actor. He is known for his swashbuckler roles in movies like Adventures of Don Juan and The Sea Hawk. - -Early years -Errol Flynn was born in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. His father Theodore Thomson Flynn, was a lecturer (1909) and later professor (1911) of biology at the University of Tasmania. Flynn was born at the Queen Alexandra Hospital in Battery Point. His mother was born Lily Mary Young. She dropped the first names Lily Mary shortly after she was married and changed her name to Marelle. Flynn described his mother's family as ""seafaring folk"". This may account for his lifelong love of the sea and boats. - -First movies -He became a naturalized American citizen in 1942. He is remembered for his successful on-screen partnership with Olivia de Havilland. They appeared together in eight movies: Captain Blood (1935, his first great success), The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), Four's a Crowd (1938), Dodge City (1939), The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex (1939), Santa Fe Trail (1940), and They Died with Their Boots On (1941). This partnership started rumors of romance. De Havilland denied these rumors. She said her relationship with Flynn was one of friendship only. - -WWII years -Flynn tried to enlist in every branch of the United States Armed Services during WWII. He was classified 4F because of numerous health issues. Hollywood executives kept his health issues a secret to protect his screen image. He never served and was criticized for this. As the years passed, Flynn's manly image diminished. He became an alcoholic, gained weight, and had a seedy appearance. Flynn wrote his autobiography My Wicked, Wicked Ways in 1959. He died of a heart attack at age 50. His last words were reportedly, ""I've had a hell of a lot of fun and I've enjoyed every minute of it"". - -Marriages and children -Flynn was married three times: first to actress Lili Damita from 1935 until 1942 (one son, Sean Flynn, 1941–70?); to Nora Eddington from 1943 until 1949 (two daughters, Deirdre born 1945 and Rory born 1947); and to actress Patrice Wymore from 1950 until his death (one daughter, Arnella Roma, 1953–1998). - -Lifestyle -Flynn had a reputation for womanizing and freewheeling fun. His hedonistic lifestyle caught up with him in 1942 when two under-age girls, Betty Hansen and Peggy Satterlee, accused him of statutory rape. The two girls said that the event occurred at the Bel Air home of Flynn's friend Frederick McEvoy. A group was organized to support Flynn. It was called the American Boys' Club for the Defense of Errol Flynn (ABCDEF). Its members included William F. Buckley, Jr. The trial took place in January and February 1943. Flynn was cleared of the charges. - -References - -Other websites - - Errol Flynn at the National Film and Sound Archive - - Map of where Errol died in Vancouver - Profile for Errol Flynn at Find A Grave - Errol Flynn on CBC's Front Page Challenge - Wu Ming's ""In Like Flynn"" at Chicago Review - -American movie actors -American movie directors -American movie producers -American screenwriters -American television actors -Australian movie actors -Australian television actors -Cardiovascular disease deaths in Canada -Deaths from myocardial infarction -Disease-related deaths in British Columbia -Naturalized citizens of the United States -People from Hobart -1909 births -1959 deaths" -1488,5152,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%2023,December 23," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 583 - Maya Queen Yohl Ik'nal is crowned ruler of Palenque. - 679 - King Dagobert II of Paris is murdered on a hunting trip. - 962 - Arab-Byzantine Wars: Under future Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine troops storm the city of Aleppo in present-day Syria. - 1572 – Theologian Johann Sylvan is executed in Heidelberg. - 1631 - Thirty Years' War: Sweden takes over the city of Mainz. - 1672 – Giovanni Cassini discovers Saturn's moon Rhea. - 1688 – James II of England flees to Paris, as Mary II and William III take the throne to rule jointly. - 1783 - George Washington resigns as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army at the Maryland State House in Annapolis. - 1787 – The HMVA Bounty is sent to Tahiti to collect breadfruit plants. - 1793 - Battle of Savenay: Decisive defeat of the royalist counter-revolutionaries in the war in the Vendee during the French Revolution. - 1823 - ""A Visit from St. Nicholas"", also known as ""The Night Before Christmas"", is published anonymously. - 1876 - First day of the Constantinople Conference which results in an agreement for the political reforms in the Balkans. - 1888 – Part of Vincent van Gogh's left ear is cut off in as-yet unexplained circumstances. - 1893 - The opera Hansel and Gretel by Engelbert Humperdinck is performed for the first time. - -1901 2000 - 1913 - The Federal Reserve Act is signed into law by US President Woodrow Wilson, creating the Federal Reserve Bank. - 1914 – World War I: Australian and New Zealand troops land in Cairo, Egypt. - 1916 - World War I: Battle of Maghdaba - Allied forces defeat Turkish forces on Egypt's Sinai Peninsula. - 1920 - The UK government agrees on the Government of Ireland Act, which ends up splitting the island of Ireland in two. - 1933 - A train crash occurs at Lagny-Pomponne in France, killing 204 people, and injuring 120. - 1936 – Colombia becomes a signatory of the Buenos Aires Convention. - 1938 - The first modern coelacanth fish is discovered in South Africa. The species was thought to be extinct. - 1940 - World War II: Greek submarine Papanikolis (Y-2) sinks the Italian motor ship Antonietta. - 1941 – World War II: After 15 days of fighting, Japan takes control of Wake Island. - 1947 – The transistor is first demonstrated. - 1948 – Japanese officials who were found guilty of war crimes, are executed. - 1954 - The first successful kidney transplant is performed by J. Hartwell Harrison and Joseph Murray. - 1957 - Ian Craig of Australia becomes the youngest test cricket captain in history. - 1958 – The Tokyo Tower is dedicated, becoming the world's tallest self-supporting iron tower. - 1968 - The 82 sailors from the USS Pueblo are released after 11 months of internment in North Korea. - 1970 – The North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City is topped out at a height of 417 metres. - 1970 - The Democratic Republic of the Congo officially becomes a single-party state. - 1972 – A major earthquake hits Nicaragua, killing thousands of people. It was of magnitude 6.2. - 1972 – Members of a Uruguayan rugby team whose plane crashed in the Andes, near the border between Chile and Argentina, are rescued. - 1973 - Royal Air Maroc airliner crashes over Morocco, killing 106 people. - 1978 - An Alitalia Douglas DC-9 crashes on landing, into the Mediterranean Sea off Palermo, Sicily, killing 108 people. 22 people are saved and transported to land in fishing boats. - 1979 – Soviet forces occupy Kabul, Afghanistan. - 1982 - The United States Environmental Protection Agency announces that it has detected dangerous levels of dioxin in the soil of Times Beach, Missouri. - 1986 – Voyager becomes the first aircraft without an aerial or ground refuelling to fly non-stop around the world. - 1990 – In a referendum, most of Slovenia's voters support independence from Yugoslavia. - 1991 – Germany recognises Croatia's independence. - -From 2001 - 2003 – An explosion at the PetroChina Chuandongbei natural gas field near Chongqing, China, kills 234 people. - 2005 – Lech Kaczynski becomes President of Poland. His time in office ends with his death in a plane crash on April 10, 2010. - 2007 - An agreement is made for Nepal to change its system of government from a monarchy to a republic. - 2011 – At least 40 people are killed in bomb attacks in Damascus, Syria. - 2013 - A storm hits the UK and Ireland, with strong winds and heavy rain, killing 2 people and affecting transport in the run-up to Christmas. - 2017 - A fire at a shopping center in Davao City, Southern Philippines, kills at least 37 people. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 968 - Emperor Zhenzong of Song of China (d. 1022) - 1173 - Louis I, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1231) - 1525 - John I, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1576) - 1537 – John III of Sweden, King of Sweden (d. 1592) - 1582 – Severo Bonini, composer (d. 1663) - 1597 – Martin Opitz von Boberfeld, German poet (d. 1639) - 1613 – Carl Gustaf Wrangel, Swedish soldier (d. 1676) - 1689 - Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, French composer (d. 1755) - 1690 - Pamheiba, Indian Emperor (d. 1755) - 1713 - Maruyama Gondazaemon, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1749) - 1732 – Richard Arkwright, industrialist, and inventor of the Water Frame (d. 1792) - 1750 – King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony (d. 1827) - 1777 – Tsar Alexander I of Russia (d. 1825) - 1783 - Giovanni Bechet, Italian poet and patriot (d. 1851) - 1790 – Jean François Champollion, French Egyptologist, deciphered the Rosetta Stone (d. 1832) - 1793 - Dost Mohammad Khan, ruler of Afghanistan (d. 1863) - 1797 - Adrien-Henri de Jussieu, French botanist and physician (d. 1853) - 1799 - Karl Bryullov, Russian painter (d. 1852) - 1804 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (d. 1869) - 1805 – Joseph Smith, Jr., founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement (d. 1844) - 1810 - Edward Blyth, English zoologist and ornithologist (d. 1873) - 1819 – Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch poet and clergyman (d. 1889) - 1822 – Wilhelm Bauer, engineer (d. 1875) - 1839 - Janos Murkovics, Slovenian-Hungarian author and clergyman (d. 1889) - 1841 - Ignacio Agramonte, Cuban revolutionary (d. 1873) - 1854 - Henry B. Guppy, English botanist (d. 1926) - 1856 - James Buchanan Duke, American industrialist (d. 1925) - 1858 - Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian theatre director, writer and playwright (d. 1943) - 1864 – Zorka of Montenegro, Princess of Serbia (d. 1890) - 1867 – Madam C. J. Walker, first African American millionaire (d. 1919). - 1878 - Mikheil Tsereteli, Georgian historian, philologist and sociologist (d. 1965) - 1881 - Juan Ramon Jimenez, Spanish poet (d. 1958) - 1885 – Pierre Brissaud, French artist (d. 1964) - 1886 - Albert Ehrenstein, Austrian-German poet (d. 1950) - 1887 - John Cromwell, American actor and director (d. 1979) - 1891 – Alexandr Rodchenko, Russian painter and photographer (d. 1956) - 1896 – Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Italian writer (d. 1957) - 1900 - Arnold Bode, German artist (d. 1977) - -1901 1950 - 1902 – Charan Singh, Prime Minister of India (d. 1987) - 1903 - Boleslaw Kominek, Polish Roman Catholic Archbishop of Wroclaw (d. 1974) - 1907 – Manuel Lopes, Cape Verdean writer and poet (d. 2005) - 1907 – Avraham Stern, Zionist group leader (d. 1942) - 1908 – Yousuf Karsh, Armenian-Canadian portrait photographer (d. 2002) - 1910 - Kurt Meyer, German SS officer (d. 1961) - 1911 – Niels Kaj Jerne, Danish immunologist (d. 1994) - 1911 - James Gregory, American actor (d. 2002) - 1911 - Marie Olav, Estonian chess player (d. 1994) - 1916 – Dino Risi, Italian director and screenwriter (d. 2008) - 1918 – Helmut Schmidt, Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1974-1982 (d. 2015) - 1918 – José Greco, dancer (d. 2000) - 1922 – Calder Willingham, writer (d. 1995) - 1922 – Micheline Ostermeyer, French athlete and musician (d. 2001) - 1923 – James Stockdale, United States Navy admiral (d. 2005) - 1923 – Günther Schifter, Austrian music journalist (d. 2008) - 1924 - Bob Kurland, American basketball player (d. 2013) - 1925 - Pierre Bérégovoy, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993) - 1925 – Mohammed Mzali, Prime Minister of Tunisia (d. 2010) - 1926 – Robert Bly, American poet - 1929 - Chet Baker, American jazz trumpeter (d. 1988) - 1931 - Lev Durov, Russian actor (d. 2015) - 1933 – Akihito, Emperor of Japan - 1934 - Claudio Scimone, Italian conductor - 1935 – Paul Hornung, American football player - 1935 - Esther Phillips, American singer (d. 1984) - 1936 – Frederic Forrest, American actor - 1937 - Barney Rosenzweig, American screenwriter and producer - 1937 - Nelson Shanks, American artist (d. 2015) - 1939 - La Lupe, Cuban-American singer-songwriter (d. 1992) - 1939 - Nancy Graves, American sculptor, painter and printmaker (d. 1995) - 1940 – Jorma Kaukonen, Finnish-American musician (Jefferson Airplane) - 1941 – Tim Hardin, musician - 1941 - Nigel Anthony, English actor - 1942 – Quentin Bryce, 25th Governor-General of Australia - 1942 - M. M. Ruhul Amin, Bangladeshi judge (d. 2017) - 1942 - Lars-Erik Berenett, Swedish actor (d. 2017) - 1943 – Mikhail Gromov, Russian mathematician - 1943 – Harry Shearer, American actor, voice actor (This Is Spinal Tap, The Simpsons) - 1943 – Silvia, Queen of Sweden - 1943 - Elizabeth Hartman, American actress (d. 1987) - 1944 – Wesley Clark, American General and former NATO Supreme Allied Commander - 1945 - Adly Mansour, Interim President of Egypt - 1946 - Ray Tabano, American musician - 1946 – John Sullivan, English television writer (d. 2011) - 1947 – Susan Lucci, soap opera actress - 1948 - David Davis, British politician - 1948 - Jim Ferguson, American guitarist, composer, author and journalist - 1948 – Jack Ham, American football player - 1949 - Adrian Belew, American guitarist - 1950 – Michael C. Burgess, American politician - 1950 – Vicente del Bosque, Spanish football manager - 1950 - Richard Dannatt, Baron Dannatt, English general - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Anthony Phillips, British musician (Genesis) - 1952 – William Kristol, American conservative commentator - 1952 - David Loebsack, American politician - 1953 - Andres Alver, Estonian architect - 1953 - Maria Vladimirovna, Grand Duchess of Russia, Russian aristocrat - 1955 – Carol Ann Duffy, Scottish poet and playwright - 1956 – Dave Murray, English musician (Iron Maiden) - 1957 – Trisha Goddard, English television presenter - 1958 – Victoria Williams, singer - 1961 – Carol Smillie, Scottish television personality - 1962 - Stefan Hell, Romanian-German physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize winner - 1962 - Kang Je-gyu, South Korean movie director, producer and screenwriter - 1963 – Jim Harbaugh, American football quarterback - 1964 – Eddie Vedder, musician (Pearl Jam) - 1966 - Badi Assad, Brazilian singer, guitarist and composer - 1967 – Carla Bruni-Sarkozy, Italian-French singer, model and former First Lady of France - 1968 - Quincy Jones III, English-Swedish singer-songwriter and producer - 1968 - Barry Kooser, American artist and animation filmmaker - 1968 - Manuel Rivera-Ortiz, Puerto Rican photographer - 1968 - Sandra Roelofs, Dutch-born former First Lady of Georgia - 1968 - Olga Shishigina, Kazakhstani hurdler - 1969 – Martha Byrne, soap opera actress - 1969 - Rob Pelinka, American basketball player, agent and lawyer - 1970 – Catriona LeMay Doan, Canadian speed skater - 1971 – Corey Haim, Canadian actor (d. 2010) - 1971 – Tara Palmer-Tomkinson, British socialite (d. 2017) - 1971 - Jo Johnson, British politician - 1974 – Agustin Delgado, Ecuadorean footballer - -From 1976 - 1976 - Joanna Hayes, American hurdler - 1977 – Matt Baker, British television presenter - 1977 – Alge Crumpler, American football player - 1978 – Andra Davis, American football player - 1978 – Víctor Martínez, Venezuelan baseball player - 1978 – Estella Warren, Canadian actress and model - 1978 – Esthero, Canadian musician and singer - 1979 – Kenny Miller, Scottish footballer - 1979 - Holly Madison, American model and actress - 1981 - Agnes Milowka, Polish-Australian diver, explorer, author and photographer (d. 2011) - 1981 – Beth, Spanish singer - 1981 – Mario Santana, Argentine footballer - 1983 – Michael Chopra, English footballer - 1983 - Lisa Dobriskey, English middle-distance runner - 1984 - Alison Sudol, American actress, singer and songwriter - 1985 - Harry Judd, English drummer (McFly) - 1987 – Owen Franks, New Zealand rugby player - 1988 - Eri Kamei, Japanese singer - 1988 - Yuka Kashino, Japanese singer and dancer - 1989 - Lils Koger, Estonian painter and architect - 1990 – Anna Maria Perez de Tagle, American actress - 1992 - Spencer Daniels, American actor - 1992 - Jeff Schlupp, German-Ghananian footballer - 1996 - Bartosz Kapustka, Polish footballer - 2002 - Finn Wolfhard, Canadian actor - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 130 – Emperor Keiko of Japan (b. 60) - 484 - Huneric, Vandal king - 558 - Childebert I, King of Paris - 668 - Mor Gabriel, Syriac bishop and saint (b. 594) - 679 - Dagobert II, Frankish king (b. 650) - 910 - Saint Naum, Bulgarian missionary and scholar (b. 830) - 918 - Conrad I of Germany (b. 890) - 1193 – Saint Thorlak, patron Saint of Iceland (b. 1133) - 1230 - Berengia of Navarre (b. 1165) - 1572 – Johann Sylvan, German theologian - 1575 – Akiyama Nobutomo, Japanese military commander (b. 1531) - 1588 - Henry I, Duke of Guise (b. 1550) - 1631 – Michael Drayton, English poet (b. 1563) - 1652 – John Cotton, English-born American minister (b. 1585) - 1722 - Pierre Varignon, French mathematician (b. 1654) - 1745 - Jan Dismas Zelenka, Bohemian composer (b. 1679) - 1795 - Henry Clinton, English general and politician (b. 1730) - 1831 - Emilie Plater, Lithuanian countess and freedom fighter (b. 1806) - 1850 - Samuel Bell, Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1770) - 1851 - Giovanni Bechet, Italian poet and patriot (b. 1783) - 1872 - George Catlin, American painter (b. 1796) - -1901 2000 - 1902 – Frederick Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1821) - 1920 - Walter Runeberg, Finnish sculptor (b. 1838) - 1931 – Wilson Bentley, American scientist (b. 1865) - 1939 - Anthony Fokker, Dutch aircraft manufacturer (b. 1890) - 1948 – Akira Muto, Japanese military commander (b. 1892) - 1948 – Hideki Tōjō, 40th Prime Minister of Japan, Led the Attack on Pearl Harbour (b. 1884) - 1950 - Vincenzo Tommasini, Italian composer (b. 1878) - 1953 - Lavrentiy Beria, Soviet-Georgian politician (b. 1899) - 1954 - René Iché, French sculptor and scholar (b. 1897) - 1961 - Kurt Meyer, German SS officer (b. 1910) - 1970 - Aleksander Warma, Estonian politician (b. 1890) - 1972 - Charles Atlas, American bodybuilder (b. 1892) - 1972 – Andrei Tupolev, Russian aircraft designer (b. 1888) - 1973 - Charles Atlas, Italian-American bodybuilder (b. 1892) - 1978 - Misao Tamai, Japanese footballer (b. 1903) - 1979 – Peggy Guggenheim, American art collector (b. 1898) - 1984 - Joan Lindsay, Australian writer (b. 1896) - 1992 – Eddie Hazel, American musician (b. 1950) - 1994 - Sebastian Shaw, British actor (b. 1905) - 1997 - Stanley Cortez, American cinematographer (b. 1908) - 1998 – Anatoly Rybakov, Russian writer (b. 1911) - 1998 - Joe Orlando, Italian-American comics writer, artist and editor (b. 1927) - 1998 - Michelle Thomas, American actress (b. 1969) - 2000 – Victor Borge, Danish comedian and pianist (b. 1909) - -From 2001 - 2004 – P. V. Narasimha Rao, Prime Minister of India (b. 1921) - 2005 – Lajos Baroti, Hungarian footballer (b. 1914) - 2007 – Oscar Peterson, American jazz pianist and composer (b. 1925) - 2009 – Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, Tibetan politician (b. 1910) - 2010 – K. Karunakaran, Indian politician (b. 1918) - 2013 - Mikhail Kalashnikov, Russian inventor of the AK-47 (b. 1919) - 2013 - Yusef Lateef, American saxophonist (b. 1920) - 2013 - Robert W. Wilson, American philanthropist and businessman (b. 1926) - 2014 - K. Balachander, Indian director and producer (b. 1930) - 2014 - Jeremy Lloyd, English writer, screenwriter, author, poet and actor (b. 1930) - 2014 - Jacques Chancel, French journalist and writer (b. 1928) - 2015 - Hocine Aït Ahmed, Algerian politician (b. 1926) - 2015 - Don Howe, English footballer (b. 1935) - 2015 - Bülent Ulusu, Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1923) - 2015 - Jean-Marie Pelt, French biologist, botanist and pharmacist (b. 1933) - 2015 - Alfred G. Gilman, American pharmacologist and biochemist (b. 1941) - 2016 - Anis Amri, Tunisian suspected terrorist (2016 Berlin attack) (b. 1992) - 2016 - Heinrich Schiff, Austrian cellist and conductor (b. 1951) - 2016 - Piers Sellers, English-American astronaut (b. 1955) - 2017 - Maurice Hayes, Irish politician (b. 1927) - -Observances - Akihito's birthday (Japan) - Saint Thorlak's Day (Iceland) - HumanLight (secular humanism in the United States) - Festivus - Kiran Diwas (Uttar Pradesh) - Victory Day (Egypt) - Children's Day (Sudan and South Sudan) - -Days of the year" -24861,97456,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brusque,Brusque,"Brusque can mean: - -Brusque, Aveyron: A French commune in the department of Aveyron and the area Midi-Pyrénées. - -Brusque, Brazil: A Brazilian municipality in the state of Santa Catarina." -7330,23479,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugation,Conjugation,"Conjugations are forms of verbs that are changed to agree with the subject that is doing the action described by the verb. Usually most of the word stays the same, but the endings change. Most conjugation systems follow some sort of pattern within the language. - -Example: French verb for 'to eat'- ""manger"" (stem: mang) -(""manger"" is the Infinitive of the verb. The infinitive is the un-conjugated form of the verb, literally the ""to do"" something form such as to walk, to play, to eat. In English one does not say ""I like eat"" one must say ""I like to eat"". In both English and French (""J'aime manger"") the infinitive form of the verb would be used in this case. - -The pattern here is that the ""er"" is removed from the verb and replaced with a different ending depending on the subject(who's doing the eating). This pattern is good for many French conjugations, but not all, and in other languages, conjugation patterns are going to be very different. - -Related pages -Declension - -Other websites -conjugation.com All English verbs conjugated in any tense, any form, any voice -Conjugation of over 7,000 English verbs. -Online Conjugator for 85 different languages - -Grammar" -11008,39610,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1093,1093," - -Events - Donald III of Scotland comes to the throne of Scotland. - -Births - King Conrad III of Germany - King Roger II of Sicily - -Deaths - King Malcolm III of Scotland (b. 1031)" -7324,23469,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots,Scots,"Scots is a West Germanic language. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots or Lallans. It is not Scottish English Ulster Scots is a form of Scots found in the north of Ireland. Scots is very different from the Scottish Gaelic language, which is a Celtic language. - -There have been disagreements about the linguistic, historical and social status of Scots. Focused broad Scots is at one end of a scale, with Scottish Standard English at the other. Scots is generally regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, and has its own distinct variants such as Doric. - -History - -Origin -Northumbrian Old English was established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century. The region was part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Early Scots began to diverge from Northumbrian English in the twelfth and thirteenth century. There was immigration of Scandinavian-influenced Middle English-speakers from the North and Midlands of England. - -Later influences on the development of Scots were from Romance languages via ecclesiastical and legal Latin, Norman and later Parisian French from the Auld Alliance and Dutch and Middle Low German influences by trade and immigration from the Low Countries. Scots also includes loanwords from contact with Gaelic. - -13-14th century -From the 13th century, Early Scots spread further into Scotland through the burghs established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the 14th century and the decline of French in Scotland made Scots the prestige dialect in most of eastern Scotland. - -17th century -From 1610 to the 1690s, during the Plantation of Ulster, many Scots-speaking Lowlanders, about 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, there were five or six times as many Scots as English settlers. Southern Modern English was adopted as the literary language after 1700, and ""Modern Scots"" is sometimes used to describe the spoken language after 1700. - -Related pages - Scots Wikipedia - -References - -Dialects of English -Scotland -West Germanic languages" -448,945,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/You,You,"You is a second-person English pronoun. The word can be singular or plural. It is what a person says when he or she is addressing another person in second person. Sometimes, just using the English letter ""u"" is acceptable, and ""ur"" for the words ""you're"" and ""your"". This is very informal, and is mostly used in texting. - -Basic English 850 words -VOA Special English words" -6211,19907,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass,Grass,"Grass is a plant with narrow leaves growing from the base. A common kind of grass is used to cover the ground in a lawn and other places. Grass gets water from the roots in the ground. Grasses are monocotyledon, herbaceous plants. - -The grasses include the ""grass"", of the family Poaceae (also called Gramineae). Also sometimes it is used to include the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). These three families are not closely related but belong to different clades in the order Poales. They are similar adaptations to a common life-style. - -The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, sprouted grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for livestock, thatching thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, sports turf, basket weaving and many others. - -Many grasses are short, but some grasses, like bamboo can grow very tall. Plants from the grass family can grow in many places, even if they are very cold or very dry. Several other plants that look similar but are not members of the grass family are also sometimes called grass; these include rushes, reeds, papyrus, and water chestnut. - -Grasses are an important food for many animals, like deer, buffalo, cattle, mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and many other grazers. Unlike other plants, grasses grow from the bottom, so when animals eat grass they usually do not destroy the part that grows. Without grass, dirt can wash away into rivers (erosion). - -Evolution of grass -Graminoids include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous. Fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing grass phytoliths (silica stones inside grass leaves). Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type. Grass is a valuable source of food and energy for many animals. - -Grass and people -Lawn grass is often planted on sports fields and in the area around a building. Sometimes chemicals and water is used to help lawns to grow. - -People have used grasses for a long time. People eat parts of grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice and millet are cereals, common grains whose seeds are used for food and to make alcohol such as beer. - -Sugar comes from sugar cane, which is also a plant in the grass family. People have grown grasses as food for farm animals for about 4,000 years. People use bamboo to build houses, fences, furniture and other things. Grass plants can also be used as fuel, to cover roofs, and to weave baskets. - -Language -In English, the word ""grass"" appears in several phrases. For example: - - ""The grass is always greener on the other side"" means ""people are never happy with what they have and want something else."" - ""Don't let the grass grow under your feet"" means ""Do something"". - ""A snake in the grass"" is about a person that will not be honest and will trick others. - Grass is sometimes used as a slang term for cannabis (also called pot, weed, or marijuana) - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Poales" -11502,41814,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector%20space,Vector space,"A vector space is a collection of mathematical objects called vectors, along with some operations you can do on them. Two operations are defined in a vector space: addition of two vectors and multiplication of a vector with a scalar. These operations can change the size of a vector and the direction it points to. The most important thing to understand is that after you do the addition or multiplication, the result is still in the vector space; you have not changed the vector in a way that makes it not a vector anymore. A vector space is often represented using symbols such as , and . - -More formally, a vector space is a special combination of a group and a field. The elements of the group are called vectors, and the elements of the field are called scalars. Vector spaces are important in an area of mathematics called linear algebra, an area which deals with linear functions (functions of straight lines, not curves). - -A vector can be represented graphically with an arrow that has a tail and a head. To add two vectors, you place the end of one vector at the head of the other one (see figure). The sum is the vector that goes from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second. - -Scalar multiplication means that one vector is made bigger or smaller (it is ""scaled""). Scalars are just numbers: if you multiply a vector by 2, you make it twice as long. If you multiply it by 1/2, you make it half as long. - -The ""vectors"" don't have to be vectors in the sense of things that have magnitude and direction. For example, they could be functions, matrices or simply numbers. If they obey the axioms of a vector space (a list of properties a vector space needs to satisfy), you can think of them as vectors and the theorems of linear algebra will still apply to them. - -There are some combinations of vectors that are special. A minimum set of vectors that—through some combination of addition and multiplication—can reach any point in the vector space is called a basis (of that vector space). It is true that every vector space has a basis. It is also true that all bases of any one vector space have the same number of vectors in them. This is called the dimension theorem. We can then define the dimension of a vector space to be the size of its basis. - -Related pages - Abstract algebra - Dimension - Linear independence - Unit vector - Vector subspace - -References - -Linear algebra -Vectors" -17680,66875,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire,Order of the British Empire,"The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is one of the British orders of chivalry. It is the newest order, created on 4 June 1917, by King George V. - -Classes -The order is cut into two parts, civil and military. Both parts have five classes or ranks. In order, from highest to lowest, these are: - - Knight or Dame Grand Cross (GBE) - Knight or Dame Commander (KBE or DBE) - Commander (CBE) - Officer (OBE) - Member (MBE) - -Only the two highest ranks are knighthoods, and allow the holder to call themselves 'Sir' (male) or 'Dame' (female). If the person is not a citizen of a country where the Queen is Head of State, the award is called honorary, and the holder cannot use the title before their name. For example Terry Wogan became a British citizen and was therefore called Sir Terry Wogan, but Bob Geldof is still an Irish citizen, and is therefore not ""Sir Bob"". He can, however, style himself ""Bob Geldof KBE"". - -The British Empire Medal (BEM) was restarted in 2012, but only in the civil group. Although the BEM it is the newest British order of chivalry, it has more members than any other. - -History -King George V wanted to be able to honour the thousands of people who helped to win the First World War, but were not soldiers. - -This Order of Knighthood has a more democratic character than the exclusive Order of the Bath or Saint Michael and Saint George, and in its early days was not held in high esteem. This changed over the years. - -Structure -The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order and appoints all other members of the Order but only on the advice of the Government. The next-most senior member is the Grand Master. There have been three: -Edward, Prince of Wales (1917–1936) (later called King Edward VIII and then the Duke of Windsor) -Queen Mary (1936–1953) - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1953–2021), Queen Elizabeth II's husband. - -The order's rules, called statutes, say that the Order can only have 100 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8960 Commanders, but there is no limit to the number of members of the Officers and Members but no more than 858 Officers and 1464 Members may be appointed per year. Appointments are made on the advice of the governments of the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth realms. - -Some jobs are usually rewarded with the Order. Usually female judges of the High Court of England and Wales are created Dames Commander after appointment. Male judges are not, because they are usually made Knights Bachelor instead. - -Officials -Like the orders of chivalry, this order has six officials: - Prelate - The Right Rev. and Right Hon. Dame Sarah Mullally DBE, Bishop of London -Dean - The Very Rev. David Ison, Dean of St Paul's Cathedral (The Dean of St Paul's always holds this office). - Secretary - Michael Vernon - Registrar - Sir Mark Sedwill, Cabinet Secretary - King of Arms - Sir Robert Fulton KBE - Lady Usher of the Purple Rod - Dame Amelia Fawcett DBE CVO. Many years ago the ushers helped to organise royal events, now only the usher of the Order of the Garter has any official duties. He is the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, the House of Lords's Messenger. - -Revocation -Anyone who behaves in a way that might bring the order into disrepute, may have his or her award taken away. - - 1921: Cecil Malone was stripped of his OBE (awarded 1919) following his conviction under the Defence of the Realm (Acquisition of Land) Act 1920. - 1940: Vidkun Quisling was stripped of his CBE (awarded 1929) following his work with Nazi Germany in the occupation of Norway. - 1949: Man Wai Wong was stripped of his OBE (awarded 1947) following his conviction for outlawry in Malaya. - 1965: Kim Philby was stripped of his OBE (awarded 1946) following his exposure as a spy. - 1975: William Spens was stripped of his MBE (awarded 1954) following his conviction for theft. - 1980: Albert Henry was stripped of his KBE (awarded 1974) following his conviction for election fraud. - 1988: Lester Piggott was stripped of his OBE (awarded 1975) following his conviction for tax fraud. - 2006: Michael Eke was stripped of his MBE (awarded 2003) following his conviction for theft and deception. - 2006: Naseem Hamed was stripped of his MBE (awarded 1999) following his conviction for dangerous driving. - -John Lennon once criticised military membership in the order, saying: - -""Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE received theirs for heroism in the war - for killing people. We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more."" - -References" -4406,13796,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Black%20Eyed%20Peas,The Black Eyed Peas,"The Black Eyed Peas are an American hip hop group from Los Angeles, California. Over the years their music has included R&B, dance and Latin. The group has three members: Will.i.am, Apl.de.ap, Taboo. - -Members of this group and its history - - Stacy Ann Ferguson, better known by her stage name Fergie, was born on March 27, 1975. She is an American R&B singer, actress and songwriter. She was revealed by the TV series for kids ""Kids Incorporated"" and the TV show ""Great Pretenders"". The TV revealed her talents and she began her career of singer with the R&B trio Wild Orchid which became the group of the Black Eyed Peas. She acted in ""Nine"" which came out in theatres in 2010. In 2017, Fergie left the group to focus on her solo career."". - - will.i.am (real name William James Adams) was born on March 15th, 1975 in Los Angeles. He is an American rapper and singer. will.i.am rose to fame as frontman and co-founder of the Black Eyed Peas. He has recently left Interscope for a solo deal with Def Jam. - Allan Pineda Lindo, better known by his stage name Apl.de.ap, is a Filipino American Hip-Hop musician and producer. He was born in November 28th, 1974 in Angeles City in the Philippines, from the age of 11 and he moved to the United States because he was adopted by the Hudgen's family. He began his career of singer and performer in the group ""Atban Klann"" with Will.i.am, which become the ""Black Eyed Peas"" when Taboo entered this group in 1995. - Taboo (real name Jaime Luis Gomez) was born in July 14th, 1975 in Los Angeles. He has a son named ""Josh"" who was born in December 5th, 1993. He joined the Black Eyed Peas in 1995. - -Before they became popular, the group's members were will.i.am, apl.de.ap, Taboo and backing vocalist Kim Hill. She left the group in 2000 and was replaced in 2003 by Fergie. They first became popular with the single ""Where Is the Love"" and the album Elephunk and their next album, Monkey Business was also successful. They have more recently released The E.N.D., an album that has had the successful singles ""Boom Boom Pow"", ""I Gotta Feeling"" and ""Meet Me Halfway"". - -Albums - Behind the Front (1998) - Bridging the Gap (2000) - Elephunk (2003) - Monkey Business (2005) - The E.N.D. (2009) - The Beginning (2010) - Masters of the Sun Vol. 1 (2018) - -References - -1995 establishments in California -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American hip hop bands -American R&B bands -Electronic music bands -Musical groups established in 1995 -Musical groups from Los Angeles" -5043,15940,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Ontario,Lake Ontario,"Lake Ontario is the smallest of the Great Lakes in North America, but its maximum depth (802ft; 244m) is deeper than lake Erie's (210ft) and Lake Huron's (750ft). - -It forms most of the border between Ontario in Canada and New York in the United States of America. Its inlet is the Niagara River (from Niagara Falls), and its outlet is the Saint Lawrence River. Nearly 9 million Canadians live near Lake Ontario. It is the only Great Lake that does not touch the U.S. state of Michigan, the ""Great Lakes State"". - -Great Lakes -Lakes of Canada -Geography of Ontario" -5516,18031,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taka,Taka,"The Taka is the currency of Bangladesh. The most commonly used symbol for the Taka is Tk and ৳. This is used on receipts while purchasing goods and services. One taka is divided into 100 poisha. - -In Bengali, the word taka is also used to mean any money, currency, or notes. - -Bangladesh Bank, the central bank of the country, prints the currency, except for one taka and two taka notes, which are made by the Ministry of Finance. - -Other websites - Banknotes of Bangladesh - -References - -Economy of Bangladesh -Currency of Asia" -18967,71490,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential%20distribution,Exponential distribution,"The exponential distribution with rate , written , is a probability distribution defined only on the positive real numbers. It is the continuous analogue of geometric distribution. Exponential distribution is used in reliability applications, and its main use is to assess the duration of random time intervals. Examples where it can be used include: -Time length of a telephone call -How long does it take to perform a service (for example, to fix something at a service point) -Amount of time between two phone calls -Half life of atoms (radioactive decay) -Expected lifetime of electronic (or other) parts, if wearing is not considered (this is called Mean Time Between Failures, MTBF) -Age of plants or animals -Very simple model used by insurance companies - -Related pages - - Normal distribution - -References - -Other websites -Online calculator of Exponential Distribution - -Probability distributions" -9042,30947,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giro%20d%27Italia,Giro d'Italia,"The Giro d'Italia, or Tour of Italy, is a famous bicycle race held in Italy, every spring. It is one of the most famous, and best paid bicycle races. The first race was in 1909. It started because the editor of a newspaper called La Gazzetta dello Sport wanted more people to read his newspaper. He planned a race similar to the Tour de France, which had started in 1903. - -The leader of the race wears a pink jersey called the maglia rosa. This is because pink is the colour of La Gazzetta dello Sport. For many years, the leader of the mountain climbing competition wore a green jersey (called the maglia verde), but a change in the sponsor for that competition led to a jersey change in 2012. The mountains leader now wears a blue jersey (called the maglia azzurra). Similarly, the leader of the sprinters' competition wore a mauve jersey (called the maglia ciclamino) for many years. However, a sponsorship change in 2010 also led to a jersey change. The sprints leader now wears a red jersey (called maglia rosso passione). The leader of the young riders' competition, for riders under age 25, wears a white jersey (called the maglia bianca). This is the same as the young riders' competition in the Tour de France. - -Winners of the Giro d'Italia - - -Italia, Giro d' -1909 establishments in Italy" -1547,5291,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Age,Iron Age,"The Iron Age is the period after the Bronze Age. Iron production took place in Anatolia at least as early as 12,000 BC, with some evidence pointing to even earlier dates. - -In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, the use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 30,000 BC. One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known was a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. - -Before this time, people used bronze or flint tools, and pottery. They farmed, and lived in communities. Most of Europe, Africa and Asia reached the Iron Age by 50,000 BC. It is a period of prehistory because, though iron and steel continue to be important even today, the ""Iron Age"" is defined as ending when people began to write their history. - -Iron is easy to find, but hard to make into tools. It melts at a higher temperature than bronze. When blacksmiths learned how to make iron tools, they were able to make many of them. With more and better tools, people could do more. For example, more people could own a metal plough. They could farm their fields better and grow more crops. Some people invented coins to help buy and sell their crops and their iron tools. - -Bronze weapons and armor were no match for those made of iron, so many peoples who did not have iron were conquered by those who did. Soldiers used iron shields and helmets in battle. - -References - -Ancient history -Periods and ages in history" -10204,35380,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad%20Smith,Chad Smith,"Chadwick Smith (born October 25, 1961 in Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States) is a drummer in the rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers. He joined the band in 1988 with John Frusciante when guitarist Hillel Slovak died of a heroin drug overdose, and Jack Irons left because of his friend dying. Chad has stayed in the band since then, playing the drums for every single album up to today. - -Discography -Red Hot Chili Peppers - Mother Milk (1989) - Blood Sugar Sex Magik (1991) - One. Hot Minute (1995) - Californication (1999) - By the Way (2002) - Stadium Acradium (2006) - I'm With You (2011) - -References - -American drummers -American rock musicians -Musicians from Saint Paul, Minnesota -Red Hot Chili Peppers -1961 births -Living people" -14544,54857,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20reaction,Nuclear reaction,"A nuclear reaction is a process involving an atomic nucleus or more than one nucleus. The most common kinds are -Nuclear fusion, a reaction in which two or more particles collide. The results are new particles which are different from the first ones. -Nuclear fission, a nucleus breaking into pieces. -Radioactive decay, in which a nucleus spits something out, changing itself into a different kind of nucleus. - -In the case of radioactivity the reaction is . Fission and fusion can be done on purpose, to release energy. This energy can then be used for different things, for example to make steam (as in a nuclear power plant). It can also be used as energy for a bomb. - -In the example figure 6Li fuses with deuterium. This makes Beryllium which then decays into two alpha particles. - -Nuclear reactions occur in the sun, in nuclear reactors, in particle accelerators, and in outer space. Other than radioactive decay, very few nuclear reactions occur on earth except in these special places. Nuclear reactors use nuclear reactions to make heat and electricity. Accelerators sometimes cause nuclear reactions to make radioactive materials. Particles from outer space cause nuclear reactions in earth's atmosphere that make air slightly radioactive. - -Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in that they do not need a catalyst. Radioactive decay also cannot be stopped, sped up or slowed down. - -Other websites -Images for nuclear reaction -Videos for nuclear reaction - -Nuclear physics" -15010,56579,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco,Fresco,"Fresco is a way of painting pictures. A fresco is a kind of mural, a painting that is done on a wall. A wall painting is sometimes called a fresco by mistake. A true fresco is painted onto plaster that is fresh. The plaster has been laid on the wall that day and is still damp. The word fresco comes from the Italian for ""fresh"". - -History of frescoes - -Ancient -Not all wall paintings are frescoes. In Ancient Egypt, for example, many of the wall paintings were done on dry plaster and are not true frescoes. - -The Royal Palace at Knossos in Crete, c. 1500 BC, had many frescoes. The scene of athletes dancing with a bull is the most famous. - -Many Ancient Roman wall paintings can be seen at Pompeii from the 1st century AD, but these are not true frescoes. - -The Sigiriya Frescoes painted in Sigiriya in Sri Lanka around 485 AD use the ""fresco lustro"" technique which varies slightly from the pure fresco technique in that it also contains a mild binding agent. This gives the frescoes added durability as they have survived exposed for nearly 1500 years. - -Medieval -There are many frescoes dating from the late Middle Ages, about 1000-1400 AD when, it was the fashion to paint the inside of churches with people and stories from the Bible. The order of the pictures was carefully planned by the artists and priests. Above the altar is usually seen a picture of Jesus Christ. On the west wall is often a frightening picture of The Last Judgement to remind people to turn to Jesus. Many frescoes like this can be seen in Greece, Spain, Portugal, Serbia, Armenia, Romania and Russia. There are a few in Germany, France and Italy. - -Renaissance - -In Italy, around 1300 AD, the artist Giotto painted frescoes that were so full of life that people were amazed. Each picture was like looking onto a stage where real people told the story. This was the beginning of the period of art history called the Renaissance. Giotto's frescoes became so famous that he had many pupils and followers. Giotto's most famous frescoes are in the Arena Chapel in Padua. He also painted in the Church of St. Francis at Assisi and at Santa Croce (Church of the Holy Cross) in Florence. - -A hundred years later, about 1400 AD, two artists called Masolino and Masaccio worked in the city of Florence, painting a chapel. Their names translate as ""Little Tom"" and ""Fat Tom"". Masaccio's way of painting was the biggest change since Giotto, in particular the two weeping naked figures of Adam and Eve. Everyone thought that Masaccio was one of the greatest painters alive. But he died at only 27 years old. These frescoes are in the Church of the Carmine, in Florence. - -In the 1400s many other artists in Italy were given the job of painting churches or chapels. They were paid by patrons, rich people who could afford an artist. The most important patron was the Pope. Pope Sixtus IV had built a new chapel in the Vatican in Rome. In 1481, he got some of the best artists in Italy to decorate the walls for him. See Sistine Chapel. - -In 1508 the work continued in the Sistine Chapel when Pope Julius II made the great artist Michelangelo go to Rome to paint the ceiling. It took him four years, and he became sick from the strain and the smell. But when he had finished, he had painted one of the greatest artworks in the world. Then, 1537-1541, he painted the west wall of the same chapel with The Last Judgement - -For the next 200 years, painted ceilings were in fashion. But artists soon discovered that it was easier to paint in oil on canvas and put it up on the ceiling than to paint on the ceiling in fresco. The fashion for fresco painting began to fade. - -References - Helen Gardner, Art Through the Ages, Harcourt, Brace and World Inc. - Ponnamperuma, Senani (2013). Story of Sigiriya. Melbourne: Panique Pty Ltd. ISBN 9780987345110. - -Other websites - Fresco School - Sigiriya Frescoes - -painting" -14205,52765,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon%20Valley,Silicon Valley,"Silicon Valley is the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in California in the United States. The term originally meant the innovators and manufacturers of silicon chip who worked here, but now means all the high-tech businesses in the area. Even though it's not truly a valley, it is a term for the high-tech sector generally. - -Silicon Valley includes the northern part of Santa Clara Valley and adjacent communities in the southern parts of the San Francisco Peninsula and East Bay. It reaches from Menlo Park (on the Peninsula) and the Fremont/Newark area in the East Bay down to San Jose. - -Currently, many locations in Silicon Valley are full of tourists. - -Origin of the term -The term Silicon Valley was coined by journalist Don Hoefler in 1971. He used it as the title of a series of articles ""Silicon Valley USA"" in a weekly trade newspaper Electronic News which started with the January 11, 1971 issue. Valley refers to the Santa Clara Valley, located at the southern end of San Francisco Bay, while Silicon refers to the high concentration of semiconductor and computer-related industries in the area. These and similar technology firms slowly replaced the orchards which gave the area its initial nickname, the Valley of Heart's Delight. - -History -The San Francisco Bay Area had long been a major site of U.S. Navy work, as well as the site of the Navy's large research airfield at Moffett Field. A number of technology firms had set up shop in the area around Moffett to serve the Navy. When the Navy moved most of its West Coast operations to San Diego, NASA took over portions of Moffett for aeronautics research. Many of the original companies stayed, while new ones moved in. The immediate area was soon filled with aerospace firms. - -However, there was almost no civilian ""high-tech"" industry in the area. Although there were a number of excellent schools in the area, graduating students almost always moved east or south (that is, to Los Angeles County) to find work. This was particularly annoying to Frederick Terman, a professor at Stanford University. He decided that a vast area of unused Stanford land was perfect for real estate development, and set up a program to encourage students to stay in the area by enabling them to easily find venture capital. One of the major success stories of the program was that it convinced two students to stay in the area, William Hewlett and David Packard. In 1939, they founded Hewlett-Packard in Packard's garage, which would go on to be one of the first ""high tech"" firms in the area that was not directly related to NASA or the U.S. Navy. - -Notable companies - -Thousands of high technology companies are headquartered in Silicon Valley; among those, the following are in the Fortune 1000: - -Adobe Systems -Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) -Agilent Technologies -Apple Inc. -Applied Materials -Cisco Systems -eBay -Electronic Arts -Facebook -Google -Hewlett-Packard (HP) -Intel -Intuit -Juniper Networks -Maxtor -Memorex (Brand of Imation) -National Semiconductor -Network Appliance -NVIDIA Corporation -Oracle Corporation -Sun Microsystems (acquired by Oracle Corporation) -Symantec -Xilinx -Yahoo! - -Additional notable companies headquartered (or with a significant presence) in Silicon Valley include (some defunct or subsumed): - -3Com (headquartered in Marlborough, Massachusetts) -Adaptec -Amdahl -Aricent -Atari -Atmel -Covansys -Cypress Semiconductor -Foundry Networks -Fujitsu (headquartered in Tokyo, Japan) -Hitachi Global Storage Technologies -Knight-Ridder (acquired by The McClatchy Company) -LSI Logic -McAfee -Netscape (acquired by AOL) -NeXT Computer, Inc. (acquired by Apple) -Palm, Inc. -PalmSource, Inc. (acquired by ACCESS) -PayPal (now part of eBay) -Rambus -Redback Networks -SanDisk -SAP AG -Silicon Graphics -Solectron -TiVo -VA Software (Slashdot) -VeriSign -Veritas Software (acquired by Symantec) -VMware (acquired by EMC) - -Befitting its heritage, Silicon Valley is home to the high-tech superstore chain Fry's Electronics. - -For a larger list of companies, see :Category:Companies based in Silicon Valley - -Universities -Carnegie Mellon University (West Coast Campus) -San José State University -Santa Clara University -Stanford University -National University (San José Campus) -DeVry University (Fremont Campus) - -Technically the following universities are not located in Silicon Valley, but have been instrumental as sources of research and new graduates: -University of California, Berkeley -California State University, East Bay -University of California, Davis -University of California, Santa Cruz -Monterey Institute of International Studies - Fisher Graduate School of International Business - -Cities -A number of cities are located in Silicon Valley (in alphabetical order): - -Cupertino -East Palo Alto -Fremont -Gilroy -Los Altos -Los Altos Hills -Los Gatos -Menlo Park -Morgan Hill -Mountain View -Milpitas -Palo Alto -Redwood City -San Jose -Santa Clara -Saratoga -Sunnyvale - -Cities sometimes associated with the region: -Newark -Pleasanton -Livermore -Scotts Valley -Santa Cruz -Union City - -Trivia -In the James Bond film A View to a Kill, villain Max Zorin plans to destroy Silicon Valley by detonating explosives between the Hayward Fault and San Andreas Fault, causing them to flood. He dubs the operation 'Main Strike' in order to gain complete control of the microchip market by selling his own and destroying the competition. - -Further reading -Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution by Steven Levy, Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday (1984) -Behind the Silicon Curtain: The Seductions of Work in a Lonely Era, Dennis Hayes, London: Free Association Books (1989) -Silicon Valley, Inc.: Ruminations on the Demise of a Unique Culture , The San Jose Mercury News (1997) -Cultures@Silicon Valley, J. A. English-Lueck, Stanford: Stanford University Press (2002) -The Silicon Valley of Dreams: Environmental Injustice, Immigrant Workers, and the High-Tech Global Economy, David Naguib Pellow and Lisa Sun-Hee Park, New York University Press (2003) -What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry, John Markoff, Viking (2005) -The Silicon Boys: And Their Valleys Of Dreams, David A. Kaplan, Harper Perinneal (April 2000), -Cities of knowledge: Cold War science and the search for the next Silicon Valley , Margaret Pugh O’Mara, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, (2005) - -References - -Other websites -California's Historic Silicon Valley -Reference about Don Hoefler -Website focused on Silicon Valley news, backed by the San Jose Mercury News -Silicon Valley 150 for beginning of 2004 as a PDF file -Silicon Valley Association of Startup Entrepreneurs -The Silicon Valley Cultures Project -Stanford Linear Accelerator center -Growth of a Silicon Empire by Henry Norr published at the end of 1999 in the San Francisco Chronicle -Douglas Engelbart -Red tile roofs in Bangalore: Stanford's look copied in Silicon Valley and beyond - -Business -San Francisco Bay Area" -13119,48103,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science%20fiction%20movie,Science fiction movie,"Science fiction films are movies which tell stories about the future, outer space, robots, or aliens. Science fiction movies often use special effects to show images of alien worlds or other planets far away. - -Science fiction movies are related to science fiction books. Some science fiction movies tell stories about strange or different ways of thinking or ways of living. Other science fiction movies tell stories about politics. - -Important science fiction films - A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la lune) was made by Georges Méliès in 1902. It was one of the first SF films. - Metropolis is a silent film about a society in the future. That society has two groups: rich thinkers and poor workers. Fritz Lang made the film in 1927. - 2001: A Space Odyssey is a film by Stanley Kubrick. The film shows ideas about human evolution and artificial intelligence. It was released in 1968. -Star Wars movies are amongst the highest grossing science fiction movies of all time. - -Science fiction movies and other genres -Some SF movies can also be another kind of movie, too. - Alien is also a horror movie. - The Road Warrior is both a science fiction movie and an action movie. - Men in Black is comedy and science fiction. - -References - - - -nl:Sciencefiction#Film en televisie" -11407,41406,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium,Germanium,"Germanium is a chemical element. Its chemical symbol is Ge. Its atomic number is 32. It was discovered by Clemens Winkler. It is a shiny, hard, silver-white metalloid. The chemistry of Germanium is quite like tin. Germanium forms many organometallic compounds. It is an important semiconductor material used in transistors. - -Semimetals" -14800,55785,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/That%20%2770s%20Show,That '70s Show,"That '70s Show is an American television series. It is about the lives of a group of teenagers living in Point Place, Wisconsin from May 17, 1976 to December 31, 1979. The series first started August 23, 1998 and its final episode aired May 18, 2006. - -The series continues to run in syndication on FX and the CW network in the United States and United Kingdom, CH in Canada, as well as the Seven Network in Australia and Star World in Asia, including Malaysia. It also runs on The NTV for teens. - -Cast - -1998 American television series debuts -2006 American television series endings -1990s American sitcoms -2000s American sitcoms -American teen television series -Fox television series -Television series set in Wisconsin -English-language television programs" -3991,12332,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini,Eswatini,"Eswatini is a country in Africa. It is officially the Kingdom of Eswatini (Umbuso weSwatini). It was called Swaziland until April 2018. - -Its capital is Mbabane. The country is named after the 19th-century king Mswati II. Eswatini was colonized by the British and the Boers at the end of the 19th century. - -Eswatini is a small country. It is no more than north to south and east to west. It is completely surrounded by land. Eswatini does not touch the sea. The two countries that touch it are Mozambique and South Africa. The country's two largest cities are the administrative capital Mbabane and the economic center Manzini. The seat of government is Lobamba. - -On 19 April 2018, the King of Eswatini Mswati III announced that the Kingdom of Swaziland had renamed itself the Kingdom of Eswatini. - -Health -Eswatini is strongly affected by HIV and AIDS. The 2012 CIA World Factbook showed Swaziland with the highest HIV infection rate in the world. Life expectancy is 50 years. - -Education -Education in Eswatini is free at primary level, mainly 1st and 2nd grades. It is also free for orphaned and vulnerable children. Children are not required to attend. In 1996, the primary school enrollment rate was 90.8%. Girls and boys both attended at the primary level. In 1998, 80.5% of children reached grade five. - -The University of Eswatini provides higher education. - -Demographics - -Most of Eswatini’s people are ethnically Swazi. There is also a small number of Zulu and white Africans, mostly people of British and Afrikaner descent. Eswatini also has some Portuguese settlers and African refugees from Mozambique. - -82.70% of the people are Christian. Christianity in Eswatini is sometimes mixed with traditional beliefs and practices. Some people think of the king as having a spiritual role. Eswatini also has a small Muslim minority. - -Swazi have been subsistence farmers and herders. They now mix such activities with work in the growing urban economy and in government. Some Swazi work in the mines in South Africa. - -SiSwati and English are the official languages. SiSwati has 2.5 million speakers and is taught in schools. It is also one of the official languages of South Africa. - -About 76,000 people in the country speak Zulu. Tsonga is spoken by about 19,000 people in Swaziland. Afrikaans is also spoken by some residents of Afrikaner descent. - -Districts -Eswatini is divided into four districts: - Hhohho - Lubombo - Manzini - Shiselweni - -Cities -The cities in Eswatini are: - -References - -Other websites - - Online Information about Swaziland - -1968 establishments in Africa -Current monarchies -English-speaking countries" -9788,33352,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvamitra,Vishvamitra,"Vishvamitra is the name of a rishi (sage) of ancient India. This is a Sanskrit word, and its translation is: ""universal friend, that is, a friend of everybody"". Vishvamitra wrote many verses of the Vedas, especially the Rig Veda and the Atharva Veda. - -The Hindu scriptures have many stories about Vishvamitra. One of them tell about the competition between another rishi named Vashistha. Both wanted to become priests of big royal families of ancient India. - -Related pages -Hindu mythology -Vashistha - -Hindu mythology" -19703,75460,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20the%20German%20Bundesrat,List of presidents of the German Bundesrat,"The President of the German Bundesrat () is the German Bundesrat's chairperson or speaker. - -The office rotates among the ministers president of each of the federal Länder annually. The new Bundesratspräsident is elected during October and takes office on 1 November. In 1950 the Ministers President of the Länder agreed to elect the Bundesratspräsident on a rota, so that every state had a chance to preside over the Bundesrat and to show that the Bundesrat represents all of Germany, rather than the most successful political party. - -The rota is based on the state's population. - -List - -Related pages - President of the German Bundesrat - -References - -Other websites - ""Präsidenten des Bundesrates seit 1949"" (in German) - Official Bundesrat website (English). - -Politics of Germany -Germany-related lists -Germany" -15576,59424,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse%20Hollow%20Wind%20Energy%20Center,Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center,"Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is a large wind farm with 735.5 megawatt (MW) capacity. It consists of 291 GE 1.5 MW wind turbines and 130 Siemens 2.3 MW wind turbines spread over nearly 47,000 acres (190 km²) of land in Taylor and Nolan County, Texas. - -The first phase of the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center consisted of 213 MW and was completed in late 2005; phase two consisted of 223.5 MW and was completed in the second quarter of 2006; phase three which consisted of 299 MW, was completed by the end of 2006. - -Related pages -Wind power -List of large wind farms - -References - -Other websites -Jury Sides With Horse Hollow Wind Farm - -Wind farms in Texas" -13379,49094,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel%20Svoboda,Karel Svoboda,"Karel Svoboda (19 December 1938 – 28 January 2007) was a Czech composer of popular music. He wrote music for many TV series in the 1970s. - -Works - -Karel Svoboda was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia (now Prague, Czech Republic) and began his career as a pop composer after stopping studying medicine in his third year of university. He became a member of the rock band ""Mefisto"" in the 1950s. Later, he composed music for the Laterna Magica theatre in Prague and for many Czech singers. In 1969 he wrote Lady Carneval for Karel Gott, a major Czech pop star. Svoboda wrote a total of 80 songs for him. - -Svoboda composed TV scores for the German channel ZDF for over 30 years. He wrote the scores to many TV series in the 1970s that a whole generation of Europeans grew up with. Some examples of these TV series are Vicky the Viking, Maya the Bee and The Wonderful Adventures of Nils. - -Svoboda wrote scores for almost 90 films and TV series. - -Svoboda was found fatally shot in the garden of his villa at Jevany on January 28, 2007. It is believed that he committed suicide. - -References - -Other websites - - Maya the Bee mp3 sample. - Vicky the Viking in mp3 - Karel Svoboda website - -1938 births -2007 deaths -Czech composers -Movie score composers -Musicians from Prague -Suicides by firearm" -796,3468,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia,Slovenia,"Slovenia is a country in Southern Europe. The capital and largest city of Slovenia is Ljubljana. Its major language is Slovenian. Its current population is about 2.0 million. Slovenia's leading exports are manufactured goods and aluminium. It is a parliamentary republic It is a member of the European Union and NATO. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented. - -History -A very long time ago, Illyrian and Celtics tribes lived in Slovenia. In the 1st century BC, Slovenia was ruled by the Romans. In the sixth century AD, Slavs lived there. Slovenia was ruled by Austria from 1335 until 1918. In 1918 it became a part of Yugoslavia. During World War II, Italy, Hungary and Germany took parts of the country but in 1945 it became part of Yugoslavia again. - -In June 1991, following a 10-day war, Slovenia became an independent country. - -Currently it is considered the most advanced country from what is called ""Ex-Yugoslavia."" It is also a member of the European Union. - -Notable people - France Prešeren (1800-1849) is a very famous poet in his country. - Melania Trump, Former First Lady of the United States - -Related pages - List of rivers of Slovenia - Slovenia at the Olympics - Slovenia national football team - -References - -Notes - -Other websites - - Slovenia.si. Your gateway to information on Slovenia. - Government of the Republic of Slovenia - Slovenia Official Tourist Guide - - -European Union member states" -11503,41815,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis%20%28linear%20algebra%29,Basis (linear algebra),"In linear algebra, a basis is a set of vectors in a given vector space with certain properties: - - One can get any vector in the vector space by multiplying each of the basis vectors by different numbers, and then adding them up. - If any vector is removed from the basis, the property above is no longer satisfied. - -The dimension of a given vector space is the number of elements of the basis. - -Example -If is the vector space then: - - is a basis of . - -It's easy to see that for any element of it can be represented as a combination of the above basis. -Let be any element of and let . - -Since and are elements of then they can be written as and so on. - -Then the combination equals the element . - -This shows that the set is a basis of . - -Linear algebra" -24067,92856,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinwil%2C%20Solothurn,"Beinwil, Solothurn","Beinwil is a municipality in the district Thierstein in Canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -5143,16413,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Secret%20of%20NIMH,The Secret of NIMH,"The Secret of NIMH is an animated movie directed by Don Bluth and released by his studio United Artists in 1982. The movie was based on Robert C. O'Brien's children's book Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH. (The main character's name was changed to ""Brisby"", so that its audiences would not take its sound for the Frisbee toy.) Bluth began the idea of creating this movie after disagreement with Disney over The Fox and the Hound. Before that he worked with the previous Disney animated movie which was also about mice: The Rescuers. Later he made another animated movie about mice called An American Tail, which came out in 1986. - -The story -A widow mouse lives with her children (Martin, Teresa, Cynthia and Timothy). On her journey, she meets a comic, love-seeking crow, a group of rats and the National Institute of Mental Health. After the deaths of the enemy leader and magician, a magical amulet manipulates and restores a house shaped stone block from drowning in the mud. Bluth and Gold­man's next film, All Dogs Go to Heaven, also used digital coloring via CAPS. - -Cast - Elizabeth Hartman as Mrs. Brisby* - John Carradine as Great Owl - Dom DeLuise as Jeremy - Derek Jacobi as Nicodemus - Arthur Malet as Mr. Ages - Hermione Baddeley as Auntie Shrew - Peter Strauss as Justin - Paul Shenar as Jenner - Aldo Ray as Sullivan - Shannen Doherty as Teresa Brisby - Danica McKellar as Cynthia Brisby - Wil Wheaton as Martin Brisby - Ian Fried as Timothy ""Timmy"" Brisby - Tom Hatten as Farmer Paul Fitzgibbons - Lucille Bliss as Mrs. Beth Fitzgibbons - Joey Lawrence as Billy Fitzgibbons - Edie McClurg as Miss Right - Nipsey Russell as Councilman 1 - Dick Kleiner as Councilman 2 - Charles Champlin as Councilman 3 - -* It was Hartman's final movie. - -Reception -In spite of its critical success, this movie had a mediocre run at the box office, mostly because of a much bigger rival, Steven Spielberg's E. T. (Ironically, Spielberg saw the Bluth movie and asked its director to work on An American Tail.) - -Many fans and critics have called NIMH Don Bluth's most important work and magnum opus and masterpiece. Even though this movie was not a big box office success, An American Tail and 1997's Anastasia became his most successful works in later years. The next day, however, Bluth approved of the idea for possible development, along with Rock-a-Doodle. - -Sequel - -In 1998, MGM released a direct-to-video sequel called The Secret of NIMH 2: Timmy to the Rescue. In the sequel, Timothy goes to a place called Thorn Valley because he wants to become a hero like his father. His brother Martin has turned evil (although he does not want to), and Timothy must fight him in order to save the Rats of NIMH. At Thorn Valley Timothy learns from a young girl mouse that the mice who were thought to have been killed during the escape from NIMH are still alive, so he and the rats try to rescue them. - -The sequel was hated by the fans of the first movie and the movie critics because of its clichéd and familiar storyline, and because many people thought that the magic of Don Bluth's dark and original NIHM was destroyed by the sequel, because MGM toned down the darkness of the story. - -Other websites - - - - - The Secret of NIMH Archive - -1982 movies -American animated movies -English-language movies -American family movies -Movies based on books -Movies about animals -Movies directed by Don Bluth -American independent movies" -12366,45651,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelter,Shelter,"A shelter is a place where someone or something is put in or goes to be kept safe or hidden. It can also be any place where people live that ""shelters"" (protects) them from any danger such as the weather. - -There are different kinds of shelters and they are for used for different reasons. -Picnic Shelters -Women's Shelters -Men's Shelter -Animal Shelters -Homeless shelter -Political Shelters -Religious Shelters -Shelters from War. -Shelters from disasters or emergencies. - -Currently, Women's Shelters are found around the United States, United Kingdom, and many other First World countries. In these places, women are there to hide or are running away from abusive or dangerous situations. In these shelters, they are given food and a place to stay for an amount of time (usually 1-3 months at a time). They are put into a support group and given a temporary counselor. There is a high success rate in this type of place. - -Sociology -Buildings and structures" -4872,15423,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1462,1462,"Year 1462 (MCDLXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. - -Events - March 27 – Vasili II of Russia dies. He is succeeded by his son Ivan III of Russia. - July 1 – Battle of Seckenheim - - June 27 – Louis XII of France" -15675,59977,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity,Objectivity,"Objectivity can mean: - - Objectivity (philosophy) - Objectivity (journalism) - Objectivity (science) - Objectivity in historiography - -Related pages - New Objectivity, German art movement" -3033,9532,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%2016,March 16," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem and replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as King. - 455 - Roman Emperor Valentinian III is assassinated by two Hunnic retainers while training with the bow on the Campus Martinus in Rome. - 1190 – Crusaders start to massacre the Jews of York. - 1244 - Over 200 Cathars are burned after the fall of Montségur. - 1521 – Ferdinand Magellan reaches the Philippines. - 1621 – Samoset, a Mohegan, visits the settlers of Plymouth Colony and greets them, ""Welcome, Englishmen! My name is Samoset."" - 1660 – The Long Parliament disbands. - 1782 - American Revolutionary War: Spanish troops capture the British island of Roatan. - 1792 – King Gustav III of Sweden is shot; he dies on March 29. - 1802 – The United States Military Academy West Point is established. - 1815 – Prince Willem of the House of Orange-Nassau proclaimed himself King of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the first constitutional monarch in the Netherlands. - 1818 - Second Battle of Cancha Rayada: Spanish forces defeat Chileans under Jose de San Martin. - 1850 – Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter is first published. - 1861 – Edward Clark becomes Governor of Texas, replacing Sam Houston, who was evicted from the office for refusing to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy. - 1864 - American Civil War: During the Red River Campaign, Union troops reach Alexandria, Louisiana. - 1865 - American Civil War: The Battle of Avenasborough begins, with Confederate forces suffering heavy losses. - 1867 – First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, in The Lancet. - 1872 – The Wanderers F.C. won the first FA Cup, the oldest football competition in the world, beating Royal Engineers A.F.C. 1-0 at The Oval in Kennington, London. - 1898 - The Italian Football Federation is founded. - 1900 – Sir Arthur Evans purchases the land around the ruins of Knossos, the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete. - -1901 1950 - 1906 – A magnitude 7.1 earthquake hits Chiayi, Taiwan, killing around 1,300 people. - 1912 - Lawrence Oates, a member of Robert Falcon Scott's ill-fated South Pole expedition, because of illness leaves the tent to die, a day before his 32nd birthday. His last words were ""I am just going outside and may be some time"". - 1916 - The 7th and 10th Cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the US-Mexico border in a bid to capture Pancho Villa. - 1916 - Antonio Jose de Almeida becomes Prime Minister of Portugal. - 1924 - In accordance with the Treaty of Rome, the Free State of Fiume is annexed as part of Italy. - 1925 – A magnitude 7.1 earthquake hits Yunnan, China, killing around 5,000 people. - 1926 – Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket, at Auburn, Massachusetts. - 1935 – Adolf Hitler orders Germany to rearm herself in violation of the Versailles Treaty. - 1936 - Warmer-than-normal temperatures rapidly melt snow and ice on the upper Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers, flooding Pittsburgh. - 1939 - At Prague Castle, Adolf Hitler declares Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. - 1939 - Marriage of Princess Fawzia Fuad of Egypt and Mohammed Reza Pahlavi of Iran. - 1940 - World War II: A German bombing raid is carried out on Scapa Flow, Orkney. - 1942 - The first V-2 rocket is test-launched - it explodes after lift-off. - 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Iwo Jima ends but small pockets of Japanese resistance persist. - 1945 – World War II: Würzburg, Germany is 90% destroyed, with 5,000 dead, in only 20 minutes by British bombers. - -1951 2000 - 1956 – St. Urho's Day is first celebrated. - 1958 - The Ford Motor Company produces its 50 millionth automobile, the Thunderbird. - 1962 – A Flying Tiger Line Super Constellation disappears in the western Pacific Ocean, with 107 people missing. - 1966 - Launch of Gemini 8, the 12th manned American space flight, with Neil Armstrong and David Scott on board. - 1968 – Vietnam War: In the My Lai massacre, between 350 and 500 Vietnamese villagers—men, women, and children—are killed by American troops. - 1968 - General Motors produces its 100 millionth automobile, an Oldsmobile Toronado. - 1969 – A Venezuelan Airlines DC-9 crashes shortly after takeoff in Maracaibo, Venezuela killing 155 - 1972 – The first building of the Pruitt-Igoe housing complex is demolished. - 1976 - Harold Wilson resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom five days after his 60th birthday, citing personal reasons. James Callaghan replaces him. - 1977 - Assassination of Kamal Jumblatt, the main leader of the anti-government forces in the Lebanese Civil War. - 1978 – Aldo Moro is kidnapped by left-wing urban guerrillas in Italy and is later killed by his captors. - 1978 – The Amoco Cadiz oil tanker runs aground off Brittany, leading to an oil spill. - 1983 – Demolition of the radio tower Ismaning, the last radio tower in Germany built of wood. - 1984 – William Buckley, the CIA station chief in Beirut, Lebanon, is kidnapped by Islamic fundamentalists and later dies in captivity. - 1985 – Associated Press newsman Terry Anderson is taken hostage in Beirut. He would be released on December 4, 1991. - 1988 – Iran-Contra Affair: Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North and Vice Admiral John Poindexter are indicted on charges of conspiracy to defraud the United States. - 1988 – Halabja poison gas attack: The Kurdish town of Halabjah in Iraq was attacked with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents, killing thousands of people. - 1989 - In Egypt, a 4,400-year-old mummy is found near the Pyramid of Cheops. - 1993 – A blizzard on the east coast of the United States kills 184 (see Great Blizzard of 1993). - 1994 – Tonya Harding pleads guilty to conspiracy to hinder prosecution for trying to cover-up an attack on figure skating rival Nancy Kerrigan. - 1995 - Mississippi formally ratifies the 13th Amendment, becoming the last US State to approve a ban on slavery. - 1996 - Mike Tyson defeats Frank Bruno in Las Vegas to win the Boxing World Heavyweight title. - 1997 – Stuart Appleby wins the Honda Golf Classic. - -From 2001 - 2002 – Closing ceremonies of the Winter Paralympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. - 2003 – Largest coordinated worldwide vigil, as part of the global protests against Iraq war. - 2005 - Israel officially hands over Jericho to Palestinian control. - 2006 – Release date of the computer role-playing game Final Fantasy XII in Japan. - 2010 – The Kasubi Tombs in Uganda, which formed a World Heritage Site, are destroyed by fire. - 2014 - Closing ceremony of the Winter Paralympics in Sochi, Southern Russia. - 2014 - A referendum held in Crimea results in a majority wanting to join Russia rather than stay part of Ukraine. - -Births - -Up to 1800 - 1399 - Xuande Emperor of China (d. 1435) - 1465 - Kunigunde of Austria (d. 1520) - 1473 - Henry IV the Pious, Duke of Saxony (d. 1541) - 1581 - Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch poet, historian and dramatist (d. 1647) - 1663 - Jean-Baptiste Matho, French composer (d. 1743) - 1687 – Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (d. 1757) - 1750 – Caroline Herschel, German-English astronomer (d. 1848) - 1751 – James Madison, 4th President of the United States (d. 1836) - 1771 - Antoine-Jean Gros, French painter (d. 1835) - 1773 - Juan Ramon Balcarce, Argentine military leader and politician (d. 1836) - 1774 – Matthew Flinders, English explorer (d. 1814) - 1789 – Georg Simon Ohm, German physicist (d. 1854) - 1789 - Francis Chesney, English general and explorer (d. 1872) - 1799 – Anna Atkins, British botanist and illustrator (d. 1871) - 1800 – Emperor Ninko of Japan (d. 1846) - -1801 1900 - 1805 - Peter Ernst von Lasaulx, German philosopher and writer (d. 1861) - 1821 - Eduard Heine, German mathematician (d. 1851) - 1822 – Rosa Bonheur, French painter and sculptor (d. 1899) - 1827 - Ferdinand Meldahl, Danish architect (d. 1908) - 1834 - James Hector, Scottish geologist (d. 1907) - 1836 - Andrew Smith Hallidie, English-American engineer and inventor (d. 1900) - 1839 – Sully Prudhomme, French writer (d. 1907) - 1839 - John Butler Yeats, Irish artist (d. 1922) - 1840 - Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (d. 1931) - 1845 - Umegatani Totaro I, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1928) - 1846 - Jurgis Bielinis, Lithuanian book smuggler (d. 1918) - 1846 - Gosta Mittag-Leffler, Swedish mathematician (d. 1927) - 1848 - Axel Heiberg, Norwegian diplomat and financier (d. 1932) - 1851 - Martinus Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist (d. 1931) - 1856 - Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III of France (d. 1879) - 1859 – Alexander Stepanovich Popov, Russian physicist (d. 1907) - 1865 - Aspazija, Latvian poet and playwright (d. 1943) - 1871 - Frantz Reichel, French athlete and rugby player (d. 1932) - 1877 - Leo-Ernest Ouimet, Canadian movie pioneer (d. 1972) - 1877 – Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran (d. 1944) - 1878 – Clemens August Graf von Galen, German bishop and Resistance activist (d. 1946) - 1883 - Ethel Anderson, Australian poet (d. 1958) - 1884 - Alexander Belyayev, Russian writer (d. 1942) - 1885 - Giacomo Benvenuti, Italian composer and musicologist (d. 1943) - 1887 - Emilio Lunghi, Italian middle-distance runner (d. 1925) - 1889 - Reggie Walker, South African athlete (d. 1951) - 1890 - Solomon Mikhoels, Soviet actor (d. 1948) - 1892 - Nikolai Kondratiev, Russian economist (d. 1938) - 1892 – César Vallejo, Peruvian poet (d. 1938) - 1897 – Conrad Nagel, American actor (d. 1970) - -1901 1925 - 1902 - Leon Roppolo, American jazz clarinettist (d. 1943) - 1905 - Elisabeth Hickenschildt, German actress, producer and author (d. 1977) - 1906 – Francisco Ayala, Spanish writer (d. 2009) - 1908 - Rene Daumal, French writer and poet (d. 1944) - 1908 - Robert Rossen, American screenwriter, movie director and producer (d. 1966) - 1911 – Pierre Harmel, 40th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2009) - 1911 – Josef Mengele, Nazi war criminal (d. 1979) - 1912 – Pat Nixon, First Lady of the United States (d. 1993) - 1915 - Haldun Taner, Turkish playwright and short story writer (d. 1986) - 1915 – Kunihiko Kodaira, Japanese mathematician (d. 1997) - 1916 – Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese survivor of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs (d. 2010) - 1918 – Frederick Reines, American physicist (d. 1998) - 1918 - Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004) - 1920 – Tonino Guerra, Italian poet, writer and screenwriter (d. 2012) - 1920 - John Addison, British composer (d. 1998) - 1920 - Sid Fleischman, American writer (d. 2010) - 1920 – Traudl Junge, Adolf Hitler's press secretary (d. 2002) - 1921 - Werner Uebelmann, Swiss entrepreneur (d. 2014) - 1923 – Sergiu Cunescu, Romanian politician (d. 2005) - 1925 – Luis E. Miramontes, Mexican chemist (d. 2004) - 1925 - Cornell Borchers, German actress (d. 2014) - -1926 1950 - 1926 – Jerry Lewis, American comedian (d. 2017) - 1926 - Charles Goodell, United States Senator for New York (d. 1987) - 1927 - Vladimir Komarov, Soviet-Russian cosmonaut (d. 1967) - 1927 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, American politician (d. 2003) - 1927 - Joseph W. Tkach, American pastor (d. 1995) - 1928 - Christa Ludwig, German mezzo-soprano - 1928 – Karlheinz Böhm, Austrian actor (d. 2014) - 1928 - Wakanohana Kanji I, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 2010) - 1929 - Betty Johnson, American singer - 1929 - Tihomir Novakov, Serbian-American physicist (d. 2015) - 1929 - Nadja Tiller, Austrian actress - 1930 - Tommy Flanagan, American jazz pianist (d. 2001) - 1931 – Augusto Boal, Brazilian theatre director (d. 2009) - 1931 - Anthony Kenny, English philosopher - 1932 - Kurt Diemberger, Austrian mountaineer - 1932 – Walter Cunningham, American astronaut - 1933 - Jos Chabert, Belgian politician (d. 2014) - 1934 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Governor General of Canada (d. 2002) - 1934 - Ray Walker, American singer - 1935 - Teresa Berganza, Spanish opera singer - 1936 – Raymond Vahan Damadian, Armenian-American practitioner of MRI - 1936 - Elisabeth Volkmann, German actress (d. 2006) - 1937 - Attilio Nicora, Italian cardinal (d. 2017) - 1939 – Carlos Bilardo, Argentine footballer - 1940 – Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian movie director (d. 2018) - 1941 – Robert Guéï, military leader of Ivory Coast (d. 2002) - 1942 - Roger Crozier, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1996) - 1944 - John Kipkurgat, Kenyan middle-distance runner - 1944 - Andrew S. Tanenbaum, American computer scientist - 1946 - Michael Basman, English chess player - 1948 – Richard Desjardins, Canadian singer, songwriter and movie director - 1948 - Margaret Weis, American writer - 1949 - Erik Estrada, American actor - 1949 - Victor Garber, Canadian actor - 1950 – Joe Bugner, Hungarian-born boxer - -1951 1975 - 1952 - Philippe Kahn, French technology innovator and entrepreneur - 1952 - Irwin Keyes, American actor and comedian (d. 2015) - 1953 – Richard Stallman, American free software activist - 1953 - Oscar Ramirez, Peruvian revolutionary leader - 1954 – Jimmy Nail, British actor and singer - 1955 - Bruno Barreto, Brazilian movie director - 1955 - Svetlana Alexeeva, Russian ice dancer and coach - 1956 - Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, Swiss politician - 1956 - Ozzie Newsome, American football player and coach - 1956 - Clifton Powell, American actor and comedian - 1958 - Phillip Wilcher, Australian pianist - 1959 – Jens Stoltenberg, former Prime Minister of Norway and current Secretary-General of NATO - 1959 - Flavor Flav, American rapper - 1960 – Jenny Eclair, British comedienne - 1960 - Duane Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player - 1960 - John Hemming, British politician - 1961 - Todd McFarlane, Canadian artist, cartoonist and entrepreneur - 1961 - Michiru Oshima, Japanese composer - 1963 - Jimmy DeGrasso, American musician - 1964 - Patty Griffin, American singer - 1965 - Mark Carney, Canadian economist, Governor of the Bank of England - 1965 - Belén Rueda, Spanish actress - 1967 – Lauren Graham, American actress - 1967 - John Darnielle, American musician and novelist - 1969 – Markus Lanz, German-Italian television presenter and entertainer - 1970 – Joakim Berg, Swedish composer - 1970 – Pall Oskar, Icelandic singer and musician - 1975 - Sienna Guillory, English actress - -From 1976 - 1976 - Paul Schneider, American actor and director - 1977 - Steve Jones, Welsh television presenter - 1978 - Brooke Burns, American actress and model - 1979 – Leena Peisa, Finnish musician (Lordi) - 1979 - Andrei Stepanov, Estonian footballer - 1979 – Edison Mendez, Ecuadorean footballer - 1980 - Todd Heap, American football player - 1980 - Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player - 1981 – Yoav Ziv, Israeli footballer - 1984 – Wilfried Sanou, Burkina Faso footballer - 1984 - Brandon Prust, Canadian ice hockey player - 1986 - Daisuke Takahashi, Japanese figure skater - 1986 – Ken Doane, American wrestler - 1986 - Neil Gray, Scottish politician - 1986 – Bernard Parker, South African footballer - 1987 - Tiiu Kuik, Estonian model - 1988 - Jessica Gregg, Canadian short-track speed skater - 1988 - Patrick Herrmann, German footballer - 1989 – Theo Walcott, English footballer - 1989 – Blake Griffin, American basketball player - 1990 – James Bulger, English toddler whose killing led to a high profile murder case (d. 1993) - 1991 – Wolfgang Van Halen, American musician - 1992 - Brett Davern, American actor - 1993 - George Ford, English rugby union player - 1995 - Shy Carlos, Filipino-Swiss actress and singer - 1999 - Bailie Key, American gymnast - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 37 – Tiberius, Roman Emperor (b. 42 BC) - 455 – Valentinian III, West Roman Emperor (b. 419) - 455 - Heraclius, Roman servant - 1021 - Heribert of Cologne, Archbishop of Cologne and Chancellor of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor - 1037 - Robert I, Archbishop of Rouen - 1072 - Adalbert of Hamburg, German archbishop - 1457 – Laszlo Hunyadi, Hungarian statesman and warrior (b. 1433) - 1485 – Anne Neville, Queen of Richard III of England (b. 1456) - 1679 - John Leverett, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1616) - 1736 - Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Italian composer (b. 1710) - 1737 - Benjamin Wadsworth, President of Harvard University (b. 1670) - 1747 - Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (b. 1690) - 1861 – Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, mother of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (b. 1786) - 1888 - Hippolyte Carnot, French statesman (b. 1801) - 1890 – Zorka of Montenegro, Princess of Serbia (b. 1864) - 1898 – Aubrey Beardsley, British artist (b. 1872) - 1899 - Joseph Medill, Mayor of Chicago (b. 1823) - -1901 2000 - 1903 – Roy Bean, American jurist (b. 1825) - 1912 – Lawrence Oates, English Antarctic explorer (b. 1880) - 1914 – Charles Albert Gorbat, Swiss politician (b. 1843) - 1919 – Yakov Sverdlov, Russian politician (b. 1885) - 1926 - Sergeant Stubby, American World War I dog (b. 1916 or 1917) - 1930 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, Spanish military leader (b. 1870) - 1935 – Aron Nimzowitsch, Latvian chess player (b. 1886) - 1935 – John James Rickard Macleod, Scottish physiologist, won the 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, (b. 1876) - 1936 – Marguerite Durand, French journalist and feminist (b. 1864) - 1940 – Selma Lagerlof, Swedish writer (b. 1858) - 1945 - Simeon Price, American golfer (b. 1882) - 1957 – Constantin Brancusi, Romanian sculptor (b. 1876) - 1961 - Chen Geng, Chinese military leader (b. 1903) - 1963 – William Henry Beveridge, British economist (b. 1879) - 1968 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (b. 1895) - 1968 - Gunnar Ekelof, Swedish writer (b. 1858) - 1970 - Tammi Terrell, American singer (b. 1945) - 1971 – Thomas E. Dewey, American politician, 1948 Presidential candidate (b. 1902) - 1975 – T-Bone Walker, American musician (b. 1910) - 1977 - Kamal Jumblatt, leader of anti-government forces during the Lebanese Civil War (b. 1917) - 1979 – Jean Monnet, French entrepreneur and politician (b. 1888) - 1980 – Tamara de Lempicka, Polish-born painter (b. 1898) - 1985 - Eddie Shore, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1902) - 1985 - Roger Sessions, American composer (b. 1896) - 1992 - Yves Rocard, French physicist (b. 1903) - 1995 – Heinrich Sutermeister, Swiss composer (b. 1910) - 1998 – Derek Harold Richard Barton, British chemist (b. 1918) - 2000 - Thomas Ferebee, Hiroshima bomber (b. 1918) - -From 2001 - 2003 – Rachel Corrie, American activist (b. 1979) - 2005 – Sergiu Cunescu, Romanian politician (b. 1923) - 2008 – Ola Brunkert, Swedish drummer (b. 1946) - 2008 – Gary Hart, American professional wrestler and Wrestling manager (b. 1942) - 2012 – Mervyn Davies, Welsh rugby player (b. 1946) - 2012 – Estanislao Basora, Spanish footballer (b. 1926) - 2013 - Booth Gardner, 19th Governor of Washington (b. 1936) - 2013 - Jose Alfredo Martinez de Hoz, Argentine economist (b. 1925) - 2013 - Marina Solodkin, Israeli politician (b. 1952) - 2013 - Frank Thornton, English actor (b. 1921) - 2014 - Gary Bettenhausen, American racing driver (b. 1941) - 2014 - Donald Crothers, American academic and educator (b. 1937) - 2014 - Alexander Pochinok, Russian economist and politician (b. 1958) - 2015 - Bruce Crump, American musician (b. 1957) - 2015 - Buddy Elias, Swiss actor (b. 1925) - 2015 - Andy Fraser, British musician (b. 1962) - 2015 - Arthur A. Hartman, American diplomat (b. 1926) - 2015 - Jack Haley, American basketball player (b. 1964) - 2015 - Miguel Donoso Pareja, Ecuadorean writer (b. 1931) - 2016 - Alexander Esenin-Volpin, Soviet-born American poet and mathematician (b. 1924) - 2016 - Frank Sinatra, Jr., American singer (b. 1944) - 2016 - Cliff Michelmore, English broadcaster (b. 1919) - 2017 - James Cotton, American musician (b. 1935) - 2017 - Torgny Lindgren, Swedish writer (b. 1938) - 2017 - Hasyim Muzadi, Indonesian Islamic scholar and cleric (b. 1944) - 2018 - Boyukagha Hajiyev, Azerbaijani footballer (b. 1958) - 2018 - Arnie Lerma, American writer and Scientology whistleblower (b. 1950) - 2018 - Louise Slaughter, American politician (b. 1929) - 2019 - Dick Dale, American guitarist and surf music pioneer (b. 1937) - 2019 - Richard Erdman, American actor (b. 1925) - 2019 - Bengt Gustafsson, Swedish military officer (b. 1933) - 2019 - Barbara Hammer, American film director (b. 1939) - 2019 - Tom Hatten, American actor and television presenter (b. 1926) - 2019 - Yann-Fañch Kemener, French singer (b. 1957) - 2019 - Yulia Nachalova, Russian singer, actress and television presenter (b. 1981) - -Observances - St. Urho's Day (Finnish Communities in Canada and the US) - Latvian Legion Day - Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania) - -Days of the year" -20594,79180,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six%20Flags%20Great%20Adventure,Six Flags Great Adventure,"Six Flags Great Adventure is a theme park in Jackson Township, New Jersey, United States. It opened on July 4, 1974. The park complex also contains the Hurricane Harbor water park. - -In 2012, Six Flags combined Great Adventure Park with the Wild Safari Area to form a single 475-acre theme park. As of 2018, the park contained 12 roller coasters. Three are world-class rides: El Toro, Kingda Ka and Nitro. Kingda Ka, with a top speed of 128 mph feels like taking off from an aircraft carrier. At 458 feet tall guests say on a clear day you can see both the Philadelphia and New York City skylines. Nitro, another fast roller coaster, offers a panoramic view of the New Jersey countryside. El Toro is one of the tallest wooden roller coasters at 181 feet. The park includes a Safari Off-Road Adventure that has over 1,200 animals. It is the largest drive-through safari park in North America. - -There are three areas just for children. The Hurricane Harbor water park takes up 45 acres by itself. Between the three areas there are over 200 rides and attractions. Six Flags Great Adventure is open between spring break and late October. - -History -Located halfway between New York City and Philadelphia, the park opened in 1974. At first it was called The Enchanted Forest. In 1976 it was renamed Great Adventure. Six Flags bought it in 1977. - -Accidents -On August 17, 1981 a park employee fell to his death during a routine test of Rolling Thunder. The investigation concluded he may not have used the safety bar. On May 11, 1984 the Haunted Castle caught fire. Eight teenagers were caught inside and died. In 1987 a woman fell to her death from the Lightnin' Loops roller coaster. Officials said she did not have her shoulder safety harness on. She was 19 years old. There have been no serious accidents since 2003 at Great Adventure. - -Attractions timeline - -References - -Other websites - Six Flags Great Adventure Official Website - - Gadv.com Great Adventure Online - GreatAdventureHistory.com - - -1974 establishments in the United States -Theme parks in the United States -1970s establishments in New Jersey" -10364,36488,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody,Antibody,"Antibodies (also called immunoglobulins) are large Y-shaped proteins that can stick to the surface of bacteria and viruses. They are found in the blood or other body fluids of vertebrates. Antibodies are the key element in the adaptive immune system. - -The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target called an antigen. Each tip of the ""Y"" of an antibody contains a structure (like a lock) that fits one particular key-like structure on an antigen. This binds the two structures together. - -Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize its target directly. The production of antibodies is the main function of humoral immunity. - -Each antibody is different. They are all designed to attack only one kind of antigen (in practice, this means virus or bacteria). For instance, an antibody designed to destroy smallpox is unable to hit the bubonic plague or the common cold. - -Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, that small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable. This allows millions of antibodies with different tip structures to exist. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen. This enormous diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens. - -Immunoglobulin diversity - -Basic issue -Although a huge variety of different antibodies is made in a single individual, the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the genome. - -There are a vast number of microbe strains, and so vertebrates need millions of different antibodies. Actually, humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies, each capable of binding a distinct antigen site. This must be done with a very much smaller number of genes: the total human genome has only about 20,000 genes. - -Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved. These allow vertebrate B cells to generate a huge pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes. The full details are not presented here, just a summary. - -The variety of antibodies is got by combining segments from a pool of genes in many different ways. Then, hyper-mutations occur in the binding site area of the antibody gene. This creates further diversity. - -Heavy chains -Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily; the terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably. Antibodies are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. Five different antibody isotypes are known in mammals. They help direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. - -Variable tips -Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures, or antigen binding sites, to exist. This region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen. This enormous diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens. The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or paratopes), followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene, which create further diversity. Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class switching, which allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune system. - -Other websites -Animated depictions of how antibodies are used in ELISA and ELISPOT assays - -References - -Cell biology -Immunology" -17340,65750,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy%20server,Proxy server,"In computer networks, a proxy server is a server (computer) which clients (people or computers) use to access other computers. A proxy server that passes information to its clients without changing it is usually called a gateway or sometimes called tunneling proxy. - -Proxy servers get their name because they act like a proxy (a stand-in) and act on behalf of a Client's computer. - -A client that connects to the proxy server will ask for some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, that is available on a different server. The proxy server then goes to the other server and asks for what the client wants for them. - -A proxy server can change the information that it gives to the client, and if the same information is accessed many times or by many different clients it can use what is called a cache to make things faster. A cache is the term for information that has been accessed and saved for future use; if a proxy server has what the client is accessing in its cache, it will make it faster because it does not need to go and access the other server to provide what the client wants. - -A proxy server can be placed anywhere in the connection between the client and the server, which could include software on the client computer itself or on any computer between. - -Some proxy servers use Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) to secure the connection between the client and the remote server. This security layer helps to make sure that no other computers can read or understand what the client is asking from the server. - -Benefits of proxy servers -There are many benefits of using a proxy server. First, the client machine can exchange data with the remote server without making a direct connection. This way, the client's real internet address will not be known to the remote server. This is sometimes called anonymitizing because it makes the client anonymous. -A second advantage is that when the proxy server itself is able to serve the request made by the client, it will not contact the remote server any more. So the load on the remote server will be reduced by using a proxy server. This type of proxy servers are called caching servers. - -Big organizations (or even countries) sometimes use proxy servers to control access to the Internet. A large bank may use a proxy server that only allows connections to other websites relevant to banking. The proxy server might however block access to Websites offering free email or serving pornographic material. It might also block access to file sharing applications. Limiting access to specific content on the internet is also called internet filtering. - -Types and functions -A proxy server may have one or more of the functions described below: - -Caching proxy server -A caching proxy server can service requests from clients, without contacting the remote server; instead, it sends the data which it has stored from a previous request. This is called caching. - -Caching proxy servers reduce the work load of the remote server. However, they have their own problems, especially if they are not configured well. Some problems are described in RFC 3143. - -Web proxy -A web proxy is a proxy server that focuses on the traffic over the World Wide Web. It may be used to block offensive web content, or to control access of clients to online content. They may be used by corporations or countries. - -Web proxies can also be used to track how different individuals have used internet access. - -Anonymizing proxy server -An anonymizing proxy server removes identifying information from the clients' requests, for the purpose of anonymity. They may also be used to break through filtered contents on the internet. - -Open proxy -A proxy server is called an open proxy if everyone can connect to it and use it. Usually, open proxies are proxy servers which are badly configured. Open proxies may be abused easily; for example, a bad user may send a corrupting request to a remote server, but hide himself behind an open proxy, so the administrators of the remote server cannot stop him. Open proxies can also be used for spamming. For this reason, some websites do not allow connections to their web servers or to edit content on them through known open proxies, including on Wikipedia. - -Forced proxy -A forced proxy server is a proxy server which handles all of the traffic from the client to the internet. The client will not know that the proxy exists, but all of the information passes through the proxy server. They are sometimes called ""transparent"" proxy servers, because the user does not know a proxy server is between the client and remote server. - -SMTP Proxy -A Transparent SMTP Proxy is a SMTP proxy server that is inserted in between a sending mail server and a receiving mail server. The main purpose of the SMTP proxy is to filter outbound spam. The proxy masquerades itself in such a way that the client and server believe that they are talking to each other even though there is a proxy in between. - -Software -There is a lot of software which can be used for running a proxy server. Some software can only work as a proxy server, while other software can also work as a firewall or caching server. Squid, Varnish and Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server (ISA Server) are among the best known pieces of proxy server software. Some proxy software uses the SOCKS protocol. An example is the Java SOCKS Proxy Server. - -References - -Other websites - - - - - -Internet" -13985,51811,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serenity%20%28movie%29,Serenity (movie),"Serenity is a 2005 science fiction space western movie. It was written and directed by Joss Whedon. The movie takes place in the fictional universe of the cancelled FOX science fiction television series Firefly. It takes place about two months after the final episode, Objects in Space. That is 500 years in the future. - -Serenity is the story of the captain and crew of a transport and cargo spacecraft. The captain and first mate fought together on the losing side of the Unification War. Their lives of small crime are interrupted by a passenger with mental abilities who has a dangerous secret. - -The movie was released in North America on September 30, 2005 by Universal Pictures. It received good reviews. It made $10.1 million during its first weekend. The movie made $25.5 million in the United States and $13.3 million in other countries. - -Fans call the movie the ""Big Damn Movie"" (""BDM""). This is a reference to a line from the Firefly episode ""Safe"" in which Mal and Zoe call themselves ""big damn heroes"" after rescuing River and Simon. - -Awards - Film 2005 - movie of the year award and FilmFocus. - IGN Film- Best Sci-Fi, Best Story and Best Trailer awards and was runner up for the Overall Best Movie. - Nebula Award - Best Script for 2005 - Rotten Tomatoes - the 7th annual 'User Tomato Awards' for best Sci-Fi movie of 2005 - Spacey Award - the 2006 viewers choice for favorite movie - 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form - the 2006 Prometheus Special Award. - -Production -The movie is based on Firefly, a television series that was cancelled by Fox in December 2002. Fox stopped the show after 11 of its 14 episodes had been shown. After trying to get another network to show the series, creator Joss Whedon tried to sell it as a movie. He was introduced to Mary Parent with Universal Pictures, who agreed to make the movie after watching the episodes on DVD. - -After Universal Studios got the movie rights to Firefly from Fox, Whedon began writing the screenplay. Universal wanted to start making the movie in October of 2003 but problems with the script made them have to wait until June of 2004 to start of shooting the movie. Universal did not want to spend the normal amount of money for a story set in space ($100 million). Whedon told them he could do it for less. He also told them he could do it in 50 days, instead of the usual 80 days. On March 3, 2004 the movie was greenlighted to start being made. It was shown to have budget of only $40 million. - -They started filming the movie on June 3 2004. Joss Whedon said that the movie would be called Serenity to keep it separate from the TV series. All nine of the main actors from the television series (Adam Baldwin, Alan Tudyk, Gina Torres, Jewel Staite, Morena Baccarin, Nathan Fillion, Ron Glass, Sean Maher, and Summer Glau) returned for the movie. On September 17 2004, Joss Whedon said on the movie's official site that shooting was done. - -Whedon had to take a television series that not many people had seen and explain the idea of the movie. He had to do this without boring the audience or the fans of the television series. He did this by doing things in the beginning of the movie. At first, it is a just a voice telling what has happened. It then is shown to be a school room where the voice was that of the teacher. They next showed that this was all just memories in one of the character's mind. - -Since the budget was not very large, physical special effects were used as much as possible. They made as sets and props as they could to use less CGI effects. The most technically challenging scene was the mule skiff chase. Because it would cost too much, a gimbal (a hydraulic turntable) and CGI, like the pod race scene in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace could not be used. The production team to find other ways to do things. They built a trailer connected to the ""hover craft"" in the movie and shot the scene while riding up a highway north of Santa Clarita. Serenity visual effects supervisor Loni Peristere said in a Los Angeles Times article: ""Traditionally this would have been, like, a 30-day shoot. I think we did it in five."" - -One item from the television show that could not be used again was the original set of the inside of the ship Serenity. It had to be built for the movie, using images from the Firefly DVD set. The company that did the graphics for the series also had to change the computer model of Serenity. The television model was not good enough for high-definition cinema screens and HD DVD. - -Synopsis - -Five hundred years into the future, mankind has left Earth. All the people moved to a new large star system. The system is controlled by the Alliance. Away from the ""core planets"" people like the crew of the cargo ship Serenity can make a living if they stay away from Alliance ships and the Reavers - space-faring cannibals who raid the planets of ""the Rim."" One of the Alliance's projects is the creation of a group of warriors with mental powers. The star of this project is teenager River Tam. After her older brother Simon rescues her, the Alliance Parliament sends ""The Operative"", a man with no name, rank or official existence after them. - -About eight months after River and Simon have joined Serenity's crew, the ship's captain Malcolm ""Mal"" Reynolds takes River with him to rob a bank. While they are robbing the bank, Reavers attack. After they escape back to Serenity, Simon argues with Mal. Mal decides to leave Simon and River at their next stop. While at their next stop, River starts a fight that is started by a subliminal message broadcast by the Alliance in a commercial. Mal lets Simon and River keep traveling on Serenity while the crew talks to a techno-geek known as Mr. Universe. Mr. Universe lives on a planet inside a giant cloud of objects in space that does not let people see there is a planet there. Mr. Universe watches a video of the fight and finds the subliminal message. He also sees that River said the name ""Miranda."" Mal gets a call from Inara, a former passenger. He knows it is a trap, but also knows that she must be in danger. Mal goes to her. He is confronted by the Operative. The Operative tells Mal that he will let him go if Mal turns River over to him. Mal refuses and they escape from the Operative and go back to Serenity. The crew finds out that ""Miranda"" is an unknown planet near the edge of the solar system. To get to Miranda, they would have to cross into Reaver territory. They think this is too dangerous. Serenity instead goes to Haven which is home to another former passenger, Shepherd Book. When they get to Haven, the crew sees that it has been attacked by the Alliance. They also see that Shepherd Book was hurt very bad and dying. The Operative sends a message saying he did it. He said he will keep doing things like it until River is given to him. - -Mal orders that Serenity be made to look like a Reaver ship. They get the disguised ship through a fleet of Reaver warships. When they get to Miranda, the crew finds everyone that lived there is dead. There are dead bodies everywhere but they can not tell how the people died. The crew finds a video made after the disaster by an Alliance ship. It tells them that the Alliance made a chemical that was susposed to stop aggression and make the planet free of violence. The chemical worked so well that the people stopped doing everything, including eating, and let themselves die. In a tenth of a percent of the people, the chemical had the opposite effect. It turned them very aggressive and caused mental problems: they became the Reavers. Mal wanted to show this secret to all the worlds by using Mr. Universe's equipment. The Operative figures out where they are going and waits just outside of Reaver space with an Alliance fleet. Knowing that the Operative is likely to be waiting for them, Serenity opens fire on one of the Reaver ships while coming back. The other Reaver ships chase after them. Serenity leaves Reaver space and pass through the cloud around Mr. Universe's planet while being chased by the entire Reaver fleet. There is a large fight between the Alliance and the Reavers. The fight lets Serenity's pilot Wash to fly down to the planet. The Operative's ship is destroyed, and he also goes to the planet in an escape pod. - -Serenity crashes on the planet. While the ship is damaged very badly, the crew has survived. Just as everyone begins to relax, a Reaver harpoon hits Wash, and kills him. The crew leaves Serenity and finds a place to fight off the Reavers while Mal goes to get to Mr. Universe and send the message. Mal finds Mr. Universe has been killed and his equipment is destroyed. He finds a message that tells him about a hidden backup transmitter. The Reavers attack the crew, and make them move back. The crew tries to close a blast door, but it will not shut all the way. River dives through the hole in the door and closes it from the other side. This traps her with the Reavers. Mal gets to the other transmitter. The Operative gets there also and they fight. Mal wins but does not kill the Operative. He leaves him to watch the video from Miranda as it is being broadcast. Mal goes back to his crew. As he is told what River did, the blast door opens to reveal River standing unhurt on an large pile of dead Reavers. A group of Alliance soldiers show up but the Operative orders them not to fight because of what he has seen on the video. The crew buried their dead and fixed Serenity. Serenity leaves the planet with Mal in Wash's seat as the pilot, and River as his copilot. - -Cast - Nathan Fillion as Malcolm ""Mal"" Reynolds. A former soldier on the losing side of the Unification War, he live his life outside of the Alliance. Captain Malcolm Reynolds was named #18 in TV Guide's ""25 Greatest Sci-fi legends"" list in 2004. - Gina Torres as Zoe Washburne (née Alleyne). Another veteran who fought alongside Mal in the war. Zoe is Wash's wife. She is very loyal to Mal. - Alan Tudyk as Hoban ""Wash"" Washburne. The pilot of the ship, and Zoe's husband. He often acts as a voice of reason on the ship. - Morena Baccarin as Inara Serra. She is a Companion who once rented one of Serenity's shuttles. - Adam Baldwin as Jayne Cobb. A mercenary who is very good with weapons. Jayne is often the ""main gun"" for jobs. He is someone who is good in a fight. He seems dumb, but may be smarter than he lets on. As Whedon says many times, he is the person that will ask the questions that no one else wants to. - Jewel Staite as Kaywinnit Lee Frye. Kaylee, the ship's mechanic. She is known for always seeming bright and happy. - Sean Maher as Simon Tam. Simon is River's brother. He rescues her from the Alliance. He and River are taken in by the crew of Serenity. A surgeon before the rescue, he is the doctor to the crew. His life is all about his sister's needs. - Summer Glau as River Tam. River is a seventeen-year old genius with special powers. She and her brother are taken in by the crew of Serenity after he rescues her from an Alliance. The Alliance's hunt to find River is mainly what the movie is about. The movie is also the ""story of Mal as told by River."" - Ron Glass as Shepherd Derrial Book. A shepherd, or preacher, with a mysterious past, Book was once a passenger on Serenity, but now lives on the planet Haven. - Chiwetel Ejiofor as The Operative. An evil employee of the Alliance given the job to find River and Simon. - David Krumholtz as Mr. Universe. A ""techno-geek"" who is friends with the crew of Serenity, especially Wash. Mr. Universe lives with his ""love-bot"" wife and watches incoming signals from around the 'verse (universe). - -Themes -While the movie shows the Alliance as an all-powerful regime, Whedon is careful to point out that it is not that simple. ""The Alliance isn't some evil empire"", he says, but a largely benevolent bureaucratic force. The Alliance’s main problem is that it cannot and should not try to control all the different cultures that are a part of it. The crew of Serenity, and specifically Mal, show the idea that people should have the right to chose for themselves, even if those choices are bad. - -The Operative is all that the Alliance stands for. He is, as Whedon described, the ""perfect product of what's wrong with the Alliance"". He is someone who is a force for good, who wants to help make his (and the Alliance's) image of a ""world without sin."" The Operative believes so much in this idea that he do anything to make create that world . Mal is the opposite. At the movie's beginning, he is a man who has lost all faith. By the end of the movie, however, Mal finally believes in something—freedom of choice—so strongly that he is willing to die to preserve it. Whedon has said that the most important line in the movie is Mal's to the Operative at its end: ""I'm going to show you a world without sin."" Whedon's point is that a world without sin is a world without choice, and that choice is what defines humanity. The Operative, who does only what he is told to do, and the inhuman Reavers, created by the Alliance's need to control people, are only two examples of this theme. - -Notes - -References - DeCandido, Keith R.A. Serenity. August 30, 2005. . - Whedon, Joss. Serenity: The Visual Companion. September 1, 2005. . - -Other websites - - - Official website of the film - Official Australian website - SerenityMovie.com - A major Serenity fan site - FireflyFans.net - Another major fansite - Serenity at Whedonesque.com - - -2005 action movies -2005 science fiction movies -American action movies -American science fiction movies -Movies based on TV series -Movies directed by Joss Whedon -Screenplays by Joss Whedon -Whedonverse -Hugo Award winning movies -Post-apocalyptic movies -Universal Pictures movies" -5132,16385,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1801,1801," - -Events - Great Britain is united with Ireland to make the United Kingdom. - -Deaths - February 7 – Daniel Chodowiecki, Polish painter (b. 1726) - March 21 – Andrea Luchesi, Italian composer (b. 1741) - March 23 – Tsar Paul of Russia (b. 1754) - March 25 – Novalis, German poet (b. 1772) - March 28 – Ralph Abercromby, British general (b. 1734) - April 2 – Thomas Dadford Junior, British engineer - April 7 – Noël François de Wailly, French lexicographer (b. 1724) - May 17 – William Heberden, English doctor (b. 1710) - June 4 – Frederick Muhlenberg, first Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (b. 1750) - June 14 – Benedict Arnold, American Revolution hero and traitor (b. 1741) - September 19 – Johann Gottfried Koehler, German astronomer (b. 1745) - October 3 – Philippe Henri, marquis de Ségur, Marshal of France (b. 1724) - November 4 – William Shippen, American physician and Continental Congressman (b. 1536) - November 5 – Motoori Norinaga, Japanese philologist and scholar (b. 1730) - November 24 – Franz Moritz Graf von Lacy, Austrian field marshal (b. 1725) - -Births - January 3 – Gijsbert Haan, Dutch-American religious leader (d. 1874) - February 1 – Thomas Cole, American artist (d. 1848) - towards February 13 – János Kardos Hungarian Slovenes evangelic priest, teacher and writer (d. 1875) - February 21 – John Henry Newman, English Roman Catholic Cardinal (d. 1890) - May 11 – Henri Labrouste, French architect (d. 1875) - June 1 – Brigham Young, American religious leader and colonizer (d. 1877) - June 4 – James Pennethorne, English architect (d. 1871) - June 14 – Heber C. Kimball, American religious leader (d. 1868) - June 30 – Frederic Bastiat, French philosopher (d. 1850) - July 5 – David Farragut, American naval commander (d.1870) - July 29 – George Bradshaw, English publisher (d. 1853) - October 12 – Friedrich Frey-Herosé, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1873) - November 3 – Karl Baedeker, German writer and publisher (d. 1859) - November 3 – Vincenzo Bellini, Italian composer (d. 1835) - November 10 – Vladimir Dal, Russian lexicographer (d. 1872) - December 11 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German writer (d. 1836)" -11824,43345,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micropachycephalosaurus,Micropachycephalosaurus,"Micropachycephalosaurus, a tiny thick headed lizard, is a genus of ornithischian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous. It was a herbivore, and lived in what is now Shandong, China. It was one of the smallest dinosaur ever discovered, just over a meter long, but with the longest name. Before it was discovered Compsognathus was the smallest known dinosaur. - -The lack of the skull roof means the fossil cannot be placed at family level. It might or might not be a pachycephalosaur. Butler and Zhao therefore classified it as an indeterminate member of the Cerapoda. In 2011, cladistic analysis showed that Micropachycephalosaurus is a basal member of the Ceratopsia. In this context, basal does not mean 'ancestral'; the fossil is far too late for that. It means simply 'unspecialized', or lacking derived traits. - -Related pages -Wannanosaurus - -References - -Cerapods" -15900,60982,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbus%20Blue%20Jackets,Columbus Blue Jackets,"The Columbus Blue Jackets are an ice hockey team that plays in the NHL. They are one of the newest teams in the NHL, created in 2000. The Blue Jackets first made the playoffs in 2009. The coach right now is John Tortorella. The Blue Jackets play at Nationwide Arena. They play in the Metropolitan Division. - -2009–10 Season - -References - -Other websites -Official website" -3456,10306,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenochtitlan,Tenochtitlan,"Tenochtitlan was the capital city of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs built Tenochtitlan around 1325, right on a lake called Lake Texcoco. - -As the Empire grew, so did Tenochtitlan. By the early 1500s, at least 200,000 people lived in the city. This made Tenochtitlan the largest city in the Americas before Christopher Columbus arrived. - -Center of the Aztec Empire - -Tenochtitlan was the center of the Aztec government and religion. It was also a very big trading center. When the Spanish arrived in 1519, they guessed that 60,000 people came to the market in Tenochtitlan every day. People bought and sold many things there, including slaves (prisoners of war from states the Aztecs had taken over). The entire city was decorated with art, architecture, and stone sculptures. - -The Great Temple - -The city had a huge pyramid called the Templo Mayor (Great Temple). At the top of the Temple, there were two small rooms. In these rooms, the Aztecs sacrificed people to two of their most important gods: Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, and Tlaloc, the rain god. The Aztecs believed that if they did not feed their gods blood, the gods would wither and die, causing the end of the world as they knew it. - -Agriculture - -The Aztecs had created canals all across the city. By bringing water to Aztec crops, these canals made it possible for the Aztecs to grow much more food than they normally could have. The Aztecs had also made levees to protect the city from flooding, and reservoirs for fresh water. - -The Aztecs also built chinampas (small rectangular crops floating on lake beds) so that they could create more food to feed the thousands of people who lived around Tenochtitlan. In addition, they built waterways and dams so that they could receive fresh water, and block out the salty brackish water. - -Fall of Tenochtitlan - -In 1519, Spanish conquistadores led by Hernan Cortes arrived in Tenochtitlan. Cortes was impressed with the city, but still decided to attack it. The Spanish and their Tlaxcalan allies invaded Tenochtitlan, and the city fell in 1521. - -Mexico City was built over the ruins of Tenochtitlan. - -Photo gallery - -Notes - -Related pages - Aztec - Aztec Empire - -References - -Aztec -Cities in Mexico -History of North America -1325 establishments -14th-century establishments in Mexico -1521 disestablishments -Disestablishments in Mexico" -10506,37351,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm%20Arnold,Malcolm Arnold,"Sir Malcolm Arnold (born Northampton, 21 October 1921; died 23 September 2006) was an English composer. He is famous for writing symphonies, concertos and movie music. People disagree about whether he is one of the really great composers, or just a very skilled musician. His music is often very tuneful, sometimes it is sentimental. He could write music very quickly. His famous music for the movie The Bridge on the River Kwai was composed in ten days. - -Life -In 1938 Malcolm Arnold went to the Royal College of Music to study composition with Gordon Jacob. He started his career as a trumpeter with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, later becoming principal trumpet. By the late 1940s he was concentrating on his composing career. - -Arnold was composing at a time when many composers were writing music which was quite atonal which made it hard to understand, but Arnold’s music is tonal and there are many tunes which are easy to remember. He wrote nine symphonies and several concertos for different instruments, even unusual instruments like the harmonica. Some of his best orchestral works are the set of dances: English Dances , Scottish Dances and Cornish Dances . He also wrote 2 operas, 7 ballets and 2 string quartets. His overture Tam O'Shanter is very exciting. It tells in music the story in the poem by Robert Burns. - -Arnold wrote music for 132 films. The most famous is The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) for which he won an Oscar. He was the first British composer ever to have won this award. This movie includes the famous Colonel Bogey March. This march had been written many years earlier by Kenneth J. Alford, but Arnold composed a countermelody to it. His original music for the movie includes the famous River Kwai March (this is not the same as the Colonel Bogey March). Other movies for which he wrote music include The Belles of St Trinian's (1954), The Inn of the Sixth Happiness (1958) and Whistle Down the Wind (1961). - -He was made a CBE in 1970 and was knighted in 1993. - -Youth orchestras and amateur orchestras enjoy playing his works because they are an exciting mixture of classical, jazz, popular and folk music, and are not too difficult to play. - -Arnold’s health was often very poor. At times he fought with alcoholism and depression, and in his later years with dementia. He had moved to Dublin in 1972, but moved back to England in 1984 and settled in Attleborough, Norfolk. His full-time carer Anthony Day helped him a lot during his final years. - -Arnold died from a chest infection in September 2006. - -References - -1921 births -2006 deaths -20th-century English composers -People from Northampton -Trumpeters" -23631,91102,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguana,Iguana,"Iguana is a type of lizard that lives in tropical areas of Central and South America and the Caribbean. There are only two species of Iguana: the Green Iguana and the Lesser Antillean Iguana - -Appearance -The two species of lizard both have a dewlap, a row of spines running down their back to their tail, and a third eye on their head. This eye is known as the parietal eye, which looks just like a pale scale on the top of their head. Behind their neck are small scales which look like spikes, and are called tuberculate scales. They also have a large round scale on their cheek called a subtympanic shield. - -Senses -Iguanas have excellent vision and can see long distances, shapes, shadows, color and movement. An iguana uses its eyes to navigate through trees and forests, as well as for finding food. They also use their eyes to communicate with members of the same species. An iguana's ear is called a tympanum. It is the iguana's ear drum and is found right above the subtympanic shield and behind the eye. This is a very thin, delicate part of the iguana, and is very important to its hearing. Iguanas arcool - -Iguania" -5036,15925,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer,Lucifer,"Lucifer is another name for Satan. This is because people interpret a passage in the Book of Isaiah of the Bible in a certain way. Lucifer is Latin. It is made of two parts, lux-lucis (light) and ferre (to bring). -There are two mentions of Lucifer in the Latin Vulgate. is used to refer to the morning star, the planet Venus that appears at dawn: once in to translate the Greek word ""Φωσφόρος"" (Phosphoros), which has exactly the same literal meaning of ""Light-Bringer"" that ""Lucifer"" has in Latin; and once in to translate ""הילל"" (Hêlēl), which also means ""Morning Star"". - -Latin name for the Morning Star - -Lucifer is the Latin name for the ""Morning Star"", both in prose and poetry, as seen in works by Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC), Cicero (106-43 BC) and other early Latin writers - -Cicero wrote: -Stella Veneris, quae Φωσφόρος Graece, Latine dicitur Lucifer, cum antegreditur solem, cum subsequitur autem Hesperos - -The star of Venus, called Φωσφόρος in Greek and Lucifer in Latin when it precedes, Hesperos when it follows the sun. - -And Pliny the Elder: -sidus appellatum Veneris … ante matutinum exoriens Luciferi nomen accipit … contra ab occasu refulgens nuncupatur Vesper - -The star called Venus … when it rises in the morning is given the name Lucifer … but when it shines at sunset it is called Vesper - -Poets also used the word ""Lucifer"". Ovid has at least eleven mentions of the Morning Star in his poetry. Virgil wrote: -Luciferi primo cum sidere frigida rura -carpamus, dum mane novum, dum gramina canent - -Let us hasten, when first the Morning Star appears, -To the cool pastures, while the day is new, while the grass is dewy - -And Statius: -et iam Mygdoniis elata cubilibus altoimpulerat caelo gelidas Aurora tenebras, -rorantes excussa comas multumque sequentisole rubens; illi roseus per nubila seras -aduertit flammas alienumque aethera tardoLucifer exit equo, donec pater igneus orbem -impleat atque ipsi radios uetet esse sorori - -And now Aurora rising from her Mygdonian couch had driven the cold darkness on from high in the heavens, shaking out her dewy hair, her face blushing red at the pursuing sun – from him roseate Lucifer averts his fires lingering in the clouds and with reluctant horse leaves the heavens no longer his, until the blazing father make full his orb and forbid even his sister her beams - -Lucifer as Devil character of the Bible -Lucifer is the epitome of evil in the Christian religion. Lucifer is believed by some to be Satan's name when he was still an angel, but it is Latin for 'light bringer' and not originally in the Bible. -The word Lucifer was also used in Latin to mean the ""morningstar"", the planet Venus, and this word was used in the Latin version of Isaiah 14, where the Hebrew version was speaking to a king of Babylonia. - -References - -Demons - -ro:Luceafăr" -14119,52379,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord-Pas-de-Calais,Nord-Pas-de-Calais,"Nord-Pas-de-Calais (sometimes also Nord-Pas de Calais) used to be an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Hauts-de-France. Its prefecture was Lille. In 2012, four million people lived there (365,000 in the urban area of Lille). - -The two departments in the region were Nord and Pas-de-Calais. - -The local economy was based on carbon, steel and textiles. The secondary sector (industry) employed 33.8% (of an 28.9% national average). Unemployment was at 12.9 per cent (9.8% national average). Structural investment in the TGV and the Channel Tunnel has shown some improvement though. The tourism industry does well thanks to the border with Belgium and closeness to England. - -Other websites - -Former administrative regions of France" -12677,46658,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lissa%20Explains%20it%20All,Lissa Explains it All,"Lissa Explains it All is a website. It teaches beginners and children HTML as well as other things like JavaScript to help them make a website. It was made by Alyssa ""Lissa"" Daniels (born 1986) in 1998. - -History - -How Lissa Explains Began -Lissa did not plan on teaching HTML at first. She was an 11 year old girl who wanted to make a website but had problems remembering the HTML codes. She saved the codes on a webpage. Many people who saw her website asked her how she made it. Lissa gave them the address (URL) to the webpage she put the codes on. As more and more people went on the page, Lissa added more codes and information, and made the URL it became public. - -Changes -A year later, so many people went on Lissa Explains that Lissa decided she needed a domain name for her website. She bought the domain name, lissaexplains.com. The website name was changed to Lissa Explains it All. Soon, even more people went on Lissa Explains, and her web hosters told Lissa that she would have to buy a plan that costed $100 a month. Lissa was upset because her parents would not pay so much money for her website. - -Lissa Explains was a popular website that had a lot of visitors, so Lissa filled out many forms at agencies. The agency would pay her money to put their advertisements on her website, Lissa Explains. The money she made paid for her web hosting and other services on her website. The company that hosts Lissa Explains now is Dreamhost. - -Now, with even more visitors, Lissa had to change the layout and design of her website again. She got rid of a lot of the pictures on her website to save money and bandwidth space. It changed from this to this, the way it looks right now. - -Problems -Lissa's website was the first website that taught children HTML. Many people know about it, and it is being copied. For example, Lissaexplainsitall.com has a URL that is almost the same as Lissa Explains, and it also has something to do with web design and HTML. - -Services -Other than teaching HTML, Lissa Explains also has other services. Lissa teaches HTML, JavaScript, CSS, how to use frames and tables, and how to make a trailing cursor. - -LissaMail -In April 2008 the website for LissaMail expired, leading to the conclusion that this service is no longer being provided. - -Postcards -Lissa has postcards that users can send to their friends. - -Color Tools -Lissa's Color Slider lets users choose a color in the shade they want and get the hexadecimal color code for it. She also has a color wheel for people who have Internet Explorer. - -HTML Editor -Lissa's HTML Editor converts and changes formatted text into HTML codes. - -Meta Tag Generator -At Lissa's Meta Tag generator, users can get the HTML code to make META tags. - -Other websites - Lissa Explains it All - The Original Lissa Explains Website (Old Page) - -Websites -Education" -7018,22162,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1626,1626," - -Events - September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji. - November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326. - Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan. - Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of ""purchasing"" Manhattan from the Lenape. - Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa. - The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States. - The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England. - Charles I dissolves Parliament. - The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City. - In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag" -23596,90974,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristide%20Cavaill%C3%A9-Coll,Aristide Cavaillé-Coll,"Aristide Cavaillé-Coll (born Montpellier, 4 February 1811; died Paris, 13 October 1899) was a French organ-builder. He invented many new mechanical devices and his organs changed the way that composers could write for the instrument. César Franck, Alexandre Guilmant, and Charles-Marie Widor, in particular, were strongly influenced by the new type of organ that he was building. - -Cavaillé-Coll grouped the stops of the organ into different families, so that the result was similar to the families of instruments in an orchestra. He made the lowest of the manuals (keyboards) the most important one. It was called the “Great” (French: “Grande Orgue”). The other manuals - there were usually two others, but sometimes three - could be “coupled” to the Great. He made changes to the English swell box, improved its operation, and divided the windchests on which the pipes were resting. This made it possible to have louder reed stops because of the higher wind pressure. - -Other websites - Association Aristide Cavaille-Coll - -1811 births -1899 deaths -Organ builders -French people -People from Montpellier" -8916,30155,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo%202,Halo 2,"Halo 2 is an award winning first-person shooter video game made by Bungie Studios and published by Microsoft for its own Xbox console. It was released all over the world on November 9, 2004. It is the second game in the Halo series the first being Halo: Combat Evolved and the third being Halo 3. A Windows Vista version of the game was released in 2007. - -The game's story is based around a future war between a fictional confederation of alien races known as the Covenant and the human race. The player takes the role of Master Chief, a genetically enhanced super soldier who fights for mankind. The player is helped in their fight against the Covenant by human marines. The game had many features that were not in the original Halo such as extra vehicles, weapons and a greatly improved multiplayer mode, including the ability to play over Xbox Live. - -Halo 2 was the most popular Xbox Live game on its release. It held that title until the release of Gears of War nearly two years later. By June 20, 2006 over 500 million games of Halo 2 had been played over Xbox Live. It was, and still is, the best selling Xbox game of all time with over 8 million copies sold worldwide. It broke sales records in the US, many of which were only broken by its sequel Halo 3 in 2007. The Windows Vista version in 2007 was less successful as the fact it was released 3 years after the Xbox version gained many negative reviews. - -Gameplay -Halo 2 is a science fiction first-person shooter based mostly on foot but with vehicle combat sections. Halo 2 has many features that were not in the original Halo. In Halo 2 players have the option to use two weapons at once, called dual wielding. This allows the player much more firepower but does not allow the throwing of grenades. The player can hold up to two weapons at once or three when dual wielding. Weapons range from normal human weapons such as pistols and shotguns up to heavy weapons like rocket launchers and sniper rifles. The player can also carry alien weapons like plasma rifles and needlers. - -Story Mode -The story mode continues the story started in Halo: Combat Evolved. There are nine levels in the story, split between controlling Master Chief and the alien Arbiter. There are four difficulties to the campaign easy, standard, heroic and legendary Completing them unlocks extras such as different dialogue in certain sections of the game, and extra weapons in split-screen multiplayer. There are various 'skulls' at hidden parts of the levels, as in Halo 3. These skulls unlock helpful and or strange differences in the levels such as confetti and balloons appearing when the player scores a head shot. The story can be played two player on the same console but not over Xbox Live. - -Multiplayer -Halo 2 allows up to four players to play on the same console or up to sixteen over Xbox Live. The game was influential in changing the way games played over the internet. Before in most online multiplayer games, one player was the host who used their own connection for the game and chose the settings, game type etc. In Halo 2, and most games since, players choose a type of game they want to play and the game matches them with players of their own ability on a randomly chosen map. - -Some weapons and vehicles available in the story mode were not available in multiplayer as they would be too powerful and 'unbalance' the game. - -Story -The game is set in the same fictional world as the rest of the Halo series. Much of the game takes place in the future year 2552, over 500 years from now. In the story line humans have developed faster than light travel, and now live on many planets and moons of the Solar System. On humanity's first try to build a settlement on a planet around another star they met the alien Covenant. The Covenant declared religious war on humanity. At the start of Halo 2 humans are losing the war and the Covenant have just discovered Earth. - -The Halo of the game's title is the name of a series of planets 'built' by a mysterious race called the Forerunners a long time before the game. The Halo's are the last defense against another alien race known as the Flood. The Flood want to use every living thing in the galaxy for food. The Halo's are actually giant super weapons, that when activated kill all life in the galaxy. This is the only way to stop the Flood, to starve them by killing all their food. The Covenant are not aware of this and are attempting to fire Halos as part of a false religious prophecy. In the first Halo game, Halo: Combat Evolved, the humans and Master Chief manage to stop the Covenant from firing one of the Halos. They also destroy one of them in the process. Just before Halo 2 begins the covenant discover another Halo that can only be got through a portal found near Earth. - -Plot -The game opens with the torture of an alien, the leader of the Elites. He is being tortured by the covenant because he failed to stop Master Chief destroying the first Halo in the original game. The Elite commander is branded by the leader of the Brutes, another part of the Covenant. The player then takes control of Master Chief, on board a spacecraft orbiting the Earth when the massive Covenant fleet arrives. The Covenant have come to take the portal that will allow them to get to the new Halo so they can fire it. The Covenant board the ship the player is aboard, and attempt to plant bombs to disable it and the other ships in the human fleet. The player must fight through Covenant forces to disable the bombs. Once this is complete the human ship heads off, following the Covenant flagship that just flew past. Meanwhile, in the cutscene we see the former elite commander being made into a religious warrior known as the Arbiter to make up for his failure to stop Master Chief in the original Halo. - -In another cutscene a human ship with Master Chief,Johnson and Cortana aboard follows the covenant ship through the portal to the new Halo. The player must now take control of Chief as he battles to stop the Covenant from firing the ring. Eventually the player kills the Prophet of Regret, a Covenant leader, and stops the Halo from being fired. Unfortunately before the player can recover the Index, the control for firing the Halo, they are captured by the leader of the Flood, known as the Gravemind. In a cutscene we see the new Arbiter sent down to the Halo to recover the Index before Chief can destroy it. When he arrives though, he and his followers are betrayed and their former allies begin to attack. Here the player must control Arbiter and his followers as they attempt to escape the betrayal and ambush. The arbiter is eventually also captured by the Gravemind and meets up with Master Chief. The two of them break free of Gravemind, whose Flood followers have now taken over a huge Covenant ship called High Charity. Arbiter and Chief, now controlled by the player again, race to the Halo control to stop the Covenant from firing the ring one last time. They are successful in stopping the Covenant, but the Prophet of Truth, the last of their leaders escapes on a spacecraft unharmed. Chiefs AI companion Cortana stays behind on the Halo, promising to destroy it if any Covenant ever return. Chief and the Arbiter part ways with Chief hiding out on a fleeing Covenant ship and the Arbiter and his followers returning to High Charity in an attempt to save it from the Flood. - -Development and release -Halo 2 was officially announced in 2002. A game play video was shown at E3 2003. The video showed new features in the game such as dual wielding and the improved graphics. According to Bungie, the cliffhanger ending of the games story was not originally intended but was a result of the rush to get the game out on time. - -Reviews and Sales - -Sales -Halo 2 was first released in North America and Australia on November 9, 2004. It was launched in Europe a day later on November 10. Demand was high for the game and over 1.5 million copies were sold on pre-orders alone. It was the highest earning entertainment product launch of all time in the US, earning $125 million in its first 24 hours. It held this record until the release of its sequel Halo 3. Halo 2 has sold over 8 million copies in the US making it the best selling original Xbox game of all time. -From the day of its release until 2006, 2 years later, Halo 2 was the most played game on Xbox Live. It was eventually beaten by the Xbox 360 game Gears of War. - -Reviews -The game was reviewed as excellent by most of the media. The sound work such as the dialogue and soundtrack was often praised. -The game received an average score of 95% on Metacritic, a website that puts together many reviews from different sources. The games multiplayer was often seen as a good point, making full use of the then new Xbox Live service. Bad aspects pointed out included the short length of the story mode and the cliffhanger ending. - -References - -2004 video games -Xbox games -Windows games -Halo" -9525,32591,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith%20Bolling%20Wilson,Edith Bolling Wilson,"Edith White Bolling Galt Wilson (October 15, 1872 — December 28, 1961), second wife of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, was First Lady of the United States from 1915 to 1921. She met the President in March 1915 and they married nine months later. - -Her husband had suffered a long illness. There were many things which the President was needed to do which he could not do. She helped him. Because of this, some people had called her ""the Secret President"" and ""the first woman to run the government"". - -Early life -Wilson was born in Wytheville, Virginia. Her parents were Sallie White and Judge William Holcombe Bolling. She was their seventh child, out of the total eleven children. Through her grandmother, she was a direct descendant of Pocahontas. - -When she was 15 years old, she attended Martha Washington College to study music. She attended the second year at a smaller school in Richmond, Virginia. - -Once when she was visiting her married sister in Washington, DC, Edith met Norman Galt. Norman Galt was a rich jeweler. She married him in 1896. For 12 years, she lived a good life in Washington D. C. But, she also faced some tragedies. In 1903, she gave birth to a son. The child only lived for a few days. The problem birth made her unable to have any more children. In 1908, her husband died. Edith Galt picked a manager to run the family’s jewelry business. The business continued to earn money. - -Marriage and family -In 1915, President Wilson and Edith Galt met each other. President Wilson liked her and asked her to marry him. They married on 18th December 1915. While asking her to marry him, President Wilson had said like a poet: ""in this place time is not measured by weeks, or months, or years, but by deep human experiences..."" - -Their love and romance also created a lot of talks in the social circle. Once an article in a Washington newspaper was about the Wilson couple. It talked of the couple while they were seeing a play in a theater before their marriage. The article stated: ""The President gave himself up for the time being to entertaining his fiancee"" But a printing error made it read like this: ""The President gave himself up for the time being to entering his fiancee."" The publishers called back the newspapers with the printing error. Still a few copies could not be called back. These copies are now very wanted items. - -The First Lady - -Mrs. Wilson had all the qualifications to act as the First Lady. She began her role as the First lady. During this time, World War I started. This limited the social activities at the White House. In 1917, the United States also joined the war. Mrs. Wilson started helping her husband who was under a lot of pressure because of the war. She also went with him to Europe during the process of peace. - -President Wilson returned from Europe. He spent much of his time trying to get the Senate’s approval for the peace treaty. He was also trying to get approval for an agreement to create the League of Nations. In the meantime, his health was getting bad. - -In September 1919, he suffered a stroke. He became partially paralyzed. Edith Wilson always stayed with him. She took over many common duties of the government and helped her husband in many official matters. At the same time, she sent many other official matters to the heads of departments or allowed them to remain undone. - -She also wrote a book. The name of the book is My Memoir. Its year of publication is 1939. In this book, she said that her husband’s doctors had asked her to take up many responsibilities of her husband. Many historians do not agree with her views. - -Phyllis Levin, a historian had described her as ""a woman of narrow views and formidable determination"". He blamed her for many failures of the policies of the United States after the First World War. - -Later life -In 1921, the Wilson couple retired to live in Washington. After three years her husband, Woodrow Wilson, died. She continued to live in Washington. People liked her, and she became a respected figure in the high society of the capital. Some people say that she liked and admired younger men. She lived a long life and lived to see President John F. Kennedy's inaugural parade. She died on December 28, 1961, the 105th anniversary of her second husband's birth. At the time of her death, she was 89 years. This made her the seventh longest-lived First Lady after Bess Truman, Nancy Reagan, Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Barbara Bush and Rosalynn Carter, respectively. - -References - - Original text based on White House biography - -1872 births -1961 deaths -Woodrow Wilson -First Ladies of the United States -People from Virginia" -13991,51843,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire%20rope,Wire rope,"Wire rope consists of several strands laid (or 'twisted') together like a helix. Each strand is likewise made of metal wires laid together like a helix. Initially wrought iron wires were used, but today steel is the main material used for wire ropes. - -History & materials -Modern wire rope was invented by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal, Lower Saxony, Germany. It was quickly accepted because it was better than ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, such as had been used before. - -Wilhelm Albert's first ropes consisted of wires twisted about a hemp rope core, six such strands then being twisted around another hemp rope core in alternating directions for extra stability. Earlier forms of wire rope had been made by covering a bundle of wires with hemp. - -In America wire rope was later manufactured by John A. Roebling, forming the basis for his success in suspension bridge building. Roebling introduced a number of innovations in the design, materials and manufacture of wire rope. - -Manufacturing a wire rope is similar to making one from natural fibres. The individual wires are first twisted into a strand, then six or so such strands again twisted around a core. This core may consist of steel, but also of natural fibres such as sisal, manila, henequen, jute, or hemp. This is used to cushion off stress forces when bending the rope. - -Construction & specification -The specification of a wire rope type, including the number of wires per strand, the number of strands, and the lay of the rope, are is documented using a commonly accepted coding system, with abbreviations. For example, the rope shown in the figure ""Wire rope construction"" is designated: - -6x19 FC RH OL FSWR - -Each of the sections of the wire rope designation described above is variable. There are therefore a large number of combinations of wire rope that can be specified in this manner. The following abbreviations are commonly used to specify a wire rope. - -Other websites - Modern history of wire rope - -Hardware (mechanical) -Ropework" -19717,75478,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluwig,Pluwig,"Pluwig is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. As of 31 December 2018, 1,679 people lived there. - -Other websites - - Official website - -Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate -Trier-Saarburg" -9040,30939,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr%20play,Satyr play,"Satyr plays were an ancient Greek form of theatre, similar in spirit to burlesque. They featured choruses of satyrs, were based on Greek mythology, and were rife with mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. - -Theatrical forms -Ancient Greece" -6558,20644,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur%20Comics,Dinosaur Comics,"Dinosaur Comics is a comic by Ryan North. It shows dinosaurs who have adventures and talk about philosophy and some other topics. The art is the same every day, but the words are different. This comic is intended to be funny. -Things in the comic that are not true: -Dinosaurs did not talk -There were no cabins, cars, or women when dinosaurs lived -The dinosaurs in this comic (Tyrannosaurus Rex, Dromiceiomimus, and Utahraptor) did not live at the same time or even in the same places. -Tyrannosaurus Rex was not friendly - -Comics" -16819,64111,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nassau%20County%2C%20New%20York,"Nassau County, New York","Nassau County is a suburban county in the New York Metropolitan area east of New York City and west of Suffolk County, in the U.S. state of New York. In 2000, 1,334,544 people lived there. It and Suffolk County are together referred to as Long Island. Until 1899 Nassau County was part of Queens County. Along with Suffolk, it was named the safest county in the United States in 2005 by Forbes. - -Hamlets in Nassau County include Manhasset, New York. - -New York (state) counties -1899 establishments in the United States -1890s establishments in New York (state)" -15225,57605,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Holmes,Larry Holmes,"Larry Holmes (born on November 3, 1949) was an American boxer. He held the world heavyweight championship from 1978 to 1985. Holmes fought out of Easton, Pennsylvania. He was nicknamed the ""Easton Assassin."" - -Holmes won the vacant World Boxing Council championship from Ken Norton in 1979. He defended that title, and later the International Boxing Federation title, twenty times. Some notable fighters he beat in defense of his championship were Muhammad Ali, Leon Spinks, Gerry Cooney, and Tim Witherspoon. He lost his championship to Michael Spinks in 1985. - -Holmes later fought Mike Tyson and then Evander Holyfield to try and win back the championship. Tyson knocked him out in the fourth round and Holyfield beat him by a twelve-round decision. - -Holmes continued to fight until 2002. - -Other websites - Boxing Record - -American boxers -Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state) -1949 births -Living people" -20150,77195,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation%20of%20North%2C%20Central%20American%20and%20Caribbean%20Association%20Football,"Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football","The Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football often referred to as just CONCACAF, is the organization that controls North, Central, and Caribbean football. - -Related pages - CONCACAF Gold Cup - CONCACAF Champions' Cup - -Other websites - CONCACAF homepage - -Football organizations" -21269,81497,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%20Olaf,Count Olaf,"Count Olaf is the principal villain, antihero and primary character from Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events. His main goal throughout the series is to inherit or steal the Baudelaire fortune. He attempts numerous acts to try to get that fortune, such as trying to marry Violet, kidnap Sunny, and trip Klaus to have him fall and break his glasses (Miserable Mill) etc. He has a tattoo of an eye on his left ankle. He is one of the Baudelaire's extended family member. - -A Series of Unfortunate Events -Characters in written fiction -Fictional characters introduced in 1999 - -ja:世にも不幸なできごと#オラフ伯爵一味" -10088,34600,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis,Homeostasis,"Homeostasis is self-regulation, a basic property of all self-organising systems. In biology, it is the keeping of a stable internal environment. - -Homeostasis is life's ability to stay balanced, when the environment changes. Animals keep their body in a stable condition. They do so by regulating their inner equilibrium . For example, they adjust their pH, temperature, amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the blood and so on. In living things, the study of how they keep in a stable condition is called physiology. Mostly, our physiology works unconsciously throughout life. We have many negative feedback systems which adjust our physiology so that we stay alive. These systems are self-organising and do not need to be learnt. They are inherited. - -The concept was described by Claude Bernard, and the term was later coined by Walter Cannon in 1926, 1929, and 1932. Walter Cannon thought these were the features of homeostasis: -Constancy in an open system, such as our bodies, is done by mechanisms which maintain this constancy. Cannon based this on insights into the ways by which steady states such as glucose concentrations, body temperature and acid-base balance were regulated. -To keep a steady-state condition, any change automatically meets with factors that resist change. An increase in blood salt results in thirst as the body attempts to dilute the concentration of salt in the extracellular fluid. -The regulating system doing homeostasis has a number of cooperating mechanisms which act simultaneously or successively. Blood sugar is regulated by insulin, glucagons, and other hormones that control its release from the liver or its uptake by the tissues. - -Examples of homeostasis: - The operation of a thermostat - The regulation of water and minerals in the body - The regulation of body temperature: mammals and birds have complicated systems which keep their body temperature within close limits. - -In mammals, the main organs involved with homeostasis are: -The hypothalamus and pituitary gland -the lungs -the skin -the muscles -the kidneys -the liver and pancreas -The brain is also central to homeostasis. It controls behaviour, and the basic function of behaviour is to support life by taking action. - -References - -Related pages -Biology -Biochemistry -Physiology -Cybernetics - -Physiology -Systems theory - -lt:Savireguliacija" -12784,47012,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat,Threat,"A threat is basically a declaration of intent to inflict punishment or harm or loss on another. However, in many cases the threat is not believed, or may even be a joke. Like other communications a threat has a context, and the context decides its meaning. - -A child who says ""I'll tell my dad"" may learn from the reply ""I'm so scared!"" that the threat is an idle threat: one that is promises harm that cannot or will not actually be inflicted. - -To encourage compliance, a threat to do harm may be mixed with an offer to do good, conditional upon what the recipient does. This is sometimes called a throffer. The threat part may be implied, yet effective. - -Some countries, such as the United States, have a legal concept of true threat. A true threat is a threatening communication which can be prosecuted under the law. - -A threat can describe a situation of danger: for example ""a terrorist threat"". Many countries have a system where the government can adjust its security by having official threat levels. - -Related pages -Nonverbal communication - -References - -Human communication -Words -Psychology" -16244,62439,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television%20licence,Television licence,"The television licence (sometimes called the TV licence or the television tax) is a small tax that people pay to watch television. It is used to pay, or part-pay, for the local public broadcaster, such as the BBC in the United Kingdom. It mainly exists in Europe, East Asia and parts of Africa. The licence fee varies in size from a few euros to around 350 euros per year in Iceland. In return for paying the licence, the broadcaster does have few or no adverts. - -In the past, before television was well known, people used to have a radio licence, which is a roughly the same as television licence, but for radio. Some countries still have the radio licence together with the television licence. - -License" -17066,64729,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Affleck,Ben Affleck,"Benjamin Géza Affleck-Boldt (born August 15, 1972) is an American actor, movie director, producer and screenwriter. He became well known in the late 1990s, after acting in the movie Good Will Hunting. He has since become a Hollywood star having acted in several movies. - -Affleck began playing the role of Batman in the DC Extended Universe beginning with the 2016 movie Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. He later played Batman again in Suicide Squad and in Justice League. - -Family background -Affleck was born in Berkeley, California and grew up in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His mother, Christine Anne ""Chris"" Affleck (née Boldt), was a school district employee and teacher. His father, Timothy Byers Affleck, has been a drug counselor, social worker, janitor, auto mechanic, bartender, writer, director, and actor with the Theater Company of Boston. After learning that he had slave-owning ancestors from Savannah, Georgia, he tried to hide it but got caught and apologized. - -Affleck's mother was a freedom rider in the 1960s; until her retirement, she was a public school teacher in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His younger brother is actor Casey Affleck. He has English, Irish, Scottish, German, Swedish, Swiss, Northern Irish (Scots-Irish), Welsh and French ancestry. The surname ""Affleck"" is of Scottish origin, and his middle name, ""Géza"", was the name of a family friend. He was raised in a mostly Episcopalian family. - -References - -Come friends today we are going to talk about Ben Affleck net worth. Benjamin Geza Affleck-Bold (born August 15, 1972) is an American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter .Ben Affleck Net Worth - -Other websites - - - - Entwagon.com : Ben Affleck - A thorough Biography - -1972 births -Living people -Academy Award winning writers -Actors from Massachusetts -American movie actors -Episcopalians -Businesspeople from Berkeley, California -Businesspeople from Massachusetts -American screenwriters -American television actors -American television producers -American television writers -American voice actors -Golden Globe Award winning writers -Movie directors from California -Movie directors from Massachusetts -Movie producers from California -Movie producers from Massachusetts -Actors from Berkeley, California -Saturn Award winners -Screenwriters from California -Screenwriters from Massachusetts -Actors who played Batman" -18201,68310,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Borough%20of%20Barnet,London Borough of Barnet,"The London Borough of Barnet is a London borough in north London. - -London Borough of Barnet" -17735,67011,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NNDB,NNDB,"NNDB, standing for Notable Names Database, produced by Soylent Communications, is an online database of biographical information of notable people. As of March 2007, NNDB contains more than 60,000 articles for over 22,000 important people. Readers may suggest additions or corrections which are later checked by a NNDB staff member. - -References - -Other websites - NNDB - Notable Names Database - Village Voice article, October 7th, 2005 - -Websites" -21793,83029,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Maria,Santa Maria,"The Santa Maria was one of the ships Christopher Columbus sailed to the new world. The others were the Pinta and the Nina. It is named after Saint Mary. - -History of Spain" -2460,7874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1806,1806,"1806 (MDCCCVII) was . - -Events - August 6 – The last Holy Roman Emperor quits, ending the Holy Roman Empire" -5242,17052,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour%20de%20France,Tour de France,"The Tour de France () is a well known bicycle race. It began in 1903. It is held in France, every summer. In recent years it has ended with a race through the centre of Paris, past the Eiffel Tower. It is among the most famous, and has some of the highest prizes, of bike races in Europe. Recently, it was in the media, because some athletes were doping. The race goes around France, but can have some parts in other countries, including England, Belgium, or Spain as they race in the Pyrenees mountains. - -The tour lasts about three weeks. At the end of each day's race the leader is given a yellow shirt, the best sprinter is given a green shirt, and the best rider in the mountain races is given a polka dot jersey. He is sometimes called the King of the Mountains. The best young rider, who must be under 26, gets a white jersey. The winner is the one who finishes the race to Paris in the fastest time. There is a lot of prize money for the teams of the winners of the Tour, but the winner of each day's race also gets prize money. - -Related pages - List of Tour de France winners - -1903 establishments in Europe -1900s establishments in France" -20339,78213,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%20Bay%20Colony,Massachusetts Bay Colony,"The Massachusetts Bay Colony was an English settlement in the 17th century on the east coast of North America. The colony was later called New England and what is now the cities of Salem and Boston. The Bay Colony also included what is now known as the States of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. - -John Winthrop, the founder of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, continued to work on the colony, and improve it any possible way. He knew that the Church of England was bad, so he decided to improve it at the New World; either colonizing the natives or getting rid of them. - -There were two companies who brought settlers in the New World. The first company was the Dorchester Company but was a failure. The second company was in 1628 and called the Massachusetts Bay Colony. This was successful and brought approximately 20,000 people to the Colony. - -At first the colonists had a good friendship with the Native Americans but as more Europeans moved to these areas there were problems over land borders. The Native Americans also had many different customs. These differences led first to the Pequot War (1636–1638), and then to King Philip's War (1675–1676). After these wars, the Native Americans became peaceful and others moved to different places. - -The colony was doing well and made money trading with England. They also traded with the West Indies. In 1686 there was a civil war in England. King James II wanted to have total control over the colonies. After the war, the colonies remained the same until 1692. Then Sir William Phips arrived and Massachusetts Bay and the Plymouth Colony were combined. The colonists helped in the running of the government and how it would spend its money. - -Earlier times - -From the earliest times many Native American lived in this area. They farmed and hunted within their own land borders and did not cross each other's land. Early in the 1600s, explorers, Samuel de Champlain and John Smith made a map of the area. - -Living in the New World was very hard work for the first settlers. Many became ill and died though the cold winter. There was not enough food, and the rest of the people decided to return to England after one year. For awhile there was no more talk of settling people in those parts. English ships did still come to the New England area for fishing and trading with the Indians. - -Plymouth Colony - -In November 1620, a group of Europeans arrived and started Plymouth Colony. Other settlements were tried near there but they failed and the people either joined the Plymouth Colony, returned to England, or lived nearby the Colony. - -The people of Plymouth faced many problems during the first years and could not pay back their investors. In 1627 the companies left the colonists to take care of themselves. Edward Winslow and William Bradford, two of its leaders, wrote about the Mayflower and the colony they created, called Plymouth Colony. It was published in England in 1622 called Mourt's Relation. The two men have different opinions but it was written to encourage people to come to the New World to live. - -References - -References and further reading - - (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century) - -17th century in Massachusetts -Former British colonies" -3136,9799,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar,Jaguar,"The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a big cat (feline) which lives in South America and Central America. - -The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion. It is also the largest and most powerful feline in the Western Hemisphere. - -Because of its spots, jaguars look like leopards, though it is usually larger and stronger, and its behavior is more like that of a tiger. It likes to stay near water, and like the tiger, it is famous for being a big cat that enjoys swimming. It usually hunts alone. - -The jaguar has a very powerful strong bite, even compared to other big cats. Because of its strong bite, jaguars can bite through armoured reptiles like caimans, crocodiles, turtles and tortoises. Jaguars kill their prey in an unusual way: they bite directly through the skull between the ears and into the brain. - -Appearance -Jaguars have yellow or sometimes yellow-orange fur with brown and black rosettes and spots. They are big and heavy and also have very strong muscles which makes them really powerful.They cannot climb well, but they can swim. - -Sometimes there are jaguars who are completely black, but if you look closely you can still see the spots. They are called ""black panther"" or just ""panther"". -This is a 'colour morph' of the same species, a kind of polymorphism. - -Habitat -Jaguars live in South America and Central America. They mostly live in rainforests, but also in savannas, swamps, grasslands, forest, deserts and open areas. - -Life -Jaguars are not specialized with their food, but eat almost anything they get: big and small mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and livestock. It is an ambush predator. When hunting, they usually try to secretly get very close to the prey, and then the jaguar suddenly jumps at it and throws it down. The jaguar bites the skull of its prey to kill it. It then takes the prey to a safe place and eats it. - -After a pregnancy of about 100 days the female gives birth to usually 1 - 4 babies. The young leave their family after 1–2 years, and they become mature at about 3 years. Jaguars can live up to 10–12 years old in freedom, but in captivity (such as in zoos) they can live to 20–22 years old. - -References - -Other websites - - BBC videos on Jaguars - -Panthera -Mammals of South America" -14754,55626,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full%20communion,Full communion,"Full communion is a term used in Christian ecclesiology to describe relations between two distinct Christian communities or Churches that recognise that each other shares the same communion and the same essential doctrines. That does not mean that there would be no differences at all between them. - -The meaning of full communion is different in, on the one hand, Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian theology, and, on the other hand, in the theology of other Western Christians. - -The Roman Catholic Church (which follows the so-called Latin Rite) is in full communion with the Chaldean Catholic Church, for example. The Chaldean Catholic Church follows the East Syrian tradition. In other words: Both churches celebrate mass differently, but they agree completely on all ideas. -The Roman Catholic Church is in partial communion with the Protestant Churches. There are many things both Churches agree on; but in some things they are different; As an example: a Catholic priest can forgive sins; a Protestant priest cannot. - -All the Eastern Orthodox Churches are in full communion -All the Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion -All the Churches in the Union of Utrecht are in full communion with the Anglican Church - -Related pages -Communion (Christian) - -References - -Christian terminology -Church organization" -14096,52309,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes%20the%20Great,Tigranes the Great,"Tigranes the Great (, ; also called Tigranes II and sometimes Tigranes I) was the king of Armenia. He ruled from 95 BCE to 55 BCE. His country became for a short time the strongest state in the Roman East. - -Tigranes was born around 140 BCE and was the son or nephew of Artavasdes I or Tigranes I. - -Tigranes the Great represented the Artaxiad Royal House. - -He was involved in many battles during his reign. He had battles against the Parthian, Seleucid, and Roman empires. - -Related pages -Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity) (Expanded lands massively) - -Other websites - -History of Armenia -Monarchs of Armenia" -969,3861,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plunger,Plunger,"A plunger is a tool. It is used to get rid of things that are blocking pipes. The plunger is placed over one end of the pipe, and the handle is pushed up and down. Doing this creates a sucking force, which makes the thing blocking the pipe move and unclog. - -Tools" -20309,78036,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Ullrich,Jan Ullrich,"Jan Ullrich (born 2 December 1973 in Rostock, Germany) is a retired German bicycle rider. He was very good in riding in the mountains. In Individual time trials he was one of the best cyclists at his time. He won the Tour de France in 1997. Jan Ullrich is the only German athlete who has won this event. - -Beginning -Jan Ullrich started cycling early. When he was ten years old, he won his first race. After Germany's reunification he went to a club in Hamburg. In 1993, when Ullrich was 19 years old, he won the World Amateur Road Race championship in Oslo, Norway. In this year Lance Armstrong won the Professional World Race championchip. The year after, he became third in the Individual Time Race championchip. After this succes he became a professional member of the German Team ""Team-Telekom"". - -Tour de France -Jan Ullrich first rode the Tour de France in 1996. There he won a stage and became overall second, after his team mate Bjarne Riis. Some experts say, Jan Ullrich could have won the Tour the France that year, but he did not because he helped his team-mate over the Tour. - -In 2007 Bjarne Riis said that he used drugs to win the 1996 Tour. In 1997 Jan Ullrich won the Tour the France, when he was 23 years old (fourth youngest winner of the Tour since 1947). During this year he won the Tour de Suisse, German-Tour and HEW-Cyclassics. At the end of the year, he was elected as the ""sports person of the year"" in Germany. - -Doping -Many of Jan Ullrichs Team-members said, he was taking drugs in the 90. In 2002 he tested positive for amphetamine. He said he took pills in a disco, without knowing that they were an illegal substance. He was suspended for 6 months. In 2006 Ullrich was suspected to be a client of Fuentes. In 2007 a DNA-test gave the evidence that he was one, and that he was planning to use the illegal blood doping. Ullrich denied using drugs for a long time. In 2013, Ullrich decided to tell the truth. He admitted he used illegal substances during his career. - -Palmarès - -1993 - Amateur World Road Race Cycling Champion -1995 - National Time Trial Champion -1996 -Tour de France - 2nd place overall - Winner white jersey - Winner stage 20 -Regio Tour -1997 -Tour de France - Winner yellow jersey - Winner white jersey - Winner stages 10 and 12 - National Road Race Champion -Luk Cup, à Bühl -HEW Cyclassics -1998 -Tour de France - 2nd place overall - Winner white jersey - Winner stages 7, 16 and 20 -Rund um Berlin -Rund um die Nürnberger Altstadt -1999 - World Time Trial Cycling Champion -Winner Vuelta a España -2000 -Summer Olympics Road Race Champion -Tour de France: 2nd place -Coppa Agostini -2001 - World Time Trial Cycling Champion - National Road Race Champion -Tour de France: 2nd place -Giro dell'Emilia -Versatel Classic -2003 -Tour de France - 2nd place - Winner stage 12 -Rund um Köln (Tour of Cologne) -2004 -Tour de France: 4th place -Tour de Suisse: winner -Coppa Sabatini -2005 -Tour de France: 3rd place -2006 -Tour de Suisse: winner - -References - -Other websites - - Official Homepage - Jan Ullrich at the Internet Movie Database - -1973 births -Doping cases in cycling -German cyclists -Living people -People from Rostock -Sportspeople from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern -Tour de France winners -Vuelta a España winners" -24685,96589,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriaux,Muriaux,"Muriaux is a municipality in the district of Franches-Montagnes in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. - -On 1 January 2009 the former municipality of Le Peuchapatte merged into the municipality of Muriaux. - -Other website" -2240,7467,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry%20Jones,Terry Jones,"Terence Graham Parry Jones (1 February 1942 – 21 January 2020) was a Welsh actor, writer, comedian, screenwriter, film director and historian. He was a member of Monty Python. - -Jones was born on 1 February 1942 in Colwyn Bay, Denbighshire, Wales. He was married to Alison Telfer, and later to Anna Söderström. - -In September 2016 it was announced that Jones had been diagnosed with primary progressive aphasia, a rare form of dementia that impairs the ability to speak and communicate, and that he was no longer able to give interviews. On 21 January 2020, Jones died from problems caused by the disease, at his home in North London, aged 77. - -References - -Other websites - -1942 births -2020 deaths -British historians -British screenwriters -Deaths from primary progressive aphasia -Monty Python -Welsh movie actors -Welsh television actors" -23393,89888,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regierungsbezirk,Regierungsbezirk,"A Regierungsbezirk is a government region of Germany in some federal states (Bundesländer). - -Regierungsbezirke are divided into districts (Kreise), either Landkreise or urban districts: cities which constitute a district in their own right (kreisfreie Städte). The Regierungsbezirk is governed by a Bezirksregierung and led by a Regierungspräsident. - -Not all Bundesländer have this sub-division; some are directly divided into districts. Currently, five states are divided into 22 Regierungsbezirke, ranging in population from 5,255,000 (Düsseldorf) to 1,065,000 (Gießen): - - Baden-Württemberg: Freiburg, Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, Tübingen - Bavaria: Oberbayern, Niederbayern, Oberpfalz, Oberfranken, Mittelfranken, Unterfranken, Schwaben - Hesse: Darmstadt, Gießen, Kassel - North Rhine-Westphalia: Arnsberg, Cologne, Detmold, Düsseldorf, Münster - Saxony: Chemnitz, Dresden, Leipzig - -History -The first Regierungsbezirke were created by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1808/16, which divided its provinces into 25 Regierungsbezirke. The Regierungsbezirke of North Rhine-Westphalia are in direct continuation of those created in 1815. Other states of the German Empire created similar entities, named Kreishauptmannschaft (in Saxony) or Kreis (in Bavaria and Württemberg) (not to be confused with the Kreis or Landkreis today). During the Third Reich, the Nazi government unified the naming; since then all these entities are called Regierungsbezirk. - -On January 1 2000 Rhineland-Palatinate disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke Koblenz, Rheinhessen-Pfalz and Trier - the employees and assets of the three Bezirksregierungen were converted into three public authorities responsible for the whole state, each covering a part of the former responsibilities of the Bezirksregierung. - -On January 1, 2004, Saxony-Anhalt disbanded its three Regierungsbezirke: Dessau, Halle and Magdeburg. The responsibilities are now covered by a Landesverwaltungsamt with three offices at the former seats of the Bezirksregierungen. - -On January 1, 2005, Lower Saxony disbanded its four Regierungsbezirke: Braunschweig, Hanover, Lüneburg, and Weser-Ems. - -In 2005, North Rhine-Westphalia planned to abolish its five Regierungsbezirke and create three self-government entities. The old, ""Prussian-style"", Regierungsbezirk had no self-government organs. - - -Local government of Germany" -10246,35601,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban,Ban,"For the policy on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Blocks and bans. -A ban is an action used to stop people from doing something, either bad or dangerous. Ban can also be made on products. For example, Singapore, a country, bans chewing gum. Ban may sometimes be made on the Internet, where an administrator or a moderator with higher powers than other members can stop vandals from causing harm to others. Sometimes, users of a website say that moderators or administrators have banhammers that they use to ban bad users. - -Law -Internet" -11908,43729,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagel,Bagel,"Bagels are a type of bread made with flour. They look like doughnuts, and they are leavened with yeast. They have a crisp, shiny crust and a dense inside. Bagels are glazed, and in a ring-shaped roll. They are different from doughnuts because they are boiled before baked. Bagels are sometimes called ""the cement doughnuts"". -The bagel is regarded as a special kind of Jewish food. They are eaten usually for breakfast or a snack. - -Bagels are made from the basic bread ingredients of flour, yeast, salt, and sweet kinds of spices. Flour gives the bread its chewy taste, which can be made more light by eggs, milk, and butter. They are the only bread product that is boiled before it is baked. - -Serving -Bagels are often toasted in a toaster and then paired with foods like cream cheese (a soft cheese that tastes a little sweet) and jam, or with butter. Bagels can also be used to make sandwiches, with meat (for example smoked salmon) and egg and cheese. Bagel sandwiches are usually eaten for breakfast or lunch. - -History -Bagels were formally an obscure ethnic treat found only in the city's Jewish neighourhoods. Bagels were first sold in grocery stores in the 1950s. Frozen bagels were first introduced in 1960. - -When Polish Jews went away to America, they brought the beugel with them. The first beugel bakeries were founded in New York City in the 1920s. Later the name was changed and called a bagel. Bagels have been used as a symbol of the continuous cycle of life—without beginning and without end. - -In the East End of London, the bagel is known as a beigel, and poplar in many of the areas where many Jewish immigrants first arrived in London in the 19th century, such as Whitechapel and Spitalfields, and Brick Lane in particular, home to the Beigel Bake. - -References - -Breads -Breakfast foods" -9245,31750,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koror,Koror,"Koror is the former capital city of Palau. Palau is divided into sixteen states, and Koror is one of the states in Palau. The state of Koror has about 90% of the population of the country. Koror is also the largest town, with a population of 14,000 (2004). - -Capital cities in Oceania -Palau" -7498,24218,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age%20of%20Mythology,Age of Mythology,"Age of Mythology is a real-time strategy computer game made by Ensemble Studios. The game has an expansion to it named Age of Mythology: The Titans. Age of Mythology is a spinoff of the Age of Empires game series. - -Other websites -Official Site -Age of Mythology at HeavenGames.com - -2002 video games -Real-time strategy video games" -21358,81806,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCbingen,Tübingen,"Tübingen is a city in the German state Baden-Württemberg. It has about 83,000 people (2007). Tübingen is a traditional university town. About one in ten people living in Tübingen is a student. - -History -Between 1470 and 1483, St. George's Collegiate Church was built. The collegiate church offices provided the opportunity for what soon afterwards became the most significant event in Tübingen's history: the founding of the Eberhard Karls University by Duke Eberhard im Bart of Württemberg in 1477, thus making it one of the oldest universities in Central Europe. The University of Tübingen became soon renowned as one of the most influential places of learning in the Holy Roman Empire, especially for theology. A Protestant faculty, Tübinger Stift, was established in 1535 in the former Augustinian monastery. - -References" -15188,57428,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry%20suit,Dry suit,"A dry suit is a type of protective clothing worn by scuba divers who are swimming in very cold water, such as in the Arctic ocean or the North Atlantic ocean. A dry suit is similar to a wetsuit, in that it helps to insulate the diver's body from the cold of the ocean. However, a wetsuit lets water to touch the diver's body, but a dry suit is sealed so it does not allow water to touch the diver's body. This means that a dry suit offers more protection from the cold ocean water. - -Protective clothing - -de:Tauchanzug#Trockenanzug -fr:Combinaison de plongée#Combinaison étanche" -9769,33300,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joensuu,Joensuu,"Joensuu is a city in Finland. It is the centre of the region of North Karelia. Joensuu has an area of 2.751,13 km² and a population of around 77,000 people. 369.3 km² of the area is water. - -The Finnish capital, Helsinki is located 437 km away from Joensuu. There is a university in Joensuu. - -The municipalities of Tuupovaara and Kiihtelysvaara were merged with Joensuu on January 1 2005. In 2009 the municipalities of Eno and Pyhäselkä were merged with Joensuu. - -Other websites - The official Joensuu page - -Cities in Finland -Municipalities of North Karelia" -22398,84825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20Defence%20of%20Germany,Ministry of Defence of Germany,"The Federal Ministry of Defence (BMVg) is a Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. At present the headquarters of the ministry are still in Bonn with 3230 working in the Hardthöhe. The second office employs about 500 people in the Bendlerblock in Berlin. - -Organisation -The BMVg is at the highest Federal authority and the highest command authority of the defence forces. The BMVg has civilian and military departments: - the General staff (Führungsstab)of the defence forces, under the Inspector General of the Federal Armed Forces - the top staffs of the 3 forces (Army, Navy and Air Force) - the armaments department the department of defence administration, infrastructure and environmental protection - the personel, social and central department - the legal department - the Budget department - the department for modernisation. - -Operatively the General Staff of the Defence Forces (or ""FÜ S"", which is short for ) is the most important, it has seven sections divided into 42 smaller sections - -The press and information staff and the planning staff work directly under the minister - -Federal Minister of Defence -In peace time the Federal Minister of Defence is commander in chief of the Armed Forces, not the Federal President. - -If Germany is attacked, or about to be attacked, command passes to the Chancellor. - -History -In 1950 Chancellor Konrad Adenauer gave Theodor Blank the job of preparing for the time when Germany could have an army. In December 20 people where working in the ""Blank Office"". On 7 June 1955 it had 1300 employees, and it became the Federal Ministry for Defence. - -It was renamed in Federal Ministry of defence on December 1961 and was seen as one of the ""classic departments"" . At German reunification the National People's Army (Nationale Volksarmee) of East Germany was made part of the Federal Armed Forces. Not long after this, Germany's army took part in the war in Kosovo. This was the first time that Germany's army had been sent to fight outside Germany since the end of World War II - -Federal Ministers of Defence since 1955 - -References" -24603,96105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jak%20and%20Daxter%3A%20The%20Precursor%20Legacy,Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy,"Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy is a platform game made by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the first video game in the Jak and Daxter series, and can only be bought for the Sony PlayStation 2. It was released in winter of 2001, and has two sequels, Jak II and Jak 3. It also has two spin-offs, Jak X: Combat Racing and Daxter. Many people think of Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy as the spiritual successor to Naughty Dog's Crash Bandicoot series. - -2001 video games -3D platform games -Naughty Dog games -PlayStation 2 games -Jak and Daxter series" -7108,22511,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult,Cult,"A cult is a group of people who have a religion or a set of beliefs. In modern times the term ""cult"" usually does not mean a mainstream religion, but a group set up ""in opposition to a centre of established authority"". New Age religions were often called cults because they were thought to be deviant social movements. - -The word cult originally meant a system of ritual practices. It was first used in the early 17th century to mean homage paid to a divinity. It came from an ancient Latin word cultus meaning ""worship"". - -A cult is often a small, newly started religious movement. Cults have beliefs or practices that many people think of as being odd, or that have practices that most people in the world do not practice. More than that, cults have often been led by people who are not elected, and control the group according to their own wishes. Some cult leaders have been dangerous criminals (Charles Manson; Peoples Temple) or even lunatics. Killings and mass suicides have occurred in cults (Order of the Solar Temple; Heaven's Gate). Of course, a ""suicide"" enforced by armed guards carrying sub-machine guns (Peoples Temple; Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God) is not a simple suicide as generally understood. It is at least an assisted and coerced suicide. - -Whether a religious group is or is not a cult can be a hard question to answer. What is at one point in time considered a cult may later be accepted as a religion and what at one point of time is considered an accepted religion may later become a cult. - -Treatment of cult members - -Mind control -Some form of persuasion or mind control can be used to recruit and maintain members. The objective is to prevent the faithful from thinking critically, and making choices in their own best interest. -""I will state that coercive persuasion and thought reform techniques are effectively practiced on naïve, uninformed subjects with disastrous health consequences. I will try to give enough information to indicate my reasons for further inquiries as well as review of applicable legal processes"". - -The following methods have been used in some or all cults studied: - People are put in physically or emotionally distressing situations; - Their problems are reduced to one simple explanation, which is repeatedly emphasized; - They receive what seems to be unconditional love, acceptance, and attention from a charismatic leader or group; - They get a new identity based on the group; - They are subject to entrapment (isolation from friends, relatives and the mainstream culture) and their access to information is severely controlled. - -This view is disputed by some. Society for the Scientific Study of Religion stated in 1990 that there was not sufficient research for a consensus, and that ""one should not automatically equate the techniques involved in the process of physical coercion and control with those of nonphysical coercion and control"". - -Management style of cults -An oft-repeated criticism of cults is that their management style is dictatorial and exploitative. The following is one example: -""The beliefs of all these cults are absolutist and non-tolerant of other systems of beliefs. Their systems of governance are totalitarian. A requirement of membership is to obey absolutely without questioning. Their interest in the individual’s development within the cult towards some kind of satisfactory individual adult personality is by their doctrines, very low or nonexistent. It is clear that almost all of them emphasize money making in one form or another, although a few seem to be very much involved in demeaning or self denigrating activities and rituals. Most of them that I have studied possess a good deal of property and money which is under the discretionary control of the individual leaders"". - -Use of violence -Ownership of weapons and violence has occurred in some cults. The Branch Davidians under the direction of David Koresh used violence against Federal agencies, with tragic results for both sides. The later FBI report reveals the extent of their arms stockpile. -The People's Temple included guards armed with submachine guns. These guards killed the visiting U.S. Congressman Ryan, and stood around the believers as they committed suicide. Members of the Manson Family were convicted of several murders. - -Related pages -Sect -Religion - -References - -Further reading -Jenkins, Philip 2000. Mystics and messiahs: cults and new religions in American history. Oxford University Press. -Snow, Robert L. 2003. Deadly cults: the crimes of true believers. Praeger/Greenwood. -Tobias, Madeleine Landau; Lalich, Janja and Langone, Michael 1994. Captive hearts, captive minds: freedom and recovery from cults and abusive relationships. -Wohlforth, Tim & Dennis Tourish 2000. On the edge: political cults left and right. Sharpe. -Barrett D.V. 2001. The new believers: a survey of sects, cults and alternative religions. London: Cassell. -Zellner W.W. & Petrowsky Marc 1998. Sects, Cults, and Spiritual Communities: A Sociological Analysis -Dawson, L. Lorne 2006. Comprehending cults: the sociology of new religious movements" -5367,17510,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1606,1606," - -Births - February 12 – John Winthrop, the Younger, Governor of Connecticut (died 1676) - March 3 – Edmund Waller, English poet (died 1687) - May 23 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (d. 1682) - May 25 – Saint Charles Garnier, Jesuit missionary (died 1649) - June 6 – Pierre Corneille, French writer (died 1684) - June 16 – Arthur Chichester, 1st Earl of Donegall, Irish soldier (died 1675) - June 19 – James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (died 1649) - July 15 – Rembrandt, Dutch painter (died 1669) - September 22 – Li Zicheng, Chinese rebel (died 1645) - November 12 – Jeanne Mance, French settler in Montreal (died 1673) - Richard Busby, English clergyman (died 1695) - Leonard Calvert, governor of Baltimore (died 1647) - Edmund Castell, English orientalist (died 1685) - William Davenant, English poet and playwright (died 1668) - Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester (died 1680) - Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, Italian architect and painter (died 1680) - Thomas Harrison, English puritan soldier and Fifth Monarchist (died 1660) - Thomas Herbert, English traveller and historian (died 1682) - John Robartes, 1st Earl of Radnor (died 1685) - Pierre du Ryer, French dramatist (died 1658) - Joachim von Sandrart, German art-historian and painter (died 1688) - Tokugawa Tadanaga, Japanese nobleman (died 1633) - Thomas Washbourne, English clergyman and poet (died 1687)" -11372,41268,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency,Transparency,"In optics, transparency is the property of allowing light to pass through something. - -An object that is transparent can be seen through. That is, what is on the other side of the object can be seen through it. The image you can see through a transparent object is similar to the image you can see without it. It may be changed if the transparent object behaves like a lens. This could change the size or shape of the image. The opposite of transparency is opacity. - -Some animals are transparent, so predators cannot see them so easily. An example of a transparent animal is the jellyfish. Transparency works better in places with a small amount of light than in places with lots of light. - -Translucency -If some light can be seen through an object but some of the detail of the image is lost, it is a translucent material. - -Light passes through a translucent object, but you cannot see objects behind it. The light passes through but the material scatters the light, so you cannot see the object, only its shadow. - -Examples of translucent materials are frosted glass, paper, and some types of amber. - -Optics" -8083,26858,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medusa,Medusa,"Medusa is a character in Greek mythology. Her story has been told and retold by ancient and modern storytellers, writers, and artists. - -The Latin poet Ovid writes in Book IV of his Metamorphoses that Poseidon had raped Medusa in the temple of Athena. The goddess was angry, and changed Medusa into a monster with snakes for hair. To people in Ovid's time, Medusa, not Poseidon, was the one who had done something wrong. - -Artists have made statues and paintings of Medusa for thousands of years. Ancient Greeks and other ancient people painted Medusa's face on pots and doors and other things. In Greek art from this time, artists usually painted or carved people looking out to the side. Medusa was almost always carved looking out of the picture toward the viewer. This was so Medusa could scare evil things away. These pictures of Medusa are called Gorgoneions. They are an example of using one evil thing to make other evil things leave, the same way Perseus used Medusa against his other enemies. - -Myth - -Medusa was one of three sisters, the Gorgons. Medusa's sisters were Stheno and Euryale. Medusa was mortal, but her sisters were immortal. They were all children of the sea gods, Phorkys and his sister Keto. Before they were monsters, all three sisters were beautiful young women, Medusa the most; however, she was a priestess in the temple of Athena and was bound by a vow of celibacy. - -Any man or animal who looked directly upon her was turned to stone. - - - -The hero Perseus cut off Medusa's head. He snuck up on her by using his shiny shield as a mirror. He put Medusa's head in a special bag and then showed it to his enemies. They turned to stone. Then he gave Medusa's head to the gods. Either Zeus or Athena put her head on the shield called aegis. - -Medusa was pregnant by Poseidon at the time of her death. Pegasus, a winged horse, and Chrysaor, a golden giant, sprang from her blood. - -Medusa in art - -Medusa was a subject for ancient vase painters, mosaicists, and sculptors. She appears on the breastplate of Alexander the Great in the Alexander Mosaic at the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Italy (about 200 BC). - -A Roman copy of Phidias' Medusa (left) is held in the Glyptothek in Munich, Germany. - -Among the Renaissance depictions are the sculpture Perseus with the Head of Medusa by Benvenuto Cellini (1554) and the oil painting Medusa by Caravaggio (1597). - - - -Baroque depictions include Head of Medusa by Peter Paul Rubens (1618); the marble bust Medusa by Bernini (1630s); and Perseus Turning Phineus and his Followers to Stone, an oil painting by Luca Giordano from the (early 1680s). - -Romantic and modern depictions include Perseus with the Head of Medusa by Antonio Canova (1801) and Perseus, a sculpture by Salvador Dalí. Twentieth century artists whno tackled the Medusa theme include Paul Klee, John Singer Sargent, Pablo Picasso, Pierre et Gilles, and Auguste Rodin. The twenty-first century sculpture Medusa with the Head of Perseus by Luciano Garbati became part of the #MeToo Movement. - -References - - -Greek legendary creatures -Monsters" -4023,12374,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpongeBob%20SquarePants,SpongeBob SquarePants,"SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated comedy TV show made by the late marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. It premiered on May 1, 1999. - -It is Nickelodeon's most popular show. It has been made into many pieces of merchandise. The main character, SpongeBob is an adult sea sponge that acts like a child. He lives in a pineapple under the sea. The show has gotten three spin-offs: Kamp Koral: SpongeBob's Under Years, The Patrick Star Show, and one with Squidward Tentacles. - -Characters - -The show gets its name from its main character, SpongeBob SquarePants, a male sponge. He looks more like a yellow kitchen sponge used for cleaning dishes than a sea sponge. His best friend is a starfish named Patrick Star. His grumpy neighbor is an octopus named Squidward Tentacles. - -SpongeBob and Squidward work as employees at a restaurant called the Krusty Krab in the underwater town of Bikini Bottom. The Krusty Krab, which is run by a greedy red crab named Mr. Krabs, is famous for its blue Krabby Patty burgers. The recipe for blue Krabby Patties is top secret. The owners of a competing restaurant called the Chum Bucket, Plankton and Karen, often try to steal the recipe. - - SpongeBob SquarePants is the main character and a sea sponge that lives in a pineapple under the sea. He is a fry cook in the Krusty Krab. He is very cheerful and sometimes annoys his selfish neighbor, Squidward. His favorite things to do are jellyfishing (catching jellyfish with a net) and blowing bubbles. - Patrick Star is a starfish and SpongeBob's best friend who lives under a rock. Patrick is goofy, but is a fun-loving character and eats a lot. He is unemployed, but has worked at several places before. - Squidward Tentacles is an octopus and SpongeBob's next-door neighbor. He plays the clarinet and is not good at it, even though he thinks so. He works at the Krusty Krab as the cashier. He says does not like SpongeBob, but SpongeBob thinks they are friends. Squidward is not friendly and thinks that he is better than almost everyone. He is voiced by Rodger Bumpass. - Mr. Krabs is a red crab who is the owner of the Krusty Krab restaurant and SpongeBob and Squidward's boss. He is a single father with one daughter, a whale named Pearl. He and Pearl live in a big anchor. He is very greedy and loves money. He never wants to spend a lot of his money, and sometimes cheats to make more of it. He is voiced by Clancy Brown. - Sheldon J. Plankton is a blue copepod. He is an evil genius and Mr. Krabs' rival. His goal is to steal the secret recipe for Krabby Patties. He runs a restaurant called the Chum Bucket with the help of his talking computer wife named Karen. The Chum Bucket is very unpopular and they never get customers. He is always trying to steal the secret Krabby Patty Formula. He is voiced by Mr. Lawrence. - Karen Plankton is Plankton's sentient computer. - Sandy Cheeks is a brown squirrel from the U.S. state of Texas. She lives in a glass house called a Treedome that lets her breathe under water. When she is out of the dome, she wears a space suit and a fishbowl-like glass helmet around her head filled with fresh air. She is very athletic and works as a scientist. She likes to do karate. She is voiced by Carolyn Lawrence. - Mrs. Puff is a pufferfish who is SpongeBob's teacher at the underwater driving school, Mrs. Puff's Boating School and the Bikini Bottom driving instructor. She is old, patient, and easily scared. She wears a blue collared shirt, a yellow string tie, a red skirt, black shoes, and a blue sailor's cap. SpongeBob really wants to pass Mrs. Puff's class, but he always fails his driving test. She is voiced by Mary Jo Catlett. - Pearl Krabs is a big gray Sperm whale with blonde hair who is the daughter of Mr. Krabs. She is sixteen years old and has a job at the Bikini Bottom Mall. When she grows up, her dad will give his restaurant and his money to her. She usually wears a pink shirt with a dark pink letter P on the front, a purple skirt, and white boots. She is voiced by Lori Alan. - Gary the Snail is SpongeBob's pet sea snail. - -Danish Voice Cast - Jens Jacob Tychsen – Svampebob Firkant - Søren Ulrichs – Patrick Søstjerne - Peter Zhelder – Blækvard Tentakkel - Nis Bank-Mikkelsen – Eugene Krabbe - Annette Heick – Sandy Egern - Torben Sekov – Plankton - Vibeke Dueholm – Mrs. Puff/Karen - -Additional Voices - Lars Thiesgaard - Peter Røschke - Mads M. Nielsen - Michael Elo - Esper Hagen - -Episodes list - -Episodes - -Main places - The show takes place in a fictional city called Bikini Bottom, which is in the floor of the Pacific Ocean beneath Bikini Atoll. The citizens are mostly fish who lives in ship funnels and boatmobiles. - SpongeBob's pineapple house is SpongeBob's home. It has many big rooms even though on the outside it looks just like a small pineapple. It has a large library with many books. - The Krusty Krab is a restaurant in the city of Bikini Bottom. It is run by a crab, Eugene H. Krabs. SpongeBob SquarePants works there as a fry cook, and Squidward Q. Tentacles works as the cashier. The fast food items that are sold include the popular blue Krabby Patty (which is similar to a blue burger), fries, and drinks. - The Chum Bucket is a restaurant across the street from the Krusty Krab. It is owned by Sheldon J. Plankton and Karen Plankton, but it is very unpopular because the food is very bad. Plankton and Karen are always trying to steal the secret recipe for the blue Krabby Patty, which only Mr. Krabs and SpongeBob know. - Mrs. Puff's Boating School is the driving school where SpongeBob often goes to try to get his driver's license. SpongeBob is normally not good at driving and can never get his license without help from a friend. Whenever he gets his license, he soon loses it. - Patrick's boulder is Patrick's home where Patrick lives and sleeps in. In some episodes, Patrick falls out of his boulder. - Squidward's house, an Easter Island head owned by Squidward. In his house, Squidward practices his clarinet and paints pictures. - Mr. Krabs and Pearl's anchor house, a hollow anchor with lots of paintings on the walls. Mr. Krabs and Pearl live inside of it. -Sandy's Treedome is where Sandy cheeks live, she needs a helmet to breathe underwater. However, in her treedome she does not. All sea creatures need a helmet in her treedome to breathe. - Goo Lagoon is a popular beach. Even though the beach is under water, the water in the beach is called ""goo."" In some episodes it is just a lake but in some it is an entire ocean. -Patchy's House is the residence of Patchy the Pirate and Potty the Parrot. It is located at 6248 Agnes Ave, Los Angeles, CA, 91606. It first appears in the episode ""Christmas Who?"". It is in Encino, California. - -Reception - -Ratings and run-length achievements -Within its first month on air, SpongeBob SquarePants overtook Pokémon as the highest rated Saturday-morning children's series on television. It held an average national Nielsen rating of 4.9 among children aged two through eleven, denoting 1.9 million viewers. Two years later, the series had firmly established itself as Nickelodeon's second highest-rated children's program, after Rugrats. SpongeBob SquarePants was credited with helping Nickelodeon take the ""Saturday-morning ratings crown"" for the fourth straight season in 2001. The series had gained a significant adult audience by that point—nearly 40 percent of its 2.2 million viewers were aged 18 to 34. In response to its weekend success, Nickelodeon gave SpongeBob SquarePants time slots at 6:00 PM and 8:00 PM, Monday through Thursday, to increase the series' exposure. By the end of 2001, SpongeBob SquarePants boasted the highest ratings for any children's series, on all of television. Weekly viewership of the series had reached around fifteen million, at least five million of whom were adults. - -Controversies -In 2009, several groups, including the American Family Foundation, attacked SpongeBob for being homosexual. The character had recently appeared on a music video with other kids' show characters to promote diversity and tolerance. However, the creator said in 2002 that SpongeBob is asexual, meaning that he does not seek sexual partners at all. - -Decreasing quality -Many fans and critics believe that after season 11 and the first movie, the series started to decline in quality. This was because many writers from the first three seasons seasons left (although Doug Lawrence, Aaron Springer, Erik Wiese and C.H. Greenblatt still stayed). Some of the later episodes were poorly received because the characters did not act the way they acted in the first three seasons. However, apparently, the show's quality improved once more after the second movie, when Stephen Hillenburg returned, until his death in 2018. - -References - -Notes - -Other websites - -SpongeBob SquarePants -1990s American animated television series -American children's television series -1999 television series debuts -English-language television programs" -6830,21571,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur,Manipur,"Manipur () is a state within the Republic of India. It has area of 8,628 mi² (22,347 km²). In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone. - -The state is bordered by the Indian states of Nagaland to its north, Mizoram to its south and Assam to its west. Its eastern border is the Indian border with Myanmar. Manipur has a long recorded written history of kings ascended in the main throne of Kangla. The list of these kings can be found in a chronicle known as Cheitharol Kumbaba. Cheitharol Kumbaba, also spelled Cheitharon Kumpapa, is the court chronicle of the kings of Manipur. It recorded the history of the Kingdom of Manipur from the founding of the Ningthouja dynasty in 33 CE under king Nongda Lairen Pakhangba until the merger of the kingdom with India in 1949 and the subsequent abolition of monarchy. It ends with the last king of Manipur, Bodhchandra. The Cheitharol Kumbaba is probably one of the oldest chronicles of the region and is written on more than 1000 leaves of Meetei paper in Meetei Mayek, an early Meitei script. - -References - -Other websites" -3329,10034,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%2023,June 23," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 229 Sun Quan declares himself Chinese Emperor of the Wu Dynasty. - 1280 The Emirate of Granada defeats the Kingdom of Castile in the Battle of Moclin. - 1295 Pope Boniface VIII enters Rome. - 1305 Flemish-French peace treaty signed at Athis-sur-Orge. - 1314 Start of the Battle of Bannockburn south of Stirling, Edward II of England and Robert I of Scotland met in battle. Scotland won and Edward fled the field and Scotland. - 1532 Henry VIII & François I sign secret treaty against Emperor Charles V. - 1611 The mutinous crew of Henry Hudson's fourth voyage sets Henry, his son and seven loyal crew members adrift in an open boat in the Atlantic Ocean; they are never heard from again. - 1661 Marriage contract between Charles II of England and Catharina of Portugal. - 1683 William Penn signs friendship treaty with Lenni Lenape Native Americans in Pennsylvania. - 1713 French residents of Acadia given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave Nova Scotia, Canada. - 1724 Russia and Turkey sign Treaty of Constantinople. - 1757 Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey. - 1758 Seven Years War: Battle of Krefeld – British forces defeat French troops at Krefeld in Germany. - 1760 Seven Years War: Battle of Landshut – Austria beats Prussia. - 1794 Empress Catherine II grants Jews permission to settle in Kyiv. - 1810 John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company. - 1812 War of 1812: The United Kingdom removes the restrictions on American commerce, therefore eliminating one of the chief reasons for going to war. - 1848 Beginning of the June Days Uprising in Paris. - 1858 Six-year-old Edgardo Mortara is seized by Papal authorities. - 1860 The US Congress establishes the Government Printing Office. - 1865 American Civil War: At Fort Towson in Oklahoma Territory Confederate General Stand Watie surrenders the last significant rebel army. - 1868 Christopher Latham Sholes receives a patent for the typewriter. - 1887 The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nation's first national park, Banff National Park. - 1888 Frederick Douglass is the first African-American nominated for US president. - 1894 International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin. - 1897 The first women's international chess tournament begins in London. - -1901 2000 - 1913 Second Balkan War: The Greeks defeat the Bulgarians in the Battle of Doiran. - 1914 Mexican Revolution: Pancho Villa takes Zacatecas from Victoriano Huerta - 1915 First wholesale slaughter of Armenian men in Harput (Kharpert), Turkey. - 1919 Estonian War of Independence: Decisive defeat of the ""Baltische Landswehr"" in the Battle of Cesis. - 1924 German serial killer Fritz Haarmann is captured. - 1925 Mount Logan, Canada's highest peak at 5959 metres above sea level, in the Yukon, is climbed for the first time, by a team of 6 climbers, led by Albert MacCarthy. - 1931 Wiley Post and Harold Gatty take off from Roosevelt Field, Long Island in an attempt to accomplish the first round-the-world flight in a single-engine plane. - 1938 The Civil Aeronautics Act is signed into law, forming the Civil Aeronautics Authority in the United States. - 1938 Marineland opens near St. Augustine, Florida. - 1940 World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler surveys newly defeated Paris in now-occupied France. - 1941 Lithuanian Activist Front declares independence (June independence) of Lithuania from Soviet Union; it was only brief however as Nazis occupied Lithuania a few weeks later. - 1942 Holocaust: The first selections for the gas chamber at Auschwitz take place, on a train full of Jews from Paris. - 1943 World War II: British destroyers HMS Eclipse and HMS Laforey sink the Italian submarine Asciangihi in the Mediterranean Sea, after she torpedoes the cruiser HMS Newfoundland. - 1944 Thomas Mann becomes a US citizen. - 1946 An earthquake strikes Vancouver Island. - 1947 The United States Senate follows the United States House of Representatives in overriding U.S. President Harry S. Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act. - 1956 Gamal Abdel Nasser elected president of Egypt. - 1958 The Dutch Reformed Church accepts women ministers. - 1959 Convicted Manhattan Project spy Klaus Fuchs is released after only nine years in prison and allowed to emigrate to Dresden, East Germany (where he resumed a scientific career). - 1959 A fire in a resort hotel in Stalheim, Norway kills 34 people. - 1960 Japan signs security treaty with the U.S. - 1961 Having been signed on December 1, 1959, the Antarctic Treaty goes into effect. - 1967 Cold War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey for the three-day Glassboro Summit Conference. - 1968 74 are killed and 150 injured in a soccer stampede towards a closed exit in a Buenos Aires stadium. - 1969 Warren E. Burger is sworn in as chief justice of the United States Supreme Court by retiring chief Earl Warren. - 1972 Watergate Scandal: U.S. President Richard M. Nixon and White House chief of staff H. R. Haldeman are taped talking about using the Central Intelligence Agency to obstruct the Federal Bureau of Investigation's investigation into the Watergate break-ins. - 1974 In Switzerland, the Canton of Jura separates from the Canton of Bern. - 1979 Sydney: New South Wales Premier Neville Wran officially opens the Eastern Suburbs Railway. It operates as a shuttle between Central & Bondi Junction until full integration with the Illawarra Line during 1980. - 1983 Pope John Paul II meets imprisoned Solidarity leader Lech Walesa in Poland. - 1985 A Boeing 747 carrying Air India Flight 182 blew up at 31,000 feet (9500 m) above the Atlantic Ocean, South of Ireland, killing all 329 aboard. - 1989 The movie Batman is released in the United States. - 1990 Moldova declares independence. - 1992 Mafia boss John Gotti is sentenced to life in prison after being found guilty of conspiracy to commit murder and racketeering on April 2. - 1992 Yitzhak Rabin wins the Israeli parliamentary elections. - 2000 A ferry sinks on the Yangtze river, near Luzhou, in China's Sichuan province, killing 131 people. - -From 2001 - 2001 A magnitude 8.4 earthquake strikes off the coast of Peru. - 2006 Harriet the tortoise dies as one of the world's oldest living creatures, aged around 176 years. - 2013 Nik Wallenda becomes the first man to successfully walk across the Grand Canyon on a tightrope. - 2013 The health of former South African President Nelson Mandela is first reported to be in a ""critical"" state. - 2014 Three journalists working for Al-Jazeera are sentenced to prison in Egypt on accusations of supporting the Muslim Brotherhood. - 2016 The Colombian government and FARC guerrillas sign a peace treaty. - 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum: A majority (51.9%) vote to leave the European Union, making the United Kingdom the first independent country to do so. Majorities in Scotland, Northern Ireland and London all vote to remain. - 2018 Thousands of people protest in Central London against Brexit, two years to the day of the United Kingdom's narrow-majority vote to leave the European Union. - 2018 A bomb is detonated at a political rally attended by Zimbabwean President Emmerson Mnangagwa, in what is considered as an attempt to kill him. - 2018 Tham Luang cave rescue: 12 boys and their assistant football coach get stuck in the Tham Luang cave in northern Thailand; they are discovered alive on July 2, with the internationally followed rescue being completed on July 10. - 2019 Ekrem Imamoglu wins the re-run of the mayoral election in Istanbul, Turkey's largest city; he defeats Binali Yildirim, who was formerly Prime minister of Turkey in Recep Tayyip Erdogan's AK Party. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 47 BC Ptolemy Caesarion of Egypt (d. 30 BC) - 1373 Queen Joan II of Naples (d. 1435) - 1435 Francis II, Duke of Brittany (d. 1488) - 1456 Margaret of Denmark, Queen Consort of Scotland (d. 1486) - 1534 Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (d. 1582) - 1612 André Tacquet, Flemish mathematician (d. 1660) - 1668 Giambattista Vico, Italian philosopher and historian (d. 1744) - 1703 Marie Leszczynska, Queen Consort of France (d. 1768) - 1711 Giovanni Battista Guadagnini, Italian instrument maker (d. 1786) - 1763 Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress of France (d. 1814) - 1772 Cristobal Mendoza, 1st President of Venezuela (d. 1829) - 1800 Karol Marcinkowski, Polish physician and social activist (d. 1846) - 1815 Robert Milligan McLane, American politician and diplomat (d. 1898) - 1824 Carl Reinecke, German musician and composer (d. 1910) - 1863 Sándor Bródy, Hungarian author and journalist (d. 1924) - 1875 Carl Milles, Swedish sculptor (d. 1955) - 1875 Norman Pritchard, Indian athlete (d. 1929) - 1884 Cyclone Taylor, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1979) - 1887 Ernst Rowohlt, German publisher (d. 1960) - 1888 Bronson M. Cutting, American politician (d. 1935) - 1888 Lee Moran, American actor (d. 1961) - 1889 Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet (d. 1966) - 1894 King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (d. 1972) - 1894 Alfred Kinsey, American entomologist and sexologist (d. 1956) - 1897 Alexandru Giugaru, Romanian actor (d. 1986) - -1901 1950 - 1906 King Tribhuvan of Nepal (d. 1955) - 1907 James Meade, English economist (d. 1995) - 1909 Georges Rouquier, French actor, movie director and screenwriter (d. 1989) - 1910 Milt Hinton, American jazz musician (d. 1990) - 1910 Jean Anouilh, French dramatist (d. 1987) - 1910 Gordon B. Hinckley, American Mormon leader (d. 2008) - 1912 Alan Turing, British mathematician (d. 1954) - 1913 William P. Rogers, American politician (d. 2001) - 1916 Ernst Willimowski, Polish footballer (d. 1987) - 1919 Hermann Gmeiner, founder of SOS Children's Villages (d. 1986) - 1919 Mohamed Boudiaf, Algerian political leader (d. 1992) - 1923 Johnny Barnes, Bermudian entertainer (d. 2016) - 1923 Giuseppina Tuissi, Italian Resistance activist (d. 1945) - 1923 Walter Wolfgang, German-British socialist and peace activist (d. 2019) - 1925 John Shepherd-Barron, Scottish inventor (d. 2010) - 1925 Art Modell, American businessman (d. 2012) - 1925 Oliver Smithies, British-American geneticist (d. 2017) - 1926 Arnaldo Pomodoro, Italian sculptor - 1927 Bob Fosse, American choreographer (d. 1987) - 1928 Klaus von Dohnanyi, former Mayor of Hamburg - 1929 June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003) - 1930 Donn F. Eisele, American colonel, pilot and astronaut (d. 1987) - 1931 Ola Ullsten, former Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 2018) - 1931 Gunnar Uusi, Estonian chess player (d. 1981) - 1935 Maurice Ferré, 32nd Mayor of Miami, Florida - 1936 Richard Bach, American writer and pilot - 1936 Jan Hoet, Belgian art historian (d. 2014) - 1936 Costas Simitis, former Prime Minister of Greece - 1937 Martti Ahtisaari, former President of Finland - 1940 Stuart Sutcliffe, British musician (d. 1962) - 1940 Wilma Rudolph, American runner (d. 1994) - 1940 Adam Faith, English singer and actor (d. 2003) - 1940 Derry Irvine, Scottish lawyer, judge and politician - 1940 Willie Wallace, Scottish footballer - 1942 Martin Rees, English cosmologist and astrophysicist - 1943 Albert Pintat, former Prime Minister of Andorra - 1943 James Levine, American conductor - 1943 Vint Cerf, American computer scientist and author - 1945 John Garang, South Sudanese politician (d. 2005) - 1948 Clarence Thomas, American jurist - 1948 Nabarun Bhattacharya, Indian author (d. 2015) - 1950 Orani Joao Tempesta, Brazilian cardinal - -1951 1975 - 1951 Michèle Mouton, French rally driver - 1951 Sergei Skripal, Russian double-agent - 1953 Armen Sarkissian, former Prime Minister and current President of Armenia - 1955 Maggie Philbin, English television and radio presenter - 1955 Jean Tigana, French footballer - 1956 Randy Jackson, American music producer - 1957 Frances McDormand, American actress - 1957 Jochen Schweizer, German entrepreneur - 1960 Tatsuya Uemura, Japanese musician and programmer - 1960 Donald Harrison, American saxophonist, composer and producer - 1960 Fadil Vokrri, Kosovar footballer (d. 2018) - 1961 Andrea Borella, Italian fencer - 1961 John Nicolson, Scottish politician - 1963 Colin Montgomery, Scottish golfer - 1964 Joss Whedon, American television director and movie director - 1964 Kenji Honnami, Japanese footballer - 1965 Paul Arthurs, British guitarist (Oasis) - 1969 Fernanda Ribeiro, Portuguese athlete - 1970 Yann Tiersen, French musician and songwriter - 1972 Zinedine Zidane, French footballer - 1972 Go Oiwa, Japanese footballer - 1972 Selma Blair, American actress - 1973 Marie N, Latvian singer - 1973 Eisuke Nakanishi, Japanese footballer - 1975 KT Tunstall, Scottish singer - 1975 Shuhei Terada, Japanese footballer - -From 1976 - 1976 Patrick Vieira, French footballer - 1976 Emmanuelle Vaugier, Canadian actress, singer, songwriter and model - 1977 Hayden Foxe, Australian footballer - 1977 Miguel Angel Angulo, Spanish footballer - 1977 Jason Mraz, American singer - 1978 Memphis Bleek, American rapper - 1978 Frédéric Leclercq, French singer-songwriter and musician - 1980 Francesca Schiavone, Italian tennis player - 1980 Melissa Rauch, American actress - 1981 Antony Costa, British singer (Blue) - 1982 Derek Boogaard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2011) - 1983 José Manuel Rojas, Chilean footballer - 1984 Takeshi Matsuda, Japanese swimmer - 1984 Duffy, Welsh singer - 1987 Alessia Filippi, Italian swimmer - 1988 Chellsie Memmel, American gymnast - 1989 Jordan Nolan, Canadian ice hockey player - 1989 Ayana Taketatsu, Japanese voice actress - 1989 Lauren Bennett, British dancer, singer and model - 1989 Billie Kay, American professional wrestler - 1991 Katie Armiger, American singer - 1992 Luiza Galiulina, Uzbek gymnast - 1995 Hao Yun, Chinese swimmer - 1995 Danna Paola, Mexican singer and actress - 2004 Mana Ashida, Japanese actress and singer - -Deaths - -Up to 2000 - 79 Vespasian, Roman Emperor (b. 9) - 679 Aethelthryth, Queen of Northumbria - 1018 Henry I, Margrave of Austria - 1222 Constance of Aragon, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1179) - 1516 Ferdinand II of Aragon (b. 1452) - 1555 Pedro Mascarenhas, Portuguese explorer (b. 1470) - 1565 Dragut, Ottoman general (b. 1485) - 1582 Shimizu Muneharu, Japanese military leader (b. 1537) - 1615 Mashita Nagamori, Japanese warlord (b. 1545) - 1677 William Louis, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1647) - 1686 William Coventry, English statesman (b. 1628) - 1691 Suleiman II, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1642) - 1707 John Mill, English theologian (b. 1645) - 1779 Mikael Sehul, Ethiopian warlord (b. 1691) - 1806 Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French zoologist and philosopher (b. 1723) - 1832 James Hall, Scottish geologist (b. 1761) - 1836 James Mill, Scottish philosopher and historian (b. 1773) - 1856 Ivan Kireevsky, Russian literary critic and philosopher (b. 1806) - 1881 Matthias Jakob Scheiden, German botanist (b. 1804) - 1891 Wilhelm Eduard Weber, German physicist (b. 1804) - 1893 William Fox, four-times Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1812) - 1893 Theophilus Shepstone, British-South African politician (b. 1817) - 1914 Bhaktivinoda Thakur, Indian philosopher and spiritual reformist (b. 1838) - 1926 Jon Magnusson, Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1859) - 1945 Giuseppina Tuissi, Italian Resistance activist (b. 1923) - 1959 Boris Vian, French polymath (b. 1920) - 1970 Roscoe Turner, American aviator (b. 1895) - 1980 Varahagiri Venkata Giri, 4th President of India (b. 1894) - 1980 Sanjay Gandhi, son of Indira Gandhi (b. 1946) - 1981 Zarah Leander, Swedish actress and singer (b. 1907) - 1986 Moses I. Finley, British historian (b. 1912) - 1991 Lea Padovani, Italian movie actress (b. 1920) - 1995 Anatoly Tarasov, Russian ice hockey coach (b. 1918) - 1995 Jonas Salk, American biologist and physician (b. 1914) - 1996 Andreas Papandreou, former Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919) - 1997 Betty Shabazz, American activist (b. 1934) - 1998 Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish actress (b. 1911) - 1999 Buster Merryfield, English actor (b. 1920) - 2000 Peter Dubovsky, Slovakian footballer (b. 1972) - -From 2001 - 2001 Yvonne Dionne, one of the Dionne Quintuplets (b. 1934) - 2001 Corinne Calvet, French actress (b. 1925) - 2006 Aaron Spelling, American TV producer (b. 1923) - 2006 Harriet, Galapagos Tortoise (b. 1830) - 2008 Arthur Chung, former President of Guyana (b. 1918) - 2009 Hanne Hiob, German actress (b. 1923) - 2009 Ed McMahon, American television personality (b. 1923) - 2010 Mohammed Mzali, Prime Minister of Tunisia (b. 1925) - 2011 Gene Colan, American comic book artist (b. 1926) - 2011 Dennis Marshall, Costa Rican footballer (b. 1985) - 2011 Peter Falk, American actor (b. 1927) - 2012 Alan McDonald, Northern Irish footballer (b. 1963) - 2012 Brigitte Engerer, French pianist (b. 1952) - 2013 Bobby Bland, American singer-songwriter (b. 1930) - 2013 Richard Matheson, American author (b. 1926) - 2014 Steve Viksten, American television writer and voice actor (b. 1960) - 2015 Chris Woodhead, English educationist (b. 1946) - 2015 Helmuth Lohner, Austrian actor and theatre director (b. 1933) - 2015 Dick Van Patten, American actor (b. 1928) - 2015 Harvey Pollack, American sport statistician (b. 1922) - 2015 Thé Lau, Dutch singer and guitarist (b. 1952) - 2015 Magali Noël, French actress and singer (b. 1931) - 2016 James Green, American historian (b. 1944) - 2016 Stanley Mandelstam, American theoretical physicist (b. 1928) - 2016 Ralph Stanley, American musician (b. 1927) - 2017 Saman Kelegama, Sri Lankan economist (b. 1959) - 2017 Tonny van der Linden, Dutch footballer (b. 1932) - 2017 Mr. Pogo, Japanese professional wrestler (b. 1951) - 2017 Gabe Pressman, American journalist (b. 1924) - 2017 Betty Metcalf, American politician (b. 1921) - 2018 Alberto Fouilloux, Chilean footballer (b. 1940) - 2018 Donald Hall, American poet (b. 1928) - 2018 Kim Jong-pil, Prime minister of South Korea (b. 1926) - 2018 Violeta Rivas, Argentine singer and actress (b. 1937) - 2019 Peter Ball, English bishop and convicted sex offender (b. 1932) - 2019 Dave Bartholomew, American musician, bandleader and songwriter (b. 1918) - 2019 Andrey Kharitonov, Russian actor (b. 1959) - 2019 Fernando Roldán, Chilean footballer (b. 1920) - 2019 George Rosenkranz, Hungarian-Mexican chemist (b. 1916) - 2019 Abdul Sattar, Pakistani political scientist and diplomat (b. 1931) - -Observances - National Day of Luxembourg (Grand Duke's official birthday) - Saint John's Eve, midsummer celebrations in some Northern Hemisphere countries - New Year in the Mapuche culture in southern Chile, related to the Southern Hemisphere's Winter solstice - United Nations Public Service Day - Victory Day (Estonia) - Father's Day (Poland, Nicaragua and Uganda) - Okinawa Memorial Day (after end of Battle of Okinawa) - -Days of the year" -22056,83851,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stetten%2C%20Aargau,"Stetten, Aargau","Stetten is a municipality of the district of Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Aargau" -3007,9463,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thurso,Thurso,"Thurso is a town in north Scotland. The town has a population of 8,721 (2001 census) - -Towns in Scotland" -4212,13190,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20album,Live album,"A live album is an album that has live songs. These live songs are played on stage at a concert, instead of recorded in a studio. People record the songs and put them on a CD." -12047,44312,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan,Clan,"A clan is a group of people who – following a tradition – belong to the same kin. The word comes from the Gaelic language, and means 'family'. It is similar in meaning to the more general word tribe. - -In Europe, the best-known clans system is that in Scotland, which still has some effects today, especially in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. It existed before the land was unified under a Scottish king, and continued long afterwards. Clans also -existed in Ireland - -Social sciences -Family -Relationships" -1443,5073,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Korea,South Korea,"South Korea is a country in the southern part of the Korean peninsula, in the north east region of Asia. The capital city is Seoul. The official name of South Korea is the Republic of Korea in English, 대한민국 (Daehan Minguk) in Korean writing (Hangeul), and 大韓民國 in Chinese characters (Hanja). About half of the country's people live in its capital city, Seoul, or near the city in the metropolitan area. Korea's Seoul metropolitan area is one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. In fact, some sources say it is the second most populous after Tokyo, Japan. Recently, South Korea has become a significant cultural power, largely due to bands like BTS, korean drama, as well as its economic miracle. - -History -South Korea's history began with Dangunwanggeom's Gojoseon. Gojoseon was conquered by Han China. After Gojoseon collapsed, there were a lot of countries such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongyae and Samhan. But Baekje, Goguryeo and Silla were the strongest. So their period began, and it is called the Three Kingdoms Period. Goguryeo and Baekje were conquered by Silla and Dang China's allied forces, and Silla unified the three kingdoms. There was another country, Balhae. Balhae was founded by Dae Jo-Young. Later Silla and Balhae's period is called South and North Countries Period. A rebellion in Later Silla caused the birth of a new nation: Goryeo, which was founded by Wanggeon. Mongolia's invaded Goryeo. Near the end of the Goryeo period, there was a great general Lee Seong-Gye. The king of Goryeo directed him to occupy Yodong, but he opposed. However, Lee Seong-Gye went to Yodong to occupy it, but he returned to Goryeo and he revolted. His revolt succeeded, and he founded the country Joseon. Joseon's first king, Taejo, moved the capital to Hanyang (Seoul). Joseon's fourth king, Sejong, made the Korean alphabet, Hangeul. Joseon's twenty-second king, Jeongjo, built Hwaseong Fortress in Suwon. Joseon's twenty-sixth king, Gojong, changed the country's name to Daehanjeguk. When Daehanjaeguk's power weakened, Japan occupied it for 35 years until Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945. In 1950, there was a large and deadly war, the Korean War, which killed millions of people. As a result, Korea was split into two countries, North and South. - -Geography -South Korea is in East Asia, bordering North Korea, and is surrounded by water on three sides, as it makes up the southern part of the Korean peninsula. It is separated from Japan by the Sea of Japan (known as East Sea by the South Koreans). South Korea is mainly mountainous, and there are many islands off the south coast. The capital city, Seoul, is quite close to the North Korean border. The largest island is Jeju Island and the highest mountain is Hallasan, on Jeju. The country is slightly smaller than Iceland and Virginia. - -Politics and government -South Korea is a democracy, meaning that people can vote for their government. However, this is recent. South Korea was an authoritarian dictatorship for most of its history. The President of South Korea is elected to a five-year term, and cannot stand in a Presidential Election for a second time. The current president is Moon Jae-in since 10 May 2017. The previous president, Park Geun-hye, was impeached for corruption. - -Science and technology -South Korea known for a lot of technology. This includes the car-makers Hyundai and Kia. The well-known global brand Samsung and LG, which make mobile phones, semi-conductors and electric devices, is also South Korean. - -Culture -South Korea has been affected by both continental culture and marine culture because it is located on a peninsula. Ancient South Korean culture has developed with the culture of Siberia, the northern part of Central Asia, the southern part of Southeast Asia and neighboring countries like China. - -Language -South Korea's customary and official language is Korean. Many linguists says that it is linked with Altaic languages. Hangul, the alphabet which is used to write Korean, was published by King Sejong the Great of Joseon in 1446. It is the only alphabet in the word whose creator, invention day and invention principle is known. - -Food -A customary South Korean regular meal is made up of rice, Korean soup, kimchi and other various dishes. Generally, Korean dishes are seasoned with sesame oil, soy bean paste, soy sauce, salt, ginger and chilli pepper paste. The most famous traditional food of Korea, kimchi, is eaten with nearly every meal. There are lots of popular South Korean typical foods such as bibimbap, tteokbokki, and bulgogi. - -Religion - -In South Korea, 19.7% of people are Protestant, 6.6% are Catholic, 23.2% are Buddhist, 49.3% have no religion, and 1.3% either are a part of other religions or have beliefs that are unknown. - -Music -The most representative traditional music of Korea is Arirang and every region has its own folk song. Many South Korean singers are well known in world as K-pop is steadily developing. Famous K-pop artists include BTS, BLACKPINK, EXO, TWICE & NCT. - -Hip hop artists such as Zico, Jvcki Wai, San E & Giriboy are also popular. - -Circumcision -77% of male are circumcised, this tradition was taken by US American. - -Cities and provinces -South Korea has 1 special city (Teukbyeolsi; 특별시; 特別市), 1 special self-governing city (Teukbyeol-Jachisi; 특별자치시; 特別自治市) 6 metropolitan cities (Gwangyeoksi; 광역시; 廣域市), and 9 provinces (do; 도; 道). The names below are given in English, Revised Romanization, Hangeul, and Hanja. - -Special city - Seoul Special City (Seoul-teukbyeolsi; 서울특별시; 서울特別市) - Note: 서울 (Seoul) itself has no corresponding Hanja. -Busan Metropolitan City (Busan-gwangyeoksi; 부산광역시) - -Special self-governing city - Sejong special self-governing city (Sejong-teukbyeol-jachasi 세종특별자치시; 世宗特別自治市) - -Metropolitan cities - Busan Metropolitan City (Busan-gwangyeoksi; 부산광역시; 釜山廣域市) - Daegu Metropolitan City (Daegu-gwangyeoksi; 대구광역시; 大邱廣域市) - Daejeon Metropolitan City (Daejeon-gwangyeoksi; 대전광역시; 大田廣域市) - Gwangju Metropolitan City (Gwangju-gwangyeoksi; 광주광역시; 光州廣域市) - Incheon Metropolitan City (Incheon-gwangyeoksi; 인천광역시; 仁川廣域市) - Ulsan Metropolitan City (Ulsan-gwangyeoksi; 울산광역시; 蔚山廣域市) - -Provinces - Gyeonggi Province (Gyeonggi-do; 경기도; 京畿道) - Gangwon Province (Gangwon-do; 강원도; 江原道) - North Chungcheong Province (Chungcheongbuk-do; 충청 북도; 忠清北道) - South Chungcheong Province (Chungcheongnam-do; 충청 남도; 忠清南道) - North Jeolla Province (Jeollabuk-do; 전라 북도; 全羅北道) - South Jeolla Province (Jeollanam-do; 전라 남도; 全羅南道) - North Gyeongsang Province (Gyeongsangbuk-do; 경상 북도; 慶尚北道) - South Gyeongsang Province(Gyeongsangnam-do; 경상 남도; 慶尚南道) - Jeju Province (Jeju-do; 제주도; 濟州道) - -References - -Further reading - - Breen, Michael (2004). The Koreans: Who They Are, What They Want, Where Their Future Lies, St. Martin's Griffin. . - Cumings, Bruce (1997). Korea's place in the sun, New York: W.W. Norton. . - Hart, Dennis (2003). From Tradition to Consumption: Constructing a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. . - Hawley, Samuel (2005). The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China, The Royal Asiatic Society. . - KOIS (2003). Handbook of Korea, 11 edition, Hollym. . - Nahm, Andrew C. (1996). Korea: A history of the Korean people, 2 edition, Hollym. . - Yang, Sung Chul (1999). The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis, Hollym. . - Yonhap News Agency (2004). Korea Annual 2004. . - - -1945 establishments in Asia" -2222,7442,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday%20Night%20Live,Saturday Night Live,"Saturday Night Live (SNL) is a popular American television program. It has been broadcast on Saturday nights since October 11, 1975. It is one of the longest-running television programs in American television. It is broadcast from NBC studios in New York City. The name comes from the fact that the program is aired live on Saturday nights at 11:30 PM EST. This is a rarity in the age of filming and videotape. SNL is shown in re-runs in the summer and on cable TV. The program usually consists of the following: - -Comedy sketches -A celebrity host, usually an actor or comedian -A popular band/musician performing a recent song -Weekend Update, a satirical newscast usually featuring celebrity impressions -Parody commercials -Various short movies, animated segments and the like. - -Saturday Night Live was created and executive-produced by Lorne Michaels and started in 1975 as NBC's Saturday Night. Many famous comic actors got their starts being cast members on the program. The show has led to several movies, books, DVDs, and has been the inspiration for a couple of other TV shows. It has been nominated for 183 Emmy Awards and won 42. - -""Live from New York, it's Saturday night!"" is said near the beginning of every episode. - -Actors on SNL -Many cast members have come and gone in the history of Saturday Night Live. Here is a list of some of those cast members and how long they lasted on the show. - -Chevy Chase (1975 to 1976) -Dan Aykroyd (1975 to 1979) -Eddie Murphy (1980 to 1984) -Billy Crystal (1984 to 1985) -Robert Downey, Jr. (1985 to 1986) -Mike Myers (1988 to 1995) -Chris Rock (1990 to 1993) -Adam Sandler (1990 to 1995) -Chris Farley (1990 to 1995) -Janeane Garofalo (1994 to 1995) -Will Ferrell (1995 to 2002) -Tina Fey (2000 to 2006) -Amy Poehler (2001 to 2008) -Jimmy Fallon (1998 to 2004) -Seth Meyers (2001 to 2014) - -Memorable Impressions -Many cast members have impressions of celebrities on Saturday Night Live. Here is a list of some of those actors having impressions of celebrities. - -Chevy Chase as Gerald R. Ford -Phil Hartman as Ronald Reagan -Will Ferrell as George W. Bush -Tina Fey as Sarah Palin -Amy Poehler as Hillary Clinton -Kate McKinnon as Hillary Clinton -Kate McKinnon as Kellyanne Conway -Darrell Hammond as Bill Clinton -Darrell Hammond as Donald Trump -Alec Baldwin as Donald Trump -Darrell Hammond as Sean Connery -Will Ferrell as Alex Trebek -Larry David as Bernie Sanders -Melissa McCarthy as Sean Spicer - -Memorable sketches -Weekend Update -The Californians -Celebrity Jeopardy -Wayne's World - -Seasons and cast members - The cast members for season one were Dan Aykroyd, John Belushi, Chevy Chase, George Coe, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Laraine Newman, Michael O'Donoghue, and Gilda Radner. - The cast members for season two were Dan Aykroyd, John Belushi, Chevy Chase, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Bill Murray, Laraine Newman, and Gilda Radner. - The cast members for season three were Dan Aykroyd, John Belushi, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Bill Murray, Laraine Newman, and Gilda Radner. The featured players were Tom Davis and Al Franken. - The cast members for season four were Dan Aykroyd, John Belushi, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Bill Murray, Laraine Newman, and Gilda Radner. The featured players were Tom Davis and Al Franken. - The cast members for season five were Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Bill Murray, Laraine Newman, Gilda Radner, and Harry Shearer. The featured players were Peter Aykroyd, Tom Davis, Jim Downey, Brian Doyle-Murray, Al Franken, Don Novello, Tom Schiller, Paul Shaffer, and Alan Zweibel. - The cast members for season six were Denny Dillon, Gilbert Gottfried, Gail Matthius, Eddie Murphy, Joe Piscopo, Ann Risley, and Charles Rocket. The featured players were Yvonne Hudson, Matthew Laurance, and Patrick Weathers. - The cast members for season seven were Robin Duke, Christine Ebersole, Mary Gross, Tim Kazurinsky, Eddie Murphy, Joe Piscopo, and Tony Rosato. The featured player was Brian Doyle-Murray. - The cast members for season eight were Robin Duke, Mary Gross, Brad Hall, Tim Kazurinsky, Gary Kroeger, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Eddie Murphy, and Joe Piscopo. - The cast members for season nine were Jim Belushi, Robin Duke, Mary Gross, Brad Hall, Tim Kazurinsky, Gary Kroeger, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Eddie Murphy, and Joe Piscopo. - The cast members for season ten were Jim Belushi, Billy Crystal, Mary Gross, Christopher Guest, Rich Hall, Gary Kroeger, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Harry Shearer, Martin Short, and Pamela Stephenson. - The cast members for season eleven were Joan Cusack. Robert Downey, Nora Dunn, Anthony Michael Hall, Jon Lovitz, Dennis Miller, Randy Quaid, Terry Sweeney, and Danitra Vance. The featured players were A. Whitney Brown, Al Franken, Don Novello, Dan Vitale, and Damon Wayans. - The cast members for season twelve were Dana Carvey, Nora Dunn, Phil Hartman, Jan Hooks, Victoria Jackson, Jon Lovitz, and Dennis Miller. The featured players were A. Whitney Brown, and Kevin Nealon. - The cast members for season thirteen were Dana Carvey, Nora Dunn, Phil Hartman, Jan Hooks, Victoria Jackson, Jon Lovitz, Dennis Miller, and Kevin Nealon. The featured player was A. Whitney Brown. - The cast members for season fourteen were Dana Carvey, Nora Dunn, Phil Hartman, Jan Hooks, Victoria Jackson, Jon Lovitz, Dennis Miller, and Kevin Nealon. The featured players were A. Whitney Brown, Al Franken, Mike Myers, and Ben Stiller. - The cast members for season fifteen were Dana Carvey, Nora Dunn, Phil Hartman, Jan Hooks, Victoria Jackson, Jon Lovitz, Dennis Miller, Mike Myers, and Kevin Nealon. The featured players were A. Whitney Brown and Al Franken. - The cast members for season sixteen were Dana Carvey, Phil Hartman, Jan Hooks, Victoria Jackson, Dennis Miller, Mike Myers, and Kevin Nealon. This season also starred Chris Farley, Tim Meadows, Chris Rock, and Julia Sweeney. The featured players were A. Whitney Brown, Al Franken, Adam Sandler, Rob Schneider, and David Spade - The cast members for season seventeen were Dana Carvey, Chris Farley, Phil Hartman, Victoria Jackson, Mike Myers, Kevin Nealon, Chris Rock, and Julia Sweeney. This season also starred Ellen Cleghorne, Siobhan Fallon, Tim Meadows, Adam Sandler, Rob Schneider, and David Spade. The featured players were Beth Cahill, Al Franken, Melanie Hutsell, and Robert Smigel - The cast members for season eighteen were Dana Carvey, Chris Farley, Phil Hartman, Mike Myers, Kevin Nealon, Chris Rock, Rob Schneider, and Julia Sweeney. This season also starred Ellen Cleghorne, Melanie Hutsell, Tim Meadows, Adam Sandler, and David Spade. The featured players were Al Franken, and Robert Smigel. - -References - -Other websites - -1975 American television series debuts -1970s American comedy television series -1980s American comedy television series -1990s American comedy television series -2000s American comedy television series -2010s American comedy television series -Entertainment in New York City -NBC network shows -Emmy Award winning programs -English-language television programs" -4942,15629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepali,Nepali,"Nepali could mean: -Anything related to Nepal -Nepali language or Gorkhali – the official language of modern Nepal as well as parts of India and Bhutan -Nepal Bhasa or Newari – the literary language of the Kathmandu Valley and the old state of Nepal" -18679,70091,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Ignacio%20Molina,Juan Ignacio Molina,"Juan Ignacio Molina. Born June 24 1740; Died September 12 1829; Chilean Naturalist. -He is usually referred to as Abate Molina (form of Abbott Molina). He wrote Compendio della storia geografica, naturale e civile del regno del Cile (1776), latter translated in English, French, German and Spanish. The journal Moliniana is dedicated in his honour. - -Related pages -List of biologists - -Source -Charles E. Ronan: Juan Ignacio Molina. The World's Window on Chile. - -Naturalists -Zoologists" -12032,44253,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not,Not,"The word not negates the meaning of the word or phrase following it; see No. - -Not, NOT, NOTs, or NOTS may also refer to: - - ... Not!, an expression used to contradict a statement before it, popular during the early 1990s - Negation, unary operator in logic depicted as ~, ¬, or ! - NOT gate, a digital logic gate (commonly called an inverter) - -Related pages - And (disambiguation) - Negative (disambiguation) - Knot" -18998,71629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%203166-1,ISO 3166-1,"ISO 3166-1, is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It gives a code for the names of countries and dependent territories, and is published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The official name of the standard is Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes. There are three sets of country codes: - ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, a two-letter system, used in many applications, for example internet country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). - ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, uses three letters, and makes it easier to work out the country name and code. - ISO 3166-1 numeric, uses three digits. Using numbers is useful in countries that do not use the Latin alphabet. This is identical to codes defined by the United Nations Statistics Division. - -ISO 3166-1 is not the only standard for country codes. Many international organizations use their own country codes, where some of them closely correspond to the ISO 3166-1 codes. For examples, see country codes. - -Rules for inclusion -Currently, 244 countries and territories have official ISO 3166-1 codes. The only way to enter a new country name into ISO 3166-1 is to have it registered in one of the following two sources: - United Nations Terminology Bulletin Country Names, or - Country and Region Codes for Statistical Use of the UN Statistics Division. - -To be listed in the bulletin Country Names, a country or territory must be any of the following: - a member country of the United Nations, - a member of one of its specialized agencies, or - a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. - -Once a country name or territory name appears in either of these two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default. - -Officially assigned code elements -The following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding code list in alphabetical order by the English short country names officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA), which uses country names from United Nations sources. -The table includes officially assigned codes only. - -Reserved and user-assigned code elements -Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes. - -Reserved code elements are codes which, while not ISO 3166-1 codes, are in use for some applications in conjunction with the ISO 3166 codes. They are reserved to add flexibility to the coding system. Usually, obsolete codes may be kept as reserved, while some overseas territories, international organizations, and special nationality status have reserved codes of their own. See the corresponding sections in ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 for their respective reserved codes (ISO 3166-1 numeric does not have reserved codes). - -User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use them in the updating process of the standard. See the corresponding sections in ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 and ISO 3166-1 numeric for their respective user-assigned codes. - -Changes -A country or territory may get new codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. A country generally gets new alphabetical codes if its name changes, whereas a new numeric code is associated with a change of boundaries. Changes to ISO 3166-1 are announced in periodic newsletters, of which 12 have been released since the first edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 1997: - Newsletter V-1 – Published 1998-02-05: change of official name of Samoa - Newsletter V-2 – Published 1999-10-01: new entries for Palestinian Territory, Occupied - Newsletter V-3 – Published 2002-02-01: change of alpha-3 code element for Romania - Newsletter V-4 – Published 2002-05-20: name changes for various countries - Newsletter V-5 – Published 2002-05-20: change of names and alphabetical code elements for East Timor - Newsletter V-6 – Published 2002-11-15: change of names for East Timor (to Timor-Leste) - Newsletter V-7 – Published 2002-11-15: change of official name of Comoros - Newsletter V-8 – Published 2003-07-23: deletion of Yugoslavia, new entry for Serbia and Montenegro - Newsletter V-9 – Published 2004-02-13: new entry for Åland Islands - Newsletter V-10 – Published 2004-04-26: name changes for Afghanistan and Åland Islands - Newsletter V-11 – Published 2006-03-29: new entries for Guernsey, Isle of Man and Jersey - Newsletter V-12 – Published 2006-09-26: deletion of Serbia and Montenegro, new entries for Montenegro and Serbia -The second edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 2007, which comprises a consolidation of all changes to the lists as published in the newsletters above. - -Related pages - ISO 3166-2 - List of IOC country codes, slightly different codes from ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes, used by the International Olympic Committee - List of FIFA country codes, slightly different codes from ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 codes, used by FIFA - Comparison of IOC, FIFA, and ISO 3166 country codes - Federal Information Processing Standard - -References - -Notes - -Information on reserved codes taken from ""Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1"" published by Secretariat of ISO/TC 46, ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, 2001-02-13, available on request from ISO 3166/MA. - -Other websites - ISO 3166/MA – ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency at the International Organization for Standardization – includes up-to-date lists of two-letter codes. - United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country or Area Codes for Statistical Use – includes three-letter and numeric codes. - CIA World Factbook – Cross-Reference List of Country Data Codes (public domain) - a list of ISO 3166-1 codes (including three-letter and numeric codes), and includes information about changes that have been made over the years. - an xml document containing country codes and country names in 7 languages. - A page detailing all the ISO 3166-1 ""2 digit codes"" from FlagsInformation.com. - -ISO 3166 -Lists of countries -Country codes" -7990,26444,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGV,TGV,"The TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse, French for ""high-speed train""), is a category of high speed trains. They are used in France. They are also used for some travel between France and England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The trains normally travel at speeds between 270 km/h and 320 km/h. They are the fastest normal trains in the world, their average travel speed is at 279,4 km/h. - -In 2007, a special TGV set the speed record for rail vehicles, reaching 574,8 km/h. - -Inside France, there are the following high speed lines - Paris to Lyon, later to Valence, Avignon and Marseille. - Paris to Tours and Le Mans. Also used to run trains to Poitiers and Bordeaux. - Paris to Lille, later Brussels (known as Thalys) and Calais, Dover, London (known as Eurostar). - Paris to Strasbourg, sometimes to Frankfurt am Main, Basel and Zürich. The first part of this line has been built. The high-speed track ends at a station, about half-way between Nancy and Metz. Strasbourg is currently reachable from Paris is about two and a half hours, Basel takes 3.20, and Zürich about 4.30. The extension of the line to Strasbourg has been started, - -Lines to Spain and Italy are being planned. A High speed line to Germany is being built. - -The building of the network has made travel times much shorter. Paris to Marseille (750 km) can now be done in 3 hours. Two thirds of the traffic volume is done by the TGV, only one third is done by airplanes. - -TGVs for other uses -Since the beginning of the high-speed rail network, the French Poste uses TGVs to transport mail, mostly between Paris, Mâcon and Cavaillon.But the train was retired in 2015. These use the high-speed lines (LGV Sud-Est) during the night. - -In the north of France, the high-speed lines are also used to run regional trains over longer distances. There are currently train from Lille to Dunkerque. This takes half an hour. Other lines run to Calais, in forty minutes, or to Boulogne-sur-Mer in 55. In 2007, a line to Arras was opened, which is also very successful. Unfortunately, there are some problems with this approach. First, only high-speed lines can be used that are not saturated, because these trains run slower than regular TGVs. Secondly, using a TGV line costs more to the client, they have to pay extra. This makes these services more expensive. - -References - -Transport in France -Rapid transit systems -High-speed trains" -1364,4826,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature,Signature,"A signature is a special way that people write their name to let others know that they understand or approve of something that was written. A signature is often used to sign a contract, a cheque, or a petition. - -There are many ways to write a signature, and signatures may look different depending on your location. In the United States, many people have a signature which is made from writing their name in their own handwriting, often in cursive. Some signatures may be written in a different style than normal writing, which may make it difficult to read. Some people practice autographs, or fancy signatures that are hard to copy. - -Hundreds of years ago some people used sealing wax to make a copy of their signet rings next to or instead of a signature. This was called their ""seal. This is where the term ""seal of approval"" comes from. Some formal documents still use an official wax seal, such as a coat of arms. - -Types of signatures -Wet signature:- A wet signature, ink signature, or wet ink signature is the physical marking a person makes to sign their name on a physical document, usually with a pen. - -Wet signatures are the most common kind of signatures and have been used for centuries as a unique marking to indicate agreement and prevent fraud. Physical signatures have been used since 3500 B.C. in the form of seals, but it was in the 1600s when signatures written on paper became widely used and legally valid. - -Although wet signatures can be forged by skilled people, they were the norm until the beginning of the 21st century, when online signatures started to become legally binding. - -Electronic signature or E-signature:- Software programmes allow an electronic representation of a signature to be used that’s been created by the software. - -Digital signature:- A digital signature is a signature created by the authoriser such as copying, pasting and embedding a copy of their signature or a signature created using a stylus pen. - -References -Writing -Authentication methods" -23711,91358,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan%20Ross,Ryan Ross,"George Ryan Ross III (b. August 30, 1986) is an American guitarist and singer. He was a member of the band Panic! at the Disco. He is from Summerlin, Nevada. - -Ross knew fellow Panic! drummer Spencer Smith since he was five. At the age of twelve, the two covered Blink-182 songs in a band called Pet Salamander. Later, he was in the band The Summer League with Smith and ex-Panic! bassist Brent Wilson. After high school, Ross went to the University of Las Vegas. He left after one semester to work in the band. During the times, his parents were having trouble and unhappy. His father was having problems with alcoholism. While seeing this, Ryan wrote two songs on the album about his experiences with his father. His father died in July 2006. Ryan had to deal with the death of his father while in the middle of Panic's summer tour. In July 2009, Ross said that he would be leaving Panic! At The Disco. He said he was leaving because of ""creative differences."" He said that he and Jon Walker, who also left, would continue to make music. - -Ross and Walker then started a band called The Young Veins, which released one album, Take a Vacation! and went on 'indefinite hiatus' in mid-2011. - -Ross lives in Los Angeles. - -Other websites - - - Official Panic! at the Disco web site - -Musicians from Las Vegas, Nevada -American guitarists -Singers from Las Vegas, Nevada -American rock musicians -American punk musicians -American rock singers -Panic! at the Disco -1986 births -Living people" -24130,93087,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weekly%20Sh%C5%8Dnen%20Jump,Weekly Shōnen Jump,"is a manga magazine aimed at teens made by Shueisha. The magazine is also known as Shonen Jump, Weekly Jump, or Jump. The manga from the magazine are made into Jump Comics. - -International Magazines - -These books are released on a monthly basis, whereas the Japanese magazine is released on a weekly basis. - -SHONEN JUMP - -The printer of magazines, Shueisha joined the printer of manga VIZ Media, LLC. (before heard as Viz Communications, LLC.) to print a monthly work of Weekly Shonen Jump. The first print was made in 2003 with picture of Goku on the front. The English words in the magazine used circumflexes besides macrons. Not all the time the magazine does this. - -BANZAI! - -The Weekly Jump magazine is printed as the magazine BANZAI! in Germany. The printer of magazines, Carlsen Verlag created the printed book. The first issue was in 2001 and stopped going in 2005. The printed book put the series Hakuchi One, I""s, Shaman King, Nekomajin, DNA2, Sand Land, Dr. Slump, Halloweens, and Hunter x Hunter. Two book labels were made for the manga called Best of BANZAI! and BANZAI! präsentiert (BANZAI! presents). - -Swedish Shonen Jump - -The Swedish printed version was made by Bonnier Carlsen. The printed book only appeared in 2007 and put the manga Yu-Gi-Oh!, Naruto, and Shaman King in it. The manga Bleach was printed in it after the other manga. The book also had short manga like Sand Land; and made people learn how to create manga.Hishodi Madutsu:the final Hishodo madutsu - -Norwegian Shonen Jump - -The Norwegian printed book was made by Shibsted. The book was printed through 2005-2007. The magazine put series like Rurouni Kenshin, Yu-Gi-Oh!, and Shaman King. The comics Shaman King and Naruto are going to be printed in books. Two labels were made for the manga called En Bok Fra Shonen Jump (A Book From Shonen Jump) and Dragon Ball Ekstra (Dragon Ball Extra). - -References - -Other websites -Pop Web Jump -SHONEN JUMP -SHONEN JUMP ! -Norwegien Shonen Jump website -BANZAI! Official website - -Manga -Magazines of Asia" -12112,44619,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentaceratops,Pentaceratops,"Pentaceratops was a very large ceratopsian dinosaur. It was almost 11 meters in length and 4 meters tall. It was larger than Triceratops. - -Ceratopsids" -3676,11133,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho,Idaho,"Idaho is a state in the northwestern United States, and was the 43rd state to join the union. - -Idaho became a state in 1890, and it is the 11th largest state in land area, and the 14th largest in total area (land and water). Despite this, the population of Idaho was estimated at only 1,787,065 by the United States Census Bureau in 2019, making it ranked the 39th largest state by population. - -Idaho is bordered by Washington and Oregon on the west, Montana and Wyoming on the east, Utah and Nevada on the south and the country of Canada (British Columbia) on the north side. Idaho is known for its vast mountainous landscapes, and it is literally covered from north to south by the Rocky Mountains. Idaho is also home to the massive Snake River, which comes from the Grand Tetons in Wyoming and eventually flows to meld with the Columbia River in Washington state. This river dissects Hell's Canyon, the deepest gorge in America, which lies the state's Oregon border, and flows through south central Idaho. This river provides a fertile plain which is the base for most of the state's agricultural industries, and the production of the potatoes for which Idaho is known. Idaho's state nickname is the ""Gem State"", despite also being known as the ""Spud State"", because of a man named George M. Willing who claimed it was derived from a Shoshone term. - -Idaho's most prominent universities are Boise State University in its capital, Idaho State University in Pocatello, and the University of Idaho in Moscow. - -Idaho's state motto is Esto perpetua, which is Latin for ""Let it be forever"". - -Cities and towns - -Population > 100,000 (city area) - Boise (state capital) -Population > 50,000 (city area) - Idaho Falls – The main offices of the Idaho National Laboratory are here - Nampa – Home of Northwest Nazarene University - Pocatello – Home of Idaho State University - Meridian – Suburb of Boise -Population > 30,000 (city area) - Caldwell – Home of the College of Idaho - Coeur d'Alene – Home of North Idaho College, major tourist hub - Lewiston – Home of Lewis-Clark State College - Twin Falls – Home of College of Southern Idaho -Population > 10,000 (city area) - Ammon – Suburb of Idaho Falls - Blackfoot – Home of the Idaho Potato Museum - Burley - Eagle – Suburb of Boise - Garden City – Suburb of Boise - Hayden - Jerome - Kuna – Suburb of Boise - Moscow – Home of the University of Idaho - Mountain Home – U.S. Air Force Base - Post Falls - Rexburg – Home of Brigham Young University-Idaho - -Smaller Towns and Cities - American Falls – First town to be entirely moved - Arco – First city to be lit by electricity from a nuclear power plant - Bonners Ferry – Northernmost major town in Idaho - Buhl – ""Trout capital of the world"" - Bone- Population 2 - Driggs – skiing - Eden - Emmett - Greenleaf - Firth - Fruitland - Filer – Suburb of Twin Falls - Hazelton - Homedale – town's name was chosen from a hat - Island Park - Kimberly – Suburb of Twin Falls - Kellogg – skiing - Malad City - McCall – skiing - Melba, Idaho - South of Nampa, Idaho - Middleton - Montpelier bank robbed by the wild bunch - Mullan – mining for silver, lead, zinc - New Meadows - at the 45th parallel north - New Plymouth – first planned community in Idaho, third west of the Rocky Mountains - Notus - Oakley – pioneer town, home of many historic buildings - Orofino – Clearwater County seat, site of Dworshak Dam - Paris – Bear Lake County seat - Parma - Payette – Payette County seat - Plummer- CDA tribal headquarters - Preston- location of the 2004 film Napoleon Dynamite and the annual International Bed Races - Rupert- Minidoka County seat - Rigby – Television birthplace - Salmon – Gateway to ""River of No Return"" (Salmon River) - Sandpoint – skiing (Schweitzer Mountain Ski Resort) and Recreation Lake Pend Oreille - Shelley – Home of the Russet SPUD - Soda Springs – U.S.'s only captive geyser - St. Anthony – sand dunes and several lava tubes - St. Maries – Benewah County seat - Stanley, Idaho – center of the Sawtooth mountains - Star, Idaho - Sun Valley – Year-round resort with skiing - Wallace – Historic district and Shoshone County seat - Weiser – Washington County seat, home of the National Oldtime Fiddlers' Contest - Wilder - Worley – casino - -History of Idaho -Idaho was formerly Idaho Territory, until July 27, 1890, when it became the 43rd state. In the 1930s, Idaho suffered a lot economically as as a result of the Great Depression. Prices plummeted for Idaho's major crops: in 1932, a bushel of potatoes was worth only ten cents compared to $1.51 in 1919, while Idaho farmers´ annual income of $686 in 1929 fell to just $250 by 1932. - -Politics -Today, Idaho is a very conservative state. In the 2016 election, just two counties in Idaho supported Hillary Clinton. Idaho as a whole last voted Democratic in 1964, and that by a narrow margin of less than 2 percent. Both of Idaho's senators (Jim Risch and Mike Crapo) are Republican. - -Related pages - Colleges and universities in Idaho - List of counties in Idaho - List of rivers of Idaho - -References - -Idaho -1890 establishments in the United States" -7344,23562,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometer,Barometer,"A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure. The barometer measures air pressure in various kinds of units including hectopascals (hPa). - -There are various types of barometers such as the water barometer, aneroid barometer, and the mercury barometer. The mercury barometer, the earliest barometer, was created by an Italian mathematician named Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. - -They are used for measuring altitude, or height above the ground, such as the height of a mountain, and they were often used to measure altitude aboard a hot air balloon. Barometers are also used in modern aviation. Miners sometimes use them to determine the depth of a mine. The most used purpose of the barometer was measuring air pressure. This helps meteorologists in predicting weather. - -A barograph is a device which records barometric readings on paper. - -Weather -Weather instruments -Measuring tools" -585,2951,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s,1960s,"The 1960s was the decade that started on January 1, 1960 and ended on December 31, 1969. Many things happened in the sixties, including the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War. - -The 1960s term also refers to an era more often called the Sixties. This was a set of cultural and political trends around the globe. This ""cultural decade"" is loosely defined as beginning around 1963 and ending around 1974. - -The social revolution of the 1960s was part of a wider counterculture. Old ways were changed, new ways taken up. Typical was the introduction of the birth control pill, and its effect on sexual activity, widespread use of certain drugs and a general disrespect for traditional ways. - -Pop art also started in the 1960s. - -Events - Decolonization of much of Africa - 1961 - Yuri Gagarin is first human in the space during Soviet Vostok 1 mission. - 1961 – Berlin Wall built. - 1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion. - 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis. - 1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22. - 1965 – Indiainvades Pakistan on September 6. -1967 - Six-Day War. - 1968 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. - 1969 – Under the Apollo 11 program Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans on the Moon. - Unix created. - -Significant people - Stanley Kubrick, director - Orson Welles, director - The Rolling Stones, English rock band - Muhammad Ali, boxer - The Beatles, British rock band - Fidel Castro, president of Cuba - Che Guevara, Argentine marxist, revolutionary - Sean Connery, actor - Bob Dylan, singer, songwriter, artist - Joan Baez, American Folk Singer - Jimi Hendrix, rock singer - Yuri Gagarin, astronaut - Alfred Hitchcock, filmmaker - Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Pope John XXIII, Pope until 1963 - John F. Kennedy, President of the United States from 1961-1963 -Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States from 1963-1969 -Richard Nixon, President of the United States from 1969-1974 - Martin Luther King Jr., a leader in the American Civil Rights Movement - Nikita Khruschev, Soviet leader - Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader - Pope Paul VI since 1963 - Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China - Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China - Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India - Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India - Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam - Charles de Gaulle, President of France - Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor Germany - Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor Germany - Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Chancellor Germany - Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel - Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt - Elvis Presley, American singer - Mary Quant, fashion designer - Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of John F. Kennedy - James Earl Ray, assassin of Martin Luther King Jr. - Thomas Hagan, assassin of Malcolm X - -References" -409,847,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree,Tree,"A tree is a tall plant with a trunk and branches made of wood. Trees can live for many years. The oldest tree ever discovered is approximately 5,000 years old and the oldest tree from the UK is about 1,000. The four main parts of a tree are the roots, the trunk, the branches, and the leaves. - -The roots of a tree are usually under the ground. However, this is not always true. The roots of the mangrove tree are often under water. A single tree has many roots. The roots carry nutrients and water from the ground through the trunk and branches to the leaves of the tree. They can also breathe in air. Sometimes, roots are specialized into aerial roots, which can also provide support, as is the case with the banyan tree. - -The trunk is the main body of the tree. The trunk is covered with bark which protects it from damage. Branches grow from the trunk. They spread out so that the leaves can get more sunlight. - -The leaves of a tree are green most of the time, but they can come in many colors, shapes and sizes. The leaves take in sunlight and use water and food from the roots to make the tree grow, and to reproduce. - -Trees and shrubs take in water and carbon dioxide and give out oxygen with sunlight to form sugars. This is the opposite of what animals do in respiration. Plants also do some respiration using oxygen the way animals do. They need oxygen as well as carbon dioxide to live. Trees are renewable resources because, if cut down, other trees can grow in their place. - -Parts of trees - -The parts of a tree are the roots, trunk(s), branches, twigs and leaves. Tree stems are mainly made of support and transport tissues (xylem and phloem). Wood consists of xylem cells, and bark is made of phloem and other tissues external to the vascular cambium. - -Growth of the trunk -As a tree grows, it may produce growth rings as new wood is laid down around the old wood. In areas with seasonal climate, wood produced at different times of the year may alternate light and dark rings. In temperate climates, and tropical climates with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being one year of growth. In areas with two wet and dry seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall. - -In tropical rainforest regions, with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous. Growth rings are not visible and there is no change in the wood texture. In species with annual rings, these rings can be counted to find the age of the tree. This way, wood taken from trees in the past can be dated, because the patterns of ring thickness are very distinctive. This is dendrochronology. Very few tropical trees can be accurately dated in this manner. - -Roots -The roots of a tree are almost always underground, usually in a ball shaped region centered under the trunk, and extending no deeper than the tree is high. Roots can also be above ground, or deep underground. Some roots are short, some are meters long. - -Roots provide support for the parts above ground, holding the tree upright, and keeping it from falling over in high wind. - -Roots take in water, and nutrients, from the soil. Without help from fungus for better uptake of nutrients, trees would be small or would die. Most trees have a favorite species of fungus that they associate with for this purpose. - -Branches - -Above ground, the trunk gives height to the leaf-bearing branches, competing with other plant species for sunlight. In all trees the shape of the branches improves the exposure of the leaves to sunlight. Branches start at the trunk, big and thick, and get progressively smaller the farther they grow from the trunk. Branches themselves split into smaller branches, sometime very many times, until at the end they are quite small. The small ends are called twigs. - -Leaves -The leaves of a tree are held by the branches. Leaves are usually held at the ends of the branches. The, although some have leaves along the branches. The main functions of leaves are photosynthesis and gas exchange. A leaf is often flat, so it absorbs the most light, and thin, so that the sunlight can get to the green parts in the cells, which convert sunlight, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and water from the roots, into glucose and oxygen. Most of a tree's biomass comes from this process. - -Most leaves have stomata, which open and close, and regulate carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour exchange with the atmosphere. - -Trees with leaves all year round are evergreens, and those that shed their leaves are deciduous. Deciduous trees and shrubs generally lose their leaves in autumn as it gets cold. Before this happens, the leaves change colour. The leaves will grow back in spring. - -Exceptions -The word ""tree"" in English means a long lived plant having obvious main stem, and growing to a considerable height and size. Thus not all trees have all the organs or parts as mentioned above. For example, most (tree-like) palms are not branched, and tree ferns do not produce bark. There are also more exceptions. - -Based on their general shape and size, all of these are nonetheless generally regarded as trees. Trees can vary a lot. A plant that is similar to a tree, but generally smaller, and may have multiple trunks, or have branches that arise near the ground, is called a ""shrub"", or a ""bush"". Since these are common English words there is no precise differentiation between shrubs and trees. Given their small size, bonsai plants would not technically be ""trees"", but are indeed ""trees"". Do not confuse the use of tree for a species of plant, with the size or shape of individual specimens. A spruce seedling does not fit the definition of a tree, but all spruces are trees. - -Classification - -A tree is a plant form that can be found in many different orders and families of plants. Trees show many growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark traits and organs. - -The tree form has changed separately in classes of plants that are not related, in response to similar problems (for the tree). With about 100,000 types of trees, the number of tree types in the whole world might be one fourth of all living plant types. Most tree species grow in tropical parts of the world and many of these areas have not been surveyed yet by botanists (they study plants), making species difference and ranges not well understood. - -The earliest trees were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests in the Carboniferous period; tree ferns still survive, but the only surviving horsetails and lycophytes are not of tree form. Later, in the Triassic Period, conifers, ginkgos, cycads and other gymnosperms appeared, and subsequently flowering plants in the Cretaceous period. Most species of trees today are flowering plants (Angiosperms) and conifers. - -A small group of trees growing together is called a grove or copse, and a landscape covered by a dense growth of trees is called a forest. Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them; examples are rainforest and taiga (see ecozones). A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland (usually grazed or burned over periodically) is called a savanna. A forest of great age is called old growth forest or ancient woodland (in the UK). A very young tree is called a sapling. - -Records - -Height -Scientists in the UK and Malaysia say they have discovered the world's tallest tropical tree measuring more than 100m (328ft) high. - -A coast redwood: , in Redwood National Park, California had been measured as tallest, but may no longer be standing. - -The tallest trees in Australia are all eucalypts, of which there are more than 700 species. The so-called 'mountain ash'. with a slim, straight trunk, grows to over 300 feet. - -Stoutest trees -The stoutest living single-trunk species in diameter is the African baobab: , Glencoe baobab (measured near the ground), Limpopo Province, South Africa. This tree split up in November 2009 and now the stoutest baobab could be Sunland Baobab (South Africa) with diameter 10.64 m and circumference of 33.4 m. - -Some trees develop multiple trunks (whether from an individual tree or multiple trees) which grow together. The sacred fig is a notable example of this, forming additional 'trunks' by growing adventitious roots down from the branches, which then thicken up when the root reaches the ground to form new trunks; a single sacred fig tree can have hundreds of such trunks. - -Age of individual trees -The life-span of trees is determined by growth rings. These can be seen if the tree is cut down or in cores taken from the edge to the center of the tree. Correct determination is only possible for trees which make growth rings, generally those which occur in seasonal climates. Trees in uniform non-seasonal tropical climates are always growing and do not have distinct growth rings. It is also only possible for trees which are solid to the center of the tree; many very old trees become hollow as the dead heartwood decays away. For some of these species, age estimates have been made on the basis of extrapolating current growth rates, but the results are usually little better than guesses or speculation. White proposed a method of estimating the age of large and veteran trees in the United Kingdom by correlation between a tree's stem diameter, growth character and age. - -The verified oldest measured ages of living trees are: - Great Basin bristlecone pine (Methuselah) Pinus longaeva: 4,852 years - Patagonian cypress: Fitzroya cupressoides: 3,649 years in Cordillera Pelada, Los Rios, Chile - -Other species suspected of reaching exceptional age include European Yew Taxus baccata (probably over 2,000 years) and western redcedar Thuja plicata. The oldest known European yew is the Llangernyw yew in the Churchyard of Llangernyw village in North Wales which is estimated to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. - -The oldest reported age for an Angiosperm tree is 2,305 years for the Sri Maha Bodhi sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) planted in 288 BC at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka; this is said to be the oldest human-planted tree with a known planting date. - -Oldest forests -The earliest fossilised trees date to 386 million years ago in the Devonian period. They have been found at an abandoned quarry in Cairo, New York. The forest was so vast it originally stretched beyond Pennsylvania. - -This discovery is two or three million years older than the previous oldest forest at Gilboa, also in New York State. - -Tree value estimation -Studies have shown that trees contribute as much as 27% of the appraised land value in certain markets. - -These most likely use diameter measured at breast height (dbh), 4.5 feet (140 cm) above ground—not the larger base diameter. A general model for any year and diameter is: - -assuming 2.2% inflation per year. - -Tree climbing -Tree climbing is an activity where one moves around in the crown of trees. - -Use of a rope, helmet, and harness are the minimum requirements to ensure the safety of the climber. Other equipment can also be used depending on the experience and skill of the tree climber. Some tree climbers take special hammocks called ""Treeboats"" and Portaledges with them into the tree canopies where they can enjoy a picnic or nap, or spend the night. - -Tree climbing is an ""on rope"" activity that puts together many different tricks and gear originally derived from rock climbing and caving. These techniques are used to climb trees for many purposes, including tree care (arborists), animal rescue, recreation, sport, research, and activism. - -Damage - -The three big sources of tree damage are biotic (from living sources), abiotic (from non-living sources) and deforestation (cutting trees down). Biotic sources would include insects which might bore into the tree, deer which might rub bark off the trunk, or fungi, which might attach themselves to the tree. - -Abiotic sources include lightning, vehicles impacts, and construction activities. Construction activities can involve a number of damage sources, including grade changes that prevent aeration to roots, spills involving toxic chemicals such as cement or petroleum products, or severing of branches or roots. People can damage trees also. - -Both damage sources can result in trees becoming dangerous, and the term ""hazard trees"" is commonly used by arborists, and industry groups such as power line operators. Hazard trees are trees which due to disease or other factors are more susceptible to falling during windstorms, or having parts of the tree fall. - -The process of finding the danger a tree presents is based on a process called the quantified tree risk assessment. - -Trees are similar to people. Both can take a lot of some types of damage and survive, but even small amounts of certain types of trauma can result in death. Arborists are very aware that established trees will not tolerate any appreciable disturbance of the root system. Even though that is true, most people and construction professionals do not realize how easily a tree can be killed. - -One reason for confusion about tree damage from construction involves the dormancy of trees during winter. Another factor is that trees may not show symptoms of damage until 24 months or longer after damage has occurred. For that reason, persons who do not know about caring for trees may not link the actual cause with the later damaged effect. - -Various organizations have long recognized the importance of construction activities that may damage tree health. This can result in monetary losses due to tree damage and replacement costs. As a result, standard methods of tree management for building activities are well established and tested. - - Developing a tree protection plan - Developing a remediation plan (making damage good) - Setting up tree protection zones (TPZs) - Assessing tree damage, after building - Doing the remediation plan - -Trees in culture - -The tree has always been a cultural symbol. Common icons are the World tree, for instance Yggdrasil, and the tree of life. The tree is often used to represent nature or the environment itself. A common mistake (wrong thing) is that trees get most of their mass from the ground. In fact, 99% of a tree's mass comes from the air. - -Wishing trees - -A Wish Tree (or wishing tree) is a single tree, usually distinguished by species, position or appearance, which is used as an object of wishes and offerings. Such trees are identified as possessing a special religious or spiritual value. By tradition, believers make votive offerings in order to gain from that nature spirit, saint or goddess fulfillment of a wish. - -Tree worship -Tree worship refers to the tendency of many societies in all of history to worship or otherwise mythologize trees. Trees have played a very important role in many of the world's mythologies and religions, and have been given deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. Human beings, seeing the growth and death of trees, the elasticity of their branches, the sensitiveness and the annual (every year) decay and revival of their foliage, see them as powerful symbols of growth, decay and resurrection. The most ancient cross-cultural symbolic representation of the universe's construction is the 'world tree'. - -World tree - -The tree, with its branches reaching up into the sky, and roots deep into the earth, can be seen to dwell in three worlds - a link between heaven, the earth, and the underworld, uniting above and below. It is also both a feminine symbol, bearing sustenance; and a masculine, phallic symbol - another union. - -For this reason, many mythologies around the world have the concept of the World tree, a great tree that acts as an Axis mundi, holding up the cosmos, and providing a link between the heavens, earth and underworld. In European mythology the best known example is the tree Yggdrasil from Norse mythology. - -The world tree is also an important part of Mesoamerican mythologies, where it represents the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west). The concept of the world tree is also closely linked to the motif of the Tree of life. - -In literature - -In literature, a mythology was notably developed by J.R.R. Tolkien, his Two Trees of Valinor playing a central role in his 1964 Tree and Leaf. William Butler Yeats describes a ""holy tree"" in his poem The Two Trees (1893). - -List of trees - -There are many types of trees. Here is a list of some of them: - - Apple tree - Coconut palm - Cottonwood - Eucalyptus - Fir - Horse chestnut - Mangrove - Maple - Oak - Palm - Pine - Redwood - Rubber tree - Willow - Yew - Birch - Toona ciliata - -Related pages - Wattezia is the earliest tree in the fossil record. - -References - -Other websites - - Global Trees Campaign website - Botanic Gardens Conservation International website - -Basic English 850 words" -24274,93588,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merzig-Wadern,Merzig-Wadern,"Merzig-Wadern is a Kreis (district) in the northeast of the Saarland, Germany. - -History -The district was created in 1816 when the area became the property of Prussia. After World War I the Saar area was under special government of the League of Nations, which did split the district into two parts. The area around Wadern stayed Prussian, while the Merzig area became part of the Saargebiet area. In 1935 the Saar area rejoined Germany, however it took till after the World War II that the two district parts were reunited in 1946. - -Geography -The Saar River flows through the district, the Moselle River forms the boundary in the west to Luxembourg. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German) - - -Districts of the Saarland" -22920,87030,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacks%20and%20Whites%27%20Carnival,Blacks and Whites' Carnival,"Blacks and Whites' Carnival (Spanish: Carnaval de Negros y Blancos) is a carnival in the Colombian city of Pasto, and was proclaimed by UNESCO as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The carnival happens each year, from January 2 to January 7. Many tourists visit it. - -Stages -It has two stages: pre-carnival with Fool's Day and New Year's Eve Puppets (parade and burning); and the carnival itself with four celebration days: Colonies Day, Carnavalito (Children's Carnival), the Arrival of the Castañeda Family, Blacks' Day and Whites' Day with the Grand Parade (this being the most important day for its beauty). - -Colonies Day was added as an official day into the traditional Carnival programing, with several new acts: Tribute to the Virgin of Mercy, Colonies Parade, and Rock Day. - -Carnavalito (Children's Carnival) began in 1966, as a copy of the adults' carnival, originally with little floats, accompanied by child musicians and dancing girls. - -The Arrival of the Castañeda Family began in 1929 as a salute to the settlers in the east of the country. - -Blacks' Day originally commemorated the day in which the African slaves had a free day, after the 1607 slave rebellion in the Colombian town of Remedios. It is said that when news reached Popayan, the African population there went to the streets and danced, and blackened all the white walls of that city with coal. In Pasto the celebration has probably taken place since 1857, when white people began to paint their faces black. - -Whites' Day (and the modern carnival) began in 1912 as a new way to celebrate the Epiphany. The people began to paint their faces white with cosmetics and powder. In 1926 the Great Parade began, full of colorful and giant floats, and people began playing with streamers and confetti. - -Carnival Remate (Finish) happens by celebrating ""Cuy's day"", when locals and tourists delight in the typical dish of the region. - -Today the carnival is very important for tourism. People use costumes and masks, and still play with black cosmetics and white powder. - -Related pages - Carnival - -References - -Other websites - - ""Corpocarnaval"" – Corporación oficial del carnaval de Negros y Blancos (in Spanish). - Periódico de la UN: El carnaval de Pasto: oxígeno de una identidad (in Spanish) . - Colombia turismo, Carnaval de Negros y Blancos (in Spanish). - Inscribed in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. - -Festivals -Colombian culture -Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" -6332,20182,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valencia,Valencia,"Valencia is a city in Spain, on the Mediterranean coast. It is the capital of the Community of Valencia. It has 807,396 people, making it the third-largest city in Spain and the fifteenth in the European Union. - -Valencia's climate is on the boundary of hot semi-arid (Bsh in the Koeppen climate classification) and hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification). - -Other websites -Valencia Tourism Offical Site - -References - -Capital cities in Spain" -16202,62193,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy%20Drew,Nancy Drew,"Nancy Drew is a fictional character. She is the main character in a series of chapter books called Nancy Drew Mystery Stories. Her books were written in the 1930s by Edward Stratemeyer, founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate. The first writings in The Nancy Drew Mystery Stories were written by Mildred A. Wirt Benson, and changed by Harriet Adams, Edward's daughter. Nancy Drew's birth year is 1914 and she is 18 years old in the books. - -Nancy Drew lives in the fictional River Heights with her father, Carson Drew. Their housekeeper, Hannah Gruen, has acted like a mother to Nancy, ever since Nancy's mother died when she was three years old. Nancy has a few close friends that appear in the book series and some of them in the computer games. When the book series first begins, Nancy's best friend is Helen Corning, who is a few years older than Nancy. A few books later, some new friends are introduced. Nancy's two best friends in the later books are Bess Marvin and George Fayne, the latter two being cousins. Ned Nickerson, Nancy's boyfriend, first appears in the book, The Clue in the Diary. Bess, George, and Ned all appear in the computer games and Helen Corning is never mentioned. - -The Book Series -The books were originally written in the 1930s. Through the years, the books have been changed slightly. There are currently 54 books documenting the teen's fictional mysteries. -Secret of the Old Clock (1930) -Hidden Staircase (1930) -Bungalow Mystery (1930) -Mystery at Lilac Inn, the (1930) -Secret of Shadow Ranch, the (1931) -Secret of Red Gate Farm, the (1931) -Nancy's Mysterious Letter (1932) -Clue in the Diary, the (1932) -Sign of the Twisted Candles, the (1933) -Password to Larkspur Lane, the (1933) -Clue of the Broken Locket, the (1934) -Message in the Hollow Oak, the (1935) -Mystery of the Ivory Charm, the (1936) -Whispering Statue, the (1937) -Haunted Bridge, the (1937) -Clue of the Tapping Heels, the (1939) -Mystery of the Brass-Bound Trunk (1940) -Mystery at the Moss-Covered Mansion, the (1941) -Quest of the Missing Map, the (1942) -Clue in the Jewel Box, the (1943) -Secret in the Old Attic, the (1944) -Clue in the Crumbling Wall, the (1945) -Mystery of the Tolling Bell, the (1946) -Clue in the Old Album, the (1947) -Ghost of Blackwood Hall, the (1948) -Clue of the Leaning Chimney, the (1949) -Secret of the Wooden Lady, the (1950) -Clue of the Black Keys, the (1951) -Mystery at the Ski Jump, the (1952) -Clue of the Velvet Mask, the (1953) -Ringmaster's Secret, the (1953) -Scarlet Slipper Mystery, the (1954) -Witch Tree Symbol, the (1955) -Hidden Window Mystery, the (1956) -Haunted Showboat, the (1957) -Secret of the Golden Pavilion, the (1959) -Clue in the Old Stagecoach, the (1960) -Mystery of the Fire Dragon, the (1961) -Clue of the Dancing Puppet, the (1962) -Moonstone Castle Mystery, the (1963) -Clue of the Whistling Bagpipes, the (1964) -Phantom of Pine Hill, the (1965) -Mystery of the 99 Steps, the (1966) -Clue in the Crossword Cipher, the (1967) -Spider Sapphire Mystery, the (1968) -Invisible Intruder, the (1969) -Mysterious Mannequin, the (1970) -Crooked Bannister, the (1971) -Secret of Mirror Bay, the (1972) -Double Jinx Mystery, the (1973) -Mystery of the Glowing Eye, the (1974) -Secret of the Forgotten City, the (1975) -Phantom of Venice, the (1975) -Sky Phantom, the (1976) -Strange Message in the Parchment, the (1977) -Mystery of Crocodile Island (1978) -Thirteenth Pearl, the (1979) - -Nancy Drew Games -These are the Nancy Drew Games that were made by Her Interactive. The games are rated ""E"" (Everyone) by the ESRB. - -Secrets Can Kill (1998) -Stay Tuned for Danger (1999) -Message in a Haunted Mansion (2000) -Treasure in the Royal Tower (2001) -The Final Scene (2001) -Secret of the Scarlet Hand (2002) -Ghost Dogs of Moon Lake (2002) -The Haunted Carousel (2003) -Danger on Deception Island (2003)The Secret of Shadow Ranch (2004)Curse of Blackmoor Manor (2004)Secret of the Old Clock (2005)Last Train to Blue Moon Canyon (2005)Danger By Design (2006)The Creature of Kapu Cave (2006)White Wolf of Icicle Creek (2007)Legend of the Crystal Skull (2007)The Phantom of Venice (2008)The Haunting of Castle Malloy (2008)Ransom of the Seven Ships (2009)Warnings at Waverly Academy (2009)Trail of the Twister (2010)Shadow at the Water's Edge (2010)Secrets Can Kill (Remastered) (2010)The Captive Curse (2011)Alibi In Ashes (2011)Tomb of the Lost Queen (2012)The Deadly Device (2012)The Ghost of Thornton Hall (2013)The Silent Spy (2013)The Shattered Medallion (2014)Labyrinth of Lies (2014)Sea of Darkness (2015)Midnight in Salem (Spring 2019, tentatively) - -Film and Television Versions -There have been various film and television versions made about Nancy Drew. - -In June 2007, Nancy Drew was released. It was rated PG and starred Emma Roberts as Nancy Drew and Nick Palatas as Nancy's brother Greg Drew. -In 2002, Nancy Drew was released as a made-for-TV movie. It starred Maggie Lawson as Drew. -In 1996, a TV series titled Nancy Drew came out. It was made in France and ran for 13 episodes. -From 1977 to 1979, the television series The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries'' ran. For season one and part of season two, Nancy Drew was played by Pamela Sue Martin and, for the other part of season two, by Janet Louise Johnson. - -Other websites -Her Interactive - Official site of the one who makes the computer games -Internet Book List - List of published Nancy Drew Mystery Stories - -Characters in written fiction -Series of books -Fiction books" -18193,68301,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Borough%20of%20Lewisham,London Borough of Lewisham,"The London Borough of Lewisham is a London borough in south east London. - -London Borough of Lewisham" -5092,16227,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1468,1468," - -Births - February 29 – Pope Paul III (d. 1549) - -Deaths - February 3 – Johann Gutenberg" -15901,60984,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta%20Thrashers,Atlanta Thrashers,"The Atlanta Thrashers were an American professional ice hockey team that played in Atlanta, Georgia. They played in the National Hockey League (NHL). The Thrashers played their home games at Phillips Arena. The team played in the Southeast Division of the Eastern Conference. - -They only made the NHL playoffs once, in the 2006–2007 season. - -On May 31, 2011, investors named True North Sports and Entertainment purchased the Atlanta Thrashers. The sale was approved by the National Hockey League on June 21, 2011. - -2007–08 season - -The Thrashers did not qualify for the playoffs. - -2008–09 season - -The Thrashers did not qualify for the playoffs. - -2009–10 season - -References - -2011 disestablishments in the United States -Defunct National Hockey League teams -Ice hockey teams in the United States -Sports in Atlanta, Georgia -1999 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)" -24827,97300,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20DeLonge,Tom DeLonge,"Thomas Matthew DeLonge, Jr. (born December 13, 1975) is an American musician. He was the guitarist of Pop-punk band blink-182, until their break up in 2005. He also took a part in a project called Box Car Racer. He plays and records with Angels & Airwaves, his new band that he started after blink-182's break up. In 2009, blink-182 reunited, and they released a new album in September 2011, titled Neighborhoods. In 2012, blink-182 toured Australia for the first time since 2004. - -References - -1975 births -Living people -American guitarists -Musicians from California -American punk musicians -American rock musicians" -16911,64333,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal%20cord,Spinal cord,"The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that go to and from the brain. It is enclosed in and protected by the bony vertebral column. The main function of the spinal cord is transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and the brain. - -Spinal cord segments -Humans have 31 left-right pairs of spinal nerves, each roughly corresponding to a segment of the vertebral column. The spinal nerve emerges from the spinal column through an opening between adjacent vertebrae. Outside the vertebral column, the nerve divides into branches. - -The nerves for incoming sensory information are bundled separately from nerves for outgoing motor instructions for muscles. The system serves the autonomic nervous system as well as the motor activities which we control consciously. - -Additional images - -Other websites - - Spinal Cord Histology - A multitude of great Images from the University of Cincinnati - Spinal Cord Medical Notes - Online medical notes on the Spinal Cord - eMedicine: Spinal Cord, Topographical and Functional Anatomy - WebMD. May 17, 2005. Spina Bifida - Topic Overview Information about Spina Bifida in fetuses and throughout adulthood. WebMD children's health. Retrieved March 19, 2007. - -Anatomy of the nervous system" -9110,31215,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelica%20Van%20Buren,Angelica Van Buren,"Angelica Singleton Van Buren (February 13, 1818 - December 29, 1877) acted as the First Lady of the United States. She was the daughter-in-law of Martin Van Buren, the 8th president of the USA. Angelica Singleton had married the President's son, Abraham Van Buren. She took over the role of the First Lady, as the president's wife had died 17 years earlier. - -Angelica Singleton belonged to a high society. She was also related to Dolley Madison, wife of US President James Madison. Angelica brought a special style to her role as the First Lady. - -She and Abraham Van Buren married in 1838. After marriage they took a long tour of Europe. When they came back to the USA in 1839, she took up the role of the First Lady during the presidency of her father-in-law. In 1841, Martin Van Buren was defeated, she and her husband shifted to Kinderhook, Lindenwald. During the winter, they lived in their family home in South Carolina. From 1848 until her death in 1877, she lived in New York City. - -Angelica was from the cream of southern society and was the great-granddaughter of Gen. Richard Richardson and Mary Cantey (Richardson). Gen. Richardson was the progenitor of six South Carolina governors, three Manning and three Richardson governors. One descendant, Elizabeth Peyre Richardson, was so closely related to all of these governors that she appears in Ripley's Believe it or Not. Angelica's sister, Marion, has a bio that, although sad, is actually more interesting than hers. See ""A Tale of Two Sisters,"" by Joseph C. Elliott, Sandlapper: The Magazine of South Carolina. - -First Ladies of the United States -1818 births -1877 deaths -Martin Van Buren" -20705,79673,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/43%20%28number%29,43 (number),"Forty-three is a number. It comes between forty-two and forty-four, and is an odd number. It is also the 14th prime number, after 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, and 41. - -Integers -Prime numbers" -15605,59555,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruges,Bruges,"Bruges (Dutch: Brugge) is a city in the northwest of Belgium. - -It is the capital and largest city of West Flanders. In 2007, 116,982 people lived there. - -Bruges is at 51° 12 North, 03° 13 East. - -It is a centre of tourism because of its historic medieval city centre. The centre was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is a center of commerce because of its port, Zeebrugge. The movie In Bruges with Colin Farrell, Brendan Gleeson and Ralph Fiennes was made there in 2008. - -References - - -World Heritage Sites in Europe" -17864,67337,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasargadae,Pasargadae,"Pasargadae was a city in ancient Persia, and is today a historical site in Fars,Iran. Pasargadae was the first capital of the Persian Empire. The building of the capital city by Cyrus the Great, begun in 546 BCE, but was left unfinished, for Cyrus died in 530 BCE. Pasargade remained the Persian capital unti Darius I built the Persepolis. The tomb of Cyrus the Great is in this city. - -Pasargadae is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - -History of Iran -World Heritage Sites in Iran" -1790,6014,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion,Billion,"Billion is a name for a large number. It may refer specifically to: - - 1,000,000,000 (, one thousand million), the short scale definition now normal in both British and American English - 1,000,000,000,000 (, one million million), the long scale definition used formerly in Britain and currently in certain other languages - -Billion may also refer to: - Billions (TV series), a Showtime series - Billions (movie), a 1920 silent comedy - Billion (company), a Taiwanese modem manufacturer - Jack Billion (born 1939), 2006 Democratic Party candidate for governor of South Dakota - Mr. Billion, a 1977 movie by Jonathan Kaplan - ""Billions"" (song), a song on Russell Dickerson's album Yours" -2793,8729,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/July%2030,July 30," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 634 Battle of Ajnadayn: Byzantine Empire forces under Theodore are defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate near Beit Shemesh in present-day Israel. - 762 Baghdad is founded. - 1419 First Defenestration of Prague: A crowd of radical Hussites kill 7 members of the Prague city council. - 1502 Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay of Islands off present-day Honduras during his fourth voyage. - 1619 Jamestown, Virginia, the first representative factory in the Americas, the House of Burgesses, meets for the first time. - 1629 An earthquake in Naples, Italy, kills around 10,000 people. - 1635 Eighty Years' War: The Siege of Schenkenschans begins. Frederick Henry, Prince Orange begins the recapture of the strategically important fortress from the Spanish army. - 1656 Swedish forces under Charles X Gustaf of Sweden defeat forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the Battle of Warsaw. - 1676 Nathaniel Bacon issues the ""Declaration of the people of Virginia"", beginning Bacon's Rebellion, against the rule of Governor William Berkeley. - 1729 The city of Baltimore in Maryland is founded. - 1775 James Cook returns to England from his second voyage to the Pacific Ocean. - 1792 La Marseillaise, the current national anthem of France, is sung for the first time. - 1811 The Mexican revolutionary Miguel Hidalgo is executed. - 1859 First successful climb of Grand Combin in the Alps. - 1863 American Indian Wars: Chief Pocatello of the Shoshone tribe signs the Treaty of Box Elder, agreeing to stop the harassment of emigrant trails in southern Idaho and northern Utah. - 1864 American Civil War: Battle of the Crater - Union forces attempt to break Confederate lines at Petersburg, Virginia by exploding a large bomb under their trenches. - 1865 The steamboat Brother Jonathan sinks off Crescent City, California, killing 225 passengers. - 1871 The Staten Island ferry Westfield'''s boiler explodes, killing over 85 people. - - 1901 2000 - 1912 Emperor Meiji of Japan dies, being succeeded by his son Yoshihito, now known as Emperor Taisho. - 1917 An earthquake in China kills around 1,800 people. - 1930 Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup, beating Argentina 4-2 in the final. - 1932 The 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, California, begin. - 1932 Walt Disney's ""Flowers and Trees"" is shown for the first time. It is the first cartoon short to use Technicolor and the first Academy Award-winning short. - 1945 World War II: Japanese submarine I-58 sinks the USS Indianapolis, killing 883 people. - 1956 'In God We Trust' becomes the national motto of the United States. - 1962 The Trans-Canada Highway opens. - 1965 In the US, the Medicare insurance programme for senior citizens is signed into law. - 1966 England wins the FIFA World Cup, beating West Germany 4-2, in a match that included the disputed Wembley Goal. - 1971 An All Nippon Airways Boeing 727 aircraft and a Japanese Air Force F-86 plane collide over Morioka, Japan, killing 162 people. - 1971 Apollo program: Apollo 15 mission - David Scott and James Irwin on the Apollo Lunar Module Falcon'' land on the Moon with the first Lunar Rover. - 1975 Teamsters Union President Jimmy Hoffa disappears from a suburb of Detroit, Michigan, and is never seen or heard from again. - 1978 Car traffic in Okinawa switches from the right to the left side of the road. - 1980 The New Hebrides become independent, and change their name to Vanuatu. - 1991 Luciano Pavarotti celebrates 30 years in opera by giving a free concert in Hyde Park, London. - 2000 Norway gifts the Heimaey Stave Church to Iceland to mark the country's 1000 years of Christianity. - -From 2001 - 2003 The last Old Style Volkswagen Beetle rolls off the assembly line in Mexico. - 2004 Gas pipeline explodes in the village of Ghislenghien in Belgium, killing 24 people and injuring 132. - 2006 The BBC music programme Top of the Pops is shown for the last time, after a run of more than 42 years. - 2006 The Israeli air force bombs the town of Qana in Lebanon, killing 28 people. - 2007 Movie directors Michelangelo Antonioni and Ingmar Bergman die on the same day as each other. - 2008 Radovan Karadzic is transferred to The Hague after being arrested on war crimes charges. - 2009 A bomb explodes in Palma Nova, Mallorca, killing 2 police officers. ETA carried out the attack. - 2012 A massive power grid failure affects 22 states and over 700 million people in northern India. - 2012 A train fire in Andhra Pradesh, India, kills 32 people. - 2017 Russian President Vladimir Putin expels 755 American diplomats in response to US sanctions against Russia. - 2018 Parliamentary and Presidential elections are held in Zimbabwe, the first ones to take place since the resignation of Robert Mugabe. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1470 Hongzhi Emperor of China's Ming Dynasty (d. 1505) - 1511 Giorgio Vasari, Italian painter, writer and architect (d. 1574) - 1549 Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1609) - 1641 Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (d. 1673) - 1683 Countess Sophie of Erbach-Erbach, German aristocrat (d. 1742) - 1751 Maria Anna Mozart, Austrian musician (d. 1829) - 1763 Samuel Rogers, English poet (d. 1855) - 1813 William Spurrell, Welsh printer and publisher (d. 1889) - 1818 Emily Brontë, English writer (d. 1848) - 1818 Jan Heemskerk, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1897) - 1825 Chaim Aronson, Lithuanian inventor, academic and memoirs writer (d. 1893) - 1832 George Lemuel Woods, American lawyer, judge and politician, 3rd Governor of Oregon (d. 1890) - 1833 Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria (d. 1896) - 1855 Georg Wilhelm von Siemens, German industrialist (d. 1919) - 1856 Richard Burton Haldane, Scottish philosopher, lawyer and statesman (d. 1928) - 1857 Thorstein Veblen, American political economist (d. 1929) - 1863 Henry Ford, American industrialist (d. 1947) - 1872 Princess Clementine of Belgium (d. 1955) - 1881 Smedley Butler, American marine general (d. 1940) - 1887 Marquard Schwarz, American swimmer (d. 1968) - 1888 Werner Jaeger, German classical philologist (d. 1961) - 1888 Vladimir Zworykin, Russian-American physicist and inventor (d. 1982) - 1890 Casey Stengel, American baseball manager (d. 1975) - 1893 Fatimah Jinnah, sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d. 1967) - 1895 Wanda Hawley, American actress (d. 1963) - 1898 Henry Moore, English sculptor (d. 1986) - -1901 1950 - 1901 Alfred Lepine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1955) - 1904 Salvador Novo, Mexican writer (d. 1974) - 1909 C. Northcote Parkinson, English historian and writer (d. 1993) - 1910 Edgar de Evia, Mexican-American photographer (d. 2003) - 1914 Lord Killanin, Irish Olympic official (d. 1999) - 1915 Francisco Urcuyo Maliaños, Nicaraguan politician (d. 2001) - 1919 Berniece Baker Miracle, American author - 1920 Marie Tharp, American scientist (d. 2006) - 1925 Antoine Duhamel, French composer (d. 2014) - 1925 Jacques Sernas, Lithuanian-French actor (d. 2015) - 1925 Stan Stennett, Welsh actor (d. 2013) - 1926 Martin Nag, Norwegian writer (d. 2015) - 1927 Tony Hiller, British songwriter (d. 2018) - 1927 Richard Johnson, English actor, writer and producer (d. 2015) - 1927 Victor Wong, American actor (d. 2001) - 1928 Joe Nuxhall, American baseball player and sportscaster - 1928 Chris Howland, British-German singer, presenter, actor and writer (d. 2013) - 1930 Tony Lip, American actor (d. 2013) - 1934 Bud Selig, American businessman and Commissioner of Baseball - 1936 Buddy Guy, American Blues guitarist and singer - 1936 Infanta Pilar of Spain - 1938 Hervé de Charette, French politician - 1939 Peter Bogdanovich, American director - 1940 Clive Sinclair, English entrepreneur and inventor - 1941 Paul Anka, Lebanese-Canadian singer - 1943 Giovanni Goria, 46th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1994) - 1943 Giuseppe Versaldi, Italian cardinal - 1944 Peter Bottomley, English politician - 1944 Frances de la Tour, English actress - 1945 Patrick Modiano, French novelist - 1945 David Sanborn, American jazz saxophonist - 1947 Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, French virologist and Nobel Prize winner - 1947 Arnold Schwarzenegger, Austrian-born actor, bodybuilder and former Governor of California - 1947 William Atherton, American actor - 1948 Jean Reno, Moroccan-French actor - 1948 James H. Burnley IV, American politician - 1950 Harriet Harman, British politician - 1950 Frank Stallone, American singer - -1951 1975 - 1954 Ken Olin, American actor, producer and actor - 1955 Christopher Warren-Green, English violinist and conductor - 1957 Bill Cartwright, American basketball player - 1957 Nery Pumpido, Argentine footballer - 1958 Kate Bush, British singer - 1958 Daley Thompson, British athlete - 1958 Neal McCoy, American singer-songwriter - 1959 Petra Felke, German athlete - 1960 Jennifer Barnes, American-English musicologist and academic - 1960 Richard Linklater, American director - 1961 Laurence Fishburne, American actor - 1962 Yakub Memon, Indian terrorist (d. 2015) - 1963 Lisa Kudrow, American actress - 1963 Chris Mullin, American basketball player - 1964 Jürgen Klinsmann, German footballer - 1964 Alek Keshishian, Lebanese-American director - 1966 Craig Gannon, English guitarist and songwriter - 1966 Lisa Madigan, American politician - 1968 Sean Moore, Welsh musician (Manic Street Preachers) - 1968 Robert Korzeniowski, Polish race walker - 1968 Terry Crews, American actor - 1968 Sofie Grabol, Danish actress - 1969 Simon Baker, Australian-American actor - 1969 Errol Stewart, South African cricketer and lawyer - 1970 Alun Cairns, Welsh politician - 1970 Christopher Nolan, English movie director - 1971 Claude Dambury, French footballer - 1971 Tom Green, American actor and comedian - 1971 Christine Taylor, American actress - 1973 Sonu Nigam, Indian singer - 1973 Dean Edwards, American actor and comedian - 1973 Clementa C. Pinckney, American pastor and politician (d. 2015) - 1974 Hilary Swank, American actress - 1974 Jason Robinson, English rugby player - -From 1976 - 1977 Diana Bolocco, Chilean model and journalist - 1977 Misty May-Treanor, American volleyball player and coach - 1977 Derek Mackay, Scottish politician - 1977 Ian Watkins, Welsh singer - 1977 Jaime Pressly, American actress - 1979 Graeme McDowell, Northern Irish golfer - 1980 Justin Rose, English golfer - 1981 Nicky Hayden, American motorcycle racer (d. 2017) - 1981 Hope Solo, American soccer player - 1981 Lisa Goldstein, American actress - 1982 Yvonne Strahovski, Australian actress - 1982 James Anderson, English cricketer - 1983 Sean Dillon, Irish footballer - 1985 Daniel Friedheim Holm, Norwegian footballer - 1988 Lara Jean Marshall, English-Australian actress, singer and dancer - 1990 Coco Sumner, British singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1991 Diana Vickers, British singer - 1992 Fabiano Caruana, American chess player - 1992 Hannah Cockroft, British Paralympic athlete - 1993 Miho Miyazaki, Japanese singer (AKB48) - 1995 Jorge Cori, Peruvian chess player - 1995 Hirving Lozano, Mexican footballer - 1999 Joey King, American actress - 2002 Prince Hridayendra of Nepal, Nepalese Royal - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 578 Jacob Baradaeus, bishop of Edessa - 579 Pope Benedict I - 734 Tatwine, Archbishop of Canterbury - 1540 Thomas Abel, English priest and martyr (b. 1497) - 1540 Robert Barnes, English martyr and reformer (b. 1495) - 1652 Charles Amédée de Savoie, 6th Duc de Nemours, French soldier (b. 1624) - 1680 Thomas Butler, Earl of Ossory, Irish naval commander (b. 1634) - 1683 Maria Theresa of Spain, queen of Louis XIV of France (b. 1638) - 1691 Daniel Georg Morhof, German writer and scholar (b. 1639) - 1715 Nahum Tate, Irish poet (b. 1652) - 1718 William Penn, English founder of the Province of Pennsylvania (b. 1644) - 1771 Thomas Gray, English poet and letter-writer (b. 1716) - 1789 Giovanna Bonanno, Italian poisoner and alleged witch (b. 1713) - 1811 Miguel Hidalgo, Mexican revolutionary (b. 1753) - 1875 George Pickett, American Confederate general (b. 1825) - 1898 Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor (b. 1815) - 1900 Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1844) - -1901 2000 - 1908 James Budd, Governor of California (b. 1851) - 1912 Emperor Meiji, Japanese emperor (b. 1852) - 1918 Joyce Kilmer, American poet (b. 1886) - 1927 Albert Gustaf Dahlman, Swedish executioner (b. 1848) - 1930 Joan Gamper, Swiss-Catalan businessman (b. 1877) - 1938 John Derbyshire, English swimmer and water polo player (b. 1878) - 1947 Joseph Cook, sixth Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1860) - 1949 Stoyan Danev, Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1858) - 1965 Jun'ichiro Tanizaki, Japanese writer (b. 1886) - 1970 George Szell, Hungarian conductor (b. 1897) - 1971 Kenneth Slessor, Australian poet (b. 1901) - 1978 Umberto Nobile, Italian airship pioneer (b. 1885) - 1983 Lynn Fontanne, stage and movie actress (b. 1887) - 1985 Julia Hall Bowman Robinson, American mathematician (b. 1919) - 1986 John N. Dalton, American politician, Governor of Virginia (b. 1931) - 1992 Joe Shuster, Canadian comic artist (b. 1914) - 1992 Brenda Marshall, American actress (b. 1915) - 1996 Claudette Colbert, French-American actress (b. 1903) - 1996 Magda Schneider, German actress and singer (b. 1909) - 1997 Bao Dai, Vietnamese Emperor (b. 1913) - 1998 Buffalo Bob Smith, American television host (b. 1917) - -From 2001 - 2001 Anton Schwarzkopf, German engineer (b. 1924) - 2003 Sam Phillips, American record producer (b. 1923) - 2005 John Garang, South Sudanese politician (b. 1945) - 2006 Murray Bookchin, American Libertarian socialist (b. 1921) - 2007 Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian movie director (b. 1912) - 2007 Ingmar Bergman, Swedish movie director (b. 1918) - 2007 Teoctist Arapasu, Romanian Orthodox Church Patriarch (b. 1915) - 2008 Anne Armstrong, American diplomat (b. 1927) - 2009 Peter Zadek, German theatre director (b. 1926) - 2009 Mohammed Yusuf, Nigerian Islamist militant (Boko Haram) (b. 1970) - 2011 Mario Echandi Jiménez, President of Costa Rica (b. 1915) - 2012 Chris Marker, French movie maker (b. 1921) - 2012 Maeve Binchy, Irish writer (b. 1940) - 2013 Harry F. Byrd, Jr., American politician (b. 1914) - 2013 Antoni Ramallets, Catalan-Spanish footballer (b. 1924) - 2013 Robert Neelly Bellah, American sociologist (b. 1927) - 2014 Julio Grondona, Argentine football executive (b. 1931) - 2014 Dick Wagner, American rock guitarist (b. 1942) - 2014 Dick Smith, American special effects make-up artist (b. 1922) - 2014 Peter Hall, British urban planner (b. 1932) - 2014 Harun Farocki, German filmmaker and author (b. 1944) - 2014 Manfred Roeder, German Wehrmacht soldier and far-right activist (b. 1929) - 2015 Yakub Memon, Indian terrorist (b. 1962) - 2015 Lynn Anderson, American country singer (b. 1947) - 2015 Jerome Kohlberg, Jr., American businessman (b. 1925) - 2015 Alana Vrzanova, Czech figure skater (b. 1931) - 2017 Tato Cifuentes, Chilean-born Argentine actor and singer (b. 1925) - 2017 Ciro Cirillo, Italian politician (b. 1921) - 2017 H. Sayeeduddin Dagar, Indian singer (b. 1939) - 2017 Paulo Garcia, Brazilian politician (b. 1959) - 2017 Slim Mahfoudh, Tunisian actor (b. 1942) - 2018 Andreas Kappes, German cyclist (b. 1965) - 2018 Khayyam Mirzazade, Azerbaijani composer and professor (b. 1935) - 2018 Ron Dellums, American politician (b. 1935) - 2018 Michael A. Sheehan, American author (b. 1955) - 2019 Marcian Bleahu, Romanian geologist, writer and politician (b. 1924) - -Observances - Independence Day (Vanuatu) - International Friendship Day - Throne Day (Morocco) - -Days of the year" -17627,66592,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerry%20Adams,Gerry Adams,"Gerard ""Gerry"" Adams () (born 6 October, 1948 in Belfast, Northern Ireland) is an Irish politician who was the president of Sinn Féin, a political party that wants Northern Ireland to join the Republic of Ireland. He was a member of the Northern Ireland Assembly in Belfast and was a member of the British Parliament for Belfast West. He does not go to Parliament because he does not believe that Britain should control Northern Ireland, this is called abstentionism. - -Adams is a spokesman for the Irish republican movement or the ""Provisional movement"". This includes Sinn Féin and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). The IRA is illegal in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, because it is called a terrorist group by both governments. Adams is thought to have persuaded the IRA to give up its ""war"" against the UK in return for devolved government for Northern Ireland. - -From the late 1980s, Adams was an important figure in the Northern Ireland peace process, started when he met first the SDLP (Social Democratic and Labour Party’s) leader John Hume and later the Irish and British governments, and then other parties. In 1995 the IRA stopped fighting, and in 2005 the IRA said the war was over. - -Adams retired from politics in February 2020. - -Background -Gerry Adams was born in West Belfast. He has 4 brothers and 5 sisters. - -His parents, Gerry Adams Sr. and Annie Hannaway, came from strong republican backgrounds. Adams's grandfather, also named Gerry Adams, had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) during the Irish War of Independence. Two of Adams's uncles, Dominic and Patrick Adams, had been interned (jailed without a trial) by the governments in Belfast and Dublin. His uncle Dominic was a senior figure in the IRA of the mid-1940s, but not the chief of staff as some people say,. Gerry Sr. joined the IRA when he was sixteen. - -Adams's mother’s grandfather, Michael Hannaway, was a member of the Fenians during their dynamiting campaign in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Michael's son, Billy, was election agent for Éamon de Valera in 1918 in West Belfast but refused to follow de Valera into democratic and constitutional politics upon the formation of Fianna Fáil. Annie Hannaway was a member of Cumann na mBan, the women's branch of the IRA. Three of her brothers (Alfie, Liam, and Tommy) were also IRA members. - -Early republican career -In the late 1960s, a civil rights campaign started in Northern Ireland, to get equal treatment for Roman Catholics Adams was an active supporter and joined the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association in 1967. Instead of leading to change, the civil rights movement there were protests counter-demonstrators called Loyalists. In August 1969 there was rioting in Northern Ireland’s big cities of Belfast and Derry, and the Government of Northern Ireland asked for the British army to help keep control. - -This is when the IRA and its political counterpart in Sinn Féin, restarted. Gerry Adams was active in Sinn Féin at this time. In 1970 the republican movement (that is the peaceful politicians and the fighters like the IRA who all want the United Kingdom not to control Northern Ireland) split. Adams aligned himself with the active Provisional part based in Belfast. The Official part based in Dublin was not interested in fighting for people in Belfast, and the Official Sinn Féin was more interested in spreading Marxism rather than making Ireland united. - -In August 1971, internment without trial was introduced in Northern Ireland. Adams was arrested in March 1972 and interned HMS Maidstone, but was set free in June to take part in secret talks in London. There was a short-lived truce and some members of the IRA met with William Whitelaw the British government minister in charge of Northern Ireland. The IRA delegation included Sean Mac Stiofain (Chief of Staff), Daithi O'Conaill, Seamus Twomey, Ivor Bell, Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams. The IRA insisted Adams be included in the meeting and he was released from internment to participate. Following the failure of the talks, he helped to plan a bombing campaign in Belfast known as Bloody Friday. He was re-arrested in July 1973 and interned at Long Kesh internment camp, which was later called the Maze Prison. After attempting to escape he was sentenced to imprisonment, which was also served at the Maze. - -During the Hunger Strikes of 1981, Adams played an important policy-making role. The hunger strikes saw Sinn Féin become more important as a political force. In 1983 he was elected president of Sinn Féin and became the first Sinn Féin MP elected to the British House of Commons since the 1950s. Following his election (as MP for Belfast West) the British government lifted a ban on him traveling to Britain. In line with Sinn Féin policy, he refused to sit in the House of Commons. - -On 14 March 1984, Adams was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt when several Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF) gunmen fired about twenty shots into the car in which he was travelling. After the shooting, undercover plain-clothes police officers seized three suspects who were later convicted and sentenced. One of the three was John Gregg. Adams claimed that the British army had prior knowledge of the attack and allowed it to go ahead. - -Alleged IRA membership -Adams has often said that he has never been a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). However, several writers and journalists such as Ed Moloney, Richard English, Peter Taylor and Mark Urban have all said Adams was part of the IRA leadership during the 1970s. Adams has called Moloney's claims ""libellous."" - -President of Sinn Féin -In 1978, Gerry Adams became joint-vice-president of Sinn Féin and he led a challenge to the Sinn Féin leadership of President Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and joint-Vice President Dáithí Ó Conaill. Others who supported Adams and were from Belfast included Jim Gibney, Tom Hartley, and Danny Morrison. Some say Ruairí Ó Brádaigh was a more traditional Irish nationalist and that the northern leadership which surrounded Adams wanted to act faster and in different ways if they had to. - -The 1975 IRA-British truce is often viewed as the event that began the challenge to the original Provisional Sinn Féin leadership, which was said to be Southern-based and dominated by southerners like Ó Brádaigh and Ó Conaill. However, the Chief of Staff of the IRA at the time, Seamus Twomey, was a senior figure from Belfast. Others in the leadership also lived in the North, including Billy McKee from Belfast. Adams was supposed to have become the most senior figure in the IRA Northern Command because he wanted only military action, but during his time in prison, Adams came to thought about his ideas and became more political. - -It is alleged that ""provisional"" republicanism was founded on its opposition to the communist-inspired ""broad front"" politics of the Cathal Goulding-led Official IRA, but this too is disputed. - -Some of the main reasons that the Provisional IRA was founded in December 1969 and provisional Sinn Féin was founded in January 1970, was that people like Ó Brádaigh, O'Connell, and Billy McKee wanted new political bodies and did not want to work in or with the existing bodies such as the Parliament in London. Another was the failure of the Goulding leadership to defend nationalist areas against attacks by Loyalists and sometimes even the police. At the December 1969 IRA convention and the January 1970 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (the Irish words for a party conference or convention) the delegates voted to participate in the Dublin (Leinster House), Belfast (Stormont) and London (Westminster) parliaments, the organizations split into Provisional and Official parts. Gerry Adams, who had joined the Republican Movement in the early 1960s, did not go with the Provisionals until later in 1970. - -End of abstentionism -Republicans like Ruairí Ó Brádaigh said that the only legitimate country in Ireland was the Irish Republic declared in 1916. They said the legal government was the IRA Army Council because the last remaining anti-Anglo-Irish Treaty deputies of the Second Dáil made them the government. (Adams agreed to this idea of republican political legitimacy until quite recently - however in his 2005 speech to the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis he rejected it.) - -When Sinn Féin any won seats in the British or Irish parliaments they never went to the parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin changed its and constitution to allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann). This made Ruairí Ó Brádaigh lead a small walkout, just as he had done years earlier to create Provisional Sinn Féin. This minority which still believed in abstentionism, called themselves Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach in Irish), and says that they are the true Sinn Féin. - -Adams' leadership of Sinn Féin was supported by a Northern-based group that included Danny Morrison and Martin McGuinness. Adams and others, over time, pointed to Sinn Féin election wins in the early and mid-1980s, when hunger strikers Bobby Sands and Kieran Doherty were elected to the British House of Commons and Dáil Éireann, and they pushed to get Sinn Féin to become more political and less paramilitary. This policy was a success and Adams and McGuinness, and others were elected to the House of Commons, but never attend. Sinn Féin still abstains from Westminster. - -Voice ban -At this time most ordinary people in Britain knew about Adams because they could not hear him. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher banned radio and television stations from broadcasting his voice. All Irish republican organizations and loyalist terrorist organizations were banned like this, but Adams was the only person important enough to appear regularly on TV. This ban was imposed after the BBC interviewed Martin McGuinness. and the British Government thought that some groups were getting too much publicity. - -A similar ban, known as Section 31, had been the law in the Republic of Ireland since the 1970s. However, media outlets soon found ways around the ban, first by the use of subtitles, and later and more commonly by using actors to read his words over the pictures of him speaking. - -This ban was made fun of in cartoons and satirical TV shows, notably Spitting Image, and in The Day Today. It was also criticized by freedom of speech organizations worldwide and British media personalities, including BBC Director-General John Birt and BBC foreign editor John Simpson. The ban was lifted by Prime Minister John Major on 17 September 1994. - -Moving into mainstream politics -Sinn Féin continued its policy of refusing to sit in the Westminster parliament even after Adams won the Belfast West constituency. He lost his seat to Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in the 1992 general election. However, he easily regained it at the next election in May 1997. - -Under Adams, Sinn Féin moved away from being a political voice of the Provisional IRA to becoming a professionally organized political party in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. - -SDLP leader John Hume MP realized that a negotiated settlement might be possible and began secret talks with Adams in 1988. These discussions led to unofficial contacts with the British Northern Ireland Office under the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Brooke, and with the government of the Republic under Charles Haughey – although both governments maintained in public that they would not negotiate with ""terrorists"". - -These talks provided the basis for what was later to be the Belfast Agreement, as well as the Downing Street Declaration and the Joint Framework Document. - -These negotiations led to the IRA ceasefire in August 1994. The new Irish Taoiseach (prime minister) Albert Reynolds had played a key role in the Hume/Adams talks through his Special Advisor Martin Mansergh, thought the ceasefire as permanent. However, the IRA ended its ceasefire because of the slow pace of developments, partly because British prime minister John Major needed the votes of the Ulster Unionist Party in the House of Commons. - -Later there was a new ceasefire, and there were talks between teams from the British and Irish governments, the Ulster Unionist Party, the SDLP, Sinn Féin and representatives of loyalist paramilitary organizations, under the chairmanship of former United States Senator Mitchell. The talks produced the Belfast Agreement (also called the Good Friday Agreement as it was signed on Good Friday, 1998). Under the agreement, structures were created to show that some people on the island of Ireland were Irish and others wanted to be British. A British-Irish Council and the Northern Ireland Assembly were set up. - -Articles 2 and 3 of the Republic's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann, which claimed sovereignty over all of Ireland, were reworded, and a power-sharing Executive Committee was provided for. As part of their deal Sinn Féin agreed to abandon its abstentionist policy regarding a ""six-county parliament"", and took its seats in the new Assembly based at Stormont Sinn Féin ran the and running the health and social services and the education ministries in the power-sharing government. - -Opponents in Republican Sinn Féin accused Sinn Féin of ""selling out"" by agreeing to participate in what is called ""partitionist assemblies"" in the Republic and Northern Ireland. However Gerry Adams insisted that the Belfast Agreement provided a way to make Ireland united by non-violent and legal means, much as Michael Collins had said of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922 - -When Sinn Féin came to nominate its two ministers to the Executive Council, the party, like the SDLP and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) did not include its leader among its ministers. (When later the SDLP chose a new leader, it selected one of its ministers, Mark Durkan, who then opted to remain a minister.) - -Adams remains the President of Sinn Féin, with Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin serving as Sinn Féin parliamentary leader in Dáil Éireann, and Martin McGuinness the party's chief negotiator and effective party head in the Northern Ireland Assembly. His son, Gearoid is a primary school teacher and has represented County Antrim in gaelic football. - -On 8 March 2007 it was Adams was re-elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly. - -On 26 March 2007, he met with DUP leader Ian Paisley face-to-face for the first time, and the two came to an agreement regarding the return of the power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland. - -References - -Published works - Falls Memories, 1982 - The Politics of Irish Freedom, 1986 - A Pathway to Peace, 1988 - An Irish Journal - An Irish Voice - Cage Eleven, 1990 - The Street and Other Stories, 1992 - Free Ireland: Towards a Lasting Peace, 1995 - Before the Dawn, 1996, Brandon Books, - Selected Writings - Who Fears to Speak...? - Hope and History, 2003, Brandon Books, - -Further reading - J. Bowyer Bell. The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 -. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1979. - Colm Keena. A Biography of Gerry Adams. Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1990. - Ed Moloney. A Secret History of the IRA. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002. - O'Callaghan, Sean. The Informer. Corgi. 1999. - Robert W. White. Ruairi O Bradaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. - Anthony McIntyre. Gerry Adams Man Of War and Man Of Peace? , academic lecture examining Gerry Adams' role in the Republican Movement - -Other websites - Sinn Féin - Gerry Adams official profile - Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle - Gerry Adams - TheyWorkForYou.com - Gerry Adams MP - The Public Whip - Gerry Adams voting record - -1948 births -Living people -British writers -Former members of Dáil Éireann -Former members of the British House of Commons for Northern Irish constituencies -Leaders of political parties in the United Kingdom -Northern Ireland Assembly, Former Members -Politicians from Belfast -Sinn Féin politicians -UK MPs 1983–1987 -UK MPs 1987–1992 -UK MPs 1997–2001 -UK MPs 2001–2005 -UK MPs 2005–2010 -UK MPs 2010–2015" -22856,86755,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Mail,Royal Mail,"Royal Mail is a postal service company in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. It was established as early as 1516. The British Government formerly owned it and since 2013 own 30% of it. - -Related pages - Mail - Royal Mail Ship - -References - -Other websites - - royalmailgroup.com - - -Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange -1516 establishments -1510s establishments in England" -17583,66470,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen%20Campbell,Glen Campbell,"Glen Travis Campbell (April 22, 1936 – August 8, 2017) was an American musician, singer and actor. He was born in Billstown, Arkansas. Almost all of his solo works have been in the country music genre. Before his solo career, he played guitar on rock and pop music records, including ""Mary, Mary"" by The Monkees. Campbell joined The Beach Boys for a short time, when Brian Wilson became ill. - -Campbell guest-starred on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. Later he hosted a series of his own, The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour. - -Campbell's hits include ""Galveston"", ""By The Time I Get to Phoenix"", ""Wichita Lineman"", ""Try a Little Kindness"", ""Gentle On My Mind"", ""Sunflower"", and ""Hey Little One"". Many of his hits were written by Jimmy Webb. In 1975, Campbell had his biggest hit, ""Rhinestone Cowboy"". The song became a phenomenon, and rhinestone-covered clothing became a fad. - -Campbell had more hits, including ""Country Boy (You Got Your Feet in L. A.)"" and ""Can You Fool?"". His career slowed down in the late 1970s. He seemed to suffer from public overexposure. His romance with Tanya Tucker, a much younger country singer, did not help the way many people saw Campbell. He stopped recording, and cut back on his public appearances. - -Years later, Campbell returned to recording and appearing on television. In the 1990s, people were again interested in his music and career. Personal problems, though, seemed to get as much attention as his career, for example, when Campbell was arrested for drunk driving. His music is still popular with fans, and is part of popular culture. - -Campbell discovered in late 2010 that he had Alzheimer's disease. He announced the diagnosis in June 2011. He released his final album that year. He completed his last concert tour in November 2012. He died of the disease on August 8, 2017 in Nashville, Tennessee at the age of 81. - -Discography -Singles -""Gentle on My Mind"" (1967) -""Rhinestone Cowboy"" (1975) - -Studio albums - -Big Bluegrass Special (1962) -Too Late To Worry Too Blue To Cry (1963) -Burning Bridges (1967) -Gentle On My Mind (album) (1967) -By The Time I Get To Phoenix (album) (1968)Hey Little One (1978)New Place In The Sun (1968)Wichita Lineman (1968)New Place In The Sun (1969)Galveston (album) (1969)Goodtime Album (1970)Oh Happy Day (1970)Try A Little Kindness Date (1970)Greatest Hits (1971)Glen Travis Campbell (1972)I Knew Jesus (1973)I Remember Hank Williams (1973)Rhinestone Cowboy (1975)Southern Nights (1977)Old Home Town (1983)Letter To Home (1984)Light Years (1988)Unconditional Love (1988)Still Within The Sound Of My Voice (1988)Walkin' In The Sun (1990)Country Gold (1991)All-Time Favorites (1991)Favorite Hymns (1991)Wings Of Victory (1992)Christmas With Glen Campbell (1992)Somebody Like That (1993)Phoenix (1994)Home For The Holidays (1998)A Glen Campbell Christmas (1999)Rhinestone Cowboy (1999)Merry Christmas (2000)Love Songs (2000)Wichita Lineman (2001)The Legacy (1961–2002) (2003)Ghost On The Canvas (2011)Adios (2017)Sings For The King'' (2018) - -Related pages -List of country musicians from Arkansas - -References - -Other websites - -1936 births -2017 deaths -Actors from Arkansas -Country musicians from Arkansas -American guitarists -American movie actors -American television actors -American voice actors -Deaths from Alzheimer's disease -Disease-related deaths in Tennessee -Musicians from Arkansas -Singers from Arkansas" -8008,26653,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleen%20Fitzpatrick,Colleen Fitzpatrick,"Colleen Ann Fitzpatrick (born July 20, 1972 in Old Bridge, New Jersey) is an American singer and actor. Her stage name is Vitamin C. Before she started her solo career, she was the lead singer of the band Eve's Plum. - -Music - -Albums - More (2001) - Vitamin C (1999) - -Singles - ""Last Nite"" (2003) - ""As Long As You're Loving Me"" (2000) - ""The Itch"" (2000) - ""Graduation (Friends Forever)"" (2000) - ""Me, Myself, & I"" (1999) - ""Smile"" (1999) - -Movies - Happy Is Not Hard to Be (2005) - My X-Girlfriend's Wedding Reception (2001) - Rock Star (2001) - Scary Movie 2 (2001) (voice only) - Get Over It (2001) - Dracula 2000 (2000) - Da Hip Hop Witch (2000) - ''The Haven (2000) - Liar Liar (1997) - St. Patrick's Day (1997) - High School High (1996) - Just Cause (1995) - Higher Learning (1995) - Crinoline Head (1995) - The Mambo Kings (1992) - The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991) - Hairspray'' (1988) - -Other websites - - -1969 births -Living people -Singers from New Jersey -American movie actors -Actors from New Jersey" -16425,63117,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regi%C3%B3n%20Aut%C3%B3noma%20del%20Atl%C3%A1ntico%20Norte,Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte,"Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte is an autonomous region of Nicaragua. It was created in 1989. Its capital is Puerto Cabezas. Often the name is shotened to RAAN. - -Geography of Nicaragua" -1607,5506,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position,Position,"Position is a way to explain where something is. - -Location -The words which indicate position are called prepositions. - -Left, middle, and right - -To find which is your left hand side, hold your hands palms down, point your index fingers and stick your thumbs out at right angles. The finger and thumb of your left hand will form a capital letter L. - -If the letter L you make is reversed, you found your right hand. Left and right are called opposite sides. - -Middle is between up and down and is between left and right. -Middle means the same as center. - -encyclopedia Examples - -Far and near - -Far means that something is a long way away from you. Near means it is close to you. Things can also be near and far other persons and other things. - -In sports -In many sports, the term ""position"" is used to show what occupation a person has on their team. For example, in baseball, positions include catcher, shortstop and pitcher. - -In math and physics - -The position of something is where that thing is in space and time. Usually people use Cartesian coordinates to write down a position. So a scientist might say that the balloon was at x, y, z when it popped at a certain time. - -In society -The position of a person is his status or responsibility in a community or group of people. It is called rank in the army. -In a factory the manager is a typical position. - -Basic English 850 words -Geometry" -9014,30835,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Luther%20King%2C%20Jr.%20Day,"Martin Luther King, Jr. Day","Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is a US Federal Holiday. It commemorates civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr.'s birthday. It is celebrated on the third Monday in January and is one of only four United States Federal holidays to honor an individual person. - -President Ronald Reagan signed a bill, proposed by Representative Katie Hall of Indiana, to create a federal holiday honoring King. The holiday was observed for the first time on January 20, 1986. It is observed on the third Monday of January. - -References - -January events" -5439,17720,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1198,1198,"1198 (MCXCVIII) was . - -Events - End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba, emperor of Japan - Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan - January 8 – Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne - Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily - -Births - August 24 — King Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1249) - Ertugrul, Turkish leader, father of Osman I (d. 1281) - Ferdinand III of Castile (d. 1252) - Sybilla of Lusignan, wife of Leo II of Armenia (d. c. 1230) - -Deaths - January 8 — Pope Celestine III (b. c. 1106) - March 11 — Marie de Champagne, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1145) - April 16 — Duke Frederick I of Austria (b. c. 1175) - September 1 — Dulce Berenguer, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1160) - November 27 — Queen Constance of Sicily, wife of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1154) - December 10 — Averroes, Arab philosopher and physician (b. 1126) - Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, High King of Ireland - Alix of France, daughter of Louis VII of France (b. 1150) - William III of Sicily (b. 1190) - June 2 — Lord Ygo III of Galama, Frisian knight and nobleman (b. 1139) - William of Newburgh, English historian (b. 1135)" -18928,71190,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium%20oxide,Magnesium oxide,"Magnesium oxide, or magnesia, is a white solid mineral, made of one part magnesium and one part oxygen. Its chemical formula is MgO. Magnesium oxide is used by libraries to make books last longer. It is also used as an insulator for some electrical wires, and to help crucibles resist high temperatures. Magnesium oxide is also used to treat heartburn and upset stomachs. - -References - -Chemical compounds -Oxides" -14694,55414,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebuchet,Trebuchet,"A Trebuchet was a device used in wars and sieges in the Middle Ages. It could be used to throw stones at ramparts, trying to break them down. It could also be used to throw things over the walls of a city. These could be corpses of animals or people that had died of the plague. Trebuchets were more accurate than other medieval catapults. - -How it works -The trebuchet works in a simple way. The basket of the trebuchet is filled with heavy rocks. This acts as a counterweight for the other end, which is usually filled with one large rock. Several men arm the trebuchet by raising the counterweight up and the firing arm down. At this point the arm is released, the heavy basket swings down and the arm swings up, launching the rock far and fast. -The sling adds an additional 10-15 feet of arm length and gives the projectile a whip like speed then releases. The sling gives the projectile most of its speed. - -Other websites - - Secrets of Lost Empires: Medieval Siege (building of and history of trebuchets), from the NOVA website - article on Trebuchet Mechanics (in PDF format) - The Finnish Trebuchet - Homemade Trebuchet - Homemade Spring Trebuchet - Medieval Trébuchet - Animated Trebuchet - Evolution of Sling Weapons - -Weapons" -16303,62721,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samson%20%28band%29,Samson (band),"Samson was a British heavy metal band between 1977 and 2002. It was considered a part of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal. Its first album, Survivors, received good reviews. This made the band more popular. Iron Maiden lead singer Bruce Dickinson was in the band before he joined Iron Maiden. Dickinson went by the name ""Bruce Bruce"" while he was in Samson. The band kept making music until 2002, when guitarist Paul Samson, who started the band, died of cancer. - -Studio albums - Survivors (1979) - Head On (1980) - Shock Tactics (1981) - Before the Storm (1982) - Don't Get Mad, Get Even (1984) - Joint Forces (1986) - Refugee (1990) - Samson (1993) - P.S.... (2006) - -References - -Other websites -Samson on AllMusic -Samson on Billboard - -British heavy metal bands -1977 establishments in the United Kingdom -Musical groups established in 1977 -Musical groups disestablished in 2002 -2002 disestablishments in the United Kingdom" -11305,40999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeppelin,Zeppelin,"For the English rock group, see Led Zeppelin. - -A Zeppelin is a type of airship. It is a dirigible, which means it is rigid airship, but can be directed. It was developed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, in the early 20th century. The name Zeppelin is now used as a common name for all airships. Zeppelins were used in the First World War. In the Second World War the Nazis largely used them for propaganda purposes. - -One of the most well-known Zeppelins was the LZ 129 Hindenburg, which caught fire on May 6, 1937, during a landing after a non-stop trip from Germany to New Jersey in the United States. Another, the LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin was still in use after this disaster although some modifications had to be made after the disaster. After the Second World War and the fall of the Nazis in Germany, Zeppelins were not used anymore. Plans exist to use Zeppelins to lift heavy weights. Sometimes, they are also used as tourist attractions, or for advertising. - -World War I -Airships" -2044,6777,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis%20countries,Axis countries,"Axis countries and Axis Powers are the names for some countries that fought together against the Allies during World War II. The war ended in 1945 with the Axis powers losing and their alliances broken. - -Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis Powers -The most important Axis countries formed an alliance called the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis Powers (1922 to 1945). They included: - - Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler - Kingdom of Italy under Benito Mussolini - Empire of Japan under Emperor Hirohito - -All three countries had authoritarian governments, which were (and still are) often referred to as fascist. - -Other countries - -Subsequent signatories of the Tripartite Pact -In addition to the main three countries, the less important Axis countries were: - Hungary - Romania - Bulgaria - -Other countries that helped the Axis without being a part of them were: - -Co-belligerent states - Finland fought against the Soviet Union and participated in the Siege of Leningrad. - Iraq - Thailand - -Client states - Slovakia - Philippines (Second Republic) - Vietnam (Empire of Vietnam) - Manchukuo (Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia) - Reorganized National Government of China - Independent State of Croatia - Province of Ljubljana - -Controversial cases - - Denmark signed treaty of mutual non-aggression. - Spain was neutral, but gave non-military assistance. - Vichy France agreed not to resist after Northern France was conquered. Allowed (forced?) to allow Japan to occupy French Indochina. - -Several new or rebel governments that were created by the Axis during the war are: - Burma (Ba Maw regime) - India (Provisional Government of Free India) - -Other websites - WW2DB: Tripartite Pact - WW2DB: Axis Countries - -World War II -Nazi Germany -20th century in Japan -20th century in Italy -Military alliances" -19674,75382,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song%20cycle,Song cycle,"A song cycle in classical music is a group of songs that belong together. Although each song may be sung separately, the composer really imagined that they would be performed together as one work. Sometimes they tell a story, but sometimes they just belong together because they are about the same idea (e.g. the sadness that can be caused by love). They are often for solo voice and piano accompaniment, but they can also be without accompaniment, or with several instruments or even a whole orchestra. The words of a cycle are often by the same poet, but this is not always the case. - -Song cycles started to become popular with composers in the Romantic period. Although there were examples of song cycles written before that, it was the German composers of the 19th century who are most often thought of as writers of song cycles. Their songs are called ""Lieder"". - -The great composer Franz Schubert wrote about 600 songs. These include two long song cycles: Winterreise (Winter’s Journey) and Die schöne Müllerin (The beautiful miller’s daughter). Each of these song cycles is long enough for a whole concert. Robert Schumann wrote song cycles including two which he simply called Liederkreise (Song Cycles), and his well-known Dichterliebe (Poet’s Love) and Frauenliebe und -Leben (Women’s Love and Life). Brahms wrote Vier ernste Gesänge (Four Serious Songs), and Gustav Mahler, who became very interested in folk song, wrote several song cycles with orchestra accompaniment, including Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth). - -French composers who wrote song cycles include Jules Massenet, Gabriel Fauré and Claude Debussy. Russian composers include Modest Mussorgsky and Dmitri Shostakovich, and English and American composers in the 20th century include Michael Tippett, Benjamin Britten and Aaron Copland as well as the South American Alberto Ginastera, Juan María Solare and Heitor Villa-Lobos. - -Related pages -Lied - -Song forms" -17622,66577,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzashkun,Arzashkun,"Arzashkun () was a capital city of the Kingdom of Urartu in the 9th century B.C. It is thought that the city was located north of Lake Van in what is now eastern Turkey. The city had two walls and towers. It was protected from attack, by a thick forest. An army could not easily travel through this forest. - -The nation of Urartu was at the headwaters of the river Tigris in the 9th century B.C. Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria thought that Urartu was a danger to Assyria. He started an expedition to Urartu in 857. He said that he destroyed the capital, Arzashkun. He also claimed that he traveled as far as Lake Van and left his inscription on Mount Irritia. - -It is believed that the name Arzashkun is the Assyrian form of an Armenian name. - -Related pages - Lake Van - Ancient Armenia - -Ancient Armenia -Urartu -Former national capitals -9th century BC" -6887,21696,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives,Maldives,"The Maldives are a group of islands in the Indian Ocean. They are southwest of India. They are made up of the Maldive and Suadive archipelagos, with over 1,200 islands. These islands are a part of 26 atolls. And they are divided to 20 administrative atolls. People live on about 200 of the islands. It has more than 1126 coral reefs. It is the flattest country in the world. The highest point in the Maldives is only high above the level of the sea. - -Malé is the capital, with a population of 150,000 people. Its official religion is Islam. - -Climate - -The Maldives has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) under the Köppen climate classification, which is affected by the large landmass of South Asia to the north. Because the Maldives has the lowest elevation of any country in the world, the temperature is constantly hot and often humid. The presence of this landmass causes differential heating of land and water. These factors set off a rush of moisture-rich air from the Indian Ocean over South Asia, resulting in the southwest monsoon. Two seasons dominate Maldives' weather: the dry season associated with the winter northeastern monsoon and the rainy season which brings strong winds and storms. - -The shift from the dry northeast monsoon to the moist southwest monsoon occurs during April and May. During this period, the southwest winds contribute to the formation of the southwest monsoon, which reaches Maldives in the beginning of June and lasts until the end of August. However, the weather patterns of Maldives do not always conform to the monsoon patterns of South Asia. The annual rainfall averages in the north and in the south. - -The monsoonal influence is greater in the north of the Maldives than in the south, more influenced by the equatorial currents. - -The highest temperature ever recorded in Malé was 39.6 °C (103.3 °F) on 1 January 2000 and the lowest was 20.4 °C (68.7 °F) on 20 March 1989 and 21 January 2017. - -References - -Other websites - -Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation" -13087,48007,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation%20%28biology%29,Assimilation (biology),"Assimilation in biology, is the combination of two processes which get nutrients for cells. - -The first (in animals) is eating and digesting food. Food is absorbed and broken down. This is done by physical breakdown (chewing and stomach churning), then chemical breakdown by enzymes and acids) The results are absorbed into the bloodstream. - -The second process of is the chemical alteration of substances in the bloodstream by the liver. Many compounds needed by cells are done by this second process. Both the liver and cellular secretions can be very specific in their action. This second process is where the absorbed food reaches the cells via the liver. - -Examples of assimilation by plants - Photosynthesis, the process whereby carbon dioxide and water are transformed into a number of organic molecules in plant cells. - Nitrogen fixation from the soil into organic molecules by symbiotic bacteria which live in the roots of certain plants, such as Leguminaceae. - -Related pages -Biochemistry -Food -Digestion - -Physiology" -2444,7843,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2018,February 18," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1229 - Sixth Crusade: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor signs a ten-year truce with al-Kamil, regaining Jerusalem, Nazareth and Bethlehem, with neither military engagement nor support from the Pope. - 1268 – The Livonian Brothers of the Sword are defeated by Dovmont of Pskov in the Battle of Rakvere. - 1332 - Amda Seyon I of Ethiopia begins his campaigns in the southern Muslim provinces. - 1478 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence is executed in the Tower of London after being convicted of treason against his older brother, King Edward IV of England. - 1637 - Eighty Years' War: Off Cornwall, a Spanish fleet intercepts a very important Anglo-Dutch merchant convoy of 44 vessels escorted by 6 warships, destroying or capturing 20 of them. - 1745 - Surakarta, Central Java, is founded. - 1766 - A mutiny by captive Malagasy begins at sea on the slave ship Meermin, leading to the ship's destruction on Cape Agulhas in present-day South Africa and recapture of the instigators. - 1791 - United States Congress passes a law making Vermont a state from March 4. - 1814 - Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Montereau. - 1861 – Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy assumes the title of King of Italy. - 1861 – In Montgomery, Alabama, Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as provisional President of the Confederate States of America. - 1865 - American Civil War: Union forces under General William Tecumseh Sherman set the South Carolina State House on fire during the burning of Columbia, South Carolina. - 1873 – Bulgarian revolutionary Vasil Levski is executed by hanging in Sofia by the Ottoman authorities. - 1885 - The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, is published. - 1900 – Second Boer War: British forces suffer their worst single-day loss of life of the war on the first day of the Battle of Paardeberg. - -1901 2000 - 1906 - Edouard de Laveleye forms the Belgian Olympic Committee. - 1910 – The future-World Governing body for the sport of Skiing is founded in Kristiania, present-day Oslo, in Norway. - 1911 - The first airmail flight takes place in what is then British India. - 1913 - Pedro Lascurain becomes President of Mexico for 45 minutes. This is the shortest time that a President has ever served in office. - 1930 – From photographs taken in January, Clyde Tombaugh discovers the dwarf planet Pluto. - 1932 – The Empire of Japan declares Manzhougou (Manchuria) independent of the Republic of China. - 1942 - World War II: The Imperial Japanese Army begins the systematic extermination of people in the Chinese community in Singapore that it sees as hostile to its regime. - 1943 – Members of the White Rose Resistance Movement are arrested by the Nazis. - 1946 - Sailors of the Royal Indian Navy mutiny in Bombay. This action later spreads throughout India. - 1947 - First Indochina War: The French gain complete control of Hanoi after forcing the Viet Minh to withdraw to the mountains. - 1952 – Greece and Turkey join NATO. - 1954 – The first Church of Scientology is established in Los Angeles, California. - 1957 – Kenyan rebel leader Dedan Kimathi is executed by the British colonial government. - 1960 – The Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California, begin. - 1963 – The eruption of the Agung volcano on Bali kills around 1,500 people. - 1965 – The Gambia becomes independent from the United Kingdom. - 1969 - Hawthorne Nevada Airlines Flight 708 crashes into Mount Whitney, California, killing all on board. - 1977 – The Space Shuttle Enterprise makes its first flight, on a Boeing 747. - 1978 – The first Ironman triathlon takes place on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. It is won by Gordon Haller. - 1979 – Snow falls in the Sahara desert of southern Algeria for the only time in recorded history. - 1983 – 13 people die in the Wah Mee massacre in Seattle. It is believed to be the worst robbery-motivated killing in US history. - 1985 - NBA player Larry Bird barely misses a quadruple-double in a game against the Utah Jazz. He sits out the entire fourth quarter. - 1988 – Anthony Kennedy becomes a member of the Supreme Court of the United States. - 1991 - The IRA detonates bombs at London's Paddington and Victoria Stations. - 2000 - Stjepan Mesic becomes President of Croatia. - -From 2001 - 2001 - Inter-ethnic violence begins in Sampit, Indonesia, between Dayaks and Madurese. - 2001 – Dale Earnhardt dies in a crash on the last lap of the last turn on the Daytona 500. - 2001 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested for spying for the Soviet Union. - 2003 – Nearly 200 people die in the Daegu subway fire in South Korea. - 2004 – Up to 295 people, including around 200 rescue workers, are killed in Iran, when a freight train carrying sulfur, petrol and fertiliser catches fire and explodes. - 2005 – A ban on Fox Hunting in the United Kingdom enters effect. - 2007 – Terrorist bombings occur on the Samjhauta Express in Panipat, Haryana, India, killing 68 people. - 2010 – A coup takes place in Niamey, Niger. President Mamadou Tandja is replaced by a ruling junta, the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy. - 2014 - At least 76 people are killed and hundreds are injured in clashes between riot police and demonstrators in Kyiv, Ukraine, during the Euromaidan protests. - -Births - -Up to 1800 - 1372 - Iban Hajar al-Asqalani, Egyptian jurist and scholar (d. 1448) - 1374 – Saint Jadwiga of Poland, Queen of Poland (d. 1399) - 1404 – Leon Battista Alberti, Italian painter and philosopher (d. 1472) - 1486 - Chaitanya Mahaprabha, Indian saint (d. 1534) - 1516 – Queen Mary I of England (d. 1558) - 1530 - Uesugi Kenshin, Japanese daimyo (d. 1578) - 1543 - Charles III, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1608) - 1609 - Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, English statesman and historian (d. 1674) - 1632 - Giovanni Battista Vitali, Italian composer and violinist (d. 1692) - 1635 - Johan Goransson Gyllenstierna, Swedish statesman (d. 1680) - 1642 - Marie Champnesle, French actress (d. 1698) - 1677 - Jacques Cassini, French astronomer (d. 1756) - 1732 – Johann Christian Kittel, German organist, composer and teacher (d. 1809) - 1745 – Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist (d. 1827) - -1801 1900 - 1814 - Samuel Fenton Cary, American lawyer and politician (d. 1900) - 1817 – Lewis A. Armistead, American Confederate General (d. 1863) - 1818 – Pedro Figueredo, Cuban poet, musician and revolutionary (d. 1870) - 1832 - Octave Chanute, French-American civil engineer and aviation pioneer (d. 1910) - 1836 - Sri Ramakrishna, Indian Bengali Guru (d. 1886) - 1838 – Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist (d. 1916) - 1846 – Wilson Barrett, English playwright (d. 1904) - 1848 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American glass artist (d. 1933) - 1849 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian writer (d. 1906) - 1850 - George Henschel, German-British baritone, conductor and composer (d. 1934) - 1854 - Herbert Gladstone, British politician (d. 1930) - 1855 - Jean Jules Jusserand, French author and diplomat (d. 1932) - 1857 - Max Klinger, German sculptor and painter (d. 1920) - 1858 – Princess Louise Marie of Belgium (d. 1924) - 1860 – Anders Zorn, Swedish painter (d. 1920) - 1875 - Wilhelm Külz, German politician (d. 1948) - 1878 - Harriet Bosse, Swedish-Norwegian actress (d. 1961) - 1883 - Nikos Kazantzakis, Greek writer (d. 1957) - 1885 - Henri Laurens, French sculptor and illustrator (d. 1954) - 1890 - Edward Arnold, American actor (d. 1956) - 1890 - Adolphe Menjou, American actor (d. 1963) - 1892 – Wendell Wilkie, American politician (d. 1944) - 1896 - André Breton, French writer (d. 1966) - 1897 – Charles Kuentz, German-born French World War I veteran (d. 2005) - 1898 – Enzo Ferrari, Italian founder of Ferrari (d. 1988) - 1898 – Luis Muñoz Marin, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (d. 1980) - 1899 - Arthur Bryant, British historian (d. 1985) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - Reginald Sheffield, British actor (d. 1957) - 1902 - Walter Herbert, German-born conductor and impresario (d. 1975) - 1903 – Nikolai Podgorny, Soviet politician (d. 1983) - 1906 – Hans Asperger, Austrian physician, after whom Asperger syndrome is named (d. 1980) - 1912 - Heinz Kühn, German politician (d. 1992) - 1914 - Pee Wee King, American singer-songwriter (d. 2000) - 1915 - Phyllis Calvert, English actress (d. 2002) - 1916 - Jean Drapeau, 37th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1999) - 1919 - Amir Abbas Hoveyda, Prime Minister of Iran (d. 1979) - 1919 – Jack Palance, American actor (d. 2006) - 1920 – Bill Cullen, American game show host (d. 1990) - 1920 – Eddie Slovik, American soldier (d. 1945) - 1922 - Helen Gurley Brown, American publisher (d. 2012) - 1922 - Joe Tipton, American baseball player (d. 1994) - 1922 - Eric Gairy, 1st Prime Minister of Grenada (d. 1997) - 1925 - Marcel Barbeau, Canadian painter and sculptor (d. 2016) - 1925 - George Kennedy, American actor (d. 2016) - 1927 - Richard A. Snelling, two-time Governor of Vermont (d. 1991) - 1927 - John Warner, American politician (d. 2021) - 1929 - Len Deighton, English author - 1929 - Ertem Egilmez, Turkish movie director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1989) - 1931 – Toni Morrison, American writer, Nobel Prize winner - 1931 - Bob St. Clair, American football player (d. 2015) - 1932 – Milos Forman, Czech movie director - 1933 – Yoko Ono, Japanese singer and performance artist - 1933 – Bobby Robson, English footballer and manager (d. 2009) - 1933 - Mary Ure, Scottish actress (d. 1975) - 1934 - Paco Rabanne, Spanish fashion designer - 1936 - Ab McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player - 1938 – Sadanoyama Shinmatsu, Japanese sumo wrestler - 1938 – Istvan Szabo, Hungarian movie director - 1939 - Marek Janowski, Polish-born conductor - 1940 - Prue Leith, South African-English chef and author - 1943 - Graeme Garden, Scottish writer, actor and comedian - 1944 - Pat Bowlen, American owner of the Denver Broncos football team - 1945 - Judy Rankin, American golfer - 1946 – Michael Buerk, British newsreader - 1946 – Jean-Claude Dreyfus, French actor - 1947 – Princess Christina of the Netherlands - 1947 - Dennis DeYoung, American musician - 1947 - Carlos Lopes, Portuguese athlete - 1948 – Sinead Cusack, Irish actress - 1949 – Gary Ridgway, American serial killer - 1950 - Cristina Ferrare, American model, actress, author and host - 1950 - Cybill Shepherd, American actress - 1950 – John Hughes, American movie director (d. 2009) - -1951 1975 - 1951 - Komal, last Queen of Nepal - 1951 - Isabel Preysler, Filipino-Spanish journalist - 1952 - Randy Crawford, American singer - 1954 – John Travolta, American actor - 1956 – Rüdiger Abramczik, German footballer and manager - 1956 - Bidzina Ivanishvili, Georgian politician and businessman - 1957 - Marita Koch, German athlete - Bruce Rauner, American politician, 42nd Governor of Illinois - Christiane Torloni, Brazilian actress - Vanna White, American actress/game show model (Wheel of Fortune) - 1958 - Lucie Visser, Dutch actress and model - 1958 - Gar Samuelson, American drummer (d. 1999) - 1959 – Hallgrimur Helgason, Icelandic artist and writer - 1960 - Greta Scacchi, Australian actress - 1960 - Tony Anselmo, American animator - 1961 - Hironobu Kageyama, Japanese singer - 1961 - Alison Owen, British movie producer - 1963 – Anders Frisk, Swedish football referee - 1964 – Matt Dillon, American actor - 1964 - Paul Hanley, British musician - 1965 – Dr. Dre, American record producer and rapper - 1967 – Roberto Baggio, Italian footballer - 1967 – Colin Jackson, Welsh athlete - 1968 - Molly Ringwald, American actress - 1969 - Alexander Mogilny, Russian ice hockey player - 1969 - Jason Sutter, American drummer - 1970 - Susan Egan, American actress - 1970 - Raine Maida, Canadian singer-songwriter - 1971 - Merritt Gant, American guitarist - 1971 - Constnatin Popa, Romanian-Israeli basketball player - 1971 - Thomas Bjorn, Danish golfer - 1972 - Fabian Picardo, 7th Chief Minister of Gibraltar - 1973 – Claude Makélélé, French footballer - 1973 - Shawn Estes, American baseball player - 1974 – Yevgeny Kafelnikov, Russian tennis player - 1975 – Keith Gillespie, Irish footballer - 1975 – Gary Neville, English footballer - 1975 - Thora Arnorsdottir, Icelandic television presenter and former Presidential candidate - -From 1976 - 1977 – Chrissie Wellington, English tri-athlete - 1978 – Josip Simunic, Croatian footballer - 1980 - Nikolai Antropov, Kazakhstani ice hockey player - 1981 - Andrei Kirilenko, Russian basketball player - 1981 - Ivan Sproule, Irish footballer - 1982 - Courtney Act, Australian drag queen, singer and entertainer - 1982 - Kaspars Cipruss, Latvian basketball player - 1983 - Roberta Vinci, Italian tennis player - 1983 – Jermaine Jenas, English footballer - 1984 - Laurent Vidal, French triathlete (d. 2015) - 1985 – Anton Ferdinand, English footballer - 1985 - Jos van der Emden, Dutch cyclist - 1985 - Song Jae-rim, South Korean actor and model - 1985 – Lee Boyd Malvo, Jamaican-American spree killer - 1986 - Vika Jigulina, Romanian singer - 1986 - Marc Torrejon, Spanish footballer - 1988 - Changmin, South Korean singer-songwriter, dancer and actor - 1988 – Maiara Walsh, Brazilian-American actress - 1990 - Park Shin-hye, South Korean actress, dancer, model and singer - 1990 - Kang So-ra, South Korean actress - 1991 - Malese Jow, American actress and singer-songwriter - 1991 – Henry Surtees, English racing driver (d. 2009) - 1992 - Logan Miller, American actor - 1995 - Samantha Crawford, American tennis player - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 814 - Anglibert, Frankish monk and diplomat (b. 760) - 901 - Thabit ibn Qurra, Iraqi physician, astronomer and mathematician (b. 826) - 999 – Pope Gregory V (b. 972) - 1139 - Prince Yaropolk II of Kiev (b. 1082) - 1294 – Kublai Khan, Mongol ruler (b. 1215) - 1379 - Albert II of Mecklenburg (b. 1318) - 1405 – Tamerlane, Mongol ruler (b. 1336) - 1455 – Fra Angelico, Italian artist (b. 1395) - 1478 – George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence (b. 1449) - 1535 - Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, German magician, astrologer and theologian (b. 1486) - 1546 – Martin Luther, German religious reformer (b. 1483) - 1564 – Michelangelo, Italian artist and sculptor (b. 1475) - 1712 - Louis, duc de Bourgogne, heir to the French throne (b. 1682) - 1743 - Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, last of the Medicis (b. 1667) - 1772 - Johann Hartwig Ernst, Count of Bernstorff, Danish statesman (b. 1712) - 1780 – Kristijonas Donelaitis, Lithuanian poet (b. 1714) - 1834 - William Wirt, United States Attorney General (b. 1772) - 1851 – Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, German mathematician (b. 1804) - 1873 – Vasil Levski, Bulgarian revolutionary (b. 1837) - 1890 – Gyula Andrassy, Hungarian politician and statesman (b. 1823) - 1891 - Henry Hastings Sibley, American politician (b. 1811) - 1893 - Serranus Clinton Hastings, American politician (b. 1814) - 1895 - Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (b. 1817) - 1899 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician (b. 1842) - 1900 - Clinton L. Merriam, American politician (b. 1824) - -1901 2000 - 1902 – Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany and Co. (b. 1812) - 1906 - John Batterson Stetson, American businessman (b. 1830) - 1910 - Lucy Stanton, American abolitionist (b. 1831) - 1911 - Billy Murdoch, Australian cricketer (b. 1854) - 1915 - Harry Ward Leonard, American engineer and inventor (b. 1861) - 1931 - Frank C. Emerson, Governor of Wyoming (b. 1882) - 1932 - Frederick Augustus III of Saxony (b. 1865) - 1933 - James J. Corbett, American boxer (b. 1866) - 1937 - Lamartine Griffin Hardman, American politician, Governor of Georgia (b. 1856) - 1937 - Grigory Ordzhonikidze, Soviet politician (b. 1886) - 1945 - Ivan Chernyakhovsky, Russian general (b. 1906) - 1949 - Nicolas Alcala-Zamora, Spanish politician (b. 1877) - 1956 - Gustave Charpentier, French composer (b. 1860) - 1957 – Dedan Kimathi, Kenyan rebel leader (b. 1920) - 1957 - Henry Norris Russell, American astronomer (b. 1877) - 1964 - Joseph-Armand Bombardier, Canadian inventor and industrialist (b. 1907) - 1966 - Robert Rossen, American screenwriter, movie director and producer (b. 1908) - 1967 – Dragisa Cvetkovic, Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1893) - 1967 – J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist (b. 1904) - 1969 - Dragisa Cvetkovic, 17th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b. 1893) - 1973 - Frank Costello, Italian-American mob boss (b. 1891) - 1977 - Andy Devine, American actor (b. 1905) - 1978 - Maggie McNamara, American actress (b. 1928) - 1981 – John Knudsen Northrop, American aircraft manufacturer (b. 1895) - 1982 - Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand author (b. 1895) - 1993 - Jacqueline Hill, British actress (b. 1929) - 1995 - Bob Stinson, American guitarist (b. 1959) - -From 2001 - 2001 – Dale Earnhardt, American racing driver (b. 1951) - 2001 – Balthus, Polish-French painter (b. 1908) - 2003 – Isser Harel, Israeli Mossad leader (b. 1912) - 2004 – Jean Rouch, French movie maker and ethnologist (b. 1917) - 2008 – Alain Robbe-Grillet, French writer and movie maker (b. 1922) - 2009 – Kamila Skolimowska, Polish hammer thrower (b. 1982) - 2009 – At-Tayyib Salih, Sudanese writer (b. 1929) - 2010 – John Babcock, Canadian World War I veteran (b. 1900) - 2010 – Ariel Ramirez, Argentine composer (b. 1921) - 2012 – Roald Aas, Norwegian speed skater and cyclist (b. 1928) - 2012 – George Brizan, Grenadian politician (b. 1942) - 2013 – Jerry Buss, American businessman and owner of the Los Angeles Lakers basketball team (b. 1933) - 2013 – Elspet Gray, Scottish actress (b. 1928) - 2013 – Otfried Preussler, German writer (b. 1923) - 2014 – Nelson Frazier, Jr., American professional wrestler (b. 1971) - 2014 – Nikhil Baran Sengupta, Indian art director, producer, designer and actor (b. 1943) - 2014 – Malcolm Tierney, British actor (b. 1938) - 2014 – Al Greene, American baseball player (b. 1954) - 2014 – Kristof Goddaert, Belgian cyclist (b. 1986) - 2015 – Cass Ballenger, American politician (b. 1926) - 2015 – Claude Criquielion, Belgian cyclist (b. 1957) - 2015 – Mark Fischer, American lawyer (b. 1950) - 2015 – Jerome Kersey, American basketball player (b. 1962) - 2016 – Abdul Rashid Khan, Indian musician (b. 1907) - 2016 – Pantelis Pantelidis, Greek singer-songwriter (b. 1983) - 2016 – John Reinhardt, American diplomat (b. 1920) - 2017 – Omar Abdel-Rahman, Egyptian terrorist (b. 1938) - 2017 – Ivan Koloff, Canadian professional wrestler (b. 1942) - 2017 – Lawrence F. Snowden, American military officer (b. 1921) - 2017 – Pasquale Squitieri, Italian movie director and screenwriter (b. 1938) - 2017 – Clive Stubblefield, American drummer (b. 1942) - 2017 – Michael Ogio, Governor-General of Papua New Guinea (b. 1942) - 2017 – Norma McCorvey, American activist (b. 1947) - 2017 – Dan Vickerman, Australian rugby player (b. 1979) - 2017 – Richard Schickel, American writer, filmmaker and critic (b. 1933) - 2020 – Sreten Stefanović, Serbian Olympic gymnast (b. 1916) - 2020 – José Bonaparte, Argentine paleontologist (b. 1928) - -Observances - Independence Day (the Gambia) - International Asperger's Day - -Days of the year" -21100,80923,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence,Turbulence,"Turbulence or turbulent flow is violent, unsteady, chaotic movement of fluids like air and water. It is contrasted with laminar flow. Most motion of fluids in real life (outside laboratories) is turbulent. - -Fluid mechanics" -1041,3966,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007,2007,"2007 (MMVII) was . - -The year 2007 was called: - In the Chinese calendar, dates up to February 17 are in the Year of the Dog, while dates from February 18 onwards are in the Year of the Pig. - European Year of Equal Opportunities for All - Year of the Dolphin - UNESCO has formally recognized fifteen anniversaries for 2007. - -Events - -January - - January 1 – Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union. - January 1 – Bulgarian, Romanian, and Irish become official languages of the European Union, joining 20 other official languages. - January 1 – Slovenia adopted the Euro as its official currency, replacing the tolar. - January 1 – South Korea's Ban Ki-moon became the new UN Secretary-General, replacing Kofi Annan. - January 4 – Nancy Pelosi becomes the first woman Speaker of the House in the United States. - January 12 – The US embassy in Athens was attacked with a rocket propelled grenade, which caused minimal damage and no injuries. - January 13 – The Greek ship Server broke in half off the Norwegian coast, which released over 200 tons of crude oil. - January 18 – Comet McNaught, the brightest comet to have appeared in over forty years, became visible over the Southern Hemisphere. - January 25 – The President of Israel, Moshe Katsav, took a temporary leave of absence due to a sex scandal. - January 30 – Windows Vista, Microsoft's newest NT-based operating system, was released worldwide to consumers. - -February - - February 2 – An unseasonal tornado in central Florida killed at least 20 people. - February 2 – A policeman was killed in the Catania football clashes in Italy and 71 people are hospitalized. - February 2 – Chinese President Hu Jintao signed a series of economic deals with Sudan. - February 3 – Italian Prime Minister Romano Prodi cancelled all football matches in Italy whilst an investigation into riots on February 2 began. - February 3 – Five people were killed and 40 were injured in a series of car bombs in the Iraqi city of Kirkuk. - February 3 – A truck bombing in a crowded Baghdad market killed at least 135 people and injured a further 339 others. - February 10 – U.S. Senator Barack Obama of Illinois announced a presidential bid in Springfield. - February 19 – North Korea agreed to give up its nuclear program, for oil. - February 27 – World stock markets plummeted after China and Europe released less-than-expected growth reports. The Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 416.02 points, its largest single-day decline since the September 11, 2001 attacks. - -March - - March 4 – Parliamentary elections took place in Estonia and in Abkhazia. - March 6 – Mega Millions set a new world record for the highest jackpot of US$370 million. - March 7 – Garuda Indonesia Flight 200, a Boeing 737-400, crashed at Yogyakarta on the Indonesian island of Java killing many on board. - March 7 – Northern Ireland Assembly election, 2007, was held. - March 8 – Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert admitted that Israel had planned an attack on Lebanon in the event of kidnapped soldiers on the border, months before Hezbollah carried out its kidnapping. - March 11 – Daylight saving time in most of the United States and Canada began; three to four weeks earlier than previously. - March 13 – The Bank of England replaces the £20 note bearing the portrait of Edward Elgar with one featuring Adam Smith. - March 14 – Pi Day - March 15 – March 21 – CeBIT 2007 took place in Hannover, Germany. - March 17 – Chlorine bombs injured hundreds in Baghdad, Iraq. - March 17 – France won the 2007 Six Nations Championship on points difference after a controversial tri. - March 24 – A legislative election took place in the Australian state of New South Wales, with Morris Iemma's Labor government being returned to power with a reduced minority. - March 25 – In Berlin 27 European ministers celebrate 50 year Treaty of Rome. - March 25 – Daylight savings begins in Europe - March 25 – This day marked the 200th anniversary of the finalization of the 1807 Slave trade act, which abolished the slave trade in the British Empire. - March 31 – Sydney, Australia, turned off its lights for one hour between 7:30pm and 8:30pm as a political statement for Global Climate Change. - -April - - April 2 – Smoking in public and work places is banned in Wales. - April 2 – 25th Anniversary of the Falklands War. - April 3 – Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko dissolved the Ukrainian parliament in a historic act of anti-communism in Ukraine. It has been nicknamed the ""Second Orange Revolution"" - April 4 – Iran announces it will release the British sailors and marines that they captured on March 23. - April 4 – Apple Inc. releases Mac Pro with two Quad-Core Intel Xeon processors each running at a speed of 3.0 GHz. - April 5 – The British sailors and marines taken by Iran on March 23 arrive back in Britain. - April 16 – The worst mass shooting in US history occurs at Virginia Tech. - April 27 – Violence erupts in Estonia after the removal of a Soviet war memorial. - -May - - May 4 – Tornado strikes Greensburg, Kansas, killing at least twelve and destroying about 90% of the town. - May 5 – Kenya Airways Flight KQ 507 crashes in Cameroon. - May 6 – Manchester United wins the English Premier League after title rivals Chelsea draw against Arsenal. - May 9 – Subtropical Storm Andrea forms off the coast of Florida, the earliest subtropical storm since Subtropical Storm Ana in 2003. - May 10 – Tony Blair announces he will resign as British Prime Minister on June 27 triggering a Labour Party leadership election. - May 16 – Nicolas Sarkozy officially became President of the French Republic after taking over from Jacques Chirac. - May 31 – A calendar blue moon occurred in the Western Hemisphere and parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. - -June - - June 1 – A 2100 year old melon is found by archaeologists in western Japan - June 2 – Four people are charged with a terror plot to blow up JFK International Airport in New York City. - June 5 – NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft made its second fly-by of Venus en route to Mercury. - June 5 – A mass grave in southern Ukraine, found accidentally by workers in May, has been confirmed to be filled with thousands of victims of The Holocaust. - June 8 – The Space Shuttle Atlantis successfully launched on mission STS-117. - June 10 - Emma's Theatre got debuted. - June 18 – Nine Charleston, South Carolina firefighters are killed by a roof collapse while battling a furniture store fire. - June 27 – Tony Blair resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; New Labour Party leader Gordon Brown is appointed Prime Minister by Queen Elizabeth II. - June 29 – British police defuse a bomb in Haymarket, Central London. - June 30 – A calendar blue moon occurs in most of the Eastern Hemisphere. - -July - - July 1 – Smoking in public and work places is banned in England. - July 1 – The Concert For Diana is held at Wembley Stadium to commemorate Diana, Princess of Wales. - July 9 – Argentina's capital Buenos Aires is hit by its first snowfall in almost 90 years. - July 14 – Following a presidential decree, Russia withdraws from the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. - July 16 – Earthquake occurs in Japan, killing seven and causing a pipe at a nuclear power plant to break and released about 300 gallons of radioactive water. - July 21 – U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney serves as Acting President for two and a half hours, while President George W. Bush undergoes a colonoscopy procedure. - July 21 – Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the final book in the Harry Potter series, is released. - July 27 – Two news helicopters collide in midair while covering a police chase in Phoenix, Arizona. This killed both pilots and two photojournalists. - July 29 – Iraq wins its first Asian Cup football championship, beating Saudi Arabia 1–0. - July 30 – New British Prime Minister Gordon Brown visits U.S. President George W. Bush for the first time as Prime Minister. - -August - - August 1 – The I-35W Mississippi River Bridge on I-35W in Minneapolis, Minnesota collapsed at 6:05 pm. - August 14 – Pakistan marks 60 years of independence. - August 15 – Peru is hit by a major Earthquake. - August 15 – India marks 60 years of independence. - August 31 – Malaysia marks 50 years of independence. - -September - - September 3 – Adventurer Steve Fossett goes missing. - September 6 – Operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti dies aged 71. - September 22 – Anti-government protests begin in Burma. - -October - - October 18 – Terrorists strike Karachi on the return of Benazir Bhutto. - October 28 – Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner is elected as Argentina's first female President. - -November - - November 3 – In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf suspends the constitution and declares a State of Emergency. - November 10 – American novelist Norman Mailer dies aged 84. - November 24 – Kevin Rudd is elected Prime Minister of Australia. - -December - - December 3 – Kevin Rudd takes office as Prime Minister of Australia. - December 10 – Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner takes office as President of Argentina. - December 11 - Car bombs in Algiers kill 41 people and injured 170 others. - December 19 – Marcus Stephen becomes President of Nauru after Ludwig Scotty loses a vote of confidence. - December 20 – Queen Elizabeth II surpasses Queen Victoria as the oldest monarch in British history. - December 27 – Pakistan's former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto is killed in a terrorist attack. - December 30 – Violence erupts in Kenya, after the disputed election victory of Mwai Kibaki. - -Births - February 28 – Princess Lalla Khadija of Morocco, daughter of King Mohammed VI and Princess Lalla Salma of Morocco. - March 5- Eugenia Louis Alphonse-daughter of Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, and Venezuelen heiress Margarita Vargas Santaella. - March 17 – Prince Abdul Muntaqim son of Al-Muhtadee Billah Bolkiah and Sarah Pengiran Salleh, the Crown Prince and Princess of Brunei. - March 19 – Prince Abdullah bin Al Ali, son of Prince Ali bin Al Hussein and his wife, Rym Brahimi. - -Deaths - -January - - January 1 – A. I. Bezzerides, Turkish-American novelist and screenwriter (b. 1908) - January 1 – Leonard Fraser, Australian serial killer (b. 1951) - January 1 – Del Reeves, American country music singer (b. 1932) - January 2 – Teddy Kollek, former Mayor of Jerusalem (b. 1911) - January 4 – Sandro Salvadore, Italian footballer (b. 1939) - January 4 – Marais Viljoen, South African politician (b. 1915) - January 5 – Momofuko Ando, Taiwanese businessman (b. 1910) - January 7 – Magnus Magnusson, Icelandic-Scottish television presenter (b. 1929) - January 8 – Iwao Takamoto, American animator (b. 1925) - January 8 – Yvonne De Carlo, Canadian-American actress (b. 1922) - January 9 – Carlo Ponti, Italian movie producer (b. 1912) - January 14 – Vassilis Fotopoulos, Greek art director (b. 1934) - January 19 – Bam Bam Bigelow, American wrestler (b. 1961) - January 19 – Hrant Dink, Turkish-Armenian journalist (b. 1954) - January 21 – Maria Cioncan, Romanian runner (b. 1977) - January 23 – Ryszard Kapuściński, Polish journalist (b. 1932) - January 24 – Jean-Francois Deniau, French statesman, diplomat and novelist (b. 1928) - January 24 – Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican supercentenarian (b. 1891) - January 26 – Gump Worsley, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929) - January 27 – Herbert Reinecker, German novelist, dramatist and screenwriter (b. 1914) - January 28 – Karel Svoboda, Czech composer (b. 1938) - January 29 – Robert Meier, German World War I veteran (b. 1897) - January 30 – Sidney Sheldon, American writer (b. 1917) - -February - - February 1 – Gian Carlo Menotti, Italian opera composer (b. 1911) - February 1 – Ahmed Abu Laban, Danish Muslim leader (b. 1946) - February 2 – Filippo Raciti, Italian police officer (b. 1967) - February 7 – Alan MacDiarmid, New Zealand chemist (b. 1927) - February 8 – Anna Nicole Smith, American model and television personality (b. 1967) - February 9 – Alejandro Finisterre, Spanish inventor of table football (b. 1919) - February 9 – Ian Richardson, Scottish actor (b. 1934) - February 12 – Georg Buschner, East German football coach (b. 1925) - February 13 – Johanna Sallstrom, Swedish actress (b. 1974) - February 16 – Sheridan Morley, British broadcaster and writer (b. 1941) - February 17 – Maurice Papon, French Nazi collaborator (b. 1910) - February 17 – Mike Awesome, American professional wrestler (b. 1965) - February 20 – Carl-Henning Pedersen, Danish artist (b. 1913) - February 23 – Pascal Yoadimnadji, Prime Minister of Chad (b. 1950) - February 28 – Arthur Schlesinger Jr, American historian (b. 1917) - -March - March 1 – Sydney Gun Munro, former Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (b. 1916) - March 2 – Henri Troyat, French writer (b. 1911) - March 6 – Jean Baudrillard, French philosopher and sociologist (b. 1929) - March 8 – John Inman, English actor (b. 1935) - March 9 – Brad Delp, American singer (b. 1951) - March 11 – Betty Hutton, American actress and singer (b. 1921) - March 13 – Arnold Skaaland, American wrestler (b. 1925) - March 17 – John Backus, American computer scientist (b. 1924) - March 17 – Ernst Haefliger, Swiss tenor (b. 1929) - March 18 – Bob Woolmer, English cricketer and coach (b. 1948) - March 19 – Luther Ingram, American singer and songwriter (b. 1937) - March 20 – Taha Yassin Ramadan, former Vice President of Iraq (b. 1937) - March 25 – Andranik Margaryan, Prime Minister of Armenia (b. 1951) - March 27 – Paul Lauterbur, American chemist (b. 1929) - March 29 – Tosiwo Nakayama, 1st President of the Federated States of Micronesia (b. 1931) - March 31 – Paul Watzlawick, American psychologist (b. 1921) - -April - - April 4 – Bob Clark, American movie director (b. 1939) - April 5 – Mark St. John, American guitarist (b. 1956) - April 6 – Luigi Comencini, Italian movie director (b. 1916) - April 11 – Kurt Vonnegut, American writer (b. 1922) - April 16 – Jocelyne Couture-Nowak, Canadian instructor of French (b. 1957) - April 16 – Kevin Granata, American associate professor of engineering (b. 1961) - April 16 – Liviu Librescu, Romanian-born engineering professor (b. 1930) - April 16 – Seung-Hui Cho, Korean-born American perpetrator of the Virginia Tech massacre (b. 1984) - April 17 – Kitty Carlisle Hart, American actress and singer (b. 1910) - April 18 – Iccho Itoh, Japanese politician (b. 1945) - April 19 – Jean-Pierre Cassel, French actor (b. 1932) - April 23 – Boris Yeltsin, former President of Russia (b. 1931) - April 23 – David Halberstam, American writer and journalist (b. 1934) - April 24 – Bobby ""Boris"" Pickett, American singer (b. 1938) - April 25 – Alan Ball, English footballer (b. 1945) - April 26 – Jack Valenti, American movie executive (b. 1921) - April 27 – Mstislav Rostropovich, Russian musician (b. 1927) - April 28 – Carl Friedrich von Weizsaecker, German philosopher (b. 1912) - April 29 – Ivica Racan, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (b. 1944) - April 30 – Gregory Lemarchal, French singer (b. 1983) - -May - - May 3 – Wally Schirra, American astronaut (b. 1923) - May 5 – Theodore Maiman, American physicist (b. 1927) - May 6 – Bernard Weatherill, British politician (b. 1920) - May 11 – Malietoa Tanumafili II, Sovereign Ruler of Samoa (b. 1913) - May 14 – Uli Jogi, Estonian anti-Communist (b. 1930) - May 15 – Yolanda King, American activist (b. 1955) - May 15 – Jerry Falwell, American televangelist (b. 1933) - May 17 – Lloyd Alexander, American writer (b. 1924) - May 18 – Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, French physicist (b. 1932) - May 22 – Pemba Doma Sherpa, Nepali mountaineer (b. 1971) - May 25 – Bartholomew Ulufa'alu, Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (b. 1950) - May 27 – Zard, Japanese singer (b. 1967) - May 27 – Ed Yost, American inventor (b. 1919) - May 27 – Gretchen Wyler, American actress (b. 1932) - May 30 – Jean-Claude Brialy, French actor and director (b. 1933) - -June - - June 2 – Huang Ju, Chinese politician (b. 1938) - June 4 – Craig L. Thomas, American politician (b. 1933) - June 5 – Povel Ramel, Swedish entertainer (b. 1922) - June 8 – Aden Abdullah Osman Daar, first President of Somalia (b. 1908) - June 10 – Laurence Mancuso, American religious leader (b. 1934) - June 13 – Nestor Rossi, Argentine footballer (b. 1925) - June 13 – Walid Eido, Lebanese politician (b. 1942) - June 14 – Ruth Graham, American poet, wife of Billy Graham (b. 1920) - June 14 – Robin Olds, American fighter pilot (b. 1922) - June 14 – Kurt Waldheim, 9th President of Austria, 4th Secretary-General of the United Nations (b. 1918) - June 15 – Sherri Martel, American professional wrestler (b. 1958) - June 17 - Begum Mahmooda Salim Khan, early Pakistani social activist and woman leader (born 1913). - June 18 – Bernard Manning, English comedian (b. 1930) - June 21 – Georg Danzer, Austrian musician (b. 1946) - June 24 – Natasja Saad, Danish rapper (b. 1974) - June 24 – Chris Benoit, Canadian wrestler (b. 1967) - June 26 – Jupp Derwall, German footballer and coach (b. 1927) - June 26 – Liz Claiborne, Belgian-born fashion designer (b. 1929) - June 28 – Kiichi Miyazawa, former Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1919) - -July - - July 2 – Beverly Sills, American opera singer (b. 1929) - July 4 – Baris Akarsu, Turkish musician (b. 1979) - July 5 – George Melly, British musician (b. 1926) - July 8 – Chandra Shekhar, 8th Prime Minister of India (b. 1927) - July 9 – Charles Lane, American actor (b. 1905) - July 11 – Lady Bird Johnson, former First Lady of the United States (b. 1912) - July 11 – Alfonso Lopez Michelsen, 32nd President of Colombia (b. 1913) - July 12 – Kesha Wizzart, British singer (b. 1988) - July 17 – Julio Redecker, Brazilian politician (b. 1956) - July 18 – Kenji Miyamoto, Japanese Communist politician (b. 1908) - July 20 – Kai Siegbahn, Swedish physicist (b. 1918) - July 20 – Tammy Faye Messner, American televangelist (b. 1942) - July 22 – Andre Milongo, former Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo (b. 1935) - July 22 – Ulrich Muehe, German actor (b. 1953) - July 22 – Laszlo Kovacs, Hungarian cinematographer (b. 1933) - July 23 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, last King of Afghanistan (b. 1914) - July 23 – Ernst Otto Fischer, German chemist (b. 1918) - July 23 – Tom Davis, former Prime Minister of the Cook Islands (b. 1917) - July 25 – Bernd Jakubowski, East German footballer (b. 1952) - July 27 – Abdullah Kurshumi, former Prime Minister of Yemen (b. 1932) - July 29 – Mike Reid, British actor (b. 1940) - July 29 – Tom Snyder, American television personality (b. 1936) - July 30 – Michelangelo Antonioni, Italian movie director (b. 1912) - July 30 – Ingmar Bergman, Swedish movie director (b. 1918) - July 30 – Bill Walsh, American football coach (b. 1931) - -August - - August 1 – Ryan Cox, South African cyclist (b. 1979) - August 2 – Franco Dalla Valle, Brazilian Roman Catholic bishop (b. 1945) - August 4 – Lee Hazlewood, American singer (b. 1929) - August 5 – Jean-Marie Lustiger, French Roman Catholic Archbishop and cardinal (b. 1926) - August 5 – Oliver Hill, American lawyer (b. 1907) - August 6 – Heinz Barth, German Nazi war criminal (b. 1920) - August 12 – Merv Griffin, American television personality (b. 1925) - August 12 – Mike Wieringo, American comic book artist (b. 1963) - August 13 – Yone Minagawa, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1893) - August 16 – Max Roach, American jazz drummer (b. 1924) - August 17 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (b. 1982) - August 24 – Abdul Rahman Arif, 3rd President of Iraq (b. 1916) - August 25 – Raymond Barre, former Prime Minister of France (b. 1924) - August 26 – Gaston Thorn, former Prime Minister of Luxembourg (b. 1928) - August 28 – Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese actress (b. 1929) - August 28 – Antonio Puerta, Spanish footballer (b. 1984) - August 29 – Pierre Messmer, former Prime Minister of France (b. 1916) - August 29 – Chaswe Nsofwa, Zambian footballer (b. 1978) - August 30 – Michael Jackson, British writer and journalist (b. 1942) - August 31 – Willie Cunningham, Northern Irish footballer (b. 1930) - -September - - September 3 – Steve Fossett, American adventurer (b. 1944) - September 5 – D. James Kennedy, American televangelist (b. 1930) - September 6 – Madeleine L'Engle, American writer (b. 1918) - September 6 – Luciano Pavarotti, Italian tenor (b. 1935) - September 7 – John Compton, former Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (b. 1925) - September 7 – Joseph W. Eschbach, American doctor and kidney specialist (b. 1933) - September 10 – Anita Roddick, British businesswoman (b. 1942) - September 10 – Jane Wyman, American actress (b. 1917) - September 11 – Ian Porterfield, British footballer (b. 1946) - September 15 – Colin McRae, Scottish racecar driver (b. 1968) - September 16 – Robert Jordan, American novelist (b. 1948) - September 21 – Hallgeir Brenden, Norwegian cross-country skier (b. 1929) - September 21 – Peter Stambolic, Serbian politician (b. 1912) - September 21 – Coral Watts, American serial killer (b. 1953) - September 22 – Marcel Marceau, French actor and mime (b. 1923) - September 29 – Lois Maxwell, Canadian actress (b. 1927) - September 29 – Gyula Zsivotzky, Hungarian athlete (b. 1937) - September 30 – Milan Jelic, Bosnian Serb politician (b. 1956) - September 30 – Oswald Mathias Ungers, German architect (b. 1926) - -October - - October 1 – Al Oerter, American athlete (b. 1936) - October 2 – Tex Coulter, American football player (b. 1924) - October 2 – Elfi von Dassanowsky, Austrian singer and musician (b. 1924) - October 2 – Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (b. 1913) - October 5 – Walter Kempowski, German writer (b. 1929) - October 5 – Justin Tuveri, Italian-French World War I veteran (b. 1897) - October 7 – Norifumi Abe, Japanese motorcycle racer (b. 1975) - October 7 – Stephane Maurice Bongo-Nouarra, former Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo (b. 1937) - October 11 – Werner von Trapp, Austrian musician and singer (b. 1915) - October 12 – Kisho Kurokawa, Japanese architect (b. 1934) - October 12 – Noe Win, Burmese politician (b. 1948) - October 13 – Bob Denard, French mercenary (b. 1929) - October 14 – Big Moe, American rapper (b. 1974) - October 15 – Bernard Scudder, British poet and translator of the Icelandic language (b. 1954) - October 16 – Tose Proeski, Macedonian singer (b. 1981) - October 16 – Deborah Kerr, Scottish actress and singer (b. 1921) - October 18 – Lucky Dube, South African musician (b. 1964) - October 22 – Eve Curie, French writer (b. 1905) - October 24 – Petr Eben, Czech composer (b. 1929) - October 25 – Puntsagiin Jasrai, former Prime Minister of Mongolia (b. 1933) - October 26 – Arthur Kornberg, American winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1928) - October 28 – Evelyn Hamann, German actress (b. 1942) - October 28 – Porter Wagoner, American country music singer (b. 1927) - October 29 – La Sa Ra, Indian writer (b. 1916) - October 30 – Robert Goulet, American singer and actor (b. 1933) - -November - - November 1 – Paul Tibbets, American pilot (b. 1929) - November 2 – The Fabulous Moolah, American professional wrestler (b. 1923) - November 5 – Nils Liedholm, Swedish footballer (b. 1922) - November 6 – Hank Thompson, American country musician and entertainer (b. 1925) - November 6 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist (b. 1920) - November 8 – Chad Varah, British Anglican priest and founder of the Samaritans helpline (b. 1911) - November 9 – Luis Herrera Campins, former President of Venezuela (b. 1925) - November 10 – Norman Mailer, American writer (b. 1923) - November 10 – Laraine Day, American actress (b. 1920) - November 12 – Janlavyn Narantsralt, former Prime Minister of Mongolia (b. 1957) - November 12 – Ira Levin, American writer (b. 1929) - November 17 – Ambroise Noumazalaye, former Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo (b. 1933) - November 19 – Kevin DuBrow, American rock singer (b. 1955) - November 20 – Ian Smith, Rhodesian political leader (b. 1919) - November 23 – Oscar Carmelo Sanchez, Bolivian footballer (b. 1971) - November 24 – William O'Neill, American politician, former Governor of Connecticut (b. 1930) - November 27 – Sean Taylor, American football player (b. 1983) - November 28 – Elly Beinhorn, German pilot and writer (b. 1907) - November 28 – Gudrun Wagner, German festival organiser (b. 1944) - November 30 – Francois-Xavier Ortoli, French politician (b. 1925) - November 30 – Evel Knievel, American stuntman (b. 1938) - -December - - December 1 – Ken McGregor, Australian tennis player (b. 1929) - December 4 – Pimp C, American rapper (b. 1973) - December 5 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer (b. 1928) - December 6 – Katy French, Irish model (b. 1983) - December 12 – Ike Turner, American musician (b. 1931) - December 16 – Dan Fogelberg, American musician (b. 1951) - December 19 – Inti Chauveau, French professor (b. 1925) - December 20 – Kazumi Tanaka, Japanese voice actor (b. 1951) - December 22 – Chrysostomos I, Archbishop of Cyprus (b. 1927) - December 23 – Oscar Peterson, Canadian jazz pianist (b. 1925) - December 27 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani opposition leader and former Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1953) - December 27 – Jan Kawalerowicz, Polish movie director (b. 1922) - December 27 – Jaan Kross, Estonian writer (b. 1920) - December 28 – Aidin Nikkah Bahrami, Iranian basketball player (b. 1982) - December 29 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (b. 1972) - December 31 – Muhammad Osman Said, former Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1922) - December 31 – Ettore Sottsass, Italian architect and designer (b. 1917) - -Nobel prize winners - - Chemistry – Gerhard Ertl - Economics – Leonid Hurwicz - Economics – Eric S. Maskin - Economics – Roger B. Myerson - Literature – Doris Lessing - Medicine – Mario R. Capecchi - Medicine – Sir Martin J. Evans - Medicine – Oliver Smithies - Peace – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Peace – Al Gore - Physics – Albert Fert - Physics – Peter Grünberg - -References - -Other websites" -13296,48825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20box,Blue box,"A blue box is a device that someone could use to make free telephone calls. It worked by playing back the same sounds that the telephone company employees used to program their equipment. - -The most famous person to use a blue box was John Draper, who went by the name Captain Crunch. Draper taught Steve Wozniak how to build them. Wozniak and Steve Jobs sold blue boxes to fellow students at the University of California, Berkeley. One time, Wozniak used a blue box to call the Pope. - -Related pages - Red box - -Telephone -Electronics" -11672,42874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20world,History of the world,"The history of the world (also called human history) is the study of what the entire human race did in the past. It includes the time from prehistory to the present day. It is different from natural history. - -Development of the human species - -Modern human beings are called Homo sapiens ('wise man'). They have existed for about 250,000 years. Biologists believe that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa. - -Homo sapiens, lived at the same time as other species of human. These included Homo erectus ('standing man') and Homo neanderthalensis ('man from Neanderthal'). The theory of human evolution says that modern humans, Neanderthals, and Homo erectus slowly developed from other earlier species of human-like creatures. - -Homo neanderthalensis are the first humans scientists discovered which were not Homo sapiens. Homo neanderthalensis are usually called Neanderthal Man. They were discovered when the cranium of a skull was found in the Neanderthal Valley in 1856. It was different from a modern human skull so scientists believed it was from a new species. Entire Neanderthal skeletons have been found in other places since then. When ancient stone tools are found, their style often shows whether they were made by Homo sapiens or Neanderthals (see Palaeolithic). Neanderthals existed before modern humans. They knew how to use tools and fire. - -Scientists believe that Homo sapiens spread from Africa to all other parts of the world, replacing Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Homo erectus in Asia. By the end of the Stone Age, it is believed that Homo sapiens were the only type of humans left. - -Influence of climate - -Climate is the normal weather in a place. It changes from one part of the world to another. Some areas are hot all year, and some are cold all year. Some areas are dry all year, and others are wet all year. Most areas have climates that are warmer in the summer and cooler in the winter. Most parts of the world get rain at some times of the year and do not get rain at other times of the year. Some parts of the world have oceanic climates and others have alpine climates. - -Climate affects what food people eat. This is because climate affects what foods can grow. If one food is easier to grow, people usually eat that food more often than other foods. Foods that people eat more of than other foods are called staple foods. Staple foods are usually grains or vegetables because they are easy to grow. Wheat, maize, millet, rice, oats, rye, potatoes, yams, breadfruit and beans are examples of different staple foods from around the world. - -Climate can affect the way people live in many other ways. It affects the types of animals that can live in any area, which affect the types of meats that are available to eat. -Climate also affects the buildings that people make, the clothes that they wear and the way that they travel. - -Climate change - -The climate on earth has not stayed the same through human history. There are long periods of time when it is generally warmer, and there are long periods of time when it is generally colder. When it is generally colder, there is more ice on the poles of the planet. A cold period is called an ice age. There have been many ice ages in the history of the earth. Two have affected humans. - -From 70,000 to around 10,000 years ago there was a big ice age which affected humans and the way that they lived. Between 1600 AD and 1900 AD there was a period called the Little Ice Age when the climate was a little bit colder than usual. - -Prehistory - -The word ""Prehistory"" means ""before history"". It is used for the long period of time before humans began to write about their lives. This time is divided into two main ages: the Paleolithic Age (or Early Stone Age) and the Neolithic Age (or late Stone Age). The two ages did not start and end at the same time everywhere. A place moved from one age to another depending on when people changed their technology. - -The end of prehistory varies from one place to another. It depends on the date when that place began to use writing. In Egypt the first written documents date from around 3200 BC. In Australia the first written records date from 1788 and in New Guinea from about 1900. - -Paleolithic Era - -The Paleolithic Era is by far the longest age of humanity's time, about 99% of human history. The Paleolithic Age started about 2.6 million years ago and ended around 10,000 BC. The age began when hominids (early humans) started to use stones as tools for bashing, cutting and scraping. The age ended when humans began to plant crops and have other types of agriculture. In some areas, such as Western Europe, the way that people lived was affected by the Ice age. In these places, people moved towards agriculture quicker than in warmer places where there was always lots of food to gather. Their culture is sometimes called the Mesolithic Era (Middle Stone Age). - -During the Paleolithic Era humans grouped together in small bands. They lived by gathering plants and hunting wild animals. This way of living is called a ""hunter-gatherer society"". People hunted small burrowing animals like rabbits, as well as birds and herds of animals like deer and cattle. They also gathered plants to eat, including grains. Grain often grows on grasslands where herds of grass-eating animals are found. People also gathered root vegetables, green vegetables, beans, fruit, seeds, berries, nuts, eggs, insects and small reptiles. - -Many Paleolithic bands were nomadic. They moved from place to place as the weather changed. They followed herds of animals that they hunted from their winter feeding places to their summer feeding places. If there was a drought,flood, or some other disaster, the herds and the people might haved moved a long distance, looking for food. During the ""Ice Age"" a lot of the water on Earth turned to ice. This made sea much lower than it is now. People were able to walk through Beringia from Siberia to Alaska. Bands of Homo sapiens ( another word for people) travelled to that area from Asia. At that time there were rich grasslands with many large animals that are now extinct. It is believed that many groups of people travelled there over a long time and later spread to other parts of America, as the weather changed. - -Paleolithic people used stone tools. Sometimes a stone tool was just a rock. It might have been useful for smashing a shell or an animal's skull, or for grinding grain on another rock. Other tools were made by breaking rocks to make a sharp edge. The next development in stone tool making was to chip all the edges of a rock so that it made a pointed shape, useful for a spearhead, or arrow tip. Some stone tools are carefully ""flaked"" at the edges to make them sharp, and symmetrically shaped. Paleolithic people also used tools of wood and bone. They probably also used leather and vegetable fibers but these have not lasted from that time. Paleolithic people also knew how to make fire which they used for warmth and cooking. - -The Neolithic - -Settling down - -In the Paleolithic Era there were many different human species. According to current research, only the modern human reached the Neolithic Era. - -The Neolithic era was marked by changes in society. During the Neolithic era, people started to settle down. They developed agriculture and domesticated animals, both of which took a very long time. Because of these two things, people did not have to migrate as much any more. Villages could grow to much larger sizes than before. Over time, villages fought and spread their control over larger areas and some became civilisations. During this time, humankind also developed further intellectually, militarily and spiritually. - -When humans started to grow crops and domesticate certain animals such as dogs, goats, sheep, and cattle; their societies changed. Because people now grew crops and raised livestock, they started to stay in the same place and build permanent settlements. In most places, this happened between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago. Their diet also changed. People ate more cereals and vegetables. They started to keep extra foods and seeds for later. In some years there were surpluses (extras) that could be traded for other goods. - -These changes happened independently in many parts of the world. They did not happen in the same order though. For example, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. No one is sure if Britain had agriculture, or if permanent villages existed there at all. Early Japanese societies used pottery before developing agriculture. - -Vere Gordon Childe gave the name Neolithic Revolution to this process in the 1920s. He thought that it was as important as the Industrial Revolution (which happened in the 18th and 19th century). - -Ancient history – the early civilizations - -Ancient history was the time from the development of writing to the fall of the Roman Empire. The fall of the Roman Empire caused chaos in Europe, leading to the Middle Ages (also called the Dark Ages or the Age of Faith). - -The first civilizations were built along major river systems. These civilizations are called river valley civilizations. River valley civilizations were the most powerful civilizations in this time period because water was needed to have an agricultural society. - -These civilizations were similar in that: - They developed along river systems - They had polytheistic religions - They used writing systems - -Middle East and North Africa - -Sumer - -Sumer was the world's first known ancient civilization. The Sumerians took over the fertile crescent region of Mesopotamia around 3300 BCE. They grew crops on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. By 3000 BCE, many cities had been built in parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia. They formed independently and each had their own government. They were called city-states and often fought with each other. - -A surplus in food led to a Division of labour. This means that some people were able to stop growing crops and do other jobs, since enough crops were already grown. This brought a split in society. Today, such a split is called social pyramid. In a social pyramid, people are grouped into social classes based on their wealth and power. In Sumer, the king, priests, and government officials were at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the artisans, merchants, farmers, and fishers. At the bottom of the pyramid were slaves. Slaves were often prisoners of war, criminals, or people working to pay off debt. - -The Sumerians created the world's first system of writing; it was called cuneiform. The oldest versions of one of the world's first literary works, the Epic of Gilgamesh, go back to this time. In Sumer, only the sons of the rich and powerful learned how to read and write. They went to a school called edubba. Only the boys who went to edubba could become scribes. - -The Sumerians also invented sun-dried bricks, the wheel, the ox plow, and were skilled at making pottery. They are also thought to have invented the sailboat. - -After the Sumerians, the civilizations of Babylonia and then Assyria rose to power in Mesopotamia. - -Babylonia had a king named Hammurabi. He is famous for the Codex Hammurabi. - -Just to the east was the long-lasting civilization of Elam. - -Ancient Egypt - -Ancient Egypt grew along the Nile river. It was created around 3500 BC. It was most powerful in the second millennium BC. When it was its biggest, it went all the way from the Nile delta to a mountain called Jebel Barkal in Sudan. It probably ended at about 30 BC when the country was invaded by the Roman Empire. - -The society of ancient Egypt depended on a balance of natural and human resources, especially the irrigation of the Nile Valley so that Egyptians could grow crops. - -There was a great difference between classes in this society. Most of the people were farmers but they did not own the agricultural products they produced. These were property of the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. There was slavery, but it is not clear how it was practiced. -The Religion of Ancient Egypt encouraged people to respect their rulers and their past. - -The Egyptians are known for writing in hieroglyphs, building the famous pyramids, and building other sorts of tombs and big temples and for their military. - -The religion of Judaism formed about 1500 BCE around the Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations. - -Mid and Eastern Asia - -Ancient China - -China began as city-states in the Yellow River valley. The Shang Dynasty (商朝) was the first dynasty of Ancient China.Turtle shells with writing on them have been carbon dated to about 1500 BC. - -The Zhou Dynasty came after the Shang Dynasty. Kong Fuzi and Laozi lived at the end of the Zhou Dynasty. They were the greatest Chinese philosophers. They founded new philosophies, or ways of thinking. Confucius founded Confucianism and Laozi founded Daoism. - -After the Zhou Dynasty came the Warring States Period. - -The Qin (秦) dynasty came after the Warring States Period. The Qin emperor Qin Shi Huang created the first centralized state in China in 221 BC. It was based on his based on his political philosophy of legalism. He made everyone write the same way. He fought against Confucianism. He also started building what would later become the Great Wall. - -In 202 BC the Han Dynasty took over. It was about as strong as the Roman Empire. Towards the end of the Han Dynasty, Buddhism became influential in China. - -Ancient India/Pakistan - -The Indus Valley Civilization lasted from about 2600 BC to 1900 BC. It was the first urban civilization on the subcontinent. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries. The civilization is famous for its brick cities that had road-side drainage systems and multi-storied houses. - -The Maurya dynasty started in 321 BCE. This was the first time most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government. Ashoka the Great was a famous Mauryan emperor. When he started ruling, he sought to expand his empire, but then followed a policy of ahimsa (non-violence) after converting to Buddhism. He wrote about this in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest historical documents from India that still exist. While Ashoka ruled, Buddhist ideals spread across all of East Asia and South-East Asia. - -The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 320 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire included only Central India, and the area east of current day Bangladesh. This empire never included present-day Pakistan to the west. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside with the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization. - -The Americas - -Ancient Maya - -The Maya civilization is a civilization that started in Central America. They lived mostly on the Yucatán Peninsula in what is now known as Mexico, but also Honduras, Belize and Guatemala. They were the only known civilization of pre-Columbian America to have a fully developed written language. They also made great achievements in art and architecture and had a very advanced system of mathematics and astronomy. - -The area where the Maya civilization developed was inhabited from around the 10th millennium BC. The first Maya settlements were built there in about 1800 BC, in the Soconusco region. This is in the modern-day state of Chiapas in Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean. Today, this is called the Early Preclassic period. At the time, humans began to settle down permanently. They started to grow livestock. Pottery and small clay figures were made. They constructed simple burial mounds. Later they developed these mounds into step pyramids. There were other civilizations around, especially in the north, such as the Olmec, the Mixe-Zoque, and Zapotec civilizations. These people mostly lived in the area of the modern-day state Oaxaca. The exact borders of the Maya empire in the north are unclear. There were probably areas where Maya culture overlapped with other cultures. Many of the earliest significant inscriptions and buildings appeared in this overlapping zone. These cultures and the Maya probably influenced one another. - -Australia -There has been a long history of contact between Papuan peoples of the Papua New Guinea and the Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct Australian megafauna. Stories about that are told in the oral culture of many Aboriginal groups. - -Ancient Europe - -Hallstatt culture - -The Hallstatt era is named after the city Hallstatt in Austria, where the first artifacts were found. It lasted from about 1200 BC to about 275 BC. There were different periods, which today are mainly told apart by the kinds of brooches used at the time. These brooches changed rather rapidly, and can therefore give us good guesses at to what time they came from. Hallstatt culture sites have been found in the east of France, in Switzerland, in the south of Germany, in Austria, in Slovenia and Croatia, northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and southern Moravia. The culture can be divided into an eastern and a western one quite easily; the dividing line runs through the Czech Republic, and Austria, between longitudes 14 and 15 degrees east. - -In this time, the social structure developed into a hierarchy. This can be documented by various things that were added to graves. In the Bronze Age, people used to live in big settlements. As iron became available, trade routes changed. A new richer class evolved. Unlike before, these richer class people liked to live in big houses in the countryside, as a demonstration of their wealth. Funerals also changed, from cremation burials, to burials with stone coffins. The new upper class used their wealth for import goods, mostly from the Mediterranean. - -La Tène culture - -The La Tène culture is a culture that lasted from about 500 BC to about 100 AD. It is named after the city of La Tène (today, Marin-Epagnier, next to Neuchâtel). It was influenced a lot by the Roman and Greek cultures. There are two sources for this: - Objects found there - Romans and Greeks came in contact with the culture. They called them Celts, usually. They wrote about them. The most important work about them was written by Julius Caesar. It is called On the Gallic War (De bello gallico). - -The Celts basically lived in clans. Each clan was headed by a leader, which came from the Druids or the Bards. Women were much better off than with the Romans, they were almost equal to men. There was polygamy and polyandry (A man could have several women, a woman could have several men). - -Illyria - -Illyria is the part of west-south Balkan Peninsula populated by Illyrians whose descendants are Albanians. -Illyrians lived in tribunes such as Epirus, Dardania, Taulantia etc. -They had their own language, the Illyrian language that was different from the Greek language and Latin. -At the year 1000 BC the population of Illyria is estimated to be around 500,000. - -Ancient Greece - -What is known today as Ancient Greece is a very important period in history. Most people agree that it came after the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. It ended when the Romans invaded Greece, in 146 BC. Greek culture had a very powerful influence on later civilizations, especially the Romans. The Greeks developed what is now called a city-state, or a polis. There were many polises. Some of the more important ones were Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes. The word politics comes from there. It literally means: things that are about the polis. Greek cities did not have much contact with each other, because of the mountains and many islands Greece is made up of. When a city no longer had enough food to care for all its citizens, some people were sent out to set up a new city. This was called a colony. Each city was independent, and ruled by someone within that city. Colonies also looked to the city where they originally came from for guidance. - -When Greece went to war (for example against the Persian Empire), there was an alliance of such city states, against the Persians. There were also many wars between different city states. - -There were many artists and philosophers who lived in that period. Most of them are still important for philosophy today. A well-known artist was Homer. He wrote epics about the war against the Trojans, and the early history of Greece. Other well-known artists were Aristophanes and Sappho. Well-known philosophers include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. A well known mathematician of the time was Euclid. Statesmen of the time were Pericles and Alexander the Great. - -Ancient Rome - -Ancient Rome was a civilization that started in modern-day Italy, in the 8th Century before Christ. The civilization lasted for 12 centuries. It ended, when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, on May 29, 1453. According to legend, the Roman civilization was founded by Romulus and Remus, in the year 753 BC. The Roman Empire developed in wars against Carthage and the Seleucid Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, modern France, and Augustus ended the Roman republic by becoming emperor. At its biggest extent, the empire covered all of the Mediterranean. Rome became so big, because it led war against other nations and then assimilated their culture. - -Split of the Empire into East and West -In 293, Diocletian organized a separate administration of the western and the eastern part of the empire. The capital of the western part was Rome, the capital of the eastern part was Constantinople. Constantine I was the first to stop discrimination against Christians (313). Christianity became state religion under the reign of Theodosius I. - -The western part of the empire had many problems with barbarians. In the 5th century, the Huns migrated westwards. This meant that the Visigoths moved into the empire, to seek protection. Rome was sacked by barbarians multiple times. On September 4, 476, the Germanic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustus, to quit. After about 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end. - -The eastern part had similar problems. Justinian I managed to conquer parts of North Africa and Italy. Shortly after he died, all that was left were parts of Southern Italy, and Sicily. In the east, the empire was threatened by the Sassanid Empire. - -New departures and continuity -After the fall of Western Rome, the Germanic tribes that took over tried to learn from Roman civilization, but much was forgotten and up to the Renaissance not many achievements happened in Europe. But with the rise of Islam, many changes happened during the Islamic Golden Age. The Greek and Roman traditions were kept and further development took place. The Chinese civilization had a Golden Age during the Tang period, when their capital was the biggest in the world. During the Renaissance, Europe developed and made great advancements in many areas as well. - -Asia - -Middle East – Islamic rise, Byzantine decline - -In Arabia, Muhammad founded Islam in 632. His followers rapidly conquered territories in Syria and Egypt. They soon were a danger to the Byzantine Empire. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Byzantine Empire stopped Islamic expansion and reconquered some lost territories. In 1000 A.D. the eastern Empire was at its height: Basileios II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia. Culture and trade flourished. In 1071 the Battle of Manzikert led the empire into a dramatic decline. For the Byzantine Empire this meant centuries of civil wars and Turkic invasions. The Muslim caliphate had an Golden Age under the Abbasids. - -Their power forced Emperor Alexius I Comnenus of the Byzantine Empire to send a call for help to the West in 1095. The West sent the Crusades. These eventually led to the Sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Because of this, what was left of the Empire broke into successor states. The winner of these disputes was that of Nicaea. After Constantinople was again conquered by imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state on the Aegean coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The Ottoman Empire took its place and from 1400 to 1600 was the most powerful empire in the Middle East and ruled at the southern and eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. - -China -The Tang Dynasty (618–907), with its capital at Chang'an (today Xi'an), was the biggest city in the world at the time and is considered by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization as well as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. The Ming Dynasty ruled from 1368 to 1644. The Ming built a vast army and navy. - -India -From around the 6th–7th century. In South India, Chola kings ruled Tamil Nadu, and Chera kings ruled Kerala. They had trading relationships with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. In north India, Rajputs ruled in many kingdoms. - -In 1336, two brothers named Harihara I and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in an area which is now in the Karnataka state of India. The most famous king of this empire was Krishnadevaraya. In 1565, rulers of this empire were defeated in a battle. But the empire continued for about the next one hundred years. -Northern India was ruled by Islamic sultans. - -Japan -The Heian Period in Japan is famous for its art, poetry and literature. The writing system, Kana, was developed. It was followed by the feudal period (1185–1853) during which samurai and daimyos were the leading figures and the shogun the real monarch whereas the tennō had only a role as religious head. Between the years 1272 and 1281 the Mongols tried to invade but were driven out by the Japanese. -In 1542, a Portuguese ship reached Japan. Japanese learned about guns and firearms from them. - -Mongols -Genghis Khan in 1209 brought together the Mongol tribes and founded the Mongol Empire, one of the largest land empires in history. Later Kublai Khan would go on to expand the empire and found the Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty of China. The empire later broke into several empires, all of which were later destroyed. - -European Middle Ages - -The Middle Ages was the time from the fall of the Roman empire until the middle of the 15th century. From 500 to about 800 there was some decline compared with the Roman civilization. European villages were often destroyed and looted by barbarians such as the Vikings. During the High Middle Ages magnificent castles and large churches called cathedrals were built and important works of literature were written. In the later Middle Ages, there was a plague called the Black Death. The Black Death killed one-third to one-half of Europe's population. - -A system called feudalism was a very important part of the Middle Ages. In this system, the king was at the top of the social pyramid. The king gave land to the lord in exchange for loyalty. The lords were the next in the pyramid. The lords gave land (called a fief) to knights in exchange for loyalty and protection. The knights came next in the pyramid. Peasants were not part of the feudal system because they did not give or receive land. They worked on a lord's manor in exchange for protection. - -The Crusades were also fought during the Middle Ages. There is a theory that says the Crusades helped end the Middle Ages along with the Black Death, increased trade and better farming technology. - -Renaissance - -The Renaissance started in Italy. Renaissance is a French word meaning ""rebirth"". The Renaissance meant that people learned from the ancient Greek and Roman or ""classical"" cultures that had been forgotten for some time. Artists learned from classical paintings and sculptures. So they reinvented perspective and the art of free standing realistic sculptures that had been characteristic in Greek and Roman art. Some famous Renaissance artists are Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. The Gutenberg printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, was also developed during this time. - -The Renaissance was also a time of great achievements in science (Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon), philosophy (Thomas More) and literature (Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare). - -America - -Maya civilization (classical period) - -What is known as the classical period lasted from about 250 to about 900. During this time, many monuments were constructed. There are also many big inscriptions from then. In this period, the Maya moved to building large cities. This is known as urbanism. Many important intellectual and artistic developments happened in an area that is known as the southern lowlands. - -Like the Ancient Greek, the Maya civilization was made of many independent city-states. Agriculture was important around these city states like Tikal and Copán. -The most important monuments are the pyramids they built in their religious centers and the palaces of their rulers. The palace at Cancuén is the largest in the Maya area. There are no pyramids in the area of the palace. Other important things the archaeologists found include the carved stone slabs usually called stelae (the Maya called them tetun, or ""tree-stones""). These slabs show rulers along with hieroglyphic texts describing their genealogy, military victories, and other accomplishments. In North America, they made Mississipian culture with the largest land field from around 800 CE to 1600. - -Trade with other civilizations -The Maya also had trade routes that ran over long distances. They traded with many of the other Mesoamerican cultures, such as Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico. They also traded with non-Mesoamerican groups, that were farther away. Archaeologists have found gold from Panama in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. - -Important trade goods were cacao, salt, sea shells, jade and obsidian. - -Sudden collapse -In the 8th and 9th century, the cities in the southern lowlands had problems, and declined. At the same time, the Maya stopped making big monuments and inscriptions. Shortly afterwards, these cities were abandoned. Currently, archaeologists are not sure why this happened. There are different theories. Either ecological factors played a role in this, or the cause of this abandonment was not related to the environment. - -Post-classical period and decline - -In the north, development went on, form the 10th to about the 16th century. The influences from the outside left more traces in the Maya culture at that time. Some of the important sites in this era were Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Coba. At some point, the ruling dynasties of Chichen and Uxmal declined. Afterwards, Mayapan ruled all of Yucatán until a revolt in 1450. The area then degenerated into competing city-states until the Yucatán was conquered by the Spanish. - -By 1250, there developed other city-states. The Itza maintained their capital at Tayasal. It ruled over an area extending across the Peten Lakes region, including the community of Ekckixil on Lake Quexil. Postclassic Maya states also survived in the southern highlands. One of the Maya kingdoms in this area is responsible for the best-known Maya work of historiography and mythology, the Popol Vuh. - -The Spanish started to conquer Maya lands. This took them much longer than with the Inca or Aztecs, because there was no capital city. This meant that when they had conquered one city, this had little influence on the whole empire. The last Maya states were finally subdued in 1697. - -The Maya people did not disappear though. There are still about 6 million of them. Some are well-integrated, others continue speak one of the Maya languages and uphold their cultural heritage. - -The Aztecs - -The Aztecs built an empire in Central America, mainly in Mexico. The empire lasted from the 14th to the 16th century. They spoke the Nahuatl language. Their capital was Tenochtitlan. It was built on islands in a lake. Tenochtitlan was one of the greatest cities of the world in that time. - -The Aztecs believed in polytheism. Quetzalcoatl (feathered snake), Huitzilopochtli (hummingbird of the south) and Tezcatlipoca (smoking mirror) were the most important Gods. Sometimes the Aztecs killed humans to please their gods. Between 1519 and 1521 the Spanish leader Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztecs and took their empire. Some Aztecs did not want to fight against the soldiers of Cortés, because they thought they were Gods. - -Today many Mexicans have Aztec and other Native American forefathers. People still use Aztec symbols in Mexico. On the Mexican flag there is a picture of an eagle on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. This was an Aztec symbol. Also the name Mexico is an Aztec word. - -The Aztecs ate a lot of plants and vegetables that could be grown easily in the Mexico area. The main food that they ate was corn, which they called maize. Another food that they ate was squash. - -Aztecs also had a lot of harsh punishments for certain crimes. For the following crimes the punishment was death: adultery, wearing cotton clothes (cotton clothes were only for the nobles), cutting down a living tree, moving a field boundary making your land bigger, making someone else's smaller, major theft and treason. - -The Incas - -The Incas were a civilized empire in western South America. The Incas are called a ""pre-Columbian"" empire. This means that their country was here before Christopher Columbus. They ruled parts of South America around what is now Peru for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. - -The Incan empire or , meaning four regions in Quechua, only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the Spaniards in 1532 conquered them. Their main language was Quechua, but as the Incas were basically made up of many different groups there were probably many other different languages. - -Their capital was in the city of Cusco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru. - -Manco Capac founded the first Inca state around 1200. It covered the area around Cusco. In the 1400s, Pachacuti began to absorb other people in the Andes. The expansion of the Inca Empire had started. The Inca Empire would become the biggest empire in the Americas before Columbus. - -In 1532, the civil war ended. The brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, fought for who would succeed their father. During this time, the Spanish conquerors took possession of the Inca territory. They were led by Francisco Pizarro. In the following years the conquistadors managed to extend their power over the whole Andean region. They suppressed successive Inca rebellions until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542 and the fall of the resistance of the last Incas of Vilcabamba in 1572. The Inca civilization ends at that time, but many cultural traditions remain in some ethnic groups as Quechuas and Aymara people. - -Africa - -Ancient Egypt and Carthage are well known civilizations of ancient Africa. But because there are not many written sources in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, the history of Africa is not easy to write about. But with new techniques such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics and archeology knowledge has improved, not only for the empires and kingdoms of Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Nubia, Kush and Kerma. - -Globalization - -From colonialization to imperialism - -The rise of Europe - -Colonization - -Colonization happened after Christopher Columbus came to the Americas. European countries such as England, France, and Spain built colonies in the Americas. These settlers fought the Native Americans to take over their land. The colonisation of the Americas was the beginning of modern times. - -An important part about contact with the Americas was the Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange brought new foods, ideas, and diseases to the Old World and New World, changing the way people lived. Historians believe that almost everyone as far as Asia was affected in some way by the Columbian Exchange. - -Reformation and Counter-Reformation -Protestant Reformation started with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 theses on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. At first he protested against corruption such as simony or the sale of indulgences. But then it became clear that he had different ideas about the church doctrine. He thought that Christians should only read the Bible to find out what God wants from them. That meant that they did not need priests (see: Five solas). The three most important traditions that came directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions. - -The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the Catholic Church fighting the Protestant Reformation. New religious orders, such as the Jesuits were founded and missionaries sent around the world. Decisions were taken at the Council of Trent (1545–1563). - -Industrial revolution -The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain. It brought many advances in the way goods were produced. These advances allowed people to produce much more than they needed for living. The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish a representative government. - -From nationalism to imperialism -The French Revolution lead to massive political change in continental Europe, as people following the ideas of Enlightenment asked for human rights with the slogan liberté, egalité, fraternité (liberty, equality, fraternity). That led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, but also to terror and the execution of King Louis XVI. The French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and changed Europe through war up to 1815. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861. The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany became unified in 1870 and 1871. Conflict spread across the globe, in a chase for empires. The search for a ""place in the sun"" ended with the outbreak of World War I. In the desperation of war, the Russian Revolution promised the people ""peace, bread and land"". The defeat of Germany came at the price of economic destruction, which was written down in the Treaty of Versailles. - -Asia - -China – continuity -From 1644 to 1912 the Qing or Manchu Dynasty ruled China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan in northeast China (Manchuria). It expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories, establishing the Empire of the Great Qing. -Its military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. It was overthrown in 1912. - -Japan -During the Edo period, Japan had many small rulers. There were about 200 of them, called the daimyo. Out of them, the Tokugawa clan was most powerful. They ruled from a place called Edo. This place was around the present day’s Tokyo. For fifteen generations they were the most powerful clan in Japan. - -Beginning from the early 17th century, the rulers (known as shogunate) started a policy of seclusion (stopping some people coming in), known as sakoku in Japanese language. They suspected that traders, merchants and missionaries wanted to bring Japan under the control of European powers. Except the Dutch and the Chinese, all foreigners, traders and merchants from other countries, missionaries were no longer allowed into Japan. - -Still even during the period of seclusion, Japanese continued to gain information and knowledge about other parts of the world. -This policy of seclusion lasted for about 200 years. It ended 1868 with Meiji Restoration, when the emperor took over again and started a lot of reforms. - -India – Mughal Empire - -The Mughal Empire existed from 1526 to 1857. When it was biggest it ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of what is now Afghanistan. It was founded by Babur in 1526 and ruled until 1530. Its most important ruler was Akbar (1556–1605). After the death of Aurangjeb (1658–1707), the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1857. By that time, India came under the British Raj. - -America - -Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas, it meant genocide of the native Indians. The Spanish gained control of most of the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs. So they founded the Spanish Empire in the New World. - -The first successful English settlements were in North America at Jamestown (Virginia), 1607 (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (Massachusetts), 1620. The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608). The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the Native Americans lifestyle. Plantation slavery of the West Indies lead to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade. - -Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass. The American Revolution led to the creation of the United States of America. Spain's hold on its colonies weakened till it had to give them independence. - -The United States expanded quickly to the west. At the same time, British built more in Canada. - -Africa -During the 15th century the Portuguese began exploring Africa. At the Guinea coast they built their first fort in 1482. They started slave trade after the first European contact with America in 1492 to supply settlers from there with workers. Soon English, Spanish, Dutch, French and Danish merchants also built forts. But their influence on the inland was minor (except from decimation of population by slave trade) till during the 19th century larger colonies were founded. - -Twentieth Century onward - -The 20th century was a very important time in history. New technology and different ideas led to many worldwide changes in the time of just 100 years. - -World Wars - -The First World War - -World War I was a war fought from 1914 to 1918. During the time of the war, it was called ""The Great War"", or ""The War to End All Wars"". Chemical poisons, tanks, aeroplanes, and bombs were used for the first time. - -There were four main causes of the war: - Imperialism - Nationalism - Alliances - Militarism - -These were causes that made it likely that a war would start in Europe. The ""spark"" that started the war was the assassination of the heir to the throne in Austria-Hungary: Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a group of young Serbians. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and each country's allies then joined the war. This created a bigger conflict which turned into World War I. - -Europe divided into two groups of allies: the Central Powers and the Allied Powers (the ""Allies""). The Central Powers were made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. The Allies were made up of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States. - -World War I was fought on two fronts; the Eastern Front and the Western Front. Trench warfare was commonly used on the Eastern Front. - -Because of a British blockade, Germany began using U-boats, or submarines, to sink British ships. After the sinking of two ships with Americans on board, and the public release of the Zimmermann Note, The U.S. declared war on Germany, joining the Allies. - -On November 11, 1918, Germany signed the armistice, meaning ""the laying down of arms"", to end the war. After the war ended, the Treaty of Versailles was written and Germany was made to sign it. They had to pay $33 million in reparations (payment for damage). The influenza pandemic of 1918 spread around the world, killing millions. - -After the First War -After the war the German Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire ended and France and Britain got weaker. -The 1920s and 1930s had military-related fascist dictators take control of Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain. They were helped by the Great Depression starting in 1929. When Hitler in 1933 had gained power in Germany he prepared World War II. - -The Second World War - -Of all the wars ever fought, World War II involved the most countries and killed the most people. More than 60 million people died, making it the worst disaster of all time. It lasted six years in Europe, from 1939 to 1945. -It was fought between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allied Powers. At first the Axis Powers were successful, but that ended in Europe with the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943 and the invasion in Normandy in 1944. But Hitler was able to pursue his plan to annihilate Jews nearly all over Europe. Today, this plan is called the Holocaust. -In the Pacific it ended with the battles of Midway and Guadalcanal. Germany surrendered on May 8. The Soviet invasion of Japan led Japan to surrender on August 15, 1945. - -After World War II -After World War II the United Nations was founded in the hope that it could solve arguments among nations and keep wars from happening. Communism spread to Central and Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, North Vietnam and North Korea. In 1949, China became communist. During the 1950s and 1960s, many third world countries became communist. - -This led to the Cold War, a forty-year argument between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies (mainly countries that were members of NATO or the Warsaw Pact). Each country wanted to promote their type of government. The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism, and the United States wanted to spread democracy. People across the world feared a nuclear war because of the tension. - -Communism became less popular when it became clear that it could not promote economic growth as well as Western states and that it was not suited for a reform that allowed freedom of speech for everybody. Therefore, the Soviet Union forced Hungary to give up its reform in 1956, it favored the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and it stopped reform in Czechoslovakia in 1968. When in 1988/89 Gorbachev made clear that he would not force the countries of the East block to stick to Communism the Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and the Soviet Union collapsed (1991). Then the United States was the only superpower left. - -After Mao Zedong's death China's communist party proved that economic reform was possible without political freedom and paved the way for enormous economic growth. - -As the 20th century ended, the European Union began to rise and included former satellite states and even parts of the Soviet Union. States in Asia, Africa and South America tried to copy the European Union. - -The twentieth century was a time of great progress in terms of technology. People began to live longer because of better medicine and medical technology. New communications and transportation technologies connected the world. But these advances also helped cause problems with the environment. - -The last half of the century had smaller wars. Improved information technology and globalization increased trade and cultural exchange. Space exploration expanded through the solar system. The structure of DNA was discovered. - -The same period also raised questions about the end of human history because of global dangers: nuclear weapons, greenhouse effect and other problems in the environment. - -21st century - -As the 20th century ended, globalization has continued. During this period, communications with mobile phones and the Internet have expanded, which has led to fundamental social changes in corporation, political, and individuals' personal lives. Due to the population of growth and industrialization, worldwide resource competition is becoming increasingly highly, especially in India, China and Brazil. The increasing demand on the environmental degradation and global warming. - -A new Great Recession affected the world in the late 2000s and the early 2010s, and the COVID-19 pandemic spread in 2020, causing further economic and political disruption. Some scientists referred to this as a ""Planetary Phase of Civilization"". - -Related pages - History of Africa - History of America - History of Asia - History of Australia - History of Europe - History of the Earth - -References - -Further reading - -English translation by Paul G. Bahn from the French edition La Grotte Chauvet - - -Translation of La Grotte Chauvet, l'art des origins, Éditions du Seuil, 2001 - -Other websites - Universal Concise History of the World, 1832 Full text, free to read, American book on the history of the world with the intriguing perspective of 1832 America. - WWW-VL: World History at European University Institute - Five Epochs of Civilization A scheme of organization which divides world history into five epochs marked by changes in communication technology - World history -Citizendium - -+ -Former good articles" -14566,54954,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic%20system,Lymphatic system,"In mammals, the lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch, like blood vessels, into tissues throughout the body. It is part of the immune system. It is a one-way system which carries cells and fluid back to the blood system. - -Lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a colorless, watery fluid and white blood cells. It comes from interstitial fluid in the tissues which is squeezed out of the blood vessels. The lymphatic system transports infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes, and is involved in the removal of foreign matter and cell debris by phagocytes. A second function is to transport fats from the small intestine to the blood. - -Lymphatic fluid gathers from the tissues and enters the valved lymphatic ducts. It is the valves which make sure the lymph flows the right way. On its way back to the blood system, the lymph passes through glands called lymph nodes, in places like the back of the neck, the armpits and the groin. Lymph nodes swell in the region of an infected body part. This acts to keep the infection from spreading. It prevents or reduces the pathogens getting into the general blood circulation and reaching other parts of the body. - -Lymph ends up back in the blood system. In mammals under normal conditions most of the lymph is returned to the blood stream through lymph-vein communications at the base of the neck. Some vertebrates have more complex lymphatic systems. Amphibians for example have multiple ""lymph hearts"" to control the flow of lymph. - -References - -Physiology -Immunology" -6505,20514,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1610s,1610s," - -Events - Start of the Golden Age of the Netherlands. - Beginning of Dutch colonization of North America -The King James Version of the Bible comes out. - -Deaths -William Shakespeare, English poet" -7343,23560,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguette,Baguette,"Baguettes are long thin loaves of bread popular in France, but now common in many other countries. Usually, they are made of white bread. Baguettes usually have a hard crust on the outside but soft white bread on the inside. - -French traditions say that bread may only contain the following four things: flour, water, yeast and salt. Anything containing more than those things must not be called bread. - -A baguette is about 5-6 cm wide, 3 to 4 cm high, and about 65 cm long. Such a baguette usually weighs about 250 grams. It is common to dip the bread into olive oil when it is eaten. - -History -The baguette is thought as to have come from France, but it actually came from Vienna. In the middle of the nineteenth century, steam ovens had just been brought into use. This allowed loaves to be made with a crispy crust and the white centre, similar to today's baguettes. - -Later, in 1920, a law was passed that did not let bakers work before 4am. This made it impossible to make a larger loaf in time for their customers' breakfasts. The longer, thinner baguette helped solve this problem because it could be prepared and baked much faster. However, since the French had been making long thin loaves for a long time, what exactly was invented in 1920? It seems to be just the use of the word ""baguette"" for those thin loaves. - -Description -Outside France, the baguette is also called a 'French stick'. It is a loaf of bread, up to a metre long but only about four to five centimetres in diameter. The baguette is a symbol of France. - -Baguettes are eaten as a sandwich cut in half lengthwise. They are also eaten for breakfast (usually with jam or chocolate spread). - -A loaf the same length as a baguette but thicker (about 8-10 centimetres diameter) is known as 'pain'. A thin version of the baguette is called 'ficelle'. - -Even in France there is a difference between a traditional baguette and a 'supermarket' baguette. - -Baguette has the same texture as the Greek bread Tsoureki. - -References - -Breads" -3191,9880,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%2024,April 24," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1184 BC - Traditional date of the Fall of Troy. - 1558 – Mary, Queen of Scots marries future King Francis II of France. - 1585 - Felice Peretti is elected Pope, becoming Pope Sixtus V. - 1704 - The first regular newspaperin Colonial America, the News-Letter, is published in Boston, Massachusetts. - 1715 - Following defeat in the naval Battle of Fehmarn, Sweden sinks its own flagship, Hedvig Sophia, to prevent Denmark from taking it. - 1800 – The Library of Congress in Washington, DC opens. - 1877 – Russo-Turkish War: Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire. - 1885 - American sharpshooter Annie Oakley is hired to be part of Buffalo Bill's Wild West. - 1895 - Joshua Slocum sets sail from Boston, Massachusetts on his boat Spray, on his way to becoming the first person to sail single-handedly around the world. - 1898 – The Spanish-American War begins. - -1901 2000 - 1904 - The Lithuanian press ban ends after over 40 years. - 1907 - Hersheypark, founded by Milton S. Hershey exclusively for his employees, opens. - 1913 – New York City's Woolworth building is opened. - 1914 - The Franck-Hertz Experiment, a pillar of quantum mechanics, is presented to the German Physical Society. - 1915 – The arrest of 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Istanbul marks the beginning of the Armenian Genocide. - 1916 – The Irish Easter Rising begins in Dublin. - 1916 - Ernest Shackleton and five men of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition launch a lifeboat from the uninhabited Elephant Island in the Southern Ocean to organize a rescue for the ice-trapped ship Endurance. - 1922 - The first segment of the Imperial Wireless Chain providing wireless telegraphy between Leafield, Oxfordshire, England and Cairo, Egypt, begins operations. - 1926 - The Treaty of Berlin is signed. Germany and the Soviet Union each pledge neutrality in the event of an attack on the other, for the next five years. - 1933 - Nazi Germany begins with the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses by shutting down the Watch Tower Society in Magdeburg. - 1953 – Winston Churchill is knighted by Queen Elizabeth II. - 1955 - End of the Bandung Conference in Indonesia: 29 non-aligned Asian and African countries condemn colonialism, racism and the Cold War. - 1957 - Following the Suez Crisis, the Suez Canal is re-opened. - 1957 - The BBC first broadcasts the long-running astronomy TV programme The Sky at Night, presented by Patrick Moore until his death in 2012. - 1964 - The Little Mermaid statue in Copenhagen is beheaded. - 1965 - A civil war starts in the Dominican Republic. - 1967 – Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov dies in Soyuz 1 when his parachute fails to open. - 1968 – Mauritius joins the UN. - 1970 – The Gambia becomes a republic with Dawda Jawara as its first President. - 1970 - The first Chinese satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, is launched. - 1971 - Soyuz 10 docks with Salyut 1. - 1974 - President of Austria Franz Jonas dies in office aged 74, following a long period of illness. - 1990 – Gruinard Island in Scotland is declared free of Anthrax. - 1990 – STS-31: The Hubble Space Telescope is launched from Space Shuttle Discovery. - 1993 - An Irish Republican Army bomb hits the Bishopsgate area of London. - -From 2001 - 2004 – In Cyprus, a referendum on reunification results in the Turkish population mainly voting yes, but the Greek population mainly voting no, meaning that only Greek Cyprus joins the EU the following week. - 2004 - The United States lifts (ends) economic sanctions on Libya. - 2005 – Josef Alois Ratzinger is officially inaugurated as Pope Benedict XVI. - 2005 – Snuppy, the world's first cloned dog, is born in South Korea. - 2007 – Iceland announces that Norway will take responsibility of its defence in peacetime. - 2013 - 1,127 people are killed when an eight-storey clothing factory building in Dhaka, Bangladesh, collapses. Over 2,500 are injured. - 2016 - The candidates of the traditional political parties are rejected in Austria's Presidential election, with Alexander Van der Bellen and Norbert Hofer advancing to the second round. - -Births - -Up to 1900 -1086 - Ramiro II of Aragon (d. 1157) -1492 - Sabina of Bavaria (d. 1564) -1533 – William I of Orange (d. 1584) -1580 – Vincent de Paul, French saint (d. 1660) -1620 – John Graunt, English statistician (d. 1674) -1706 – Giovanni Battista Martini, Italian musician (d. 1780) -1718 – Nathaniel Hone, Irish-born painter (d. 1784) -1719 - Giuseppe Marc'Antonio Baretti, Italian poet (d. 1789) -1743 – Edmund Cartwright, British inventor (d. 1823) -1777 - Maria Clementina of Austria (d. 1801) -1787 - Mathieu Orfila, Spanish-French chemist (d. 1853) -1815 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist (d. 1882) -1819 - Klaus Groth, German writer (d. 1899) -1825 - R. M. Ballantyne, Scottish writer (d. 1894) -1829 - James Sheakley, Territorial Governor of Alaska (d. 1917) -1831 - George Nares, British admiral and polar explorer (d. 1915) -1841 - Charles Sprague Sargent, American botanist (d. 1927) -1845 – Carl Spitteler, Swiss writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924) -1851 - Morgan Earp, American Western figure and brother of Wyatt Earp (d. 1882) -1856 – Henri Philippe Pétain, French soldier and statesman (d. 1951) -1871 - Blanche Ring, American singer (d. 1961) -1876 – Erich Raeder, German naval commander (d. 1960) -1878 – Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (d. 1958) -1879 - Susanna Bokoyni, Hungarian-American centenarian and circus performer (d. 1984) -1880 - Gideon Sundback, Swedish engineer, businessman and developer of the zipper (d. 1954) -1882 – Hugh Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding, Scottish fighter pilot (d. 1970) -1889 – Sir Stafford Cripps, British politician (d. 1952) -1889 – Lyubov Popova, Russian painter (d. 1924) -1896 - Charlie Rivel, Spanish clown (d. 1983) -1896 – Benjamin Whorf, American linguist (d. 1941) -1897 – Manuel Ávila Camacho, President of Mexico (d. 1955) -1899 – Oscar Zariski, Russian-born mathematician (d. 1986) - -1901 1925 -1903 - José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Spanish lawyer and politician (d. 1936) -1904 – Willem de Kooning, Dutch painter (d. 1997) -1905 – Robert Penn Warren, American poet (d. 1989) -1906 – William Joyce, Irish fascist (d. 1946) -1907 – William Sargant, British psychiatrist (d. 1988) -1908 - Viktor Abakumov, Soviet politician (d. 1954) -1908 – Marceline Day, American actress (d. 2000) -1908 – Jozef Goslawski, Polish sculptor (d. 1963) -1909 – Bernhard Grzimek, German zoologist, naturalist, writer and movie maker (d. 1987) -1913 - Dieter Grau, German-American scientist and engineer (d. 2014) -1914 – William Castle, American movie director and producer (d. 1977) -1916 – Lou Thesz, American professional wrestler (d. 2002) -1919 - Glafcos Clerides, 4th President of Cyprus (d. 2013) -1919 - César Manrique, Spanish artist, architect and conservationist (d. 1992) -1922 - Susanna Agnelli, Italian politician (d. 2009) -1922 – J.D. Cannon, American actor (d. 2005) -1922 - Marc-Adélard Tremblay, Canadian anthropologist (d. 2014) -1923 - Gus Bodnar, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2005) -1924 – Sir Clement Freud, British writer, radio personality, and politician (d. 2009) - -1926 1950 -1926 – Thorbjörn Fälldin, former Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 2016) -1927 - Frank Lucchesi, American baseball player, coach and manager (d. 2019) -1927 - Josy Barthel, Luxembourgish middle-distance runner (d. 1992) -1928 - Tommy Docherty, Scottish footballer -1929 - Hella Pick, Austrian-British journalist -1929 - Rajkumar, Indian actor (d. 2006) -1930 – Jerome Callet, American musician -1930 – Richard Donner, American movie director and producer -1930 – José Sarney, former President of Brazil -1931 - Bridget Riley, British artist -1933 – Claire Davenport, British actress (d. 2002) -1933 – Helmuth Lohner, Austrian actor (d. 2015) -1934 – Shirley MacLaine, American actress and writer -1935 - Kuaima Riruako, Namibian politician (d. 2014) -1936 – Jill Ireland, British actress (d. 1990) -1936 - Akwasi Afrifa, Ghanaian politician (d. 1979) -1936 - David Crombie, 56th Mayor of Toronto -1937 – Joe Henderson American jazz saxophonist (d. 2001) -1940 – Sue Grafton, American writer (d. 2017) -1940 - Michael Parks, American actor (d. 2017) -1941 - Silvio Moser, Swiss racing driver (d. 1974) -1941 – John Williams, Australian guitarist -1941 – Richard Holbrooke, American diplomat (d. 2010) -1942 – Richard M. Daley, American politician -1942 – Barbra Streisand, American singer, actress, and director -1942 - George Vella, 10th President of Malta -1944 - Tony Visconti, American music producer -1945 – Doug Clifford, American drummer (Creedence Clearwater Revival) -1945 - Dick Rivers, French singer (d. 2019) -1947 - Josep Borrell, Spanish politician, 22nd President of the European Parliament -1947 - Roger D. Kornberg, American chemist -1948 - Paul Cellucci, 69th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 2013) - -1951 1963 -1951 - Nigel Harrison, English musician and songwriter -1951 – Enda Kenny, Irish Taoiseach -1952 – Jean-Paul Gaultier, French fashion designer -1953 – Eric Bogosian, American actor and writer -1954 – Mumia Abu-Jamal, American journalist, political activist, and death-row inmate -1954 – Captain Sensible, British guitarist (The Damned) -1954 - Jack Blades, American musician -1955 – John de Mol, Dutch media tycoon -1955 - Eamon Gilmore, Irish politician -1957 – David J, British musician -1957 – Boris Williams, British musician (The Cure) -1958 - Brian Paddick, English deputy police officer and politician -1958 - Valery Lantratov, Russian ballet dancer -1958 – Susan Tsvangirai, (d. 2009) wife of Zimbabwean Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai -1958 - Steve Wright, British serial killer -1960 – Paula Yates, British television presenter (d. 2000) -1961 - Andrew Murrison, English physician and politician -1962 – Stuart Pearce, English footballer and manager -1962 – Steve Roach, Australian rugby player -1963 – Billy Gould, American musician (Faith No More) - -1964 1976 -1964 – Cedric the Entertainer, American comedian and actor -1964 – Djimon Hounsou, Benin-born actor -1966 – Alessandro Costacurta, Italian footballer -1967 – Omar Vizquel, Venezuelan baseball player -1968 – Stacy Haiduk, American actress -1968 – Hashim Thaci, Kosovan politician -1968 - Yuji Nakata, Japanese wrestler -1968 – Roxanna Panufnik, British composer -1969 - Eilidh Whiteford, Scottish politician -1971 – Mauro Pawlowski, Belgian guitarist and singer (Evil Superstars and dEUS) -1971 - Alejandro Fernández, Mexican singer -1972 – Chipper Jones, American baseball player -1972 – Jure Košir, Slovenian skier -1972 – Rab Douglas, Scottish footballer -1972 - Adhemar Ferreira de Camargo Neto, Brazilian footballer -1973 – Sachin Tendulkar, Indian cricketer -1973 – Lee Westwood, British golfer -1973 – Gabby Logan, British television presenter -1973 - Eric Snow, American basketball player -1974 – Comedy Dave, British television and radio host -1974 – Joseph Bruce, American rapper (Insane Clown Posse) -1974 – Stephen Wiltshire, British artist -1975 – Sam Doumit, American actress -1975 - Sophie Grégoire Trudeau, wife of Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau -1976 – Steve Finnan, Irish footballer - -From 1977 -1977 – Carlos Beltran, Puerto Rican Major League Baseball player -1977 – Siarhiej Bałachonaŭ, Belarusian writer -1978 – Eric Balfour, American actor -1980 – Austin Nichols, American actor -1980 – Karen Asrian, Armenian chess player (d. 2008) -1980 - Fernando Arce, Mexican footballer -1981 - Taylor Dent, American tennis player -1982 – Kelly Clarkson, American singer -1982 – Shayna Nackoney, Canadian synchronized swimmer -1984 – Tyson Ritter, American singer and bassist (All-American Rejects) -1985 - Joséphine Jobert, French actress and singer -1985 – Kaori Nazuka, Japanese voice actress -1986 - Kellin Quinn, American singer -1987 - Simone Corsi, Italian motorcycle racer -1987 - Ben Howard, British singer-songwriter -1987 - Jan Vertonghen, Belgian footballer -1989 - David Boudia, American diver -1992 - Laura Kenny, English cyclist -1992 - Doc Shaw, American actor, singer, rapper and model -1993 - Laura Gil, American basketball player -1996 - Ashleigh Barty, Australian tennis player -1997 - Lydia Ko, New Zealand golfer -1998 – Ryan Newman, American actress -2005 – Snuppy, cloned dog - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 624 - Mellitus, Archbishop of Canterbury - 709 - Wilfrid, English archbishop and saint - 1185 - Emperor Antoku of Japan (b. 1178) - 1342 – Pope Benedict XII (b. 1285) - 1479 - Jorge Manrique, Spanish poet (b. 1440) - 1617 - Concino Concini, Italian-French politician (b. 1575) - 1622 - Fidelis Sigmaringen, German friar and saint (b. 1577) - 1656 - Thomas Fincke, Danish mathematician and physicist (b. 1561) - 1678 - Louis VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, German aristocrat (b. 1630) - 1731 – Daniel Defoe, English writer (b. 1660) - 1748 - Anton thor Helle, German-Estonian clergyman and translator (b. 1683) - 1794 - Axel von Fersen the Elder, Swedish statesman and soldier (b. 1719) - 1852 – Vasily Zhukovsky, Russian poet (b. 1783) - 1852 - Leopold, Grand Duke of Baden (b. 1790) - 1884 - Marie Taglioni, Swedish dancer (b. 1804) - 1891 - Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prussian field marshal (b. 1800) - 1900 - George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll, Scottish politician (b. 1823) - -1901 2000 - 1901 - Arvid Posse, Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1820) - 1924 - G. Stanley Hall, American psychologist and educator (b. 1844) - 1926 - Sunjong of the Korean Empire (b. 1874) - 1931 - David Kldiashvili, Georgian writer (b. 1862) - 1938 - George Gray Barnard, American sculptor (b. 1863) - 1939 – Louis Trousselier, French cyclist (b. 1881) - 1941 - Karin Boye, Swedish writer (b. 1900) - 1942 - Lucy Maud Montgomery, Canadian novelist (b. 1874) - 1942 - Leonid Kulik, Russian scientist (b. 1882) - 1947 - Willa Cather, American writer (b. 1878) - 1960 – Max von Laue, German physicist (b. 1897) - 1962 - Emilio Prados, Spanish poet (b. 1899) - 1964 – Gerhard Domagk, German doctor, won the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1895) - 1965 - Louise Dresser, American actress (b. 1878) - 1967 – Vladimir Komarov, Soviet cosmonaut (b. 1927) - 1968 - Walter Tewksbury, American athlete (b. 1876) - 1974 - Franz Jonas, President of Austria (b. 1899) - 1974 – Bud Abbott, American actor and comedian (b. 1895) - 1980 - Alejo Carpentier, Cuban writer (b. 1904) - 1982 - Ville Ritola, Finnish runner (b. 1896) - 1983 – Rolf Stommelen, German racing driver (b. 1943) - 1986 – Wallis Simpson, wife of the former King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (b. 1896) - 1993 – Oliver Tambo, South African politician (b. 1917) - 1993 - Tran Duc Thao, Vietnamese philosopher (b. 1917) - 1996 - Donald Cammell, Scottish film director (b. 1934) - 1997 - Pat Paulsen, American comedian and politician (b. 1927) - -From 2001 - 2004 – Estée Lauder, American cosmetics entrepreneur (b. 1906) - 2005 – Ezer Weizman, former President of Israel (b. 1924) - 2011 – Sathya Sai Baba, Indian spiritual leader (b. 1926) - 2011 - Marie-France Pisier, French actress (b. 1944) - 2014 - Tadeusz Rozewicz, Polish poet, dramatist and writer (b. 1921) - 2014 - Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer (b. 1948) - 2014 - Ricardo Bauleo, Argentine actor (b. 1946) - 2014 - Hans Hollein, Austrian architect and designer (b. 1934) - 2014 - Arturo Licata, Sicilian supercentenarian and oldest-living man (b. 1902) - 2014 - Konstantin Orbelyan, Armenian pianist and composer (b. 1928) - 2014 - Shobha Nagi Reddy, Indian politician (b. 1968) - 2015 - Wladyslaw Bartoszewski, Polish politician, writer and Holocaust survivor (b. 1922) - 2015 - Sid Tepper, American songwriter (b. 1918) - 2015 - George C. Young, American lawyer and judge (b. 1916) - 2015 - Rustum Ghazaleh, Syrian military officer (b. 1953) - 2015 - Ismail Hussain, Indian politician (b. 1950) - 2015 - Ken Birch, British footballer (b. 1933) - 2015 - Valentine Lamb, British journalist (b. 1939) - 2015 - Sabeen Mahmud, Pakistani human rights activist (b. 1974) - 2016 - Nina Arkhipova, Russian actress (b. 1921) - 2016 - Robert Dolan, American marine geologist (b. 1929) - 2016 - Manuel de la Torre, American golf instructor (b. 1921) - 2016 - Walter Jackson Freeman III, American biologist, neuroscientist and philosopher (b. 1927) - 2016 - Tommy Kono, American weightlifter (b. 1930) - 2016 - Thinle Lhondup, Nepalese actor (b. 1944) - 2016 - Benjamin Manglona, Northern Marianas politician (b. 1938) - 2016 - Billy Paul, American singer (b. 1934) - 2016 - Klaus Siebert, German biathlete and coach (b. 1955) - 2016 - Papa Wemba, Congolese singer and musician (b. 1949) - 2017 - Benjamin Barber, American political theorist and author (b. 1939) - 2017 - Robert M. Pirsig, American writer and philosopher (b. 1928) - 2017 - Agnes Giebel, German soprano (b. 1921) - 2017 - Don Gordon, American actor (b. 1926) - 2017 - Nicholas Sand, American chemist (b. 1941) - 2017 - Ken Sears, American basketball player (b. 1933) - 2018 - Dinu C. Giurescu, Romanian historian and politician (b. 1927) - 2018 - Paul Gray, Australian singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1963) - 2018 - Henri Michel, French footballer and coach (b. 1947) - 2018 - Hariton Pushwagner, Norwegian artist (b. 1940) - 2019 - Martin Kilson, American political scientist (b. 1931) - 2019 - Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor (b. 1932) - 2019 - Sergey Pogorelov, Russian handball player (b. 1974) - 2019 - Dick Rivers, French singer (b. 1945) - -Observances - Democracy Day (Nepal) - Genocide Day (Armenia) - Republic Day (The Gambia) - Latest date for Holy Saturday - Second-latest date for Easter, last occurred on this date in 2011 - -Days of the year" -1115,4106,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon,Lisbon,"Lisbon is the capital city of Portugal. It is the largest city of Portugal. The city has a population of about half million people. In Lisbon's urban area live around 2.8 million people, being the 10th-most populous urban area in the European Union. -Lisbon is placed on the right bank (western) of the Tagus River, near the outfall. It has a pleasant climate and has about 220 days of sunshine each year. There are many beautiful beaches close to the city. There are also many seafood restaurants, historical sites and monuments. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world. - -References - -Other websites - Official page of the city - Lisbon Photos a collection of Photos, showing Lisbon as it is to visitors. - Lisbon Tourist Guide and Information - -Phoenician colonies - -719 establishments -Establishments in Portugal" -15795,60478,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian%20franc,Belgian franc,"The Belgian franc was a type of money. It is nearly the same as its partner, the Luxembourg franc. The Belgian franc was founded in 1848 in Belgium. The symbol for the Belgian franc is fr. or F. It was replaced by the euro (€) on January 1, 1999. One euro has the same value as about forty Belgian francs. - -Coins -The different types of coins used were 1, 5, 20, and 50 francs. 50 cents was another type of coin, but is not common. - -Banknotes -The different types of banknotes used were 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000 and 10000 francs. - -Related pages - Luxembourg franc - -Other websites - - -Former currencies of Europe -Economy of Belgium -1848 establishments in Europe -1999 disestablishments in Europe" -9810,33485,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European%20languages,Indo-European languages,"The Indo-European languages are the world's most spoken language family. - -Linguists believe they all come from a single language, Proto-Indo-European, which was originally spoken somewhere in Eurasia. They are now spoken all over the world. - -The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major languages in Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia. - -Historically, the language family was also important in Anatolia and Central Asia. - -The earliest Indo-European writing is from the Bronze Age in Anatolian and Mycenaean Greek. The origin of Proto-Indo-European is after the invention of farming since some of its words have to do with farming. - -Although it may have fewer languages than some other language families, it has the most native speakers, about 2.7 billion. - -Of the 20 languages with the most speakers, 12 are Indo-European: English, Spanish, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Sindhi, Punjabi, Marathi, French, and Urdu. - -Four of the six official languages of the United Nations are Indo-European: English, Spanish, French, and Russian. - -Main language groups - -These are the main Indo-European language groups: - Albanian - Anatolian: Luwian; Hittite - Armenian - Balto-Slavic - Baltic (Latvian and Lithuanian) - Slavic (such as Polish, Russian, and Serbian) - Celtic (such as Irish and Welsh) - Germanic (such as English, German, and Swedish) - Greek (and modern Greek) - Indo-Iranian - Indo-Aryan languages (Indic) - Iranian - Latin and the Romance languages (such as French, Italian, and Romanian) - -Most Indo-European languages use the Latin script, but others use the Devanagari, Cyrillic, or Arabic scripts. - -Summary - -The number of speakers derived from statistics or estimates (2019) and were rounded: - -History of Indo-European linguistics -Suggestions of similarities between Indian and European languages began to be made by European visitors to India in the 16th century. In 1583, Thomas Stephens, an English Jesuit missionary in Goa, India, noticed similarities between the Indian languages and Greek and Latin and included them included in a letter to his brother, but it was not published until the 20th century. - -The first account to mention Sanskrit is from Filippo Sassetti. Born in Florence, Italy, in 1540, he was a merchant who was among the first Europeans to study Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian such as devaḥ/dio ""God"", sarpaḥ/serpe ""serpent"", sapta/sette ""seven"", aṣṭa/otto ""eight"", nava/nove ""nine""). However, neither observation led to further scholarly inquiry. - -In 1647, the Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among Indo-European languages and supposed that they had derived from a primitive common language. He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, and he later added Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, his suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. - -Gaston Coeurdoux and others had made similar observations. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship between the languages. Similarly, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different languages groups of the world, including Slavic, Baltic, Iranian, Finnish, Chinese, Hottentot and others. - -The hypothesis reappeared in 1786, 20 years after Coeurdoux, when Sir William Jones lectured on the striking similarities between three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. He later tentatively added Gothic, Celtic, and Old Persian but made some errors and omissions in his classification. - -In 1813, Thomas Young was first to use the term Indo-European.In London Quarterly Review X/2 1813.; cf. Szemerényi 1999:12, footnote 6 It became the standard scientific term except in Germany through Franz Bopp's Comparative Grammar''. Appearing between 1833 and 1852, it was the starting point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. - -Some 20th-century scholars thought Indo-European languages started in Armenia or India, but most now think that it started in Eastern Europe or Anatolia. - -References - -Other websites -Indo-European languages -Citizendium" -21422,81989,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical%20cyclone%20forecast%20model,Tropical cyclone forecast model,"A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast where tropical cyclones will go and how strong they will be. Models use powerful supercomputers and mathematical modeling software. There are two general types: statistical and dynamic. There are two main types of forecasts: track and intensity. - -Other websites - Tropical Cyclone Forecasters Reference Guide, Chapter 5 - Model Analyses and Forecasts from NCEP - -Tropical cyclones" -3863,11584,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judas%20Priest,Judas Priest,"Judas Priest are an English heavy metal band. They formed in The Black Country, England in 1969. They are famous for having two guitar players, named Glenn Tipton and K.K. Downing. The singer, Rob Halford, left the band in the early 1990s because of problems with the other people in the band. He went back to the band in 2003. - -On 7 December 2010, the band said they would play their last concert tour during 2011, But they are still a band, and have made a new album called Redeemer of Souls. - -History - -70s - -Forming -Judas Priest used to be a different band to the one that is together now. The lead singer for this old band was called Al Atkins. Around the same time, guitar player K.K. Downing and bass player Ian Hill put together their own band, and when they were looking for a lead singer, they found Al Atkins. His band called Judas Priest had broken up by then, and he suggested that KK and Ian should use the same name. They kept on using the name even after Atkins left in 1973. - -When the band was looking for another singer, Ian Hill discovered the singing talents of his girlfriend's brother, Rob Halford. He joined the band. - -During the seventies, the band went through several drummers, including Alan Moore, John Hinch, Simon Phillips and Les Binks. - -First five albums -Before Judas Priest recorded their first album, a second guitar player, Glenn Tipton, joined the band. The first album, Rocka Rolla, came out in 1974. It was not very successful, probably because it didn't have many of the songs that the band were known for playing in live concerts back in those days. They would later be on the band's next album, Sad Wings of Destiny in 1976. That album was followed up by Sin After Sin in 1977. These three albums had a hard rock style that was familiar to bands like Led Zeppelin, and had a psychedelic feel. - -The band's fourth album, Stained Class, had less of a psychedelic sound and was rockier sounding. This was the first album to have drummer Les Binks, who had a drumming style that was liked by many fans, and is thought of as important for improving the band's sound. The fitth album, Killing Machine (called Hell Bent for Leather in America because of the original title suggesting murder) was also rockier sounding but had shorter songs. ""Hell Bent for Leather"" from the album is one of the band's more popular songs. Les Binks left after this album. - -It was also during the late 70s/early 80s that Rob Halford started putting together stage costumes of S&M leather and studs. This was done to express that he was gay - he felt like he needed to keep this from the fans in case it would hurt the band's popularity, and he did not come out until 1998. The S&M look was not thought at the time by fans to be a symbol of homosexuality, and it was copied by many other metal bands. - -80s -Les was replaced by Dave Holland, who drummed with the band on all their 80s albums. - -Sucess with British Steel and similar albums - -The band gained much more fame with album #6 in 1980, called British Steel. The album is said to be important for building on what we know as the heavy metal sound and is one of their most popular, including hit songs like ""Metal Gods"" ""Breaking the Law"" and ""Living After Midnight"". The next album, Point of Entry, didn't do as well. - -Album #8, Screaming For Vengeance, was a return to success and had the hits ""Electric Eye"" and ""You've Got Another Thing Comin'"" Album #9. Defenders of the Faith, had a similar style. - -Change to pop-metal sound -Album #10, however, called Turbo, had more of a pop-metal sound with synthesizers on all the songs and lyrics with sexual themes. This is best demonstrated in the first song ""Turbo Lover"". It received mixed critic reviews who had doubts about the change in sound. The next album, Ram It Down, mixed the pop metal sound of Turbo with the heavy metal sound of the band's more popular albums. - -Dave Holland left the band in 1989, and was replaced with the American Scott Travis - the first non British person to play for the band. - -90s - -The trial against the band -In the summer of the year 1990, the band was involved in a trial where they were blamed for causing two young men to try to kill themselves. These men were 20-year-old James Vance and 18-year-old Raymond Belknap, both American. On 23 December 1985, Vance and Belknap, after hours of drinking beer, smoking weed and apparently listening to Judas Priest, went to a playground at a church with a shotgun to kill themselves. Belknap died instantly after shooting himself, but Vance survived with a disfigured face. Vance died three years after. - -Their parents thought they heard ""do it"" being sung in the band's song ""Better By You, Better Than Me"" from the Stained Class album (actually a cover of a Spooky Tooth song). They said the words in the song made them shoot themselves. The trial was dismissed in August of 1990 when Rob Halford played a clip from their song called Exciter in reverse, so it sounded like Halford was singing ""I asked her for a peppermint, I asked her to get one"" (the actual words were ""Stand by for exciter, salvation is his task""). He did this to show how any reverse messages in their songs suggesting suicide were accidental. - -Painkiller and Halford leaves -The band released one of their most popular albums in 1990 called Painkiller. The title song did very well and is a popular Judas Priest song. Fans and critics liked Scott Travis' fast and heavy drumming style, feeling it was better than the more simple slower drumming of Dave Holland. - -Halford wanted to make heavier music in the style of newer bands like Pantera, but the band wanted to carry on with the style they were playing. Halford and the rest of the band started arguing which led to his leaving of the band, starting new bands called Fight and 2wo. - -New singer: Tim 'Ripper' Owens -The band didn't play together for a few years, until 1996 when they found American singer Tim Owens, who nicknamed himself 'Ripper' after an early Priest song. Owens had been playing in a Priest tribute band before joining the actual band. - -They released Jugulator in 1997. The album was a lot heavier and darker than Painkiller and had lyrics describing the end of the world. Reviews were negative about Owens' singing style and the heavier musical style. - -2000s - -Halford and the band make up and Demolition -Halford and the rest of Judas Priest started speaking again after KK, Glenn and Ian were invited to a wedding of a relative of Halford's. KK and Ian attended and made up with Halford. - -However, Tim Owens was still in the band until 2003, bringing out Demolition in 2001. The album has a larger variety of musical styles than Jugulator, but was no more successful. - -Halford re-joins - -Their next album was Nostradamus in 2008, which was a concept album (an album telling a story) about a prophet, also called Nostradamus. Reviews were more critical, with negativity towards the album's length of two discs. - -Modern Era - -Epitaph tour and new album -Around 2010, media reported that the band planned to break up after one last tour. However, eventually, the band confirmed that they would not be breaking up after the tour but would be doing a lot less touring. K.K. Downing left the band in 2011, after 41 years. He was replaced by Richie Faulkner. - -During the tour, the band played at least one song from every studio album apart from the two with Ripper Owens. - -The band made a new album after the tour called Redeemer of Souls, which came out in 2014. The band are still touring although their tours will not last as long due to the elderly ages of some of the band members. - -Discography - -Studio albums - Rocka Rolla (1974) - Sad Wings of Destiny (1976) - Sin After Sin (1977) - Stained Class (1978) - Killing Machine / Hell Bent for Leather (1978) - British Steel (1980) - Point of Entry (1981) - Screaming for Vengeance (1982) - Defenders of the Faith (1984) - Turbo (1986) - Ram It Down (1988) - Painkiller (1990) - Jugulator (1997) - Angel of Retribution (2004) - Nostradamus (2008) - Redeemer of Souls (2014) - Firepower (2018) - -References - -1960s establishments in England -1960s British music groups -1970s British music groups -1980s British music groups -1990s British music groups -2000s British music groups -2010s British music groups -English heavy metal bands -Hard rock bands -Musical groups established in 1969 -Musical groups from Birmingham, West Midlands -Speed metal bands" -18438,69189,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Midway,Battle of Midway,"The Battle of Midway was an important naval battle of World War II, between the United States and the Empire of Japan. It took place from 4 June 1942 to 7 June 1942. This was about a month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, and six months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. - -The United States Navy defeated a Japanese attack against Midway Atoll (northwest of Hawaii) and destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers and a heavy cruiser. - -The battle was a decisive victory for the Americans. It was the most important naval battle of the Pacific area in World War II. The battle weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy for the rest of the war. Japan could not build up its forces again. The United States replaced their lost ships and planes with better ones very quickly. Japan could only make a few poor quality replacements. - -The Japanese planned to bring America's carriers into a trap and sink them. The Japanese also tried to take Midway Atoll to build defenses far from their homeland and prepare to invade Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. - -The Midway operation, like the attack on Pearl Harbor, was made to destroy the American strength in the Pacific Ocean. This way, Japan could become the biggest power in the area and unify Asia under its control. It was also hoped that another defeat would force the U.S. to ask for peace soon. - -After the defeat, Imperial Japanese Navy forces retired. Japan lost four out of their six carriers, and hundreds of their best air pilots. This stopped the expansion of the Japanese Empire in the Pacific, and the Americans began to slowly advance towards Japan. - -Background - -Japan had reached its first goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). This gave Japan petroleum, which it needed to make more war. Planning for a second part of the operations started in January 1942. However, disagreements between the Imperial Army and Imperial Navy, and among naval commanders, prevented finishing the plan until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto said he would quit if his plan for the Central Pacific was not accepted. It was accepted. - -Yamamoto's main goal was to destroy America's carrier forces, which he saw as the main threat to the Pacific campaign. This concern was increased by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942. In this raid, 16 US Army Air Forces B-25 Mitchell bombers launched from bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. The raid, while militarily unimportant, showed that American bombers could reach Japanese territory. This and other successful raids by American carriers showed that they were still a threat. - -Yamamoto thought that another attack on the U.S Naval base at Pearl Harbor would make all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, because of the many American land-based airplanes on Hawaii, he thought that it was too risky to attack directly. Instead, he decided to attack Midway, a tiny atoll at the northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately from Oahu. The Japanese didn't need Midway but they felt the Americans would try hard to defend it. - -The U.S. did consider Midway to be important. After the battle, they set up a submarine base on Midway. That meant submarines operating from Pearl Harbor could refuel and get new supplies, so they could go farther west. Midway's airstrips were also used for bomber attacks on Wake Island. - -Yamamoto's plan: Operation MI - -Like most Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto's battle plan was very complex. His was also based on incorrect (wrong) information. He thought that and were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. In May 1942, during the Battle of the Coral Sea, had been sunk and so badly damaged that the Japanese thought she had been sunk. The Japanese also knew that was being repaired on the US West Coast after getting torpedo damage from a submarine. and were in the Atlantic, but the Japanese were not sure this was so. - -Yamamoto thought that the Americans had been demoralized by their defeats in the last six months. He thought a trick would lure the U.S. fleet into a dangerous situation. He spread out his ships, especially his battleships, so that they would be hard to find. Yamamoto's battleships and cruisers went behind Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's carrier force by several hundred miles. Japan's heavy surface forces would wait for the U.S. ships to come to defend Midway, and destroy them. - -The plan was for Nagumo's carriers to cause so much harm to US ships that the Japanese could fire on them by daylight. - -Yamamoto did not know that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code. Yamamoto's choice to spread out his ships meant that none of his groups of ships could support each other. The only warships larger than the 12 destroyers that protected Nagumo's fleet were two battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. - -Aleutian invasion -The Japanese attacks in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) took away yet more ships that could have attacked Midway. Many histories once saw the Aleutians attack as a feint to draw American forces away. Early twenty-first century research shows that AL was supposed to be launched at the same time as the attack on Midway. However, a one-day delay in the sailing of Nagumo's ships resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack. - -Prelude to battle - -American reinforcements - -To battle with an enemy expected to have four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every U.S. carrier he could get. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey's two-carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) force. Halsey was sick with psoriasis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Nimitz also called back Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's force, including the carrier Yorktown (which had major damage at Coral Sea), from the South West Pacific Area. It reached Pearl Harbor just in time to sail. - -The damaged Yorktown however, was not completely crippled. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked all day and all night, and in 72 hours she was ready to battle for two or three weeks. Her flight deck was patched, sections of internal frames were replaced, and several squadrons of aircraft were taken from Saratoga. The pilots did not get time to train. Repairs on Yorktown continued even as she sailed out. - -On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four groups of PBYs—31 aircraft in total—for long-range reconnaissance duties, and six new Grumman TBF-1 Avengers. The Avengers were taken from Hornets VT-8. The Marine Corps had 19 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U-3 Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A-3s. The USAAF sent a group of 17 B-17 Flying Fortresses and eight B-26 Marauders with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft. - -Japanese shortcomings - -During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier had three bomb hits, and was in drydock undergoing repairs. Although the carrier was undamaged, she had lost almost half her airplanes and was in port in Kure awaiting new planes and pilots. No new pilots were available because none had been trained. Flight instructors were used in an effort to make up the missing aircrew. - -Japan's two most advanced aircraft carriers were not available and Admiral Nagumo would therefore have only four fleet carriers: and ; and . At least part of this was due to overwork; Japanese carriers had been constantly operating since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo. - -The main Japanese carrier-based aircraft were the Aichi D3A1 dive bomber and the Nakajima B5N2, which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a bomber. However, production of the D3A had been reduced, while production of the B5N had been stopped. None were available to replace losses. In addition many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operating since late November 1941; many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant that all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than normal and there were not enough spare aircraft or parts. I -Japan's main carrier fighter was the fast Mitsubishi A6M2 ""Zero"". - -Japanese scouting before the battle was disorganized. A line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position. This let the American carriers reach their meeting point northeast of Midway (known as ""Point Luck"") without being found by the subs. A second attempt at scouting, using four-engine Kawanishi H8K flying boats to fly to Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and see whether the American carriers were there did not work out because Japanese subs could not refuel the planes. Japan did not know where the American carriers were before the battle. - -Japanese radios did pick up more American submarine activity and messages. Yamamoto knew this before the battle, but Japanese plans were not changed. Yamamoto, at sea on , assumed that Nagumo had received the same message from Tokyo, and he did not send the message, because he did not want the US to hear the message. Nagumo's radio antennas could not get the message from Tokyo. - -Allied code-breaking -Admiral Nimitz had one advantage: code experts had broken the Japanese Navy's JN-25b code. Since the early spring of 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective ""AF"". They guessed that it was Midway and sent an uncoded radio message that Midway needed fresh water. The code breakers then picked up a Japanese message that ""AF was short on water."" HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to tell Nimitz exactly which Japanese ships were coming. Japan had a new codebook, but it was not used for several days. The new code, which had not yet been figured out, was used shortly before the attack began, but the important information had already been figured out. - -Americans knew where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would arrive at Midway. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had ruined their advantage in number of ships by dividing their ships into four groups, all too separated to be able to support each other. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained almost totally unaware of their opponent's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began. - -Battle - -Initial air attacks -At about 09:00 on 3 June, a US Navy patrol plane spotted the Japanese Occupation Force to the west-southwest of Midway. Three hours later, the Americans found the Japanese transport group to the west. They attacked, but none of the bombs hit and no major damage resulted. Early the following morning the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru was hit by a torpedo from an attacking PBY. This was the only successful air-launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle. - -At 04:30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his attack on Midway. It consisted of 36 dive bombers 36 torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi Zero fighters. At the same time he launched a defensive combat air patrol. His eight search planes launched 30 minutes late. - -Japanese reconnaissance plans were poor, with too few aircraft to cover the search areas. Yamamoto's decisions had now become a serious problem. - -As Nagumo's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to search for Japanese ships. They reported sighting two Japanese carriers with empty decks, which meant an air strike was on its way. American radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and planes were sent off to defend Midway. Bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carrier fleet. US fighters remained behind to defend Midway. At 06:20 Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway-based Marine fighter pilots, flying F4Fs and obsolescent F2As, intercepted the Japanese and had many losses. Most of the U.S. planes were shot down in the first few minutes; several were damaged, and only two could fly. In all, 3 F4Fs and 13 F2As were shot down. American anti-aircraft fire was accurate damaging many Japanese aircraft and destroying four. - -Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed, 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged. The initial Japanese attack did not destroy Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force. Most of Midway's land-based defenses were intact. Another air attack to destroy Midway's defences would be necessary if troops were to be able to go ashore by 7 June. - -American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier fleet. These included six Grumman Avengers from the s VT-8 (Midway was the first combat mission for the VT-8 airmen, and it was the first combat of the TBF), Marine Scout-Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB-241), consisting of eleven SB2U-3s and sixteen SBDs, plus four USAAF B-26s, armed with torpedoes, and fifteen B-17s. The Japanese fought off these attacks. The US lost two fighters, five TBFs, two SB2Us, eight SBDs and two B-26s. - -One B-26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, dove straight toward the Akagi. The plane just missed the carrier's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This may have made Nagumo decide to launch another attack on Midway, against Yamamoto's order to keep the reserve force for anti-ship operations. - -Nagumo's decision -Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These were two squadrons of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. At 07:15 Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with bombs for use against land targets. At 07:40 a scout plane from Tone saw a big American naval force to the east. It seems that Nagumo did not receive the report until 08:00. Nagumo reversed his order, but it took 40 minutes before Tones scout finally radioed that there was a carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from TF 16; the other carrier was not sighted. - -Nagumo was now unsure of what to do. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi recommended that Nagumo strike with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo's opportunity to hit the American ships, however, was now limited. The Midway strike force would be returning shortly and needed to land or crash into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity, the Japanese did not get their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch. The few aircraft that were ready were defensive Fighter aircraft. Launching aircraft would have required at least 30 to 45 minutes. By launching right away, Nagumo would be using some of his reserve without proper anti-ship weapons. He had just seen how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down. Poor discipline caused many of the Japanese bombers to get rid of their bombs and attempt to fight intercepting F4Fs. Japanese carrier rules preferred full strikes, and since Nagumo did not know the American force included a carrier, his response followed Japanese rules. In addition, the arrival of another American air strike at 07:53 made Nagumo want to attack the island again. Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be armed and ready. - -Fletcher's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07:00, so the aircraft that attacked Nagumo were already on their way. There was nothing Nagumo could do about it. This was the flaw with Yamamoto's plans. - -Attacks on the Japanese fleet - -The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Admiral Fletcher, in command aboard Yorktown, and having PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered an attack on the Japanese as soon as possible. He held Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found. (Fletcher's directions to Spruance were sent by Nimitz, who had remained ashore.) - -Spruance thought that even though the range was far, an attack could succeed. He gave the order to launch the attack at around 06:00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed at 08:00 from Yorktown. - -Admiral Fletcher, commanding the Yorktown task force, along with Captain Elliott Buckmaster,Yorktowns commanding officer, and their staffs had experience in doing a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea. But they could not pass on what they had learned to Enterprise and Hornet which were ordered to launch the first strike. Spruance ordered the aircraft to go to the target right away, since destroying enemy carriers was important to the safety of his ships. Spruance decided it was more important to attack as soon as possible, rather than coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). American squadrons went to the target in several different groups. He hoped that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks full of planes. - -American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, did not fly in the right direction. Air Group Eight's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 flew in the correct direction. However, the 10 F4Fs from Hornet had run out of fuel and had to crash into the ocean. Waldron's squadron saw the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09:20, followed by Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6, from Enterprise) whose Wildcat fighter escorts also ran low on fuel and had to turn back at 09:40. Without fighter escort, all fifteen TBD Devastators of VT-8 were shot down without being able to do any damage, with Ensign George Gay the only survivor. VT-6 lost 10 of their 14 Devastators, and 10 of Yorktown's VT-3's 12 Devastators were shot down with no hits. Part of the problem was the poor performance of the Mark 13 torpedoes. Senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never asked why six torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no hits. The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros shot down the unescorted, slow, under-armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get close enough to drop their torpedoes and shoot their machine guns at the enemy ships. This made the Japanese carriers to make sharp turns. The TBD Devastator was never again used in combat. - -Despite their failure to get any hits, the American torpedo attacks made the Japanese carriers unable to prepare and launch their own strike. They also pulled the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) out of position. As well, many Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3 from Yorktown) at 10:00 made the Japanese CAP fly to the southeast corner of the fleet. Better discipline and using more Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent the damage caused by the coming American attacks. - -Three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown (VB-6, VS-6 and VB-3, respectively) were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The two squadrons from Enterprise were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. However, the squadron commander decided to continue the search. He spotted the Japanese destroyer Arashi. It was moving to rejoin Nagumo's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth-charged U.S. submarine . Nautilus had earlier unsuccessfully attacked the battleship . Some bombers were lost from lack of fuel before the attack started. - -McClusky's decision to continue the search was a great help to the US carrier task force and the forces at Midway. All three American dive-bombers squadrons (VB-6, VS-6 and VB-3) arrived at the right time to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP were looking for the torpedo planes. Armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses lay on the decks and bombs and torpedoes were near the hangars, making the Japanese carriers very at risk of being damaged. - -Beginning at 10:22, the two squadrons of Enterprises air group split up and attacked two targets. By accident, both groups attacked the Kaga. Lieutenant Commander Richard Halsey Best and two other planes headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an attack from almost two full squadrons, Kaga was hit by four or five bombs, which caused heavy damage and starting fires that could not be put out. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing most of the senior officers. - -Several minutes later, Best and two planes dove on the Akagi. Although Akagi getting one direct hit (dropped by Lieutenant Commander Best). It struck the deck elevator and went all the way through to the upper hangar deck. It exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft. Another bomb exploded underwater which bent the flight deck and caused rudder damage. - -Yorktowns VB-3, commanded by Max Leslie, attacked Sōryū. They got at least three hits and caused a lot of damage. VT-3 targeted Hiryū, but got no hits. - -Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were on fire. Akagi was also seriously damaged. The Japanese hoped that Akagi could be saved or towed back to Japan. Eventually, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and sunk. - -Japanese counterattacks - -Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier attacked. Hiryū'''s first attack consisted of 18 dive bombers and six fighter escorts. They followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, put out her boilers, and destroyed several anti-aircraft guns. Despite the damage, repair teams were able to fix the flight deck and fix several boilers in an hour. Twelve Japanese dive bombers and four escorting fighters were lost in this attack. - -Approximately one hour later, Hiryūs second attack was made. It consisted of ten torpedo bombers and six escorting A6Ms. The US repair efforts had been so well done that the Japanese assumed she must be a different, undamaged carrier. In the attack, Yorktown was struck by two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a tilt to port, which put her out of action. Admiral Fletcher moved his command staff to the heavy cruiser . Neither of the carriers of Spruance's Task Force 16 was damaged. - -News of the two strikes, with the reports each had sunk an American carrier (actually Yorktown in both cases), greatly improved morale in the Kido Butai. Its few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū where they were prepared for an attack against what was believed to be the only remaining American carrier. - -American counterattack -Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū. Enterprise launched a strike of dive bombers (including 10 SBDs from Yorktown). Despite Hiryū being defended by more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise was successful: four, possibly five bombs hit Hiryū, leaving her on fire and unable to operate aircraft. (Hornets strike aimed at the escort ships but it did not get any hits.) After hopeless attempts to control the fire, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were taken off the ship. The rest of the fleet continued sailing northeast to catch the American carriers. Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours. She was discovered by an aircraft from the light carrier Hōshō. This led to hopes she could be saved or towed back to Japan. However, soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear Admiral Yamaguchi chose to go down with his ship, costing Japan her best carrier officer. - -As darkness fell, both sides thought about the situation and made plans for action. Admiral Fletcher had to abandon the Yorktown. He felt he could not command from a cruiser. He gave command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained. He wanted to protect Midway and his carriers. He followed Nagumo during the day and continued to follow as night fell. Finally, fearing a possible night battle with Japanese ships and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, Spruance pulled back to the east. He turned back west towards the enemy at midnight. Yamamoto decided to continue the attacks and sent his remaining ships searching eastward for the American carriers. He also sent a cruiser raiding force to bomb the island. The Japanese ships failed to make contact with the Americans due to Spruance's decision to pull back eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a withdrawal to the west. - -Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto's forces on 5 June even though he made many searches. Towards the end of the day he launched an attack on any ships from Nagumo's carrier force. This strike missed Yamamoto's main group of ships. It did not hit a Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall. Spruance to ordered Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings. - -At 02:15 on the night of 5/6 June, Commander John Murphy's , in the water west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force's major contributions to the battle's outcome. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Ray Spruance, Jr., could identify them. Considering that they might be US ships, Murphy did not fire, but reported the ships to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was sent to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance assumed this was the invasion force and moved to block it while staying northeast of Midway. - -The ships sighted by Tambor were the four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bomb Midway. At 02:55 these ships received Yamamoto's order to pull back and changed course. At about the same time as the course change, Tambor was sighted, and to avoid a submarine attack and hit into each other, causing serious damage to Mogamis bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to . This was the most damage any of the 18 submarines deployed for the battle achieved. Only at 04:12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous, and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful, and at around 06:00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami-class cruisers. - -Over the following two days, first Midway and then Spruance's carriers launched several attacks. Mikuma was sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived damage and returned home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and machine-gunned during the last of these attacks. - -The Yorktown was towed by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, however, fired torpedoes; two struck Yorktown, but a third struck and sank destroyer , which had been providing power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two with the loss of 80 lives. Yorktown sank just after 05:00 on 7 June. - -Japanese casualties - -By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were:Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryu: 392; Soryu: 711; a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths. - -In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties. - -Aftermath -After winning a victory, and as pursuing the Japanese ships became too dangerous near Wake, The American forces pulled back. Spruance pulled back to the east to refuel his destroyers and meet with the carrier Saratoga, which was carrying replacement aircraft. The American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor. Historian Samuel E. Morison wrote in 1949 that Spruance was criticized for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, allowing their fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance followed Yamamoto, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruiser escorts would have been destroyed by Yamamoto's larger and more powerful ships, including the battleship , with 18-inch guns. - -On 10 June, the Japanese Navy gave an account of the results of the battle that did not tell the whole story. Nagumo's battle report was given to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest officers in the Japanese Navy and government. It was guarded closely throughout the war. Nagumo stated that the enemy was not aware of our plans. The Japanese public, and much of the military, were not told about the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy officers were told about the carrier and pilot losses. Army planners continued to believe that the fleet was in good condition. - -On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were transferred to naval hospitals. Most were called ""secret patients"" and kept away from other patients and their families. The Navy did this to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly spread out to other units of the fleet and sent to the South Pacific, where the majority were killed. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet was penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force. - -The Japanese Navy learned some lessons from Midway. Aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars. All unused fuel lines were drained. The new carriers being built with only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage-control and firefighting techniques. The losses later in the war of , , and showed that there were still problems in this area. Replacement pilots went through a short training program, meeting the short-term needs of the fleet. This led to a decline in the quality of training. These inexperienced pilots were sent into front-line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were kept flying continually. As a result, Japanese naval air groups declined in quality during the war. - -War crimes -Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus (pilot, Yorktown), Ensign Frank O'Flaherty (pilot, Enterprise) and Aviation Machinist's Mate B. F. (or B. P.) Bruno Gaido (radioman-gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD) were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on the Arashi, with O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary), and later killed. O'Flaherty and Gaido were tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and dumped overboard several days after the battle. - -Impact -The Battle of Midway has been called ""the turning point of the Pacific"". However, even after Midway, the Japanese continued to try to get more territory in the South Pacific. The U.S. did not become the more powerful navy until after several more months of hard combat. Midway was the Allies' first major victory against the Japanese. - -However, it did not change the course of the war by itself. It was the combined effects of the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway that reduced Japan's ability to do major attacks. In addition Midway helped make US landings on Guadalcanal possible. The prolonged attrition warfare (a type of battle in which each side tries to wear down the other side) of the Solomon Islands campaign allowed the Allies to take an offensive stance for the rest of the Pacific War. Finally, Midway bought the United States time until the first of the new Essex-class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942. - -The battle also showed the worth of pre-war naval code breaking and intelligence-gathering. These efforts continued in both the Pacific and Atlantic areas of war. There were many successes. Navy code breaking made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto's airplane. - -Some authors have stated heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully, however, have stated that the losses in veteran aircrew, while heavy (110, just under 25% of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers), were not as bad for the Japanese naval air-corps as a whole. The Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier-qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates at both the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of Santa Cruz. It was these battles, combined with the constant death of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which weakened Japan. However, the loss of four large fleet carriers, and over 40% of the carriers' aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the flight-deck crews were very damaging to the Japanese carrier fleet. After the battle and were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike-force left for offensive actions. Of Japan's other carriers, was the only Fleet carrier that could be used with Shōkaku and Zuikaku, while , , and , were second-rate ships. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, while the Japanese had somewhat rebuilt their carrier forces, the planes were flown by inexperienced pilots. - -In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding plan which aimed make the navy larger than Japan's. The greater number of USN aviators survived the Battle of Midway and subsequent battles of 1942, and combined with growing pilot training programs, the US had many skilled pilots. - - Codebreaking success -Yamamoto did not know that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (JN-25). This let the U.S. fleet go to the right place at the right time. - -Yamamoto scattered his forces to keep the attack secret, but that meant his formations could not help each other. For instance, Nagumo's fleet had few big ships. When the carrier planes were carrying out the strikes, the carriers were relatively undefended. By contrast, the flotillas of Yamamoto and Kondo had more big ships, none of which saw any action at Midway''. Their distance from Nagumo's carriers also meant he could not use their reconnaissance planes, so he knew little of what was happening. - -References - -Other websites - - WW2DB: Battle of Midway - The course to Midway: turning point in the Pacific - After Midway: the fates of the U.S. and Japanese warships by Bryan J. Dickerson - Animated history of The Battle of Midway - -Midway, Battle of -Midway, Battle of -Midway, Battle of -Midway -Polynesia -June events" -9277,31834,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o%20Paulo%20F.C.,São Paulo F.C.,"São Paulo Futebol Clube, usually called São Paulo FC or just São Paulo, is a very traditional Brazilian football team from São Paulo. The team was founded on January 25, 1930, and re-founded on December 16, 1935. It is often called Tricolor (meaning with three colours) by its supporters. The prime footballer in the team is the goalkeeper called Rogério Ceni. -It is the most successful club of Brazilian football. -Twenty-two won state championships, six Brazilian Championships - besides being the only one to win it three times, in 2006, 2007 and 2008, three Libertadores and three World Club Championship. - -Titles - -International - -World championships -FIFA Club World Cup - Winners (1): 2005 -Intercontinental Cup - Winners (2): 1992, 1993 - -Continental championships -Copa Libertadores - Winners (3): 1992, 1993, 2005 - Runners-up (3): 1974, 1994, 2006 -Copa Conmebol - Winners (1): 1994 -Recopa Sudamericana - Winners (2): 1993, 1994 - Runners-up (1): 2006 -Supercopa Sudamericana - Winners (1): 1993 - Runners-up (1): 1997 -Copa Masters Conmebol - Winners (1): 1996 - -National competitions -Campeonato Brasileiro Série A - Winners (6): 1977, 1986, 1991, 2006, 2007, 2008 - Runners-up (5): 1971, 1973, 1981, 1989, 1990 -Copa do Brasil - Runners-up (1): 2000 -Copa dos Campeões - Runners-up (1): 2001 -Torneio Rio-São Paulo - Winners (1): 2001 - Runners-up (5): 1933, 1962, 1966, 1998, 2002 -Campeonato Paulista - Winners (21): 1931, 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1970, 1971, 1975, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2000, 2005 - Runners-up (19): 1938, 1941, 1944, 1950, 1952, 1956, 1958, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1978, 1982, 1983, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2003, 2006 -Supercampeonato Paulista - Winners (1): 2002 - -Related pages - List of Brazilian football teams - -Other websites - Official website - -Football clubs in São Paulo (state) -1930 establishments in South America -1930s establishments in Brazil" -22074,83875,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9troz,Vétroz,"Vétroz is a municipality of the district of Conthey in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Valais" -21011,80682,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate%20education,Postgraduate education,"Postgraduate is the name for someone who is doing further education, after obtaining both a Bachelor's degree and a Master's degree from a university. A typical form of this kind of education is a doctoral thesis, or Ph.D. Another such degree is probably the Master level of the revised Bologna system. Masters can be done in about 1.5 years after doing a bachelors degree, theses usually take 3–4 years, after the master level. - -Other page -Higher education - -Education" -14471,54489,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma,Dogma,"A dogma is something that should not be disputed or doubted. Most often, this means the basic beliefs and doctrines of a religion. What a majority of followers of an ideology or any kind of organization believe in can also be a dogma. - -In the context of religion, the term has a neutral meaning. Outside of religion for most people the term means something negative, because it accepts only a particular point of view. If someone disputes a religious dogma, they can be accused of heresy. - -In Christianity, the Resurrection of Jesus is a basic dogma. - -References - -Other websites -Dogma - Catholic Encyclopedia -Dogma - Strong's N.T. Greek Lexicon - -Christian theology" -24187,93275,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck%20Hunt,Duck Hunt,"Duck Hunt is a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) game system. The game was made by Nintendo, and was released in 1984 in Japan. In Duck Hunt, players use the NES Zapper to shoot ducks on screen to get points. The ducks come onto the screen one or two at a time, and the player is given three shots to shoot them down. - -Duck Hunt was one of the two first Pack-in games for the NES. The game did not get many reviews, but many gamers enjoyed playing it, and many people said it was a good game. Before Nintendo made the game, it also made a Duck Hunt game about the Laser Clay Shooting System released in 1976. - -Gameplay - -In Duck Hunt, players use the Nintendo Zapper Light Gun that must be plugged into their NES consoles. Then they try to shoot down ducks or clay pigeons. Duck Hunt was also released as an arcade game in 1984, and was also in the PlayChoice-10 arcade console. - -The game has three modes: one-duck mode, with only one duck on the screen; two-duck mode, with two on the screen; and a third mode called ""clay pigeon shooting"". The clay pigeons are much smaller than the ducks and are harder to hit. Players need faster reaction time when playing this mode than when shooting ducks. In Vs. Duck Hunt, Clay Shooting mode is the second mode after two-duck mode, because the arcade Duck Hunt games never had a one-duck mode. - -During the game, there is a dog that laughs at the player if no duck is hit. If the player hits a duck, the dog will congratulate them. A popular urban legend is that players have found a way to shoot the dog. This cannot happen in Duck Hunt, but it can happen in a bonus round of the arcade game Vs. Duck Hunt. - -Duck Hunt does not have a way for more than one person to shoot ducks, but a second player may plug in a NES controller in the other controller port and control the duck that appears. This only can happen in one-duck mode, and can not be done with the clay pigeons. - -Development -Nobody knows much about the development of Duck Hunt, but Nintendo Research & Development 1 made the game. They also created the Light Gun used in Duck Hunt. Work on the game was led by Takehiro Izushi, and was produced by Gunpei Yokoi. - -Packaging and music - -Packaging -Duck Hunt has been placed in several cartridges with more than one game. In the Action Set cartridge of the NES in the 1980s, Duck Hunt came with Super Mario Bros.. If a player bought the NES system with the Power Pad, then Duck Hunt came on a 3-in-1 cartridge that also had World Class Track Meet and Super Mario Bros. - -Audio -The music was composed, or written, by Koji Kondo and Hirokazu ""Hip"" Tanaka. Both men made music for other Nintendo games at the time, such as Metroid. Some people have called the sound effects, ""pretty much what you'd expect for a game from the early 1980s - that is, awful by today's standards..."", but the game's music was played on the Video Games Live concert tour. - -Reception and legacy - -Reception -Because it was made in the 1980's, Duck Hunt did not get very many reviews. Most critics have not reviewed Duck Hunt. All Game Guide called the game an ""attractive but repetitive target shooter"" and ""utterly mindless ... the game is fun for a short time, but gets old after a few rounds of play."" Video Game Critic, another website, gave the game a review in 2004, scoring the game a ""D"". It said, ""there's really not much substance to it ... overall Duck Hunt is pretty lame, and only worth playing for a trip down memory lane."" Video game players say that they like the game. IGN users gave it an 8.7 out of 10, and the GameSpot users gave the Mario-Duck Hunt cartridge a 9.1 out of 10. It was rated the 155th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Powers Top 200 Games list. - -Duck Hunt, and the characters in it, have been in other video games since the game first came out in the 1980s. The dog in Duck Hunt has appeared in Barker Bill's Trick Shooting and can be shot in the ""Balloon Saloon"" game. In Super Smash Bros. Melee, a trophy shows the ducks from Duck Hunt. Also, games in the WarioWare, Inc. series have games about Duck Hunt. Level 19 in Tetris DS is also about Duck Hunt - -Wii Play -One of the games in Wii Play for the Wii console is Shooting, a game that is similar to Duck Hunt. The game replaces the light gun used in the NES game with the Wii controller, and it has a targeting reticle that Duck Hunt did not have. The new game also has different things to shoot, such as UFOs and targets, and has a two player mode. - -Related pages - List of Famicom games - List of NES games - -References - -1984 video games -Nintendo Entertainment System games -Arcade games" -14914,56179,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal%20force,Tidal force,"Tidal force is caused by gravity and makes tides happen. This is because the gravitational field changes across the middle of a body (the diameter). - -Other websites -http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/Gravity/tides.html - -Force -Astronomical phenomena" -23879,92257,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/624%20Hektor,624 Hektor,"624 Hektor is the biggest of the Jovian Trojan asteroids. It was found in 1907 by August Kopff. - -Hektor is a D-type asteroid, dark and reddish in colour. It lies in Jupiter's leading Lagrangian point, L4, called the 'Greek' node after one of the two sides in the legendary Trojan War. Ironically, Hektor is named after the Trojan hero Hektor, and is thus one of two Trojan asteroids that is ""misplaced"" in the wrong camp (the other being 617 Patroclus in the Trojan node). - -Hektor is one of the most stretched bodies of its size in the solar system, being 370 × 200 km. It is thought that Hektor might be a contact binary (two asteroids joined by gravitational attraction) like 216 Kleopatra. Hubble Space Telescope sightings of Hektor in 1993 did not show an obvious stretched shape because of a limited angular resolution. On July 17, 2006, the Keck-10m II telescope and its Laser guide star Adaptive Optics (AO) system indicated a stretched shape for Hektor. Additionally, since this AO system provides an excellent and stable correction (angular resolution of 0.060 arcsec in K band), a 15-km moon at 1000 km from Hektor was found. The moon's provisional designation is S/2006 (624) 1. Hektor is, so far, the only known binary Trojan asteroid in the L4 point and the first Trojan with a moon. 617 Patroclus, another big Trojan asteroid in the L5, is made of two same-sized asteroids. - -References - -Other websites - Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Ephemeris - -Trojan asteroids" -21393,81918,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoom%20lens,Zoom lens,"A variable focus lens (also called zoom lens) is a camera lens that can vary its focal length. - -In general, such lenses have a lower aperture than comparable fixfocus lenses. Depending on the manufacturer common zoom lenses (in the 30–100mm focal range, for film photography) usually have a varying aperture, from 4 to 5.6, perhaps 3.3 to 5.6. There are also some zoom lenses with a fixed maximal aperture (to take the example from before: of 2.6 or 2.8, maximum). In contrast, fix-focus lenses in that range have maximum apertures of 1.4 to 2. - -Digital zoom - -Digital cameras sometimes have a function called digital zoom. This is a mathematical method which simply enlarges a part of the picture. The result is not as sharp as that of the optical zoom. When an optical zoom changes its focal length, this will also change the angle of view. Digital zooms simply make a small part of an image bigger, without changing the angle of view. - -Camera lenses" -17857,67316,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet%20Propulsion%20Laboratory,Jet Propulsion Laboratory,"The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is a NASA research center in Pasadena, California. - -United States government agencies -Astronomical organizations -Pasadena, California" -12505,46074,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond-apple,Pond-apple,"A pond-apple is a type of fruit. It is not related to the apple. They usually live near or in water. - -Annona -Fruits" -23911,92387,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnim,Barnim,"Barnim is a district in Brandenburg, Germany. - -History -The district was made in 1993 by joining the old districts of Bernau and Eberswalde. - -The district is in the same place as the area of forest where noblemen started hunting in the 13 ury, but is smaller than the old region. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - Official website (German)" -10723,38271,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal%20kick,Goal kick,"A goal kick is given when the attacking team puts the ball over the end line in football. The other team then takes the goal kick from the goal areas (six-yard box) and the game starts again. Players of the other team have to stay outside the penalty box during the kick. If the defending team puts the ball over the end line, the referee gives a corner kick instead. - -Football (soccer) terminology" -8376,28272,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments%20of%20France,Departments of France,"The départements (or departments) are administrative parts of France and many French colonies, similar to English counties. Départements are a kind of local government. - -The 101 French départements are now grouped into 13 metropolitan and five overseas régions. Their capitals are called préfectures. - -French régions and préfecture" -9377,32090,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20Strait,Taiwan Strait,"The Taiwan Strait or Formosa Strait is a 180 km-wide strait between mainland China and the island of Taiwan. The strait is part of the South China Sea and attaches to East China Sea to the northeast. The thinest part is 131 km wide. The Taiwan Strait is often incorrectly called the ""Taiwan Straits"". - -The Strait has been the theatre for several military confrontations between the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China since the last days of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 when the Kuomintang forces led by Chiang Kai-shek retreated across the Strait and relocated its government on its final stronghold of Taiwan. - -Geography of Taiwan -Straits" -18124,68121,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%20%C3%90%C3%ACnh%20Square,Ba Ðình Square,"Ba Đình Square (Vietnamese: Quảng Trường Ba Đình) is a place in the Vietnamese capital, Hà Nội. It is where Vietnamese President Hồ Chí Minh declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Việt Nam from French imperialist rule on 2 September 1945, the same day that World War II ended. This is now where his mausoleum is. - -Hanoi -National squares" -18699,70148,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced%20concrete,Reinforced concrete,"Reinforced concrete is concrete with long bars inside to make it stronger. The reinforcing material has greater tensile strength than concrete has. Usually the bars are steel. Galvanizing saves the steel from rusting and corrosion. In rich countries, almost all concrete in buildings and roads is reinforced. Reinforced concrete is stronger, and can be even stronger if the steel is stretched to make prestressed concrete. - -References - -Building materials" -20036,76728,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostel,Hostel,"A hostel is a place that rents beds to travelers. They are cheaper than hotels and offer less privacy and a community experience. - -References - -Accommodations -Travel" -5817,18859,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall%20%28motion%29,Fall (motion),"A fall is, in everyday language and thought, a movement down that happens due to gravity. An example is when something rolls off a table and falls down to the floor. - -Scientific and universal definition -Falling is a motion towards a place where an object will have a lower total potential energy or lower potential. Total potential energy being the sum of all potential energies -- those from gravitational fields, electric fields, and magnetic fields. - -The idea of falling in natural human language(s) as falling down begs the definition of what down really is. What is down in natural human language(s)? Down may be straight towards your feet, or if you are on a hill, be off at an angle. Often an attempt is made to correct this definition by saying down is towards the center of the Earth. But that definition only works here on Earth. The idea of falling using common everyday language as being in the direction of down does not work in places in the universe other than Earth. In space, somewhere between the Earth and it's moon, an object may fall to the earth or fall to the moon. At other places an object may fall towards the Sun or Jupiter. At other places in the universe an object may even fall to a point in space between stars and planets. - -Falling using common everyday language is also true only due to gravity. What about an electrically charged object? A balloon rubbed on your hair and held close to the ceiling will fall up towards the ceiling. Electrically charged objects do not always fall due to the force of gravity, but due to electric forces. (Thank goodness or our electronics would not work and life would not even exist.) As masses fall in gravitational fields, charges or charged objects will fall to a place where they have less total potential energy. Magnetic objects will fall in a magnetic field to a place where they have less total potential energy. - -Falling people -Falling is a very common cause of people's injuries, possibly the most common cause. This is especially the case for elderly people, people with various conditions causing a loss of balance, and for people who do sports and other leisure activities requiring significant motion. - -In many cases, elderly people become less steady on their feet and if they fall they are at a greater risk of having serious injuries, such as breaking their hip, because of the more brittle condition of their bones. - -During sports and other recreational activities such as bicycling or skateboarding, people are more likely to fall. Some bicyclists and skateboarders wear protective clothing to protect their body in the event of a fall, such as a helmet, elbow pads, and knee pads. - -Force -Safety -Fall" -4692,14798,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Crumb,Robert Crumb,"Robert Crumb (born August 30, 1943) is a famous American cartoonist and musician. He founded the underground comics movement in the 1960s and early 1970s. He is most famous for the album cover for Big Brother and the Holding Company's Cheap Thrills, the catchphrase ""Keep on Truckin'"" and Fritz the Cat, which was made into a movie without his approval. He also collects 78 rpm phonograph records and plays the mandolin. He was the subject of an award-winning documentary movie made in 1994 called Crumb. - -American animators -Musicians from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania -Writers from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania -American cartoonists -1943 births -Living people" -3094,9693,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victim,Victim,"Victim is a term used for a person who suffers adverse circumstances, often in relation to having a crime committed against them. If someone is robbed, he or she is the victim. If someone is killed, that person is the victim. The person who committed the crime is the culprit. -Victim blaming is saying that it is the fault of the victim that a crime was committed against them. - -Criminal justice" -24046,92789,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnster%20Government%20Region,Münster Government Region,"Münster is one of the five Regierungsbezirke of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in the north of the state. - -The Regierungsbezirk was made in 1815. This means it is one of the original 25 Regierungsbezirke made to help govern Prussia. - -The last time the boundaries of the region were changed was 1975. This was when the number of districts was changed from 10 to 5, and the number of district-free cities (urban districts) from six to three. - -Other websites - Official website - The Münsterland Tourism board" -4840,15270,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Manson,Charles Manson,"Charles Milles Manson (né Maddox; November 12, 1934 – November 19, 2017) was an American criminal and leader of a Californian cult which murdered several people in the late 1960s and early 1970s. His cult, of young women and men, was known as ""The Family."" - -He planned and ordered the Family to commit several brutal murders. Most known is the murder by his followers on August 8, 1969 of Sharon Tate. She was expecting a baby, already 7 / 8 months. The same night they also murdered Steven Parent, a friend of the groundskeeper at the house; Jay Sebring, a hair stylist; Abigail Folger, an heiress and social worker; and Wojciech Frykowski, a Polish writer and actor. The next night, Manson and some of his followers murdered Leno La Bianca, a grocery store owner and his wife Rosemary. Manson and his followers were arrested for stealing cars, but soon it was found out that they were the ones who committed the murders. - -Manson was in jail for life in California. He and four Family members were sentenced to death, but the death penalty was abolished in California shortly after that. Because of his violent, murderous, anti-social behavior and unstable mental state, he was refused parole in 2012 for the 12th time. He was 77 years old at the time. His next hearing had been set for 2027. - -Manson released an album titled Lie: the Love and Terror Cult. It featured Manson's music. All profits of the 2006 revived ESP-Disk label version go to the family of Wojciech Frykowski. Allmusic rated the album 4 out of 5 stars. - -Manson ""Family"" -Manson was a convicted criminal long before the infamous murders. When he was released for the second time, on March 21, 1967, he had spent more than half his 32 years in prisons and other institutions.p137 He told the authorities that prison had become his home and he asked to stay. This fact was disclosed in a 1981 television interview. - -On his release day, Manson was allowed to move to San Francisco. With the help of a prison friend he moved into an apartment in Berkeley. While in prison, a bank robber taught him to play the steel guitar.p137 Living mostly by panhandling, he soon met Mary Brunner, a 23-year-old graduate of the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Brunner was working as a library assistant at University of California, Berkeley, and Manson moved in with her. Someone said in a secondhand report that he managed to talk her into allowing other women to live with them, even though she was against it. Before long, they were sharing Brunner's home with 18 other women.p163–174 - -Manson set himself up as a guru in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury. During 1967's ""Summer of Love,"" it was becoming the most popular place for hippies to live and hang out. Preaching a philosophy that included some of the Scientology he had studied in prison,p163 he soon had his first group of young followers, most of them female.p137 When Manson was put in prison in July 1961 at the U.S. penitentiary in McNeil Island, Washington, he put ""Scientologist"" as his religion on a questionnaire.p143 - -Before the summer ended, Manson and eight or nine of his followers began to travel around in an old school bus. They went as far north as Washington state, then south through Los Angeles, Mexico, and the southwest. Returning to the Los Angeles area, they lived in Topanga Canyon, Malibu, and Venice—western parts of the city and county.p163 - -Meeting Dennis Wilson -In the late spring of 1968, in some reports of the events, Dennis Wilson, of the Beach Boys, picked up two hitchhiking Manson followers. They were Patricia Krenwinkel and Ella Jo Bailey. Wilson brought them to his house in a rich neighborhood of Los Angeles for a few hours. After an all-night recording session, he came home in the early hours of the next morning. Wilson was greeted in his driveway by Manson, who came out of the house. Feeling afraid, Wilson asked the stranger if he was going to hurt him. Saying no, Manson then began to kiss Wilson's feet.p250p34 - -Inside his house, Wilson found 12 strangers (mostly women) who had moved in.p34 Over the next few months, the number of members moving in continued to grow. The Family members who had made themselves part of Wilson's Sunset Boulevard household cost him about $100,000. This included a large doctor's bill for treatment of their gonorrhea and $21,000 for wrecking his uninsured car, which they had borrowed.ch4 Wilson spent a lot of time singing and talking with Manson, whose women were treated like domestic workers.p250 - -Wilson paid for recording studio time to work on songs written and performed by Manson. He also introduced Manson to friends of his in the entertainment business. One was Terry Melcher (the son of Doris Day), who was also a musician and record producer. Gregg Jakobson, another friend, also paid to record Manson material. He later wrote about this experience with Manson for Rolling Stone magazine. He used a fake name of ""Lance Fairweather"" for the article. - -In his book Manson in His Own Words, Manson says he first met Wilson at a friend's San Francisco house, where Manson had gone to buy cannabis. The drummer then gave Manson his Sunset Boulevard address and invited him to stop by when he would be in Los Angeles. - -Spahn Ranch -In August 1968, Manson established a base for the group at Spahn's Movie Ranch, not far from Topanga Canyon, after Wilson's manager told the Family to move out of Wilson's home. The entire Family then relocated to the ranch.p253 - -Family members did helpful work around the grounds. Also, Manson ordered the Family's women (including Lynette ""Squeaky"" Fromme) to have sex occasionally with the nearly blind, 80-year-old owner George Spahn. The women also acted as seeing-eye guides for Spahn. In exchange, Spahn allowed Manson and his group to live at the ranch for free.p99 - -Helter Skelter - -In the first days of November 1968, Manson established the Family at alternative headquarters near Death Valley, where they occupied two unused or little-used ranches.ch10 - -While back at Spahn Ranch, no later than December, Manson and Watson visited a Topanga Canyon acquaintance who played them the Beatles' White Album, then recently released.ch12 Manson was obsessed with the group. At McNeil, he had told fellow inmates, including Alvin Karpis, that he could surpass the group in fame; to the Family, he spoke of the group as ""the soul"" and ""part of 'the hole in the infinite'. "" - -For some time, he had been saying that racial tension between blacks and whites was growing and that blacks would soon rise up in rebellion in America's cities. He had emphasized Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination, which had taken place on April 4, 1968. On a bitterly cold New Year's Eve at Myers Ranch, the Family members, gathered outside around a large fire, listened as Manson explained that the social turmoil he had been predicting had also been predicted by the Beatles. The White Album songs, he declared, told it all, though in code. In fact, he said the album was directed at the Family itself, an elect group that was being instructed to preserve the worthy from the impending disaster. - -In early January 1969, the Family escaped the desert's cold and positioned itself to monitor Los Angeles' supposed racial tension by moving to a canary-yellow home in Canoga Park, not far from the Spahn Ranch. Because this would allow the group to remain ""submerged beneath the awareness of the outside world"",p244 Manson called it the Yellow Submarine, another Beatles reference. There, Family members prepared for the impending apocalypse, which, around the campfire, Manson had termed ""Helter Skelter,"" after the song of that name. - -By February, Manson's vision was complete. The Family would create an album whose songs, as subtle as those of the Beatles, would trigger the predicted chaos. Ghastly murders of whites by blacks would be met with retaliation and a split between racist and non-racist whites would yield whites' self-annihilation. Blacks' triumph, as it were, would merely precede their being ruled by the Family, which would ride out the conflict in ""the bottomless pit""—a secret city beneath Death Valley. -At the Canoga Park house, while Family members worked on vehicles and pored over maps to prepare for their desert escape, they also worked on songs for their world-changing album.ch13 - -Murders -A total of eight people are known to have been killed by the Manson Family and two other killings are suspected. - -Hinman murder - -On July 25, 1969, Manson sent Bobby Beausoleil, Mary Brunner, and Susan Atkins to the house of acquaintance Gary Hinman to persuade him to turn over money Manson thought Hinman had inherited.p75 The three held the uncooperative Hinman hostage for two days, during which Manson showed up with a sword to slash his ear. After that, Beausoleil stabbed Hinman to death, probably on Manson's instruction. Before leaving the Topanga Canyon residence, one of them used Hinman's blood to write ""Political piggy"" on the wall and to draw a panther paw, a Black Panther symbol.p184 - -Tate murders -On the night of August 8, Manson directed Charles Watson to take Susan Atkins, Linda Kasabian, and Patricia Krenwinkel to ""that house where Melcher used to live"" and ""totally destroy everyone in [it], as gruesome as you can.""p463 He told the women to do as Watson would instruct them. Unknown to Manson, the tenants were now Sharon Tate and Roman Polanski. Polanski was in Europe at the time and Tate was at home with three other people. They were all killed, as was a delivery boy who turned up at an inopportune moment. - -La Bianca murders -This event was the murder of a supermarket owner and his wife. On this occasion, Manson himself took charge of the murders and six Family members accompanied him. As with the other killings, there was no particular reason for the crime and the victims were unknown to the Family other than Manson. - -Illness and death -On January 1, 2017, Manson was taken from Cochran State Prison to Mercy Hospital in downtown Bakersfield. He was suffering from gastrointestinal bleeding. The Los Angeles Times reported that Manson was seriously ill. Some reports suggest Manson was too weak for surgery. He was returned to prison by January 6. There was no report about whether he received any treatment. - -On November 15, 2017, it was confirmed that Manson had returned to a hospital in Bakersfield. Four days later, he died at the hospital of natural causes and cardiopulmonary arrest complicated by colorectal cancer at the age of 83. It is currently unknown what fate his body will have. - -Popular culture - Marilyn Manson's name is from Marilyn Monroe's first name and Manson's surname. - Manson is a character in the South Park episode ""Merry Christmas Charlie Manson!"". - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - - -1934 births -2017 deaths -American burglars -American robbers -American murderers -American songwriters -American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment -Cults -People from Cincinnati, Ohio -Writers from Ohio -Criminals from Ohio -People with schizophrenia -Cancer deaths in California -Cardiovascular disease deaths in California -Deaths from cardiopulmonary arrest -Deaths from colorectal cancer -People who died in prison custody in the United States" -5839,18909,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%2C%20South%20Dakota,"Pierre, South Dakota","Pierre (pronounced ""peer"") is the capital city of South Dakota, a state of the United States of America. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 13,646. Pierre is the county seat of Hughes County. Started in 1880 on the Missouri River across from Fort Pierre, Pierre has been the state capital since 1889. - -Pierre lies on rough river bluffs overlooking the Missouri River. It is a few miles away from Lake Oahe, one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and a very popular fishing destination. - -Transportation - -Two airlines serving Pierre Regional Airport provide non-stop flights to Denver and Minneapolis-St. Paul. - -The nearest interstate highway is Interstate 90, about 34 miles south of Pierre via U.S. Highway 83. Pierre is one of only four state capitals not served by an interstate highway. - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - City of Pierre official website - -State capitals in the United States -County seats in South Dakota -Cities in South Dakota -1880 establishments in Dakota Territory" -1940,6437,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Hawking,Stephen Hawking,"Stephen William Hawking (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018) was a British theoretical physicist and mathematician. He was born in Oxford. In 1950, he moved to St Albans, Hertfordshire. He was one of the world's leading theoretical physicists. Hawking has written many science books for people who are not scientists. - -Hawking was a professor of mathematics at the University of Cambridge (a position that Isaac Newton once had). He retired on 1 October 2009. - -Hawking had a motor neurone disease related to his dyslexia, and because of that he could not move or talk very well. The illness worsened over the years and he was almost completely paralysed. He used a wheelchair to move, and an Intel computer to talk for him. He died on 14 March 2018. - -Early life and education -Hawking went to St Albans School, a local public school in Hertfordshire. At 17, he passed an exam to study at Oxford. He studied physics and chemistry there. Because he found it really easy at the beginning, he didn't study a lot for the final exams. - -In October 1962 he started his graduate course at Trinity Hall. It was at this time that his illness started to show up. He had difficulties in rowing and then even simply in walking. However, he finished his PhD and wrote about black holes in his thesis. He then got a fellowship (a job as a university teacher) at Gonville and Caius College in 1965. - -Career -Hawking was a cosmologist—someone who studies the structure of the universe (stars and space). He invented important theories about the Big Bang (the start of the universe), black holes and how they work. - -Stephen Hawking predicted that black holes eject some radiation (energy), even though they normally swallow everything. That kind of radiation is named ""Hawking Radiation."" - -Hawking also worked on the problem of quantum gravity. Quantum gravity tries to explain how gravity works with quantum mechanics (physics of tiny things.) That is a hard problem that scientists have not solved yet. - -Hawking also wrote popular books about science for non-scientists. His first book, A Brief History of Time, sold over ten million copies. Hawking had many other jobs as well. He was an Actor, Mathematician, etc. More info on the official site - -Death -Hawking died on 14 March 2018 in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire of complications from motor neuron disease at the age of 76. His ashes are buried in Westminster Abbey in London near Charles Darwin and Isaac Newton. - -Selected publications - -Technical - Singularities in Collapsing Stars and Expanding Universes, with D.W. Sciama, 1969. Comments on Astrophysics and Space Physics. Vol 1 - - - - Information Loss in Black Holes, Cambridge University Press, 2005 - -Popular - - - - - On The Shoulders of Giants. The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy, Running Press 2002. - -Children's books - George's Secret Key to the Universe, with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing. - George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt, with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing. - George and the Big Bang, with Lucy Hawking. Simon & Taylor Blevins Publishing. - -Related pages - List of astrophysicists - -Notes - -1942 births -2018 deaths -Deaths from motor neurone disease -Disease-related deaths in the United Kingdom -People buried in Westminster Abbey -British astrophysicists -Commanders of the Order of the British Empire -Companions of Honour -English mathematicians -English physicists -English science writers -Fellows of the Royal Society -People from Oxford -Royal Society of Arts -Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients -British theoretical physicists -Writers from Hertfordshire -Writers from Oxfordshire" -12990,47686,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibal%20Corpse,Cannibal Corpse,"Cannibal Corpse is an American death metal band. The band was formed in Buffalo, New York in 1988 by Bob Russay, the first guitarist (who left the band in 1993). The band's lyrics draw heavily on horror fiction themes which consist of necrophilia, gore, rape, and death; and are highly controversial within the media. The bands' first 3 albums were banned in Europe until 2006 because of their graphic artwork. They are considered by many to be one of the most influential Death Metal bands in existence. Since their formation in 1988, they have undergone several line-up changes. - -Members - -Current -Paul Mazurkiewicz (1988-present) - Drums -Alex Webster (1988-present) - Bass guitar -Rob Barrett (1993-1997, 2005-present) - Rhythm guitar -George ""Corpsegrinder"" Fisher (1995-present) - Lead vocals -Patrick O'Brien (1997-present) - Lead guitar - -Former -Chris Barnes (1988-1995) - Lead vocals -Jack Owen (1988-2004) - Guitars -Bob Rusay (1988-1993) - Guitars -Jeremy Turner (2004-2005) - Guitars (live) - -Discography - -Studio albums -Eaten Back to Life (1990) -Butchered At Birth (1991) -Tomb of the Mutilated (1992) -The Bleeding (1994) -Vile (1996) -Gallery of Suicide (1998) -Bloodthirst (1999) -Gore Obsessed (2002) -The Wretched Spawn (2004) -Kill (2006) -Evisceration Plague (2009) -Torture (2012) -A Skeletal Domain (2014) - Red Before Black (2017) - Violence Unimagined (2021) - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -1980s American music groups -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American heavy metal bands -Death metal bands -Musical quintets -Musicians from Buffalo, New York" -3542,10624,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsupial,Marsupial,"Marsupials are the main part of an infraclass of mammals called the Metatheria. This consists of the marsupials and their extinct ancestors. There are about 320 different species. - -Reproduction -Marsupials give birth to living young. The young are called joeys. The joeys feed on milk. They are born very small. - -Marsupials have a special pouch where they carry their joeys. After the birth the joey goes into its mother's pouch, where it can drink milk and is kept warm and safe. When the joeys are young they stay in the pouch all the time, but when they are older they can leave it for short times. When they are old enough and too big for the pouch they do not go into their mother's pouch anymore. - -Biogeography - -Marsupials evolved before the southern supercontinent Gondwana broke off from Pangaea 100 million years ago. Early marsupial fossils have been found in Asia, from 125 million years ago. - -They were outcompeted on Laurasia by placental mammals, but the placentals did not get into the Australasian part of Gondwana before it broke away into a separate supercontinent. That is why marsupials now found native only on the southern continents of Australasia and South and Central America, with the single exception of the Virginia opossum. - -Some of the 100 living species of South American marsupials have migrated north: 13 species to Central America and one to North America. - -There are 334 species of living Australasian marsupials. They are mostly in Australia and New Guinea, and some are on the smaller islands. - -In more recent times the land bridge between the Americas, and reintroductions to Australia, have brought in placental mammals. They have caused the recent extinction of many marsupial species. - -List of Marsupials - -Australasia -Bandicoots -Kangaroos -Koalas -Tasmanian Devil -Thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger) -Wallabies -Wombats - -Thingodonta -The extinct genus Yalkaparidon (Order Yalkaparidontia) is a bizarre fossil found in the Oligocene/Miocene deposits of Riversleigh, NE Australia. Its teeth are so strange that palaeontologists call it a 'Thingodont'. - -South America -Opossums -Shrew opossums -Monito del Monte - -No longer marsupial -The borhyaenids and the sabertooth Thylacosmilus are no longer considered to be marsupials. They are sparassodont metatherians, the sister group of the marsupials. - -Related pages -Great American Interchange -Monotreme - -References" -2718,8575,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%20Mandela,Nelson Mandela,"Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African politician and activist. On April 27, 1994, he was made the first President of South Africa elected in a fully represented democratic election. He was also the first black President of his country, South Africa. - -Mandela was born in Mvezo, South Africa to a Thembu royal family. - -His government focused on throwing out the legacy of apartheid by ending racism, poverty, inequality, and on improving racial understanding in South Africa. Politically a believer in socialism, he served as the President of the African National Congress (ANC) from 1991 to 1997 and adopted new Constitution of South African in 1996 that prohibits all discrimination, based on language, religion, handicap and sexual orientation, not only on racism. Internationally, Mandela was the Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. - -Mandela received more than 250 honors, including the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Soviet Order of Lenin. He is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata (""Father""). Mandela was described as a hero, and his actions gave thousands of people hope. - -Mandela was sick for several years during his retirement. He was hospitalized in late summer of 2013 from a continuous lung infection. Mandela died on 5 December 2013 in Houghton Estate, Johannesburg from a respiratory tract infection. He was 95 years old. - -Early life - -Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in Mvezo, Umtata (now Mthatha), Transkei, South Africa. He had thirteen siblings by the same father, and two mothers. His parents were Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa and Nosekeni Nonqaphi . His given name was Rolihlahla, a Xhosa name meaning pulling the branch of a tree or informally, troublemaker. He was a member of the Thembu royal family. On his first day of school, he was given the name Nelson by his teacher Miss Mdingane. Giving children in Africa English names was a custom among Africans during that period. - -Mandela's father died when he was twelve. Mandela then lived with the local regent who sent him to school. He was the first member of his family to go to a school. He was expelled from Fort Hare University in 1941, because he led a group of students on political strike. After he was expelled, Nelson found a job as a night watchman. - -Anti-apartheid activity -In 1944, Mandela helped start the African National Congress Youth League. He was soon a high-ranked leader of the group. - -He wanted to free South Africa without violence, but the government started killing and hurting protesters. He then started Umkhonto we Sizwe with Walter Sisulu and other people in the African National Congress that he admired, such as Mahatma Gandhi. - -A trial was later held and became known as the Rivonia Trial. Mandela was on trial because of his involvement in sabotage and violence in 1962. He was sentenced to life in prison, and was sent to Robben Island, but was transferred to Victor Verster Prison in 1988. In 1990, he was let out of Victor Verster Prison after 26.5 years. He left prison after de Klerk removed a ban on the African National Congress. He ordered Mandela's release. He then received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, with former State President of South Africa, Frederik Willem de Klerk. - -Presidency - -Mandela won the general election in April 1994. His inauguration was in Pretoria on 10 May 1994. Many people around the world saw his inauguration on television. The event had 4000 guests, including world leaders from different backgrounds. Mandela was the first South African President elected in a completely democratic election. - -As South Africa's first black President, Mandela became head of the Government of National Unity which was under controlled by the African National Congress (or ANC). The ANC had no knowledge in politics, but had representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. In keeping with earlier promises, de Klerk became first Deputy President, while Thabo Mbeki was chosen second. - -Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for President, Mandela soon trusted Mbeki throughout his presidency. This allowed Mbeki to organize policy details. Mandela moved into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town. He would settle into the nearby Westbrooke Manor. Westbrooke was renamed Genadendal. Preserving his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu. He visited Qunu regularly, walking around the area, meeting with local people who lived there, and judging tribal problems. - -He faced many illness at age 76. Although having energy, he felt left out and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls. He became friends with a number of rich business people, like Harry Oppenheimer and British monarch Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa. This resulted in strong judgment from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his $552,000 wealth to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. In that same year, Mandela published his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom. - -Although in favor of freedom of the press, Mandela was important of much of the country's media because it was owned and run by many middle-class whites. Mandela became known for his use of Batik shirts, known as Madiba shirts, even on normal events. Mandela had never planned on serving a second term in office. Mandela gave his farewell speech on 29 March 1999, after which he retired. Mandela's term ended on 14 June 1999. Thabo Mbeki succeeded Mandela as President of South Africa. - -Nobel Prize - -He won the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership for his anti-apartheid activism in 1993. After receiving the prize he said: - -
    ""We stand here today as nothing more than a representative of the millions of our people who dared to rise up against a social operation whose very essence is war, violence, racism, oppression, repression and the impoverishment of an entire people.""

    -
    - -Personal life -Mandela was married three times and has six children. He had seventeen grandchildren, and a growing number of great-grandchildren. Though physically non-emotional with his children, he could be stern and demanding. - -Mandela married Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944. They had two children. Mandela remained married to Evelyn until they divorced in 1957. Evelyn died in 2004. He then married Winnie Madikizela in 1958. They had two daughters. The couple filed for separation in 1992. They divorced in 1996. Mandela married again to Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in 1998. She was the widow of Samora Machel. Machel was the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier. - -Though publicly criticizing him on several events, Mandela liked United States President Bill Clinton. Mandela personally supported him during his impeachment trial in 1998. - -Public retirement -In June 2004, Mandela announced that he was retiring from public life. Mandela said ""Don't call me, I will call you"". Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Nelson Mandela Foundation denied invitations for him to appear at public events and most interview requests. - -Health - -On 27 March 2013, Mandela was hospitalized in Pretoria from a lung infection. It was reported on 28 March that he was responding well to treatment. Mandela was again hospitalized on 7 June from another lung infection, On 23 June, his condition was announced to be critical. On 26 June, it was announced that Mandela was put on life-support. On 4 July, Mandela's family announced that Mandela was under life-support and he was in a permanent persistent vegetative state. The next day, the South African government denied the fact that Mandela was in a vegetative state. Mandela was discharged from the hospital on 1 September 2013. - -2013 death rumor - -Many South Africans thought that Mandela died overnight on 26 June after he was removed from his life support. The South African government said that Mandela is still alive despite the rumor that he died. It was later reported that the rumor was just a death hoax. CNN also reported that Mandela died, but later fixed the report soon afterwards. Photos were taken with Mandela and First Lady Michelle Obama as proof that Mandela was still alive. - -Death - -Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at his home at Houghton Estate, Johannesburg from complications of a respiratory tract infection, aged 95. He was surrounded by his family when he died. His death was announced by President Jacob Zuma. - -On 6 December, Zuma announced a national mourning for ten days. An event for an official memorial service was held at the FNB Stadium in Johannesburg on Tuesday 10 December. He declared Sunday 8 December a national day of prayer: ""We call upon all our people to gather in halls, churches, mosques, temples, synagogues and in their homes to pray and hold prayer services and meditation reflecting on the life of Madiba and his contribution to our country and the world."" - -Funeral - -Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria. A state funeral was held on Sunday 15 December in Qunu. David Cameron, Barack Obama, Raul Castro, Bill Gates, and Oprah Winfrey were there. - -Burial -On 28 June Mandela's family were arguing about where to bury Mandela. On 29 June the South African government announced that a memorial service for Mandela will be held 10 to 14 days after his death at Soccer City. On 1 July it was announced that if Mandela were to die he might become the first non-British person to be honored at Westminster Abbey. Queen Elizabeth II honored Mandela with a thanksgiving service at Westminster Abbey in early 2014. This made Mandela the first non-British person to be honored at Westminster Abbey. Mandela was buried in the village of Qunu in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. Qunu is where he grew up. - -Honors - - -In South Africa, Mandela is sometimes called by his Xhosa clan name of Madiba. -Nelson Mandela was honored with the following: - In 1990, Mandela received the Bharat Ratna Award in India. - In 1992 received Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan. - In 1992, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey. He refused the award, because of human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time. He later accepted the award in 1999. - In 1993, Mandela won the Nobel Peace Prize with F. W. de Klerk for their work during the civil rights revolution in South Africa. - In 1993, Mandela received the key of the city of Chicago, Illinois from Mayor Richard M. Daley. - In 2007, Mandela was honored with a statue in Westminster Abbey, London, England. - In 2009, the United Nations made 18 July Mandela Day. - In 2012, the Praia International Airport in Cape Verde was renamed as the Nelson Mandela International Airport. - In 2013, a statue of Mandela was unveiled in the South African embassy outside of Washington, D.C.. - The city of Johannesburg awarded him Freedom of the City. - Sandton Square in Johannesburg was renamed Nelson Mandela Square in March 2004. - The Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium was named in his honor. - The Nelson Mandela Bridge, in Johannesburg was also named in his honor. - Mandela was awarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom by then-President of the United States George W. Bush. - Mandela was awarded the Order of Canada. - Mandela was the first living person made an honorary Canadian citizen. - Mandela was the last recipient of the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union. - Mandela first recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights - Mandela was honored with the Order of the Aztec Eagle by the Mexican government. - A park in Leicester, England was named Nelson Mandela Park was named after Mandela. - Elizabeth II awarded him the Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St John. - Mandela was also awarded the Order of Merit by Elizabeth II. - -Movies -Mandela has been portrayed in movies and television. In the 1997 movie, Mandela and de Klerk, Sidney Poitier plays Mandela. Dennis Haysbert plays Mandela in Goodbye Bafana (2007). In the 2009 BBC television movie, Mrs Mandela, Nelson Mandela is played by David Harewood. In 2009, Morgan Freeman plays Mandela in Invictus (2009). Terrence Howard also plays Mandela in the 2011 movie Winnie Mandela. Mandela appeared as himself in the 1992 American movie Malcolm X. In Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom he was played by Idris Elba. - -Legacy -By the time of his death, Mandela had come to be widely considered ""the father of the nation"" within South Africa. He is also seen as ""the national liberator, the savior, its Washington and Lincoln rolled into one"". Throughout his life, Mandela had also faced criticism. Margaret Thatcher attracted international attention for describing the ANC as ""a typical terrorist organization"" in 1987. She later made favors to release Mandela from prison. Mandela has also been criticized for his friendship with political leaders such as Fidel Castro, Muammar Gaddafi, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, and Suharto. - -References - -Other websites - -Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory -Mandela: An Audio History -The Elders -CBC Digital Archives – Nelson Mandela: Prisoner, president, peacemaker -Nelson Mandela Day – official site - - -1918 births -2013 deaths -Activists -People associated with Apartheid -Autobiographers -Christians -Deaths from respiratory tract infection -Disease-related deaths in South Africa -Knights of the Order of St John -Mthatha - -Order of Merit -Order of Prince Henry -Recipients of the Nishan-e-Pakistan -Recipients of the Order of the Aztec Eagle -Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients -Presidents of South Africa -South African Nobel Prize winners -South African political writers -Time People of the Year" -19415,73993,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockapoo,Cockapoo,"A Cockapoo (also called a Spoodle or Cockerpoo) is a hybrid dog. It is a mix of an American Cocker Spaniel and a Poodle; (in most cases the Miniature Poodle or Toy Poodle), or by breeding a Cockapoo with another Cockapoo. - -The Cockapoo has been around since 1950 and the first dictionary reference was a 1960 Oxford English Dictionary citation. Because it is a mixed breed, it is not recognised by purebred kennel clubs. - -Other websites - The American Cockapoo Club - Cockapoo Crazy - Cockapoo Place - -Dog breeds" -18934,71214,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designated%20hitter,Designated hitter,"In baseball, a designated hitter (DH) is a person who bats in place of the pitcher in the American League of Major League Baseball. In the National League, the pitchers have to bat for themselves. The designated hitter is usually one of the best hitters on the team but is not a good defensive player. - -The reason for the designated hitter is because many pitchers are not good hitters. Pitchers are chosen because they are good at pitching, not because they are good at hitting. - -References - -Baseball rules -Baseball positions -American League" -4366,13646,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petula%20Clark,Petula Clark,"Petula Clark, CBE (born 15 November 1932) is a British singer, actress and composer. She was born in Epsom, Surrey. She began her career as a child and was popular in Britain during World War II. In the 1950s, she became a successful pop singer, first in the UK, then in continental Europe, and finally in the United States in the mid-1960s. Her most famous song is ""Downtown,"" which was recorded in four languages and sold nearly five million copies worldwide. Her films include The Card (1952), The Runaway Bus (1956), Finian's Rainbow (1968), and Goodbye, Mr. Chips. She continues to record and perform in concert. - -Other websites - -Actors from Surrey -British child actors -British child singers -English movie actors -English pop singers -English television actors -Singers from Surrey -1932 births -Living people -Warner Bros. Records artists" -12627,46450,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery,Neurosurgery,"Neurosurgery is the surgical specialty that focuses on diseases and injuries involving the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. - -Surgery" -24462,94256,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nhat%20Le%20Beach,Nhat Le Beach,"Nhat Le Beach is a beach in Đồng Hới city, the capital of Quảng Bình Province. - -Appearance -The sand there is fine and white with clean water. The beach is located on the mouth of Nhật Lệ River emptying into South China Sea. There is a four-star resort at the opposite bank of the river and another under construction. - -Quang Binh Province -Beaches of Asia" -6207,19898,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnu,Gnu,"Gnu or GNU may mean: -Gnu, an animal -GNU, a computer operating system" -4474,13999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shit,Shit,"Shit is a slang word for feces. Shit is a swear word (an offensive, rude, or impolite word) to most English speakers. It can mean bad things other than feces, depending on the context. It can be used as an angry exclamation, which is something said loudly or with strong emotion. It can be an adjective that means low quality or worthless. It can be a verb that means to produce feces (poop). The related form bullshit is a slang word with meanings that include nonsense and lies. - -The general etymology of this is from the three words (of different languages): Old English ""scitte"", Dutch ""schijiten"", German ""schiessen"". - -English profanity" -23716,91372,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lying%20Is%20the%20Most%20Fun%20a%20Girl%20Can%20Have%20Without%20Taking%20Her%20Clothes%20Off,Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off,"""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" is the fourth single by the rock band Panic at the Disco, from their album, A Fever You Can't Sweat Out. It was released on August 7, 2006 as the fourth single, but is the third advertised single (""The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage"" was not commercially released as a single). - -Music video -The music video was filmed on June 19, 2006 in Los Angeles, California. The video was shown on MTV2 on July 14, 2006. It features people with fish tanks on their heads. The video only shows the band in one scene (the paramedics are the band members), because the band felt that their looks were distracting from their music. - -The music video starts out with a woman walking on a sidewalk. For some reason, she has a fishtank on her head and all the people around her also have a fishtank. She quickly runs into a puddle and follows it to find a fish flapping around. She places it into her tank and stares at it. Then the woman heads over to a group of people to discover them gathered around a man who's tank broke and he is dying now. The woman has flashbacks to show that the man is her husband. She then attempts suicide by pouring out her own tank and collapsing. The band arrives in two ambulances (labeled Receiving Hospital) and takes them away in bathtubs. The band then carries the two across a beach and throws them into the ocean. There the woman holds the man. - -Track listings - -UK CD/Digital August 2006 -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" -""I Write Sins Not Tragedies"" (Live from Astoria) - -UK Enhanced CD - August 2006 -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" -""Build God, Then We'll Talk"" (Live from Astoria) -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" (Video) -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" (Live Video from Astoria) - -UK 7"" Picture Disc - August 2006 -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" -""The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage"" (Live from Astoria) - -WMI CD/Digital - January 2007 -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" (Radio Edit) -""Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off"" (Album Version) -""I Write Sins Not Tragedies"" (Live from Astoria) -""Build God, Then We'll Talk"" (Live from Astoria) - -Other websites - -2006 songs -Panic! at the Disco songs" -22586,85436,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courfaivre,Courfaivre,"Courfaivre is a former municipality of the district of Delémont in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. On 1 January 2013 the former municipalities of Courfaivre, Bassecourt, Glovelier, Soulce and Undervelier merged into the new municipality of Haute-Sorne. - -Other websites - -Official Website of Courfaivre - -Former municipalities of Jura -2013 disestablishments in Switzerland" -18911,71093,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20replication,DNA replication,"DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule. Both strands serve as templates for the reproduction of the opposite strand. The process is sometimes called ""semi-conservative replication"" because the new DNA from the original strand contains half of the original and half of the newly synthesized DNA. - -This process occurs in all life forms with DNA. There are some differences in the control of DNA replication in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. - -In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific places in the genome, called origins. As the DNA unwinds at the origin, the synthesis of new strands forms at a replication fork. In addition to DNA polymerase, other enzymes at the fork help to start and continue the DNA synthesis. - -DNA polymerase -DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication. However, a DNA polymerase can only extend an existing DNA strand paired with a template strand; it cannot begin the synthesis of a new strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of DNA or RNA, called a 'primer', is created and paired with the template DNA strand. - -In general, DNA polymerases are extremely accurate, making less than one mistake for every 107 (10 million) nucleotides added. Even so, some DNA polymerases also have 'proofreading' ability: they can remove nucleotides from the end of a strand in order to correct mismatched bases. - -DNA repair -DNA in cells is constantly being damaged. The nucleus of cells contains a number of repair mechanisms which fix almost all of this damage. ""A large set of DNA repair enzymes continuously scan the DNA and repair any damaged nucleotides"". - -References - -Other websites - DNA Workshop - WEHI-TV - DNA Replication video - Detailed DNA replication animation from different angles with description below. - Basic Polymerase Chain Reaction Protocol - Animated Biology - DNA makes DNA (Flash Animation) - DNA replication info page by George Kakaris MSc. - Reference website on eukaryotic DNA replication - -Cell biology -DNA" -9037,30927,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh,Nagorno-Karabakh,"Nagorno-Karabakh is a disputed region in the South Caucasus. Legally, it is recognized as part of Azerbaijan, but from 1994 to 2020, most of it was militarily controlled by Armenians as the Republic of Artsakh, which is not officially recognized by any other country, including Armenia which supports it. Currently, different parts of the region are controlled by both Azerbaijan and Armenia, with Azerbaijan controlling most of it and Armenia controlling a smaller central area. - -Etymology -The names for the region in the different local languages all translate to ""mountainous Karabakh"", or ""mountainous black garden"". The word ""nagorno"" is Russian for ""mountainous/on the mountain"", ""kara"" is Turkish for ""black"", and ""bakh"" means ""garden"" in Azerbaijani. - Armenian: , transliterated Lernayin Gharabagh - Azerbaijani: Dağlıq Qarabağ, or Yuxarı Qarabağ (meaning ""upper Karabakh"" or ""mountainous Karabakh"") - Russian: Нагорный Карабах, transliterated Nagornyj Karabakh - -History -The region became a subject of dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan in 1918 when both states gained brief independence. Two years later, Soviet Union conquered both of the new states and created the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast within Azerbaijan. - -When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in Moscow and started campaigns of publicity and democratic reforms at the end of the 20th century, Armenians living in Nagorno-Karabakh sent letters to Gorbachev demanding him to move the autonomous oblast to the control of Armenia. When it was declined, the Armenians started an independence movement. - -In November 1991, seeking to stop this movement, the Parliament of Azerbaijan abolished the autonomous status of the region. In response, the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians held a referendum on December 10, 1991, which was boycotted by Azerbaijanis living in Nagorno-Karabakh and none of them participated in it, therefore the overwhelming majority of the population voted for independence. - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites - Karabakh documents - Artsakh from ancient time till 1918 - Artsakh (Nagorno Karabakh) - France 24 Report" -13266,48722,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp%20Tischendorf,Philipp Tischendorf,"Philipp Tischendorf (born June 7, 1988 in Berlin, Germany) is a German figure skater. He was the 2007 German national silver medalist. Tischendorf is coached by Michael Huth, with former coaches Jürgen Bertko and silver Olympic medalist Romy Oesterreich. - -In March 2007, Philipp was injured while practising a quadruple Lutz jump on the ice and was forced to not participate the 2007/2008 because of injury. - -Other websites - - - -1988 births -Living people -Figure skaters -German sportspeople -Sportspeople from Berlin" -2137,7288,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highland%20%28council%20area%29,Highland (council area),The Highland Council Area is a local government region in north Scotland. It covers most of the area which people call the Scottish Highlands. -13733,50815,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording%20Industry%20Association%20of%20America,Recording Industry Association of America,"The Recording Industry Association of America or RIAA is an organization that was created and paid for by large record companies. It is based in Washington, D.C. It symbolizes the entire recording industry of the United States of America. The RIAA also participates in the collection, management and distribution of music licenses and royalties. - -The association is responsible for certifying gold and platinum albums and singles in the U.S. Its goals are: -to protect intellectual property rights worldwide and the First Amendment rights of artists; -to perform research about the music industry; -to watch over and review laws, regulations and rules that apply to the music industry. - -Members -The members of the RIAA are mostly record companies in the U.S. - -History -The RIAA was created in 1952 to create technical standards for vinyl records so any record could play on any record player without difficulty. In today's times, the RIAA's goals is to prevent piracy of records. The RIAA says that the music industry loses nearly 4.2 billion U.S. dollars a year because of this. - -Related pages - Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) - American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) - Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers (JASRAC) - -References - -Other websites -Official website of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) - -1952 establishments in the United States -Music industry -Washington, D.C." -5570,18127,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland%20Sheepdog,Shetland Sheepdog,"A Shetland Sheepdog is a kind of small dog whose ancestors came from the Shetland Islands. Many people call them ""Shelties"". They are popular pets in many countries. Shelties have the same origins with Rough Collie and Border Collie. Shelties are a working dog and are sometimes used for herding. - -A Sheltie can have a mix of several colors in its coat. Most shelties are sable and white (brown and white) or tri-color (black, white and tan). Their fur is long and they shed twice a year. Shelties range in size from 13 to 16 inches. They usually weigh about 25-30 pounds. - -Shelties are very energetic dogs that run and bark a lot. They are great with children. -It was said that Shelties were sheep dogs so they try to please their master and have a strong sense of responsibility. They do not need very much discipline. Shelties rank in the top ten smartest dogs. They learn new things very quickly and remember them well. Shelties make great family pets as long as you do not mind a dog that barks. - -Dog breeds -Shetland" -1928,6416,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham,Birmingham,"Birmingham ( ) is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. It is the second-largest metropolitan area and city in the United Kingdom. About 1.1 million people live in Birmingham. Around 4.3 million people live in its metropolitan area. Many people call it the ""second city"" of the United Kingdom.. - -Grand Union Canal -Birmingham was an important stagwine-post in the Victorian industrial canal system. Today it is the northern terminus of the Grand Union Canal to London. Heavy goods (as coal surely is) are most economically moved on water. No other form of transport is so efficient. - -Motorways -The M40 motorway connects to London via Oxford. The M6 motorway also connects Birmingham to London (via the M1) and to the north-west of England and Scotland. Junction 6 of the M6 is also one of Birmingham's landmarks, and probably the most notable motorway junction in the UK, Spaghetti Junction, officially called the Gravelly Hill Interchange. Other motorways are: - The A38(M) which links Spaghetti Junction to the city centre -The M5, connecting Birmingham to the south-west of England -The M42, which connects Birmingham to Tamworth and the East Midlands -The M6 Toll, which enables through traffic on the M6 to bypass Birmingham and Wolverhampton. - -Birmingham, unlike London and Manchester, does not have a single orbital motorway. Instead, three motorways form a box which surrounds most of the city. These are: -The M42 to the south and east. In the middle, the M40 ends. It has priority for traffic going from the M40 to the M42 west. The M40 goes off south to Warwick, Oxford, High Wycombe, Uxbridge and London. -The M5 which forms the western section. -The M6 which forms the northern section. The M5 ends on the M6. - -Other major roads passing through Birmingham include: -The A34 from Manchester to Winchester -The A38 from Mansfield to Bodmin -The A41 from London to Birkenhead -The A45 from Birmingham to Thrapston (formerly to Felixstowe) -The A47 from Birmingham to Great Yarmouth -The A4540 'Middleway' ring road -The A4040 Outer Ring Road - -History - -Birmingham began as a small town in 1166. -Queen Victoria gave city status to Birmingham in 1889. - -Many industries were developed in Birmingham during the 18th and 19th centuries. These included making weapons and food. - -Birmingham manufacturing industry played a big role in the war effort in World War I and World War II. The WWII spitfire aeroplane was made in Birmingham. In 2000, a statue of stylised spitfires was erected next to the old factory site. The factory now makes Jaguar cars. -Birmingham had a large car making industry. It has declined since the 1980s. It remains the home town for Jaguar and Land Rover cars. - -In 1974, twenty-one people were killed in the Birmingham pub bombings. - -Famous people from Birmingham - Gabriel Agbonlahor, footballer - Geoff Bunn, artist - Geezer Butler, musician and Black Sabbath member - Jasper Carrott, comedian - Tony Iommi, musician and Black Sabbath member - Jeff Lynne, musician and record producer, co-founder of Electric Light Orchestra - Bill Oddie, television personality - Ozzy Osbourne, singer, and Black Sabbath member - James and Oliver Phelps, actors, famous for playing Fred and George Weasley in the Harry Potter film series - J.R.R. Tolkien, author - Julie Walters, actor - Steve Winwood, musician -Matthew Stansfield - member of the conservatives party -Richard Hammond - Motoring journalist, TV presenter - -Famous pop and rock groups from Birmingham - Black Sabbath, heavy metal rock group - Dexys Midnight Runners, pop group - Duran Duran, pop group - Judas Priest, rock group - Moody Blues, pop group - The Move, pop group - UB40, pop group - Wizzard, pop group - -References - -Other websites - Birmingham City Council - Birmingham tourism site" -19283,73211,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20Pacific%20hurricane%20season,1987 Pacific hurricane season,"The 1987 Pacific hurricane season officially started May 15, 1987 in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1987 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1987. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. - -Despite there being twenty cyclones, there were very few notable storms this year. Only three storms came anywhere near to threatening land. Hurricane Eugene was the first Pacific hurricane to make landfall in Mexico in July since at least the 1949 season. Tropical Storm Pilar and Hurricane Norma also came close to land. The remnants of Hurricanes Ramon and Norma caused rain in the Continental United States. Elsewhere, Peke was a central north Pacific hurricane that crossed the dateline and became a typhoon. - -Related pages - Tropical cyclone - List of Pacific hurricane seasons - -Other websites - Unisys Weather archive for the Eastern Pacific, 1987 - Central Pacific Hurricane Center archive - -Pacific hurricane seasons -Pacific hurricane season" -9113,31219,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline%20Kennedy%20Onassis,Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis,"Jacqueline Lee Kennedy Onassis ( ; July 28, 1929May 19, 1994) was an American socialite, writer, photographer and book editor. She was the First Lady of the United States from 1961 until November 22, 1963 as the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy. As a popular and famous first lady, she endeared both the American public and people with her fashion choices and devotion to the historical preservation of the White House. During her lifetime she was well known for being fashionable and was seen both as a fashion icon and influencer. - -Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929 in Southampton, New York. In 1951, she graduated from George Washington University and worked for the Washington Times-Herald as a photographer. A year later, she met United States Representative, John F. Kennedy at a dinner party in Washington D.C. - -She married John F. Kennedy in 1953, in Newport, Rhode Island. The couple had four children. Jacqueline had suffered a miscarriage in 1956 with a stillborn girl named Arabella Kennedy, a year later in 1957 she gave birth to a girl named, Caroline Kennedy. After her husband was elected president in the 1960 presidential election, Jacqueline had gave birth to a boy named, John F. Kennedy Jr. in November 1960. Two months later, At the age of 31, she was the third-youngest First Lady of the United States when her husband inaugurated as 35th President of the United States on January 20, 1961. - -After the assassination and funeral of her husband, Jacqueline and her two children, Caroline Kennedy and John F. Kennedy Jr. retired from public life. In October 1968, she married a Greek magnate named Aristotle Onassis, which made her less popular and famous. After his death in 1975, she worked as a book editor in New York City. As of today, she is seen as one of the most popular and well known first ladies in American history. In 1999, she was named as one of Gallup's Most-Admired Men and Women of the 20th century. On May 19, 1994, Jacqueline died in her sleep from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in New York. Her funeral was on May 23, 1994. She was later buried next to her husband, President Kennedy at Arlington National Cemetery. - -Early life - -Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929 at Stony Brook Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York to John Vernou Bouvier III and Janet Norton Lee. Her mother was of Irish descent and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry and she was also raised as a Roman Catholic. - -Jacqueline lived in Manhattan and at the Bouvier country home in East Hampton on Long Island during her early childhood. She respected her father and John Vernou Bouvier III called his oldest daughter ""the most beautiful daughter a man ever had"". - -From an early age, Jacqueline was an equestrienne who competed in the sport. She took ballet lessons and learned many languages. She spoke English, French, Spanish, and Italian. In 1935, she began going to Manhattan's Chapin School. One of her teachers called her ""a darling child, the prettiest little girl, very clever, very artistic, and full of the devil"". - -Her parents' marriage became worse because of her father's alcoholism. Her parents had financial problems after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. They separated in 1936 and divorced four years later. In 1942, her mother married lawyer Hugh Dudley Auchincloss Jr.. The family moved into his home in McLean, Virginia. - -After seven years at Chapin, Jacqueline Bouvier went to Holton-Arms School in Washington, D.C.. She stayed there from 1942 until 1944. She later went to Miss Porter's School in Farmington, Connecticut. Bouvier stayed there from 1944 to 1947. In 1947, she began studying at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York. She studied in France at the University of Grenoble in Grenoble during her junior year. She also went to the Sorbonne in Paris. She was part of a program from Smith College. She transferred to George Washington University in Washington, D.C. and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in French literature in 1951. She later went to George Washington University to take classes on American history. - -While at George Washington University, Jacqueline Bouvier won a twelve-month junior editorship at Vogue. This let her work for six months in the magazine's New York City office and then six months in Paris. She wrote her autobiography, One Special Summer after the trip. After working at Vogue, she worked for the Washington Times-Herald as a part-time receptionist. In 1952, she was briefly engaged to a young stockbroker named John Husted but broke-off the engagement because she said he was ""boring"". - -Marriage to John F. Kennedy and Children -Jacqueline Bouvier first met United States Representative, John F. Kennedy at a dinner party in May 1952 after journalist, Charles L. Bartlett helped the two meet up. The two had many things in common such as their Catholicism, writing, liked reading and lived abroad during college. John was busy running for the United States Senate in Massachusetts when they first met. Their relationship became more serious and he ask her to marry him after he was elected Senator. Bouvier took some time to accept, because she had been asked to report on the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London for The Washington Times-Herald. After a month in Europe, she returned to the United States and accepted Kennedy's marriage proposal. Their engagement was officially announced on June 25, 1953. - -They were married on September 12, 1953 in Newport, Rhode Island by Boston's Archbishop Richard Cushing. In the first years of their marriage, the couple had many problems. John F. Kennedy was diagnosed with Addison's disease and back pain caused by a war injury. In late 1954, he had surgery on his spine which almost killed him. Jacqueline Kennedy had a miscarriage in 1955 and in August 1956 gave birth to a stillborn daughter, Arabella Kennedy. They lived in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. and Boston, Massachusetts. - -Jacqueline gave birth to their daughter, Caroline Kennedy on November 27, 1957. During his senate re-election campaign, John F. Kennedy began to see how popular his wife was. He asked her to campaign with him for his re-election. In November 1958, John was re-elected to a second term in the Senate and he thanked his wife for her role in the campaign. - -1960 United States presidential election - -On January 3, 1960, John F. Kennedy announced his candidacy for president. In the early months of the election year, Jacqueline traveled with her husband to campaign events. Shortly after the campaign began, she became pregnant. She decided to stay at home in Georgetown during most of her husband's campaign because of her pregnancy. She took part of her husband's campaign by writing a weekly newspaper column, Campaign Wife. She answered questions and gave interviews to the media. - -Jacqueline had a large amount of media attention because of her fashion choices. While this made her popular, some criticized her for being rich. To stop the criticism, Kennedy talked about the amount of work she was doing for the campaign. She also did not want to talk about her fashion choices. - -When her husband was at the Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, Mrs. Kennedy did not go to the convention due to her pregnancy. She was in Hyannis Port where she watched the September 26, 1960 debate between her husband and Republican candidate Vice President Richard Nixon. On November 8, 1960, her husband was elected the 35th President of the United States. Two weeks later after the election, on November 25, she gave birth to their first son, John F. Kennedy Jr. - -First Lady of the United States (1961 – 1963) - -John F. Kennedy was inaugurated as 35th President of the United States on on January 20, 1961. Mrs. Kennedy did not want her children to be unprotected around the media at an early age. She stayed with them in Middleburg, Virginia for a short time because of this. She was the first presidential wife to hire a press secretary. She hired Pamela Turnure. The media saw Mrs. Kennedy as the ""perfect woman"" and became popular across the world. She also helped get support for the White House and her husband's Cold War policies. - -At first, Jacqueline said that her main focus as the first lady was to take care of the president and their children. She later spent her time to support American arts and preservation of its history. The historical restoration of the White House was her well known work. She was also known for hosting many social events at the White House. She wanted to create a Department of the Arts; however this did not happen. She did help create the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities. - -White House restoration - -The first lady did not like that most of the White House had few historical artifacts and little old furniture. Her first major project was to restore the White House. She helped create a family living area by adding a kitchen on the family floor and new rooms for her children. She created a fine arts committee to find the money for her restoration of the White House. She also wanted to redesign and replant most of the Rose Garden and the East Garden. Mrs. Kennedy helped protect historic homes in Lafayette Square in Washington, D.C., because she thought these buildings were important. - -Before she became first lady, presidents and their families had taken furniture and other items from the White House when they left office. This was why the White House had few historical items. She wrote letters to find the missing furniture and other historical pieces. Kennedy supported a Congressional bill saying that White House furniture and other items would be the property of the Smithsonian Institution. She also started the White House Historical Association, the Committee for the Preservation of the White House, a Curator of the White House, the White House Endowment Trust, and the White House Acquisition Trust. - -On Valentines Day, February 14, 1962, the first lady took American television viewers a White House tour with CBS News correspondent, Charles Collingwood. 56 million television viewers in the United States watched the tour. Mrs. Kennedy won a special Emmy Award in 1962, making her the only first lady to win an Emmy. - -Foreign trips - -Mrs. Kennedy made many official visits to other countries, on her own or with the President. In 1961, the Kennedy's began their official trip of Europe in France. After arriving in the country, many liked her such as President of France Charles de Gaulle because she could speak French and her knowledge of French history. Seeing how popular she was, President Kennedy joked, ""I am the man who accompanied Mrs. Kennedy to Paris – and I have enjoyed it!"" - -From France, the president and the first lady traveled to Vienna, Austria, where Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was asked to shake the President's hand for a photo. He replied, ""I'd like to shake her hand first"". The U.S. Ambassador to India John Kenneth Galbraith wanted Kennedy to begin a tour in India and Pakistan with her sister Lee Radziwill in 1962. President of Pakistan Ayub Khan, had given her a horse named Sardar as a gift. He had found out on his visit to the White House that he and the first lady both liked horses. Her popularity was compared to former President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Queen Elizabeth II. - -Mrs. Kennedy would later travel to other countries across the world representing the United States. the first lady spoke Spanish well, which she used when traveling to Latin American countries for events. - -Death of Patrick Kennedy -In early 1963, Jacqueline Kennedy was again pregnant, with their third child. She spent most of the summer at a home she and the President had rented near the Kennedy Family Compound on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. - -On August 7, five week early of her due date, she went into labor. She gave birth to a boy, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy through an emergency C-section at the Otis Air Force Base. The baby's lungs were not fully developed and died of hyaline membrane disease two days after birth. The president was at Otis Air Force Base to recover after Patrick was born. Her husband went to Boston to be with Patrick and was there when he died. On August 14, the President returned to Otis to take her home and gave a speech to thank nurses who had cared for her. As a thank you, Mrs. Kennedy gave the hospital staff gifts from the White House. - -the first lady later had depression after Patrick's death. However, the loss of their child helped the Kennedy's marriage and brought the couple closer together. Before Patrick's death, Kennedy was not close with her husband because of rumors of him cheating on her. It was said that Kennedy had cheated on her with multiple women such as her secretary Pamela Turnure and actress Marilyn Monroe. - -Assassination and funeral of John F. Kennedy - -On November 21, 1963, the Kennedy's departed from the White House and went on a political trip to Texas to get more support for her husband's November 1964 re-election campaign. They landed at Dallas's Love Field with Texas Governor, John Connally and his wife Nellie. Jacqueline was wearing a bright pink Chanel suit and a pillbox hat, President Kennedy personally picked for her to wear. A motorcade was to take them to the Trade Mart. Kennedy was sitting next her husband in the presidential motorcade. - -At 12:30 P:M, the motorcade turned to Dealey Plaza, the first lady heard loud bangs and she thought it was a motorcycle backfiring. She did not realize that it was a gunshot until she heard Governor Connally scream. Two more shots had been fired, three of them hit her husband in the head. She quickly began to climb onto the back of the limousine. Some believe she was reaching across the trunk for a piece of her husband's skull that had been blown off. Secret Service agent Clint Hill ran to the car telling her back to go back to her seat. She would later say that she did not remember climbing behind the car. - -Approximately at 1:00 P:M CST in Dallas, Texas at Parkland Hospital, President Kennedy died from his gunshot wounds, aged 46. After her husband died, Kennedy did not want to take off her blood-stained clothing. She told new first lady, Lady Bird Johnson that she wanted ""them to see what they have done to Jack"". She continued to wear the blood-stained pink suit as she went on Air Force One. She stood next to Lyndon B. Johnson when he took the oath of office as the 36th President of the United States. The suit was donated to the National Archives and Records Administration in 1964. It will not be seen by the public until 2103 because of an agreement from her daughter Caroline Kennedy, because she refused to let it be seen during this century. - -Jacqueline Kennedy planned her husband's state funeral. It was inspired by Abraham Lincoln's funeral. She wanted her husband's casket to be closed, even though her brother-in-law and Attorney General, Robert F. Kennedy wanted it to be open. The funeral service was held at the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle in Washington D.C. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Many respected her role and appearance at the funeral. - -A week after the assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson wrote an executive order that created the Warren Commission. It was led by Chief Justice Earl Warren to investigate the assassination. Mrs. Kennedy did not care about the investigation. She said that even if they had the right suspect, it would not bring her husband back. She spoke to the commission about the events of her husband's assassination. - -After the assassination, Jacqueline Kennedy and her two children left from public life and activities. - -Life after the assassination (1963 – 1975) - -Mourning period and later activities - -On November 29, 1963, a week after her husband's assassination, Theodore H. White of Life magazine interviewed Kennedy at her home in Hyannis Port. During the interview, she compared the Kennedy years in the White House to King Arthur's Camelot. She said ""Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot. There'll be great presidents again, but there will never be another Camelot"". Her husband was nicknamed ""Camelot"" and his presidency the ""Camelot Era"" because of this. - -Jacqueline Kennedy and her two children stayed in the White House for two more weeks after the assassination. President Lyndon B. Johnson wanted to ""do something nice for her. He wanted to make her Ambassador to France, Mexico or the United Kingdom. Kennedy said no to any ambassador roles. Johnson renamed the Florida space center the John F. Kennedy Space Center a week after the assassination. Kennedy later thanked Johnson for his kindness to her. - -Jacqueline made few public appearances after her husband's death. Some believed she was suffering from severe ptsd. In the winter after the assassination, she and the children stayed at Averell Harriman's home in Georgetown. On January 14, 1964, she spoke on television thanking the public for the ""hundreds of thousands of messages"" she had gotten since the assassination. She bought a house for herself and her children in Georgetown, but sold it later in 1964. She bought a 15th-floor penthouse apartment for $250,000 at 1040 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan to have more privacy. - -Jacqueline said she would later attend a few memorial ceremonies dedicated to her husband. In 1967, she went to the opening ceremony of the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier . She also went to a private ceremony in Arlington National Cemetery when her husband's coffin was moved to build a safer eternal flame. She also was in charge of the creation of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. - -During the Vietnam War in November 1967, Life magazine called Kennedy ""America's unofficial ambassador"". This was because of her trip with David Ormsby-Gore to Cambodia. Many historians saw that her visit was to fix the relationship between the two countries. She also went to the funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. in Atlanta, Georgia, in April 1968. - -Relationship with Robert F. Kennedy - -After her husband's assassination, Kennedy and her children became closer with her brother-in-law Robert F. Kennedy. Kennedy supported him staying in politics. She supported his 1964 campaign for United States senator from New York. - -When President Johnson became unpopular, many wanted Senator Kennedy to run for president in 1968. When Art Buchwald asked him if he wanted to run, Robert replied, ""That depends on what Jackie wants me to do"". She met with him around this time and she told him to run. However, she was worried about his safety. - -On June 5, 1968, Sirhan Sirhan shot Senator Kennedy in Los Angeles. Kennedy Onassis went to the hospital to be with Senator Kennedy's wife, Ethel Kennedy, her brother-in-law Ted Kennedy, and the other Kennedy family members. Robert Kennedy died the next day, aged 42. - -Marriage to Aristotle Onassis - -After Robert Kennedy's death in 1968, Kennedy had depression again. She became worried about her life and of her two children. She said ""If they're killing Kennedy's, then my children are targets, I want to get out of this country"". - -On October 20, 1968, Jacqueline married her long-time friend Aristotle Onassis. He was a rich Greek businessman who was able to give the privacy and security she wanted. They were married on Skorpios, Onassis's private Greek island in the Ionian Sea. After marrying Onassis, she took the legal name Jacqueline Onassis. She lost her right to Secret Service protection when she married Onassis. Many believed that Onassis might have been excommunicated by the Roman Catholic church. This was because she married a divorced man. Many did not approve her getting remarried and made her unpopular. - -During their marriage, both Jacqueline and Aristotle had six different homes and his yacht Christina O. - -Aristotle Onassis's health became worse after the death of his son Alexander in 1973. He died in 1975. After two years of legal problems, Jacqueline Onassis got $26 million from her step-daughter Christina Onassis. - -Later years, 1975–1990's - -Jacqueline Onassis returned to the United States after her second husband died. She lived in Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port. In 1975, she became an editor at Viking Press. She worked there for two years. - -Jacqueline Onassis went to the 1976 Democratic National Convention. This was her first political event in almost ten years. She quit Viking Press in 1977. This was after Viking had published Jeffrey Archer's novel Shall We Tell the President?. The story happens in a fictional future presidency of her brother in-law, Ted Kennedy. The book was about a plan to assassinate him. Two years later, she went to Boston to support Ted Kennedy's 1980 presidential campaign. - -After she left Viking Press, Onassis worked for Doubleday. She was an associate editor. Some of the books she edited for the company were Larry Gonick's The Cartoon History of the Universe, the English translation of Naghib Mahfuz's Cairo Trilogy, and autobiographies of ballerina Gelsey Kirkland, singer-songwriter Carly Simon, and fashion icon Diana Vreeland. - -In the 1970's, she supported a campaign to save Grand Central Terminal from demolition and repair it. A plaque inside the terminal talks about her role in its preservation. In the 1980's, she supported protests against a planned skyscraper at Columbus Circle that would have created a large shadows on Central Park. She also supported saving Olana, the home of Frederic Edwin Church in New York. - -Jacqueline Onassis had a lot of press attention. Paparazzi photographer Ron Galella followed her around and took pictures of her without her permission. From 1980 until her death in May 1994, Onassis had a close relationship with businessman Maurice Tempelsman. - -In the early 1990's, Jacqueline Onassis supported Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton for president. She donated money to his presidential campaign. After the 1992 presidential election, she met with First Lady Hillary Clinton. They talked about raising a child in the White House. Mrs. Clinton later said that Jacqueline Onassis was an inspiration for her. - -Illness and Death - -In November 1993, Jacqueline Onassis was thrown from her horse while she was fox hunting in Middleburg, Virginia. She was taken to the hospital. Doctors found a swollen lymph node in her groin. They thought it was an infection at first. The fall made her health worse over the next six months. In December, Onassis had new symptoms such as stomach pain and swollen lymph nodes in her neck. She had non-Hodgkin lymphoma. She began chemotherapy in January 1994. By March, the cancer had spread to her spinal cord and brain. By May, it had spread to her liver. Her condition was terminal. - -Jacqueline made her last trip back home from New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center on May 18, 1994. The next day on May 19, she died in her sleep at her Manhattan apartment, aged 64. Her two children were by her side. Her son John F. Kennedy, Jr. announced her death the next day. He said that she died with her family around her. - -On May 23, 1994, her funeral was held and was very private. She was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, next to her husband President Kennedy, their son Patrick, and their stillborn daughter Arabella. President Bill Clinton spoke at her graveside service. At the time of her death, her children Caroline Kennedy and John F. Kennedy Jr., her three grandchildren, Rose, Tatiana and John Schlossberg, and sister Lee Radziwill were her living relatives. Her estate was worth $43.7 million. - -Honors -The Municipal Art Society of New York has an award named after her in 1994, the Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Medal. It is given to a person whose work has helped New York City greatly. The White House's East Garden was renamed the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden in her honor shortly after her husband died. A high school named Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis High School for International Careers, was opened in 1995. The main reservoir in Central Park was renamed in her honor. - -Legacy - -Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis is seen as one of the most popular first lady. She was named 27 times on the annual Gallup list of the top 10 most admired people of the second half of the 20th century. This was higher than that of any President of the United States listed. In 2011, she was named fifth place in a list of the five most influential First Ladies of the twentieth century. In 2014, she came in third place in a Siena College Institute survey as the best first lady. She was behind Eleanor Roosevelt and Abigail Adams in the survey. - -In 2020, Time magazine included her name on its list of 100 Women of the Year. She was named Woman of the Year 1962 for her White House restoration works. - -Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis is seen as an important first lady in United States history. Many historians feel that First Ladies since Kennedy Onassis have either been compared to or against her. Since the late 2000s, her name has been used by political commentators when talking about the fashion style of political wives. - -Many of her well known clothes are preserved at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Pieces from the collection were shown at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City in 2001. - -In 2012, Time magazine included Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis on its All-TIME 100 Fashion Icons list. In 2016, Forbes included her on the list 10 Fashion Icons and the Trends They Made Famous. - -In 2016, actress Natalie Portman played and portrayed the first lady in a movie called Jackie about her as first lady and her life after her husband's assassination. For her role, Natalie Portman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress. - -More reading - -References - -Other websites - - Life of Jacqueline B. Kennedy at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum - Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy at the White House - Jacqueline Kennedy at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image - Jackie Kennedy at the National First Ladies' Library - The Last Will and Testament of Jacqueline K. Onassis - - - -Burials at Arlington National Cemetery -Cancer deaths in New York City -Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma -First Ladies of the United States -John F. Kennedy -Kennedy family -Writers from New York City -1929 births -1994 deaths -Writers from Rhode Island -People from Newport, Rhode Island -American socialites -American editors -American photographers -American photojournalists -American autobiographers -Writers from Virginia -Journalists from New York City -Democrats (United States) -American Roman Catholics -American environmentalists -American philanthropists" -22551,85300,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadro,Cadro,"Cadro is a former municipality of the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Bogno, Cadro, Carona, Certara, Cimadera, Valcolla and Sonvico merged into the city of Lugano. - -References - -Former municipalities of Ticino" -3269,9958,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender,Transgender,"Transgender people are people who identify, or feel, different from their assigned sex at birth. It's been considered a gender modality in which gender identity differs from the assigned at birth. - -Definitions - -The word ""transgender"" may describe many different people. People with different ideas about their genders may think of themselves as transgender. These people use different words to describe their gender. The term ""trans people"" is often used as a short version of ""transgender people"". - -Some common definitions of the words used in this article are listed here: - - Anatomical (biological) sex means whether someone was born with a male or female body. - Cisgender is an antonym of transgender and means a person who identifies as the gender they were assigned at birth - Gender is the way masculinity and femininity are seen or used by all people, separate from anatomical sex. - Gender expression is how a person behaves or acts in ways that affect how others might view them as being male or female. - Gender identity is a person's sense in their mind of whether they are a man, woman, something else or neither (agender). - The gender binary is the idea that a person must be either male or female and that there is no other gender other than those two. - Gender role is society's view of how people should act because of their gender: men and women are expected to act in a certain way. Gender roles are often enforced by society through disapproval of cross-gender behavior: for example, if a male child wants a doll, he might be told that he is ""acting like a girl"". If a female child climbs a tree, she might be called a ""tomboy"". -Sexuality is usually grouped in with transgender topics, but it is still doesn't dictate whether someone is cisgender or transgender or vice versa. For example, a person can be heterosexual and trans at the same time. - -These definitions are important to help understand that what people look like outside (sex) is not always the same as how they feel inside (gender). Some people do not fit into the gender binary. - -Who is transgender? -There are many subgroups of people who are included in the in the term transgender. It is important that not all transgender people fit into these groups. Some of the bigger groups are: - - Transsexual – unlike the term 'transgender', this is a more specific term. It is an older word which existed in medical communities and is preferred to be used by people who seek to change their bodies (such as through surgery or hormones). Many people prefer the term ""transgender"" to ""transsexual"" and see ""transsexual"" as an offensive term as it used to refer to the identity as a disease, and clinicians are advised to only use the term ""transsexual"" if their client is okay with it. - AFAB – means 'assigned female at birth.' It is someone who was assigned a female sex at birth but identifies as male. Another term used is FTM, meaning 'female-to-male.'An AFAB person is also sometimes called a transgender man, or a trans man. - AMAB – means 'assigned male at birth.' It is someone who was assigned male at birth but identifies as female. Another term used is MTF, meaning 'male-to-female.' An AMAB person is also sometimes called a transgender woman, or a trans woman. - Genderqueer – is someone who rejects the whole idea of a gender binary and may identify as a number of varied gender terms. This can sometimes be seen as a controversial word, since ‘’queer’’ has been used as a slur in the past, even if it has mostly been reclaimed in recent times. Genderqueer people may prefer to use the term ""Non-Binary"" to describe themselves, which is often shortened to ""enby"" (from spelling out the acronym ""NB"" phonetically). - – a term for any person, binary or non-binary, who was assigned male at birth and has a predominantly feminine gender identity or presentation; transmasculine is the equivalent term for someone who was assigned female at birth and has a predominantly masculine gender identity or presentation. - -The following groups of people are not necessarily transgender: - Intersex - is a word for people who are born with both some male and some female biological traits. - Cross-dresser – is commonly associated with transgender people but is unrelated. It’s when female identified people dress to appear as a man, or male identified people dress to appear as a woman. - Transvestite - This is considered to be offensive to most transgender people as “transvestites” will dress very masculine or feminine for sexual satisfaction. - -History - -People like those who, in modern Western societies, are now identified as transgender or transsexual, have been documented in many cultures and for thousands of years. However, only in the last century have science and medicine developed ways to change the bodies of trans people who want this. - -People who have traits that are different from the sex they are born with, have been accepted in some societies, both historically and now. For example, some Native American tribes accepted two-spirit people. Similarly a Tongan person born with a male body who acts and dresses in a female way is known in the local dialect as a ""fakaleiti"". - -The ""hijra"" in India are born physically male, but live as women, including dressing and socializing as female. In the past they used to castrate themselves and even remove the penis in order to urinate through a small hole. Now, with the arrival of western medicine, many hijari choose to take hormone therapies and sometimes have sex reassignment surgery. Many of these people still call themselves ""hijra"", but some now call themselves ""transsexuals"" or ""transgender women"". The role of hijari in society is complex and varied throughout all of India. - -In Western Society, there have often been people who have chosen to act and dress in a way that was not gender specific, or was not that of the sex they were assigned at birth. This is not the same as being transgender. Cross dressing actors were very popular in the theatre of the late 19th century. - -An example of a transgender person is the 19th century military surgeon who was known as James Barry. It is now believed that Barry was born female but disguised his sex all his adult life. Barry's work, which saved, and helped thousands of lives by improving treatment of wounds to stop amputations, would not have been possible, as a woman, because as a female he could never have attended medical school or entered the army. - -A 20th century example of a transgender person is Jan Morris, a geographer, explorer and journalist, who began life as James Morris. As ""James"", Morris married and had children, but felt female and eventually became Jan Morris. - -Issues - -Trans - the ""T"" in LGBT -Transgender people are not accepted in every society. They suffer discrimination, violence, and even murder. Transgender people have fought for and have gained many rights and protections in some societies. In many places the fight for transgender rights is associated with the fight for gay and bisexual rights. Together these groups are sometimes described by the acronym LGBT for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. - -However, some transgender people do not want to be a part of the LGB (lesbian, gay and bisexual) community, as they may see themselves as heterosexual and not feel like they belong with gay or queer people, and some LGB people do not want to be a part of the transgender community, as they may be transphobic, which means that they may have a fear or dislike of transgender people, or they may not want heterosexuals to see sexuality and gender identity as the same thing. However, gay and transgender people often have some of the same problems in society, so many gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people try to work together to solve all of their problems. - -Mental health -Many transgender people have mental health problems. A 2012 study of British transgender people found that 84% had considered suicide. 55% had been diagnosed with depression. 33% had not been diagnosed with depression, but thought that they had it in the past or at the time of the survey. 53% had self-harmed. 38% of had been diagnosed with anxiety. 31% were using antidepressants and 44% had used them at some time. -A study of 164 Irish transgender people found that 80% had considered suicide. 40% of those had attempted suicide at least once. 44% had self-harmed. The reason for these high numbers is often seen as a result of discrimination and social problems. Others believe that it is because transgender people are mentally ill. - -Some studies show that Transgender people have better mental health and commit suicide less often when they live as their preferred gender. - -Medical care -Transgender people who want to take medicine and have surgery to change their bodies face several problems. In order to change their bodies, they must have doctors who will help them make the changes. Sometimes, they can not do this because doctors will not help them. They may also not be able to do this because even if a doctor would treat them, they may not be able to afford the medicine or surgery. But the Declaration of Montreal says that such medical care should be given to them by public health insurance. - -Disease versus difference -Some people believe that being transgender is a disease, sometimes called gender identity disorder. Many transgender people do not like being labelled as having a disease, which they feel causes them to be seen and treated badly. Others believe that they should be labelled this way, because some governments and insurance companies will not pay for transgender people's medical treatment unless it is considered a disease. Also, In places that do not have laws that protect transgender people from discrimination, they may only be protected under laws that protect people with diseases or disabilities. - -Doctors do not agree on one way of viewing being transgender. Some doctors view it as a birth defect that can easily be fixed, others may not even think that being transgender is a medical condition. Since May 25th, 2019, the World Health Organization does not see being transgender as a disease or mental health problem, asking many countries to comply as well. One of the international human rights laws of the Yogyakarta Principles (Principal 18), disagrees with any use of a medical disease label. - -Violence -About 50% of transgender people have been sexually assaulted. - -Legal problems -Transgender people have problems with laws and regulations about sex. To be seen and treated as the sex they wish, transgender people usually have to change their first name. (Though some names are unisex, which means that they can be used by both men and women, transgender people with a unisex name may still want to change their name, though this is not always the case.) They also may want to change their identity documents to say the correct sex. For example, a transgender woman may wish to change her birth certificate or driving license to say her new female name and to say that she is a female. - -These changes can protect transgender people from discrimination. For example, transgender people often have a hard time traveling because they may look like one sex but have another on their papers. These changes can also be needed for transgender people to be allowed to marry their spouses in places where it is illegal for people of the same sex to marry. These changes can even protect transgender people from a wide variety of violence. Some transgender people are only recognized when their documents reveal them. Being revealed as transgender can put people in danger because of transphobia (fear and/or hatred of transgender people). - -In many places, it is hard or not possible for transgender people to change their legal sex, with or without having genital surgery, which is required in many places. This is against the Yogyakarta Principles. This is changing, however. The United Kingdom passed the Gender Recognition Act of 2004. This act allows people to have their change of sex officially recognized without surgery. Once changed, they legally become their new sex. - -References - -LGBT variations" -16075,61720,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Wikipedia,Spanish Wikipedia,"The Spanish Wikipedia (In Spanish: Wikipedia en Español) is a Spanish-language edition of Wikipedia. Started in May 2001, it is the 9th-largest Wikipedia by article count. The Spanish Wikipedia has about articles. - -References - -Other websites - - Spanish Wikipedia main page. - -Wikipedias -Spanish language" -13669,50581,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Catherine,St. Catherine,"There are nine St. Catherines: - -Saint Caterina Volpicelli (1839-1894) -Saint Catherine of Alexandria (4th century) -Saint Catherine of Bologna (1413–1463) -Saint Catherine of Genoa (circa 1447–1510) -Saint Catherine Laboure (1806–1876) -Saint Catherine of Ricci, O.P. (1522–1590) -Saint Catherine of Siena, O.P. (Doctor of the Church, 1347–1380) -Saint Catherine of Sweden (circa 1332–1381) -Saint Katharine Drexel (1858-1955) - -There is a - -St Catherine, Somerset -Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai -Saint Catherine Parish, Jamaica - -See also: - Sainte-Catherine - Santa Caterina" -20095,76874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni%20Lange,Antoni Lange,"Antoni Lange (1861 or 1863 – March 17, 1929), was a Polish poet, translator and mystic philosopher of the Symbolism and Parnassianism movements. He was regarded as a ""great master of reflective poetry"". He spoke 15 languages. His pen-names were Antoni Wrzesień and Napierski. Although Lange was not a particularly famed author, many people call him ""a magican of lyrical form"" because of his unquestionable mastery in using rare poetic forms and innovation,s which makes him a pioneer of modern collage and even imagism movement. - -As a religious thinker Lange was one of the first to make people interested in Indian philosophy and literature in Poland. His existential reflection of ""universal pain"" (wszechcierpienie) unites Christian mysticism with traditions of Buddhism. - -Lange was also an uncle of the poet Bolesław Leśmian. - -Life -He was born in 1861 or 1863 into a patriotic Jewish family who were heavily influenced by the messianic ideals of Romantic Polish poets, especially Adam Mickiewicz. In 1830, his father Henri Lange took part in the November Uprising. - -""Lange's own poems did not win him recognition, and the last phase of his life was poisoned by feelings of bitterness"". He never married and had no children. - -Works -Eternal solitaries - human souls, -Solitaries blown astray; -Each wanders through the Milky Way, -Each in her finite circle rolls. - -Like wandering planets they gaze -At one another in the sky's blue halls; -Each in her finite circle rolls, -But never from her orbit sways. - -Bibliography - -Poems - Sonety wedyckie (1887) - Pogrzeb Shelleya (1890) - Wenus żebracza (1890) - Ballady pijackie (1895) - Księgi proroków (1895) - Logos (1895) - Poezje (I – 1895; II – 1898) - Pogrobowcom (1901) - Świat (1901) - Fragmenta. Poezje wybrane (1901) - Pocałunki (1902) - Deuteronomion (1902) - Akteon (1903) - Księgi bogów (1903) - Rozmyślania (1906) - Pierwszy dzień stworzenia (1907) - XXVII sonetów (1914) - Ilia Muromiec (1916) - Trzeci dzień (1925) - Groteski. Wiersze ironiczne (1927) - Rozmyślania. Z nowej serii (1928) - Gdziekolwiek jesteś (1931) - Ostatni zbiór poezji (1931) - -Novels and short stories - Godzina (1894) - Elfryda: nowele i fantazje(1895) - Zbrodnia (1907) - Dwie bajki (1910) - Czterdzieści cztery (1910) - Stypa (1911) - W czwartym wymiarze (1912) - Miranda (1924) - Nowy Tarzan (1925) - Róża polna (1926) - Michałki (1926) - -Plays - Atylla (1898) - Wenedzi (1909) - Malczewski (1931) - -Essays - O sprzeczności sprawy żydowskiej (1890) - Analfabetyzm i walka z ciemnotą w Królestwie Polskim (1892) - O poezji współczesnej (1895) - Studia z literatury francuskiej (1897) - Studia i wrażenia (1900) - Lord Byron (1905) - Rzuty (1905) - Panteon literatury wszechświatowej (1921) - Pochodnie w mroku (1927) - -References - -1863 births -1929 deaths -Jewish writers -Polish novelists -20th-century Polish philosophers -Polish playwrights -Polish poets -Polish Jews -Polish translators -Writers from Warsaw" -24771,97046,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aon%20Center,Aon Center,"The Aon Center is the name of two buildings. - - Aon Center (Chicago) - Aon Center (Los Angeles)" -14461,54459,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan%20River,Jordan River,"The Jordan River ( , ) is a river in Southwest Asia that flows through the Great Rift Valley into the Dead Sea. Many people think it is one of the world's most sacred rivers. - -It is long. Its tributaries are: - The Hasbani (senir, hasbani), which flows from Lebanon. - The Banias ( hermon, banias), that comes from a spring at Banias at the foot of Mount Hermon. - The Dan ( dan, leddan) with its source at the foot of Mount Hermon. - The Ayoun ( ayoun, ayoun), which flows from Lebanon. - -The four rivers join to form the Jordan in northern Israel, near kibbutz Sede Nehemya. The Jordan drops quickly in a 75 kilometer run to Lake Hula, which is a little below sea level in the Galilee sea. Then it drops much more in about 25 kilometers to the Sea of Galilee. The last section has less gradient, and the river begins to twist before it enters the Dead Sea, which is about 400 meters below sea level and has no outlet. Two major tributaries enter this last section from the east: the Yarmouk River and Jabbok River. - -In 1964, Israel began operating a dam that takes water from the Sea of Galilee, a major Jordan River water provider, to the national water carrier. Also in 1964 Jordan built a channel that takes water from the Yarmouk River, a main tributary of the Jordan River. This caused great damage to the ecosystem. Syria has also built reservoirs that catch the Yarmouk's waters. - -In modern times, 70% to 90% of the waters is used for human purposes and the flow is much smaller. Because of this, and the high evaporation rate of the Dead Sea, the sea is shrinking. All the shallow waters of the southern end of the sea have been drained in modern times, and are now salt flats. - -The water from the Jordan is a very important resource to the dry lands of the area. It is a source of conflict between Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel and Palestine. - -In the Bible -In the Hebrew Bible, the Jordan is referred to as the source of fertility to a large plain (""Kikkar ha-Yarden""), called ""the garden of God"" (Genesis 13:10). There is no regular description of the Jordan in the Bible. -The New Testament states that John the Baptist baptized Jesus in the Jordan (Matt. 3:13). - -Symbolic importance -The Jordan is a frequent symbol in folk, gospel, and spiritual music, or in poetic or literary works. - -Because the Israelites made a difficult journey from slavery in Egypt to freedom in The Promised Land, the Jordan can be a symbol of freedom. The actual crossing is the final step of the journey, which is then complete. Also, the Jordan can mean death itself, with the crossing from life into Paradise or Heaven. - -References - -Other websites - - SMART - Multilateral project for sustainable water management in the lower Jordan Valley - An old map of the Jordan River from the 1800s - -Rivers of Israel -Geography of Jordan -Rivers of Syria -West Bank" -11691,42956,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Californium,Californium,"Californium is a chemical element. It is a radioactive metal. It has the chemical symbol Cf. It has the atomic number 98. Californium is a transuranium element. Californium does not have many uses. It was discovered by bombarding a curium target with alpha particles (helium ions). Californium is named after the US State of California, where it was discovered, in the University of Berkeley. - -Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators. -There are 20 known isotopes. The most stable is californium-251, which has a half-life of 898 years. This short half-life means the element is not found in the Earth's crust. Californium-252, whose half-life is 2.645 years, is the most common isotope used. - -Compounds of californium are mostly of californium(III), which can take part in three chemical bonds. Californium can be used to help start up nuclear reactors, and is used as a source of neutrons. It can be used in making higher mass elements. Ununoctium was synthesized by bombarding californium-249 atoms with calcium-48 ions. - -Safety -When californium is used, workers must be protected from the element's ability to disrupt the formation of red blood cells. - -References - -Actinides -Chemical elements" -22081,83884,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fislisbach,Fislisbach,"Fislisbach is a municipality of the district Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Aargau" -14862,56009,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose%20programming%20language,General-purpose programming language,"A General-purpose programming language (GPL) is a way to tell a computer what to do that makes a user's job easy and quick without much confusion. It is not restricted to only one field (e.g. HTML). GPLs can be used for many different things. An example can be BASIC, invented by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz in 1963. - -programming languages" -6206,19897,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildebeest,Wildebeest,"A wildebeest (or gnu) is an animal. It is a large hoofed mammal in the Bovidae family. There are two species of wildebeest. Both live in Africa. - -Taxonomy - Genus Connochaetes -Blue wildebeest or brindled gnu (Connochaetes taurinus) -Black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou) - -Size -Wildebeest grow to 1.15 to 1.40 metres (at the shoulder) and they weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms when they are fully grown. They live in the plains and open woodlands in southern Africa. The biggest herds can be found in the Serengeti. Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years. - -What they eat -Like other members of the same family (antelopes, deer and goats, amongst others), they mainly eat grass. But since in the African grasslands, there is not always grass, wildebeest are forced to migrate to find food all year round. In May, about 1.5 million animals move from the grasslands to the woods. In November they move back; there is grass in the plains in summer. - -Breeding and mating season - -The cows (female Gnus) will calve (give birth to the young) in summer in the plains. After the females have given birth, the breeding season begins. The dominant males mark off (and defend) some territory. They do this with feces, and with scent. - -Wildebeest are an important part of the ecosystem. With their feces, they fertilize the ground, and their trampling is good for new growth. They also provide food for predators, like lions and hyenas. - -References -The Columbia Encyclopedia - -Other websites - -The Great Migration , on migration patterns of the wildebeest -Wildebeest images - -Bovids" -15786,60434,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort%20women,Comfort women,"Comfort women were women and girls forced into sexual slavery. These women, mostly Korean, were forced by the Imperial Japanese Army in occupied territories before and during World War II. Estimates of the number of these ""comfort women"" range up to 20,000 while two-fifths of them were Japanese. Some Chinese scholars claim it to be as much as 410,000. - -References - -Military of Japan -World War II -Prostitution -Sexuality" -19067,72091,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane%20Hunters,Hurricane Hunters,"Hurricane Hunters are special aircraft that fly into or around a tropical cyclone to gather information (or data). Hurricane Hunters are only used to study tropical cyclones in the northern Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean. - -Other websites - 53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron homepage - 403rd Wing Homepage - Air Weather Reconnaissance Association homepage - NHC Reconnaissance data archive - The NOAA Aircraft Operations Center homepage - Navy Hurricane Hunters homepage - VW-1 All Hands Alumni Association homepage" -18177,68273,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishya,Vaishya,"Vaishya is a division of the caste system. A vaishya is a trader, merchant or artisan. - -Hinduism" -12145,44767,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hudson,Henry Hudson,"Henry Hudson (1565 – disappeared 23 June 1611) was an English explorer and navigator in the 1600s. He was well known for discovering the Hudson River and the Hudson Bay. - -Hudson was trying to find a northwest passage to Cathay (present day China). He tried twice before he found it. Hudson discovered the Hudson Bay and Hudson River in North America. He claimed the Hudson Bay for England along with other pieces of land. He was working for the Dutch when he found the Hudson River. He found it in 1609 when he was looking for a way to get from North America to Asia by water. This was named the Northwest Passage. Hudson was believed to go to Harvard Law school where he learned a variety of subjects including navigation, seamanship, astronomy, mathematics and cartography. - -References - -1556 births -1611 deaths -English explorers -Sailors" -5149,16500,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish%20and%20chips,Fish and chips,"Fish and chips is a traditional British food that originally came from the UK. It is a popular kind of fast food in some parts of the world. As the name says, it is made of chips and a deep fried fish fillet. -Shops and restaurants that have fish and chips are easy to find in Australia and New Zealand. They are most common in England. The first Fish and Chips were found in the East end of London in the late 19th Century. So they are not as traditional as we think. - -The fish -Traditionally, cod, haddock, or (rarely) flounder are used to make fish and chips. Of these, cod is by far the most popular. Other fish with white meat can be used as well, for example whiting or plaice. Many places that serve fish and chips have more than one kind of fish. The customers can then choose what kind of fish they want... - -The fish is always dipped in batter, which is a kind of liquid mixture which hardens upon frying. After that, it will be fried for a short time. The phrase 'fish & chips' implies that it will be fried in batter; of course, in a fish restaurant, grilling or boiling would be alternatives. Fish cooked like that do not have batter. Typically Fish and Chips is eaten with lots of vinegar and salt. - -The chips -The chips are made from sliced potatoes. They are larger than French fries. Large slices of potatoes are fried. - -Other side-dishes -Very often there are other side-dishes that are served with Fish and chips (also called a 'chippie' or 'fish shop'). They include mushy peas, onions, gherkins(which are baby cucumbers),baked beans and saveloys (long sausages). Sometimes, you can ask for 'scrapings' which are the bits of crunchy batter that have fallen off the fish when it was frying. -In Northern England there is also the variety chips and gravy (a little sauce) on the chips. It is less common in the rest of the country but sometimes you can also find 'curry sauce' in other parts of the UK. In Australia and New Zealand, fish and chip takeaway shops often offer sides like corn dogs and grilled cheese sandwich's. - -Other things to note - -Fish and chips are also sold out of mobile shops. Very often the shops and restaurants that serve fish and chips do not have a license to serve alcohol. Some nutritionists criticize fish and chips, because the meal contains a large amount of fat. - -Other websites - - - -Seafood dishes -British food -Fried foods" -17785,67111,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubmoss,Clubmoss,"Clubmosses are a group of plants in the Lycopodiophyta, which are the most ancient group of land plants. The clubmosses are an order Lycopodiales, (or a subclass Lycopodiopsida). - -Clubmosses are thought to be structurally similar to the earliest vascular plants, with small, scale-like leaves, homosporous spores borne in sporangia at the bases of the leaves, branching stems (usually dichotomous), and generally simple form. - -A powder known simply as lycopodium, consisting of dried spores of the common clubmoss, was used in Victorian theater to produce flame-effects. A blown cloud of spores burned rapidly and brightly, but with little heat. It was considered safe by the standards of the time. - -Taxonomy -The group is now split into two families: -Lycopodiaceae: the typical clubmosses. Their spores are on a club-like structure. Their typical chromosome count is n=34. -Huperziaceae: the firmosses. Their spore-bearing structures are in the axils of unmodified leaves. The family has a basal chromosome count of n=67. - -Vascular plants -Plant taxonomy" -3158,9841,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2015,February 15," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1637 - Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned. - 1690 - Constantin Cremer, Prince of Moldavia, and the Holy Roman Empire sign a secret treaty in Sitiu. - 1760 - British ship HMS Ramilles strands at Bolt Head near Plymouth, England, after a navigation error. Around 700 people on board are killed. 26 survive. - 1764 – The city of St. Louis, Missouri is established. - 1786 - The ""Cat's Eye"" nebula is discovered by William Herschel. - 1794 - The Tricolore becomes the national flag of France. - 1798 - The Roman Republic is proclaimed after Louis Alexandre Berthier, a general of Napoleon Bonaparte, had invaded the city of Rome five days earlier. - 1804 - The Serbian Revolution begins. - 1835 – The first constitutional law in modern Serbia is adopted. - 1855 - French frigate La Semillante breaks apart in the Strait of Bonifacio between Corsica and Sardinia, killing all 693 people on board. - 1862 - American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant attacks Fort Donelson, Tennessee. - 1879 - Women's rights: US President Rutherford B. Hayes signs a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases at the United States Supreme Court. - 1898 - Spanish-American War: The USS Maine explodes and sinks in Havana, Cuba, killing over 260 people. This leads to the US declaring war on Spain. - -1901 2000 - 1901 - Peruvian football club Alianza Lima is founded under the name ""Sport Alianza"". - 1909 - The Flores Theater fire in Acapulco, Mexico, kills 250 people. - 1923 - Greece adopts the Gregorian calendar, becoming the last European country to do so. - 1925 - 1925 Serum Run to Nome, Alaska: The serum arrives in Nome, Alaska, with Balto as the lead dog of the last team. - 1933 - In Miami, Giuseppe Zangara tries to kill President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt but instead shoots Mayor of Chicago Anton J. Cermak, who dies on March 6. - 1942 - World War II: Singapore falls to the Japanese. - 1944 – World War II: The assault on Monte Cassino in Italy begins. - 1945 - World War II: Third day of the Fire Bombing of Dresden. - 1946 - ENIAC, the first electronic general-purpose computer is formally dedicated at the University of Pennsylvania. - 1952 - The funeral of King George VI of the United Kingdom is held in London. - 1953 - Liechtenstein holds its first parliamentary election. - 1956 – Urho Kekkonen is elected President of Finland. - 1961 - Sabena Flight 548 crashes in Belgium, killing 73 people, including the entire US figure skating team. - 1965 – The Maple Leaf flag becomes Canada's flag - 1967 – Chicago, a musical group forms. - 1970 - A Dominican DC-9 airplane crashes into the sea shortly after take-off from Santo Domingo, killing 102 people. - 1971 – Britain adopts decimal currency. - 1972 - Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra, President of Ecuador, is overthrown by a military coup. - 1979 - Don Dunstan resigns as Premier of South Australia. - 1989 – The last Soviet troops leave Afghanistan. - 1994 - A magnitude 6.9 earthquake strikes Sumatra, killing 207 people. - 1996 - The tanker Sea Empress runs aground at Milford Haven, South Wales, leaking oil. - 2000 - The European Union starts membership talks with Slovakia, Latvia and Bulgaria. - -From 2001 - 2001 - The first draft of the complete human genome is published in the Nature journal. - 2003 – Millions of people around the world protest against the planned US-led invasion of Iraq. - 2005 – YouTube is founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen and Jawed Karim. - 2012 - A major fire at a prison in Honduras kills over 360 people. - 2013 - 2013 Russian meteor event: A meteor crashes down over Chelyabinsk, Russia, shattering windows and injuring over 1,000 people. Coincidentally, near-Earth asteroid 2012 DA14 passed within 27,700 kilometers of distance to Earth's surface later on this date. - -Births - -Up to 1825 - 1368 - Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1437) - 1377 - Ladislaus of Naples (died 1414) - 1458 - Ivan the Young, son of Ivan III of Russia (died 1490) - 1471 - Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici, Italian ruler (died 1503) - 1564 – Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer and mathematician (died 1642) - 1571 – Michael Praetorius, German composer (died 1621) - 1620 - Francois Charpentier, French archaeologist (died 1702) - 1621 - Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, French founder of Montreal (died 1676) - 1710 – King Louis XV of France (died 1774) - 1725 - Abraham Clark, American founding father (died 1794) - 1739 - Alexander-Theodore Brogniart, French architect (died 1813) - 1748 – Jeremy Bentham, English philosopher (died 1832) - 1751 - Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, German painter (died 1829) - 1759 - Friedrich August Wolf, German archaeologist (died 1824) - 1760 - Jean-François Le Sueur, French composer (died 1837) - 1774 - Prince Frederick of Orange-Nassau (died 1799) - 1792 - Floride Calhoun, Second Lady of the United States (died 1866) - 1803 - John Sutter, Swiss-American pioneer (died 1880) - 1809 - André Dumont, Belgian geologist (died 1857) - 1809 - Cyrus McCormack, American inventor (died 1884) - 1811 - Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, President of Argentina (died 1888) - 1812 – Charles Lewis Tiffany, American jeweller (died 1902) - 1813 - Fredrick Holbrook, Governor of Vermont (died 1909) - 1820 – Susan B. Anthony, American women's civil rights leader (died 1906) - 1820 - Arvid Posse, Prime Minister of Sweden (died 1901) - 1825 - Carter Harrison, Sr., Mayor of Chicago (died 1893) - -1826 1900 - 1826 - George Johnstone Stoney, Irish physicist (d. 1911) - 1831 - Adolf Deucher, Swiss politician (d. 1912) - 1834 - Vasile Alexandrescu Urechia, Moldovan-Romanian politician, historian and writer (died 1901) - 1835 - Demetrius Vikelas, Greek sports official (died 1908) - 1835 - Nguyen Khuyen, Vietnamese scholar, poet and teacher (died 1909) - 1840 - Titu Maiorescu, Prime Minister of Romania (died 1917) - 1841 - Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, Brazilian politician (died 1913) - 1845 – Elihu Root, American politician (died 1937) - 1847 - Robert Fuchs, Austrian composer (died 1927) - 1851 - Spiru Haret, Romanian-American mathematician, astronomer and politician (died 1912) - 1856 - Emil Kraepelin, German psychiatrist (died 1926) - 1858 - William Henry Pickering, American astronomer (died 1938) - 1859 - Louis-Joseph Maurin, French cardinal (died 1936) - 1860 - Scott C. Pone, American Territorial Governor of Alaska (died 1936) - 1861 – Charles Edouard Guillaume, French physicist (died 1938) - 1861 – Alfred North Whitehead, British philosopher and mathematician (died 1947) - 1861 - Billy Adams, 24th Governor of Colorado (died 1954) - 1873 – Hans von Euler-Chelpin, German chemist (died 1964) - 1874 – Ernest Shackleton, Irish Antarctic explorer (died 1922) - 1877 - Louis Renault, French automobile executive (died 1944) - 1890 - Robert Ley, German Nazi official (died 1945) - 1891 - Dino Borgioli, Italian lyric tenor (died 1960) - 1892 - James Forrestal, United States Secretary of the Navy (died 1949) - 1893 - Walter Donaldson, American songwriter (died 1947) - 1899 - Gale Sondergaard, American actress (died 1985) - -1901 1950 - 1904 - Antonin Magne, French cyclist (died 1893) - 1905 – Harold Arlen, American composer (died 1986) - 1907 - Jean Langlais, French composer and organist (died 1991) - 1907 – Cesar Romero, American actor (died 1994) - 1908 - Sarto Fournier, 38th Mayor of Montreal (died 1980) - 1908 - Toto, Italian actor (died 1967) - 1909 – Miep Gies, Dutch helper of Anne Frank and other Jews (died 2010) - 1909 - Guillermo Gorostiza, Spanish footballer (died 1966) - 1910 – Irena Sendler, Polish humanitarian (died 2008) - 1910 – Stanley Vann, British musician (died 2010) - 1912 - Andrei Lupan, Moldovan writer and politician (died 1992) - 1913 - Erich Eliskases, Austrian chess player (died 1997) - 1914 - Hale Boggs, American politician (died 1972) - 1914 – Kevin McCarthy, American actor (died 2010) - 1916 - Mary Jane Croft, American actress - 1917 - Gösta Andersson, Swedish wrestler (died 1975) - 1920 - Endicott Peabody, Governor of Massachusetts (died 1997) - 1922 - John B. Anderson, American politician - 1923 - Yelena Bonner, Russian activist (died 2011) - 1927 - Carlo Maria Martini, Italian cardinal (died 2012) - 1928 - Norman Bridwell, American author and cartoonist (died 2014) - 1929 - Graham Hill, British racing driver (died 1975) - 1929 - James R. Schlesinger, American politician (died 2014) - 1931 – Claire Bloom, British actress - 1934 - Niklaus Wirth, Swiss computer scientist - 1935 – Roger Chaffee, American astronaut (died 1967) - 1939 - Robert Hansen, American serial killer (died 2014) - 1940 - Hamzah Haz, 9th Vice President of Indonesia - 1941 - Florinda Bolkan, Brazilian actress - 1944 - Mick Avory, English drummer (The Kinks) - 1945 - John Helliwell, English musician (Supertramp) - 1946 - Clare Short, British politician - 1947 - Marisa Berenson, American actress - 1948 – Art Spiegelman, American cartoonist - 1948 - Tino Insana, American actor, writer and movie producer - 1948 - Bernd Pischetsrieder, German automobile engineer and manager - 1949 - Francisco Maturana, Colombian footballer - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Jane Seymour, British actress - 1951 – Melissa Manchester, American singer - 1952 – Tomislav Nikolic, President of Serbia - 1953 – Derek Conway, English politician - 1954 – Matt Groening, American writer and cartoonist, creator of The Simpsons and Futurama - 1954 – Armand Parmentier, Belgian athlete - 1955 – Janice Dickinson, American supermodel - 1955 – Christopher McDonald, American actor - 1956 – Hitoshi Ogawa, Japanese racing driver (died 1992) - 1956 – Desmond Haynes, Barbadian cricketer - 1957 – Jimmy Spencer, American racing driver - 1959 – Ali Campbell, British musician (UB40) - 1959 – Martin Rowson, English author and illustrator - 1960 – Mikey Craig, English musician (Culture Club) - 1960 – Roman Kostrzewski, Polish musician - 1961 – Neale Daniher, Australian rules footballer - 1962 – Milo Dukanovic, 29th Prime Minister of Montenegro - 1964 – Chris Farley, American comedian (died 1997) - 1964 – Leland D. Melvin, American engineer and astronaut - 1964 – Mark Price, American basketball player and coach - 1967 – Craig Simpson, Canadian ice hockey player - 1968 – Gloria Trevi, Mexican singer and actress - 1972 – Anna-Jane Casey, English actress, writer and dancer - 1972 – Jaromir Jagr, Czech ice hockey player - 1973 – Katerina Neumannova, Czech cross-country skier - 1973 – Alex Borstein, American actress - 1973 – Amy Van Dyken, American swimmer - 1974 – Toni Puutansuu, Finnish singer (Lordi) - 1974 – Omarosa Manigault Newman, American businesswoman and actress - 1974 – Miranda July, American actress, screenwriter and director - -From 1976 - 1976 - Brandon Boyd, American musician - 1976 - Oscar Freire, Spanish cyclist - 1976 - Giorgos Karagoutis, Greek basketball player - 1976 - Ronnie Vannucci, Jr., American musician (The Killers) - 1979 – Scott Severin, Scottish footballer - 1980 - Conor Oberst, American singer and songwriter - 1980 - Josh Sole, New Zealand-Italian rugby player - 1981 – Heurelho Gomes, Brazilian footballer - 1981 - Olivia, American singer - 1981 - Rita Jeptoo, Kenyan runner - 1983 – David Degen, Swiss footballer - 1983 – Philipp Degen, Swiss footballer - 1983 - Ashley Tesoro, American actress and singer - 1984 - Dorota Rabczewska, Polish singer - 1986 - Valeri Bojinov, Bulgarian footballer - 1986 - Gabriel Paletta, Argentine footballer - 1986 - Amber Riley, American actress and singer - 1987 - Jarrod Sammut, Australian rugby player - 1988 - Hironori Kusano, Japanese singer - 1988 - Rui Patricio, Portuguese footballer - 1988 - Tim Mannah, Australian rugby player - 1990 - Erwin Sak, Polish footballer - 1990 - Charles Pic, French racing driver - 1990 - Stephanie Vogt, Liechtenstein tennis player - 1991 - Angel Sepulveda, Mexican footballer - 1991 - Panagiotis Tachtsidis, Greek footballer - 1992 - Greer Grammer, American actress - 1995 - Sara Daebritz, German footballer - 1998 - Zachary Gordon, American actor - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 670 - Oswiu of Northumbria (b. 612) - 706 - Leontios, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire - 706 - Tiberios III, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire - 1145 – Pope Lucius II - 1152 - Conrad, Holy Roman Emperor - 1621 – Michael Praetorius, German composer (b. 1571) - 1637 – Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1578) - 1738 – Matthias Braun, Czech sculptor (b. 1684) - 1775 – Peter Dens, Belgian Catholic theologian (b. 1690) - 1781 – Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, German writer and philosopher (b. 1729) - 1818 – Friedrich Ludwig, Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, Prussian general (b. 1746) - 1835 – Henry Hunt, British politician (b. 1773) - 1844 - Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1757) - 1847 – Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician (b. 1794) - 1848 – Hermann von Boyen, Prussian field marshal (b. 1771) - 1849 – Pierre François Verhulst, Belgian mathematician (b. 1804) - 1857 – Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer (b. 1804) - 1864 - Adam Wilhelm Moltke, Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1785) - 1869 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu (b. 1796) - 1897 - Dimitrie Ghica, Romanian politician (b. 1816) - -1901 2000 - 1905 - Lew Wallace, American politician (b. 1827) - 1911 - Theodor Escherich, German paediatrician (b. 1859) - 1919 - André Prévost, French tennis player (b. 1880) - 1924 - Lionel Monckton, English composer (b. 1861) - 1926 – Piero Gobetti, Italian publisher, activist and politician (b. 1901) - 1928 – H. H. Asquith, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1852) - 1932 – Minnie Maddern Fiske, Broadway actress (b. 1865) - 1933 - Pat Sullivan, Australian cartoonist, animator and producer (b. 1887) - 1953 - Karl Staaf, Swedish athlete (b. 1881) - 1959 – Owen Willans Richardson, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1879) - 1961 - Bradley Lord, American figure skater (b. 1939) - 1961 - Laurence Owen, American figure skater (b. 1944) - 1964 – Robert L. Thornton, American businessman, philanthropist, and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. 1880) - 1965 – Nat King Cole, American singer and musician (b. 1919) - 1966 – Gerard Ciołek, Polish architect and historian of gardens (b. 1909) - 1967 - William Christian Bullitt, Jr., American diplomat (b. 1891) - 1968 - Little Walter, American singer and guitarist (b. 1930) - 1970 - Hugh Dowding, English RAF commander (b. 1882) - 1973 – Wally Cox, American actor (b. 1924) - 1973 – Tim Holt, American actor (b. 1919) - 1974 – Kurt Atterberg, Swedish composer (b. 1887) - 1981 – Mike Bloomfield, American musician (b. 1944) - 1981 – Karl Richter, German conductor (b. 1926) - 1984 – Ethel Merman, American singer and actress (b. 1908) - 1988 – Richard Feynman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) - 1991 - Birger Malmsten, Swedish actor (b. 1920) - 1996 – Tommy Rettig, American actor (b. 1941) - 1996 – McLean Stevenson, American actor (b. 1929) - 1999 – Big L (Lamont Coleman), American rapper (b. 1974) - 1999 – Henry Way Kendall, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1926) - 2000 - Angus MacLean, 25th Premier of Prince Edward Island (b. 1914) - -From 2001 - 2002 – Howard K. Smith, American journalist (b. 1914) - 2002 – Kevin Smith, New Zealand actor (b. 1963) - 2004 – Jens Evensen, Norwegian minister and International Court of Justice judge (b. 1917) - 2004 – Jan Miner, American actress (b. 1917) - 2004 - Hasse Ekman, Swedish actor and director (b. 1915) - 2005 – Samuel Francis, American journalist (b. 1947) - 2005 - Pierre Bachelet, French singer and songwriter (b. 1944) - 2007 - Ray Evans, American songwriter (b. 1915) - 2013 - Todor Kolev, Bulgarian actor (b. 1939) - 2014 - Federico Campbell, Mexican writer (b. 1941) - 2014 - Christopher Malcolm, Scottish actor (b. 1946) - 2015 - Steve Montador, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1979) - 2015 - Haron Amin, Afghan diplomat (b. 1969) - 2015 - Eileen Essell, English actress (b. 1922) - 2016 - Vanity, Canadian singer (b. 1959) - 2016 - Fighton Simukonda, Zambian footballer (b. 1958) - 2016 - George Gaynes, Finnish-born American actor (b. 1917) - 2016 - Salman Natour, Israeli-Palestinian author (b. 1949) - 2017 - Infante Henrique, Duke of Coimbra, Portuguese royal (b. 1949) - 2017 - Manfred Kaiser, German footballer (b. 1929) - 2017 - Stuart McLean, Canadian radio broadcaster (b. 1948) - -Observances - Day of the Flag of Canada - Liberation Day (Afghanistan) - National Day (Serbia) - Candlemas (Eastern Orthodox Church) - -Days of the year" -15255,57769,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacine,Thylacine,"Thylacine was a carnivorous (mainly meat eating) marsupial animal. The Thylacine was also known as a Tasmanian tiger, a Tasmanian wolf and a Tasmanian hyena. The last known Thylacine died in a Hobart zoo on 7 September 1936. They once lived across Australia and New Guinea. There are paintings of the animals in the north of Western Australia, and in the Northern Territory. At Riversleigh in north Queensland, scientists have discovered the fossil bones of thylacines that are at least 30 million years old. - -Extinction -Thylacines were common across Australia. Fossil remains have been found in Queensland, paintings have been found in Western Australia, and a mummified body was found in cave on the Nullabor Plain in South Australia. The body was dated as being 4,650 years old. The thylacine began to disappear from the Australian mainland about 5,000 years ago. This is about the same time as the arrival in Australia of the dingo. Because of rising sea levels 10,000 years ago, Tasmania was separated from the Australian mainland by Bass Strait which the dingo never crossed. By the time Europeans came to Australia in 1788, the Thylacine was only living in Tasmania. - -Sailors on Abel Tasman's ship in November 1642 reported seeing ""tygr"" footprints. The French explorer, Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux, found a thylacine jaw bone in 1792. On May 13, 1792, he made the first confirmed sighting, which was described as being the size of a large dog, streaked with black. In 1805, Lieutenant Governor Paterson sent a description of a thylacine to Sydney. He said the animal was rare and uncommon. - -Thylacines were hunted because farmers said they were killing sheep. The Tasmanian government gave money to farmers for each thylacine they killed. The last thylacine shot and killed was at Mawbanna, Tasmania, on 13 May, 1930, by farmer Wilfred Batty. The government brought in laws to protect them a few months before the last one died. They are now extinct, which means there are no thylacines left alive anywhere in the world. - -Appearance -The Thylacine was about 1.8 metres (71 inches) long and its tail was up to 53 cms (21 inches) long. It would have been about 58 centimetres (23 inches) tall and could be up to 30 kilograms (66 pounds) in weight. It was grey and brown in colour with 16 black or brown stripes on its back. It had the same shape as a dog, but the back, rump and tail were more like a kangaroo. Its tail was quite stiff. It had very short legs. It had teeth like a dog, but with more incisor teeth. The Thylacine was able to open its mouth about 120 degrees. - -The thylacine was a nocturnal (night) hunting animal. They ate wallabies, rats, birds, echidnas, rabbits and sheep. - -The thylacines were marsupials, which means the female carried the babies in a pouch. The pouch opened to the rear. - -Other websites - The Thylacine Museum - -References - -Dasyuromorphia -Marsupials of Australia" -16293,62675,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan%20prime,Ramanujan prime,"In mathematics, a Ramanujan prime is a prime number that satisfies a result proven by Srinivasa Ramanujan. It relates to the prime counting function. - -Origins and definition -In 1919, Ramanujan published a new proof of Bertrand's postulate (which had already been proven by Pafnuty Chebyshev). - -Ramanujan's result at the end of the paper was: - - ≥ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... for all x ≥ 2, 11, 17, 29, 41, ... - -where (x) is the prime counting function. The prime counting function is the number of primes less than or equal to x. - -The numbers 2, 11, 17, 29, 41 are first few Ramanujan primes. In other words: - -Ramanujan primes are the integers Rn that are the smallest to satisfy the condition - ≥ n, for all x ≥ Rn - -Classes of prime numbers" -21737,82867,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las%20Vegas%20Raiders,Las Vegas Raiders,"{{NFL team| name = Las Vegas Raiders -| current= 2020 Las Vegas Raiders season -| helmet = -| founded =1960 -| city = Allegiant StadiumParadise, Nevada -| misc = Headquartered in Alameda, California -| nicknames = -The Silver and Black -The Team of the Decades -The Third World's Team -America's Most Wanted -| uniform = -| colors = Silver, Black - -| mascot = The Black Hole -| coach = Jon Gruden -| owner = Mark Davis (majority owner) -| ceo = Amy Trask -| general manager = Mike Maylock -| hist_yr = 1995 -| song = The Autumn Wind -| hist_misc = - Oakland Raiders (1960–1981) - Los Angeles Raiders (1982–1994) -| affiliate_old = -American Football League (1960–1969) -Western Division (1960–1969) -| NFL_start_yr = 1970 -| division_hist = -American Football Conference (1970–present) -AFC West (1970–present) -| no_league_champs = 3† -| no_sb_champs =3 -| no_conf_champs =4 -| no_div_champs =15 -| league_champs = -AFL Championships (1)1967 (VIII) -| no_pre1970sb_champs = 0 -| pre1970sb_champs = -| conf_champs = -AFC: 1976, 1980, 1983, 2002 -| sb_champs = 1976 (XI), 1980 (XV), 1983 (XVIII) -| div_champs = -AFL West: 1967, 1968, 1969 -AFC West: 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1983, 1985, 1990, 2000, 2001, 2002 -† - Does not include the AFL or NFL Championships won during the same seasons as the AFL-NFL Super Bowl Championships prior to the 1970 AFL-NFL Merger -| playoff_appearances = AFL: 1967, 1968, 1969 -NFL: 1970, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1990, 1991, 1993, 2000, 2001, 2002 -| no_playoff_appearances = 21 -| stadium_years = -Kezar Stadium (1960) -Candlestick Park (1961) -Frank Youell Field (1962–1965) -Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1982–1994) -Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum (1966–1981, 1995–2019) -Allegiant Stadium (2020) -}} -The Las Vegas Raiders are a professional American football team in the National Football League. They play in Paradise, Nevada, USA. Their stadium is Allegiant Stadium. They were created in 1960 as a new American Football League team. They play in the Western Division of the American Football Conference. Division rivals are Denver Broncos, Kansas City Chiefs, and Los Angeles Chargers. The Raiders have won three Super Bowls. - -Team history - -American Football League years (1960-1969) -A few months after the AFL's first draft in 1959, owners of the Minneapolis new team (later known as the Minnesota Vikings) accepted the invitation to join the National Football League. Needing a replacement, the AFL tried to find one quickly. Oakland was thought to be an unlikely city to have a professional American football team. The AFL owners picked Oakland after Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton threatened to drop his team unless a second team was placed on the West Coast. The city of Oakland was awarded the eighth AFL team on January 30, 1960, and the team took over the Minneapolis club's draft picks. The new Oakland team was called the ""Raiders"", which is used as a synonym for a pirate. The team logo includes an illustration of a pirate. - -In the early years, the Raiders struggled. When Al Davis came in as head coach and general manager, the Raiders got better. Davis hired John Rauch and went to the their first AFL Championship against the Houston Oilers and won it 40-7. After winning their first AFL championship they earned a shot at Super Bowl II and lost to Green Bay Packers 33-14. The next two years, the Raiders again won Western Division titles, only to lose the AFL Championship to the eventual Super Bowl winners—the New York Jets (1968) and Kansas City Chiefs (1969). - -National Football League years (1970-present) -After the 1969 season, the AFL decided to merge with the NFL. The Raiders join the American Football Conference as a Western Division member. John Madden was hired as head coach. Madden took the Raiders to their first Super Bowl win against Minnesota Vikings 32-14 in Super Bowl XI. Later, Madden left for a commentary career. The Raiders hired Tom Flores, the first Hispanic head coach in NFL history. Flores took the Raiders for their second Super Bowl win against Philadelphia Eagles 27 10 in Super Bowl XV. The Raiders became the first wild card team to win a Super Bowl. - -Los Angeles Raiders (1982-1995) -Al Davis signed a note to make the Raiders move to Los Angeles. The Raiders won their third Super Bowl against the Washington Redskins. - -Oakland Raiders (1995-2020) -The Raiders move back to Oakland. The Raiders have struggled since 2003 season after losing to the Tampa Bay Buccanears in Super Bowl XXXVII. They returned to the playoffs in 2016, but lost in the first round to the Houston Texans. They played their final year in Oakland in 2019 before moving to Las Vegas in 2020. - -Las Vegas Raiders (2020-present) -The Raiders moved to Las Vegas in the 2020 season. They finished their inaugural season in Las Vegas with 8 wins and 8 losses. - -Season-by-season records -Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties - -+ = Due to a strike-shortened season in 1982, all teams were ranked by conference instead of division. - -Notes and References - -Other websites - Official website - -National Football League teams -Sports in Los Angeles -Sports in Oakland, California -Alameda, California -1960 establishments in California -Las Vegas, Nevada" -18915,71109,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionic%20Woman%20%282007%20TV%20series%29,Bionic Woman (2007 TV series),"Bionic Woman is a science fiction television series which started on the NBC network on September 26, 2007. The series is a modern version of the 1976 The Bionic Woman series. - -The series is about Jaime Sommers, a bartender who is hurt in a car accident. Her boyfriend, Will Anthros, brings her to a secret laboratory. Jaime's life is saved, but Will has to replace her legs, right arm, eye and ear with mechanical parts. Jaime has to adjust to her new life as a superhero. - -Other websites -Official NBC site - -American science fiction television series -NBC network shows -English-language television programs" -19063,72079,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928%20Summer%20Olympics,1928 Summer Olympics,"The 1928 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IX Olympiad, were held at Amsterdam in the Netherlands. - -The games were thought to be a success. Half of the expense of the games was covered by the Dutch government. - -Participating nations -A total of 46 nations were represented at the Amsterdam Games. Malta, Panama, and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) competed at the Olympic Games for the first time. Germany returned after having been banned in 1920 and 1924. - -Related pages - List of IOC country codes - -References - -Other websites - - Amsterdam 1928 at Olympic.org - -Olympics -Summer Olympics in Europe -Sport in the Netherlands -History of Amsterdam -20th century in the Netherlands -1928 in Europe" -17034,64665,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home%20Alone,Home Alone,"Home Alone is a 1990 American comedy action movie mostly set in Chicago, Illinois, Paris, Dallas, and Scranton. It was written and produced by 20th Century Fox by John Hughes and directed by Chris Columbus. It stars Macaulay Culkin and features Joe Pesci, Daniel Stern, John Heard, Catherine O'Hara, Roberts Blossom, and John Candy. - -The film follows Kevin McCallister (Macaulay Culkin), an eight-year old boy who is mistakenly left behind by his family when they go on a vacation to France, over Christmas. While his family is gone, Kevin initially relishes being alone and learns to take care of himself, but soon his excitement sours as he must stop two bumbling burglars, Harry (Joe Pesci) and Marv (Daniel Stern), who are planning to rob every house in his neighborhood, from trying to burgle his house too by setting up a series of booby traps. After falling for most of Kevin's booby traps, Harry and Marv trap him in a vacant house that they robbed earlier and plan to kill Kevin, but his elderly friendly neighbor, Old Man Marley (Roberts Blossom), sneaks in, knocks them unconscious with his snow shovel, takes Kevin home, and the burglars get arrested. The next morning, it is Christmas and Kevin's parents and siblings come back, while his aunt, uncle, and cousins are still in France. - -The film was very popular and was followed by five sequels (two theatrical sequels, two made-for-television films, and one reboot): Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). This film brought back most of the original film's cast and has a similar plot and continuity. Home Alone 3 (1997) had different kids and villains. Home Alone 4: Taking Back the House (2002) is the first made-for-television movie and features some of the main characters from the first two films, but with a new cast. Like Home Alone 3, Home Alone 5: The Holiday Heist (2012) doesn't revolve around Kevin, but with newer characters and is the second made-for-television movie. A reboot of the film titled Home Sweet Home Alone released on November 12, 2021. - -In its opening weekend, Home Alone grossed $17 milliion in 1,202 theaters. The film was nominated for Best Original Score and for Best Original Song. - -Composer John Williams wrote the music for the movie, as well as Home Alone 2, and some popular songs that have already existed were played during the movie as well. - -References - -Other websites - -1990 comedy movies -1990 crime movies -1990s criminal comedy movies -1990s family movies -American criminal comedy movies -American crime movies -American family movies -Christmas movies -English-language movies -Movies about dysfunctional families -Movies composed by John Williams -Movies produced by John Hughes -Movies set in Los Angeles -Movies set in San Diego, California -Movies directed by Chris Columbus" -12868,47251,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacheron%20Constantin,Vacheron Constantin,"Vacheron Constantin is a Swiss watch manufacture. It is a part of the Richemont group since 1996. The brand's watch factory is based in Geneva. Vacheron Constantin opened 15 boutiques and 500 shops in 80 countries of the world. Vacheron Constantin is one of the oldest watchmakers. - -History - -18th century -Jean-Marc Vacheron opened the first workshop in Geneva, Switzerland in 1755. In 1770 the company introduced the first complication (an additional function of a watch besides showing hours and minutes). - -The son of Jean-Marc Vacheron, Abraham, became the head of the family business in 1785. - -19th century - -In 1810, Jacques-Barthélemy, the grandson of the founder continued the business. He controlled the company's exports of watches to France and Italy. - -In 1819 Francois Constantinin became the partner of Vacheron. The name of the company became – ""Vacheron & Constantin"". Francois Constantin traveled a lot and opened new markets for the company. The main market was North America. Francois wrote the company's motto - Do better if possible and that is always possible. It is kept till the present day. - -In 1839 Georges-Auguste Leschot joined ""Vacheron & Constantin"". He headed the manufacturing process. Leschot's inventions brought great success to the company and watchmaking in general. Leschot invented a device that made possible mechanical production of some watch parts. It helped the company leave behind other watchmakers. - -After Francois Constantin and Jacques-Barthélemy Vacheron died, the company was headed by their heirs. Since 1862 Vacheron Constantin explores the field of non-magnetic materials. In 1885, it produced the first anti-magnetic watch. The watch could resist magnetic fields. - -In 1877 the company officially changed the name for ""Vacheron & Constantin, Fabricants, Geneve"". The same year the company chose its symbol - the Maltese cross.In 1887, Vacheron Constantin became a stock company. - -20th century -The first Vacheron Constantin boutique was opened in Geneva in 1906. Today the store is situated on Quai de l’Ile. Charles Constantin headed the company in 1936. He led it through the Great Depression period. For the first time since 1850s a Constantin family member became the president of the company. When the World War II was over, the company got back its firm position on the watch market. - -The history of Vacheron Constantin saw a lot of innovations. The brand's classic Patrimony line was started with the thinnest watch. Its case was only 5.25mm thick. In 1979 Vacheron Constantin created the most expensive wristwatch with initial price of $5 million. The watch named Kallista had 118 diamonds. Today its price is $11 million. - -Recent years -At present day Vacheron Constantin produces about 20,000 watches every year. In 2003 Vacheron Constantin presented a new sports watch line - Overseas. In 2005 the company introduced a new Egérie collection. The collection included women's watches for the first time. - -In 2005, Juan Carlos Torres became the Chief of the Vacheron Constantin Company. The same year Vacheron Constantin produced the most complicated wristwatch - Tour de I'lle. The watch consisted of 834 parts and had 16 complications (additional functions). Its price reached over $1 million. In 2006 the company opened a new main office in Genevan Plan-les-Ouates. - -Other websites - Vacheron Constantin - Facts of Life - Other facts from the life of the manufactory - Kallista - The Most Wonderful Legend - Information about the most expensive watch in the world - Vacheron Constantin - The Oldest Watchmaking Company? - Disputing the fact that Vacheron Constantin is the oldest watchmaker - -Companies of Switzerland -Geneva" -12352,45571,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive,Olive,"Olive can mean the things below: - - Olive (fruit), the fruits of the olive tree -Olive (color), the colour of these fruits" -8499,28868,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Earthquakes,San Jose Earthquakes,"The San Jose Earthquakes are an American soccer team that plays in Major League Soccer in San Jose, California. In December 2005, they moved to Houston, Texas to become the Houston Dynamo. Failure to secure funding for a new stadium caused the team to move. In July 2007, they were granted an expansion team, which would bring them back in 2008. From 1994 to 1999 they were known as the San Jose Clash. By agreement between MLS, the Dynamo, and the Earthquakes, the history of the original San Jose franchise belongs to the current Earthquakes. - -Name - 1994-1999 San Jose Clash - 1999-present San Jose Earthquakes - -League title - Major League Soccer : 2 - 2001, 2003 - -League position - -References - -American soccer teams -Sports in San Jose, California -Major League Soccer teams -1994 establishments in California" -23005,87418,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Ockeghem,Johannes Ockeghem,"Johannes Ockeghem (born Saint-Ghislain, near Mons, Belgium about 1410; died Tours, France, 6 February 1497), was the most famous composer of the Franco-Flemish School (from around the area which is now Belgium) in the last half of the 15th century, and is often thought of as the most important composer between Dufay and Josquin des Prez. He was an excellent choirmaster and teacher. He spent most of his life working for the French royal court. - -Life - -The name Ockeghem is found with many different spellings in old documents. He was almost certainly born in the town of Saint-Ghislain. His native language was probably French. - -Like many composers in this period, he started to learn about music by singing in a church choir, quite possibly in Saint-Ghislain and then in Mons. - -His first important job was working for Charles I, Duke of Bourbon in Moulins, (France). Then in 1451 he went to work for King Charles VII of France. By this time he was well known as a singer and composer. He worked for the royal court for more than 50 years and was rewarded with promotions and honours. Charles VII gave him important jobs. After Charles VII’s death Louis XI became king. He reigned for a long time and Ockeghem was in favour with the king. He often travelled with the king, visiting places such as Cambrai and even as far as Spain. He met famous people including the composers Dufay and Binchois. He also had other jobs in Paris. - -Louis XI died in 1483. We do not kinow much about where Ockeghem went after that, but he probably died in Tours because that is where he left his will. - -Music and influence - -Ockeghem was not a composer who wrote lots of music, but it is hard to tell as some of it might have got lost. There are 14 masses that survive and other vocal works. His Missa pro Defunctis is the earliest surviving polyphonic Requiem. Ockeghem based many of his masses on well-known tunes in a way that is called “cantus firmus technique”. Sometimes he put the borrowed tunes in the lowest part (he sang bass himself). This was rather unusual. - -Ockeghem’s music influenced Josquin des Prez and other composers from Flanders and the Netherlands. - -When Ockeghem died Josquin Des Prez composed a motet called La déploration de la mort de Johannes Ockeghem in his honour. The music theorist Johannes Tinctoris described him as a great musician and one of the best singers he knew. Many younger composers used some of Ockeghem’s melodies as a base for their own compositions. In the Renaissance this kind of borrowing from the music ofc another composer was thought to be a great honour. - -References - - Article ""Johannes Ockeghem."" The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. (ISBN 1-56159-174-2) - groves music online - -1410s births -1497 deaths - -Belgian composers -Renaissance composers -Franco-Flemish composers" -8187,27263,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia,Wikipedia,"Wikipedia () is a free online encyclopedia website in 320 languages of the world. People can freely use it, share it, and change it, without having to pay. It is also one of the biggest wiki organizations. People can choose to donate to the Wikimedia Foundation to fund Wikipedia and its sister projects. It is an open content website. This means anyone can copy it, and make changes to it if they follow the rules for copying or editing. - -Wikipedia is owned by an American organization, the Wikimedia Foundation, which is in San Francisco, California. - -Wikipedia's name is a portmanteau of two words, wiki and encyclopedia. - -Wikipedia was started on January 10, 2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger as part of an earlier online encyclopedia named Nupedia. On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia became a separate website of its own. It is a wiki that uses the software MediaWiki (like all other Wikimedia Foundation projects). - -Anyone who wishes to can change the pages on Wikipedia, or even make new ones. Wikipedia has a standard page layout for all pages in the encyclopedia. - -As of September 2011, Wikipedia had about 18 million pages in about 300 languages and more than 3.50 billion words across all Wikipedias. The regular English Wikipedia is the largest Wikipedia edition. - -History - -Wikipedia began as a related project for Nupedia. Nupedia was a free English-language online encyclopedia project. Nupedia's articles were written and owned by Bomis, Inc which was a web portal company. The main people of the company were Jimmy Wales, the guy in charge of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, the editor-in-chief of Nupedia. Nupedia was first licensed under the Nupedia Open Content License which was changed to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia was founded and made their first article when Richard Stallman requested them. - -Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales are the ones who started Wikipedia. Wales is credited with defining the goals of the project. Sanger created the strategy of using a wiki to reach Wales' goal. On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a ""feeder"" project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001. It was launched as an English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com, and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. Wikipedia's policy of ""neutral point-of-view"" was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier ""nonbiased"" policy. Otherwise, there weren't very many rules initially, and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. - -Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot, and also from search engines. It grew to about 20,000 articles, and 18 languages by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had 26 languages, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the end of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia both existed until Nupedia's servers were stopped in 2003. After this, its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the 2 million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, even larger than the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which had held the record for exactly 600 years. - -The English Wikipedia reached 3 million articles in August 2009. The numbers of articles and contributors appeared to be growing less quickly around spring 2007. - -In October 2014, the Wikipedia Monument was unveiled to the public in Poland to honor all the contributors of Wikipedia. - -According to the TechCrunch website, on 23 January 2020, Wikipedia had surpassed more than 6 million articles on the English Wikipedia. - -10th anniversary -On January 15, 2011, Wikipedia celebrated its 10th anniversary. It used a special logo (pictured) to celebrate its 10 years since it opened on January 15, 2001. The logo was used for the whole day on the sidebar of English Wikipedia. - -Using Wikipedia -Wikipedia is a free site where anybody can start or change a page. It is a global site that is available in many languages. While people can use any searching engine, the Wikipedia page will come out in the first results of many searches. To use Wikipedia better, people should understand the basic function of the page. The page is organized while they are looking up the page. As Wikipedia users, they should have a good understanding of Wikipedia and its features. - - Did you know: Trivia from new articles. - In the news: News of the world. - On this day: Anniversaries. -Current events: Not available at present. - -Related pages - Simple English Wikipedia - Epistemic community - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - Wikipedia - multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions of the project) - Wikipedia at the Open Directory Project - CBC News: I, editor - Wikipedia - Citizendium - -2001 establishments in the United States -Encyclopedias -Wikimedia -Wikis -Websites established in 2001" -10469,37176,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20Hauptbahnhof,Berlin Hauptbahnhof,"Berlin Hauptbahnhof (English: Berlin Central Station) is the central railway station of the German capital Berlin. It began full operation two days after a ceremonial opening on 26 May 2006. - -It is on the site of the old Lehrter Bahnhof. Until it opened as a main line station, it was a stop on the Berlin S-Bahn suburban railway, temporarily named Berlin Hauptbahnhof - Lehrter Bahnhof in 2002. - -The station has the largest traffic volume for a through-station in Europe. Paris Gare du Nord is the largest station in Europe measured by traffic volume but it is regarded as a terminus. - -The longest route that runs through Berlin Central railway station is the Sibirjak. It links Berlin to some cities in Russia. It passes through Poland, Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan. The longest route offered goes to Novosibirsk. This takes almost four days to travel. - -References - -2006 establishments in Europe -2000s establishments in Germany -Buildings and structures in Berlin -Railway stations in Germany" -1460,5117,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Delhi,New Delhi,"New Delhi () is the capital of India and a union territory of the megacity of Delhi. It has a very old history and is home to several monuments where the city is expensive to live in. In traditional Indian geography, it falls under the North Indian zone. The city has an area of about . New Delhi has a population of about 9.4 Million people. - -References" -3410,10124,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh%20language,Welsh language,"The Welsh language is a Celtic language and the national language of Wales, a country that is part of the United Kingdom. In Welsh, it is known as Cymraeg, or yr iaith Gymraeg, which means ""the Welsh language"". - -Welsh is still spoken throughout the region: around 21% of the people of Wales (about 600,000 people), as well as some people outside Wales, including those in nearby England, can speak Welsh. Many people in Wales say they can understand some form of Welsh, such as spoken, written, or can read Welsh, even if they do not speak it all the time. - -Even though almost all Welsh people can understand and use the English language, the Welsh language is still an important part of Welsh culture and so children in all schools in Wales have to study it. There are some schools that have almost all of their classes in Welsh, but most schools teach mainly in English and Welsh is taught as a second language in these schools. - -Language mutations -Welsh has mutations. Mutations are when a sound (in speech) or a letter (in writing) changes at the start of a word. An example is the Welsh word ""gwneud"", which in English means ""to do"", and ""dod"", which means ""to come"" ""dewch i mewn"" which means ""come in"". Sometimes the word changes from ""gwneud"" to ""wneud"", and from ""dod"" to ""ddod"". These sounds (in speech) or letters (in writing) changes also occur within, and at the end, of words, although the simplified classification found in ordinary books does not mention this. - -Formal and informal Welsh - -In Welsh, there is formal and informal Welsh. Formal Welsh is used when writing, in formal documents, and when speaking to a group (because it also includes the plural), when speaking to someone older than yourself, speaking to someone you have just met, or someone you would like to show respect towards. Formal words and phrases use variations of ""chi"", meaning ""you."" Sometimes, people will ask you to call them ""chi."" - -Informal Welsh is used when sending e-mails or sending text messages to your friends or family, and when talking with people you have known for a long time. Informal words and phrases use variations of ""ti"", meaning ""you."" Sometimes, people will ask you to call them ""ti."" - -How to say things in Welsh - -There are some sounds and letters that exist in Welsh but not in English, such as the letters (and sounds) ch and ll. The first sound is pronounced like the Scottish Loch Ness, and an example Welsh word that uses the 'ch' is ""bach"", which means ""small."" Ll is a voiceless 'l,' and is made by placing the tongue on the top of the top gum, and blowing. A Welsh word that uses the 'll' is ""llan"", which means ""church"" and appears a lot in place names, including one called Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch. Both 'ch' and 'll' are single letters in the Welsh alphabet, along with 'dd,' 'ff,' 'ng,' 'ph,' 'rh,' and 'th.' - -Here are some things to say in Welsh. How to say it is in brackets (). - - ""Croeso i Gymru"" (Kroy-sore ee Gum-ree) - Welcome to Wales - ""Dewch i mewn"" (Dew-ch ee mewn) - Come in (formal Welsh) - ""Bore da"" (Bor-eh dah) - Good morning - ""Cai ydw i"" (Ky uh-doo ee) - I am Cai (i.e.,My name is Cai) - ""Pwy ydych chi?"" (Poi Ud-uch ee) - Who are you?, or What is your name? (formal Welsh) - ""Sut ydych chi heddiw?"" (Sit uhd-ich ee heth-ew) - How are you today? (formal Welsh) - ""Sut wyt ti heddiw?"" (Sit ooee-tea heth-ew) - How are you today? (informal Welsh) - ""Da iawn diolch"" (Dah yoww-n dee-olch) - Very well thank you. - -Here are a few other words; - -""Trwyn"" (Troo-in) - Nose -""Hapus"" (Hap-is) - Happy -""Trist"" (Tree-st) - Sad -""Rwy'n caru ti"" (Rooeen carry tea) - I love you (informal Welsh) -""Heulog"" (Hey-log) - Sunny -""Eira"" (Ey-ra) - Snow -""Ci"" (Key) - Dog - -The media -Welsh books and newspapers have been printed for hundreds of years. Some of these books have been translated into English, and some books in other languages have been translated into Welsh. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was translated into Welsh, with the translation of ""Harri Potter a Maen yr Athronydd"", which means the same as the English title. - -BBC Radio Cymru is a Welsh-language radio station that is available throughout Wales. Some local radio stations have some Welsh and English programs during the day. - -The Welsh television channel, S4C, has been on air since 1982. It broadcasts shows such as the soap opera Pobol y Cwm, and children's programs such as Superted and Sam Tân (known as Fireman Sam in English). - -In August 2009, the mobile phone maker Samsung (with provider Orange) unveiled a new Welsh language mobile phone would be available from September 2009. It includes Welsh language predictive text and menus. - -The Welsh alphabet -The Welsh alphabet has some extra letters that are not used in English, and does not have some others. Although certain letters do not exist in Welsh, they are used sometimes to make sounds that could not possibly be made otherwise. A good example is the word ""garej"" (meaning garage). The letter ""j"" does not exist in the Welsh language, and is a lend-word from English. The traditional word for ""garage"" in Welsh is modurdy, which means, ""motor house"". Another lend-word is ""toiled,"" which means ""toilet"" in English. There are now many lend-words in spoken Welsh. Here is the Welsh alphabet; - -A1, B, C, CH2, D, DD2, E1, F2, FF2, G, NG2, H, I1, L, LL2, M, N, O1, P, PH2, R, RH2, S, T, TH2, U1, W1 2, Y1. - -1 These letters are vowels. The letter 'W' can be used either as a vowel (when it is said 'oo' like in the Welsh word 'cwm' (coom) meaning 'valley') or as a consonant (when it is said like it is in English, for example in the Welsh word 'gwyn' (gwin) meaning 'white'). This is the same with letter 'I' which can also be used as a consonant (when it is said like an English Y like in 'iogwrt' (yog-oort) meaning yoghurt. -2 Letters that are not in the English alphabet, or have different sounds. CH sounds like the 'KH' in Ayatollah Khoumeini. DD is said like the TH in 'there'. F is said like the English 'V'. FF is said like the English 'F'. NG sounds like it would in English but it is tricky because it comes at the beginnings of words (for example 'fy ngardd' - my garden). One trick is to blend it in with the word before it. LL sounds like a cat hissing. PH sounds like the English 'F' too, but it is only used in mutations. RH sounds like an 'R' said very quickly before a 'H'. TH sounds like the 'TH' in 'THin'. W has been explained in the sentences before about vowels. - -References - -Celtic languages -Languages of Europe" -3032,9530,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%207,April 7," - -Events - -Up to 1900 -451 - Attila the Hun sacks the town of Metz and attacks other cities in Gaul. -1141 - Empress Matilda becomes the first female ruler of England. -1348 - Charles University is founded in Prague. -1521 – Ferdinand Magellan reaches the island of Cebu. -1655 - Fabio Chigi is elected to become Pope Alexander VII. -1767 - End of two-year Burmese-Siamese War. -1782 – Thailand became a country. -1788 - American pioneers to the Northwest Territory arrive at the meeting point of the Ohio River and Muskingum River, opening the westward expansion of the United States. -1789 - Selim III becomes Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. -1798 - The Mississippi Territory is organized from disputed territory claimed by both the United States and Spain. -1805 - Ludwig van Beethoven premieres his Third Symphony in Vienna. -1827 - John Walker, an English chemist, sells the first friction match that he had invented the previous year. -1829 - Joseph Smith begins his translation of the Book of Mormon, with Oliver Cowdery as his scribe. -1831 - Pedro I of Brazil resigns to become King of Portugal. -1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh ends in a Union victory. -1896 - Fridtjof Nansen reaches the point furthest North of any human being up until that point. - -1901 1950 -1906 – Mount Vesuvius erupts. -1906 - The Algeciras Conference gives France and Spain control over Morocco. -1908 – H. H. Asquith becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. -1919 - The Federation Francais de Football is founded. -1927 - The first long-distance television broadcast is made from Washington, DC to New York City. -1933 - Prohibition in the United States is removed for beer of no more than 3.2% alcohol by weight. -1939 - World War II: Italy invades Albania. -1940 – Booker T. Washington becomes the first African American to be depicted on a US postage stamp. -1943 - Holocaust: In Trebovlia, Ukraine, Nazi troops order 1,100 Jews to undress to their underwear and march through the city to the village of Plebanivka, where they are shot dead. -1943 - Ioannis Rallis becomes collaborationist Prime Minister of Greece during the occupation by the Axis Powers. -1945 - World War II: Japanese battleship Yamato, the largest battleship ever constructed, is sunk by American planes 200 miles north of Okinawa while on the way to a suicide mission in Operation Ten-Go. -1946 – Syria's independence is recognised. -1948 – The United Nations created the World Health Organization. -1954 - Dwight D. Eisenhower gives his ""Domino Theory"" speech during a news conference. -1955 – Anthony Eden replaced Winston Churchill as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. -1956 - Spain relinquishes its protectorate in Morocco. -1964 - IBM announces the System/360. -1967 - Roger Ebert publishes his first movie review in the Chicago Sun-Times. -1968 - Scottish racing driver Jim Clark is killed in a crash at Hockenheim, Germany, aged 32. -1969 - The Internet's symbolic birth date. -1971 - Richard Nixon announces his decision to increase the rate of American troops withdrawals from Vietnam. -1977 – German federal prosecutor Siegfried Buback is shot dead, along with his driver, by two members of the Red Army Faction. -1978 - Development of the neutron bomb is cancelled by US President Jimmy Carter. -1980 - The United States severs diplomatic relations with Iran. -1983 - During STS-6 mission, astronauts Story Musgrave and Don Peterson perform the first space shuttle space walk. -1989 – Soviet submarine Komsomolets sinks in the Barents Sea, killing 42 people. -1990 - A fire breaks out on the passenger ferry M/S Scandinavian Star, killing 198 people. -1992 – Republika Srpska declares independence. -1994 – The Rwandan Genocide begins. One of the first victims is Rwandan Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana. -1995 - First Chechen War: Russian paramilitary troops begin a massacre of civilians in Samashki, Chechnya. -1999 - The World Trade Organization rules in favour of the United States in its long-running trade dispute with the European Union over bananas. - -From 2001 -2001 – The Mars Odyssey space probe is launched. -2003 – US troops capture Baghdad. -2009 – Former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori is sentenced to 25 years in prison for ordering killings and kidnappings by security forces. -2010 – In Kyrgyzstan, President Kurmanbek Bakiyev flees the capital city Bishkek, after days of fierce rioting. Roza Otunbayeva is installed as Head of Government. -2017 - 2017 Stockholm attack: A beer lorry is driven into people in central Stockholm, killing 5 people. -2018 - A vehicle is driven into people in the city centre of Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, killing 2 people. The driver then kills himself. - -Births - -Up to 1850 -1506 - Francis Xavier, Spanish Roman Catholic missionary (d. 1552) -1539 - Tobias Stimmer, Swiss painter (d. 1584) -1613 - Gerrit Dou, Dutch painter (d. 1675) -1629 - John of Austria the Younger, Spanish military leader and statesman (d. 1679) -1648 - John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English statesman and poet (d. 1721) -1652 – Pope Clement XII (d. 1740) -1713 - Nicola Sala, Italian composer and music theorist (d. 1801) -1718 - Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (d. 1800) -1742 - Gunning Bedford, Sr., Governor of Delaware (d. 1797) -1763 - Domenico Dragonetti, Italian double-bass virtuoso and composer (d. 1846) -1767 - Henry Bell, Scottish engineer (d. 1830) -1770 – William Wordsworth, English poet (d. 1850) -1772 - Charles Fourier, French philosopher (d. 1837) -1786 - William R. King, 13th Vice President of the United States (d. 1853) -1803 - James Curtiss, Mayor of Chicago (d. 1859) -1803 - Flora Tristan, French author (d. 1884) -1811 - Hasan Tahsini, Albanian astronomer, mathematician and philosopher (d. 1881) -1839 - Ida Ferenczy, Hungarian Lady-in-waiting to Elisabeth of Bavaria (d. 1928) -1847 – Jens Peder Jacobsen, Danish writer (d. 1885) -1848 - Randall Davidson, 1st Baron Davidson of Lambeth, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1930) - -1851 1900 -1853 – Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (d. 1884) -1857 - Nazrullah Khan, Emir of Afghanistan (d. 1920) -1859 - Walter Camp, American football player, coach and writer (d. 1925) -1860 - Will Keith Kellogg, American businessman and food manufacturer (d. 1951) -1867 – Holger Pedersen, Danish linguist (d. 1953) -1868 - José de Castro, Prime Minister of Portugal (d. 1929) -1870 – Gustav Landauer, German anarchist and revolutionary (d. 1919) -1871 - Epifanio de los Santos, Filipino jurist, historian and scholar (d. 1927) -1872 - William Monroe Trotter, American newspaper editor (d. 1934) -1873 - John McGraw, American baseball player and manager (d. 1934) -1874 - Frederick Carl Frieseke, German-American painter (d. 1939) -1876 - Fay Moulton, American sprinter, football player, coach and lawyer (d. 1945) -1882 – Kurt von Schleicher, German military officer and politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1934) -1883 – Gino Severini, Italian painter (d. 1966) -1884 - Clement Smoot, American golfer (d. 1963) -1886 - Emilio Pujols, Catalan guitarist and composer (d. 1980) -1887 - Joseph Stadler, American jumper (d. 1950) -1889 – Gabriela Mistral, Chilean writer (d. 1945) -1890 - Paul Berth, Danish footballer (d. 1969) -1890 - Marjory Stoneman Douglas, American journalist and activist (d. 1998) -1891 – Ole Kirk Christiansen, Danish inventor, of Lego (d. 1958) -1893 - Allen Dulles, American CIA director (d. 1969) -1896 - Frits Peutz, Dutch architect (d. 1974) -1897 - Walter Winchell, American broadcaster and journalist (d. 1972) -1899 - Robert Casadesus, French pianist (d. 1972) -1900 - Jebbs Lloyd Johnson, English race walker (d. 1984) - -1901 1950 -1907 - Le Duan, Vietnamese politician (d. 1986) -1907 - John Burroughs, Governor of New Mexico (d. 1978) -1908 - Percy Faith, Canadian composer, conductor and bandleader (d. 1976) -1911 - Hervé Bazin, French author (d. 1996) -1913 - Louise Currie, American actress (d. 2013) -1913 - Charles Vanik, American politician (d. 2007) -1914 - Charles Flanagan, American bandleader, conductor, pianist, composer and arranger (d. 1995) -1915 – Stanley Adams, American actor (d. 1977) -1915 – Billie Holiday, American jazz singer (d. 1959) -1915 - Henry Kuttner, American writer (d. 1977) -1916 – Anthony Caruso, American actor (d. 2003) -1917 - R. G. Armstrong, American actor (d. 2012) -1918 - Bobby Doerr, American baseball player and coach -1919 - Edoardo Mangiarotti, Italian fencer (d. 2012) -1920 – Ravi Shankar, Indian sitar player (d. 2012) -1924 – Johannes Mario Simmel, Austrian writer (d. 2009) -1927 - Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator and activist (d. 2003) -1927 - Leonid Shcherbakov, Russian high jumper -1928 – James Garner, American actor (d. 2014) -1928 - James White, Northern Irish author (d. 1999) -1928 - Alan J. Pakula, American movie maker (d. 1998) -1929 – Bob Denard, French mercenary (d. 2007) -1930 – Andrew Sachs, German-born British actor -1930 - Cliff Morgan, Welsh rugby player (d. 2013) -1930 - Roger Vergé, French chef and restaurateur (d. 2015) -1930 - Vilma Espin, Cuban revolutionary and politician (d. 2007) -1931 - Donald Barthelme, American writer (d. 1989) -1931 - Ted Kotcheff, Canadian director -1933 – Wayne Rogers, American actor (d. 2015) -1934 – Ian Richardson, Scottish actor (d. 2007) -1937 - Cynthia Lynn, Latvian-American actress (d. 2014) -1938 – Jerry Brown, American politician, former Governor of California -1938 – Freddie Hubbard, American jazz musician (d. 2008) -1938 - Spencer Dryden, American drummer (d. 2005) -1938 - Justin Lekhanya, former Prime Minister of Lesotho -1939 – David Frost, British broadcaster (d. 2013) -1939 – Francis Ford Coppola, American movie director -1941 – Gorden Kaye, British actor (d. 2017) -1943 - Mick Abrahams, English guitarist (Jethro Tull) -1944 - Makoto Kobayashi, Japanese physicist -1944 – Gerhard Schröder, former Chancellor of Germany -1944 - Bill Stoneman, American baseball player and manager -1945 - Megas, Icelandic singer-songwriter -1945 – Werner Schroeter, German movie movie director (d. 2010) -1945 - Robert S. Wistrich, Kazakh-born British-Israeli professor (d. 2015) -1946 - Colette Besson, French sprinter (d. 2005) -1946 - Stan Winston, American special effects expert (d. 2008) -1947 – Florian Schneider, German musician (Kraftwerk) -1947 - Patricia Bennett, American singer -1948 – Pietro Anastasi, Italian footballer -1949 - Valentina Matviyenko, Russian politician -1949 – Mitch Daniels, American politician, Governor of Indiana -1949 - Wells Kelly, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans) (d. 1984) - -1951 1975 -1951 – Janis Ian, American singer and songwriter -1952 - Clarke Peters, American actor and singer -1954 – Jackie Chan, Chinese (Hong Kong) actor -1955 - Tim Cochran, American mathematician (d. 2014) -1955 - Werner Stocker, German actor (d. 1993) -1960 - Buster Douglas, American boxer -1961 – Luigi De Agostini, Italian footballer -1962 – Ram Gopal Varma, Indian director, producer and screenwriter -1962 - Jon Cruddas, English politician -1963 - Jaime de Marichalar, Spanish nobleman -1963 - Nick Herbert, English politician -1964 – Russell Crowe, New Zealand-Australian actor -1965 – Alison Lapper, British artist -1965 - Bill Bellamy, American comedian and actor -1966 - Gary Wilkinson, British snooker player -1967 - Bodo Illgner, German footballer -1968 – Jennifer Lynch, American director -1968 - Vasiliy Sokov, Russian triple jumper -1970 - Leif Ove Andsnes, Norwegian pianist -1971 – Guillaume Depardieu, French actor (d. 2008) -1971 – Victor Kraatz, Canadian figure skater -1971 - Jennifer Schwalbach Smith, American journalist and actress -1972 - Tim Peake, English astronaut -1973 - Marco Delvecchio, Italian footballer -1973 - Jeanine Hennis-Plasschaert, Dutch politician -1975 - Karin Dreijer Andersson, Swedish singer - -From 1976 -1976 - Kevin Alejandro, American actor -1977 - Jenni Haukio, Finnish writer and First Lady of Finland -1979 – Pascal Dupuis, Canadian ice hockey player -1979 – Duncan James, British singer -1979 - Danny Sandoval, Venezuelan baseball player -1980 - Dragan Bogavac, Montenegrin footballer -1980 – Carl Fletcher, Welsh footballer -1981 - Kelli Young, English singer (Liberty X) -1982 - Silvana Arias, Peruvian actress -1983 - Franck Ribéry, French footballer -1983 - Jon Stead, English footballer -1985 - Humza Yousaf, Scottish politician -1986 - Christian Fuchs, Austrian footballer -1987 - Martín Cáceres, Uruguayan footballer -1989 - Alexa Demara, American actress, model, writer and martial artist -1989 – Franco Di Santo, Argentine footballer -1989 - Sylwia Grzeszczak, Polish singer -1989 - Yulia Samoylova, Russian singer -1991 - Anne-Marie, English singer and songwriter -1992 - William Carvalho, Angolan-born Portuguese footballer -1992 – Alexis Jordan, American singer -1992 - Jessica Sara, American actress -1993 - Irina Shtork, Estonian ice dancer -1994 - Johanna Allik, Estonian figure skater -1997 - Oliver Burke, Scottish footballer - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 -924 - Berengar I of Italy (b. 845) -1498 – King Charles VIII of France (b. 1470) -1614 – El Greco, Greek-born Spanish painter (b. 1541) -1638 - Shimazu Tadatsune, Japanese ruler of Satsuma (b. 1576) -1651 – Lennart Torstensson, Swedish Governor-General (b. 1603) -1658 - Juan Eusebio Nieremberg, Spanish mystic (b. 1595) -1719 - Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French saint (b. 1651) -1739 – Dick Turpin, English outlaw (b. 1705) -1762 – Pietro Guarneri, Italian violin maker (b. 1695) -1789 – Abdul Hamid I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1725) -1789 - Petrus Camper, Dutch anatomist (b. 1722) -1801 - Noel Francois de Wailly, French lexicographer (b. 1724) -1804 – Toussaint Louverture, Haitian revolutionary (b. 1743) -1811 – Garsevan Chavchavadze, Georgian diplomat and politician (b. 1757) -1823 - Jacques Charles, French physicist and mathematician (b. 1746) -1833 – Antoni Radziwill, Polish politician (b. 1775) -1836 - William Godwin, English journalist and author (b. 1756) -1849 - Pedro Ignacio de Castro Barros, Argentine priest and politician (b. 1777) -1868 – Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Canadian journalist and Father of the Confederation (b. 1825) -1871 - Alexander Loyd, Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805) -1885 – Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold, German physiologist (b. 1804) -1889 - Youssef Karam, Lebanese nationalist leader (b. 1823) -1891 – P. T. Barnum, American circus impresario (b. 1810) -1900 - Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1826) - -1901 2000 -1914 - Mohammad Ayub Khan, interim regent of Afghanistan (b. 1857) -1917 - Spyridon Samaras, Greek composer (b. 1861) -1918 - David Kolehmainen, Finnish wrestler (b. 1885) -1920 - Karl Binding, German jurist (b. 1841) -1928 - Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (b. 1873) -1930 - Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, 4th Governor of New Mexico (b. 1859) -1932 - Grigore Constantinescu, Romanian priest and journalist (b. 1875) -1934 - William Monroe Trotter, American newspaper editor (b. 1872) -1938 - Suzanne Valadon, French painter (b. 1865) -1939 – Joseph Lyons, Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1879) -1943 – Alexandre Millerand, President of France (b. 1859) -1944 - Johann Gruber, Austrian priest (b. 1889) -1947 – Henry Ford, American business person (b. 1863) -1950 – Walter Huston, Canadian-born actor (b. 1884) -1955 - Theda Bara, American actress (b. 1885) -1956 - Fred Appleby, English long-distance runner (b. 1879) -1957 - John Hart, Irish-Canadian politician, Premier of British Columbia (b. 1879) -1960 - Henri Guisan, Swiss army officer (b. 1874) -1965 - Roger Leger, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1919) -1966 - Fred G. Aandahl, American politician, Governor of North Dakota (b. 1897) -1968 – Jim Clark, Scottish racing driver (b. 1936) -1972 – Abeid Karume, President of Zanzibar (b. 1905) -1977 – Siegfried Buback, German federal prosecutor (b. 1920) -1981 - Norman Taurog, American movie director (b. 1899) -1982 – Harald Ertl, Austrian racing driver (b. 1948) -1984 - Frank Church, American politician (b. 1924) -1985 - Carl Schmitt, German philosopher and theorist (b. 1888) -1986 - Leonid Kantorovich, Soviet-Russian mathematician and economist (b. 1912) -1990 - Ronald Evans, American astronaut (b. 1933) -1992 – Ace Bailey, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1903) -1994 – Albert Gudmundsson, Icelandic footballer and politician (b. 1923) -1994 – Agathe Uwilingiyimana, Prime Minister of Rwanda (b. 1953) -1994 - Golo Mann, German historian (b. 1909) -1997 - Georgi Shonin, Soviet cosmonaut (b. 1935) -1997 – Tomoyuki Tanaka, Japanese movie producer (b. 1910) -2000 - Moacir Barbosa Nascimento, Brazilian footballer (b. 1921) - -From 2001 -2003 - David Greene, British director (b. 1921) -2004 - Victor Argo, American actor (b. 1934) -2005 - Cliff Allison, Britsh racing driver (b. 1932) -2007 – Barry Nelson, American actor (b. 1917) -2008 - Mark Speight, English television presenter (b. 1965) -2009 – Dave Arneson, American creator of the game Dungeons and Dragons (b. 1947) -2010 – Christopher Cazenove, British actor (b. 1945) -2012 - Mike Wallace, American journalist (b. 1918) -2012 - Ignatius Moses I Daoud, Syrian Catholic patriarch (b. 1930) -2013 - Lilly Pulitzer, American socialite and fashion designer (b. 1931) -2013 - Les Blank, American director and producer (b. 1935) -2014 - George Dureau, American artist (b. 1930) -2014 - Frans van der Lugt, Dutch priest (b. 1938) -2014 - Josep Maria Subirachs, Catalan sculptor and painter (b. 1927) -2014 - John Shirley-Quirk, English opera singer (b. 1931) -2014 - Peaches Geldof, English model and television host (b. 1989) -2014 - Zeituni Onyango, Kenyan-American computer programmer (b. 1952) -2014 - George Shuffler, American musician (b. 1925) -2015 - Jean Germain, French politician, Mayor of Tours (b. 1947) -2015 - Richard Henyekane, South African footballer (b. 1983) -2015 - Kardam, Prince of Turnovo, Bulgarian-Spanish nobleman (b. 1962) -2015 - Stan Freberg, American writer, actor and comedian (b. 1926) -2015 - Tim Babcock, American politician, Governor of Montana (b. 1919) -2015 - Geoffrey Lewis, American actor (b. 1935) -2015 - James B. Rhoads, American public servant (b. 1928) -2016 - Frank E. Denholm, American politician (b. 1923) -2016 - Carlo Monti, Italian athlete (b. 1920) -2017 - Marthe Gosteli, Swiss women's rights activist (b. 1917) -2017 - Peter Isaacson, Australian media publisher (b. 1920) -2017 - Christopher Morahan, English stage and television director (b. 1929) -2017 - Glenn O'Brien, American journalist, editor and television presenter (b. 1947) -2017 - Tim Pigott-Smith, English actor (b. 1946) -2018 - Petr Braiko, Soviet-Russian World War II soldier (b. 1919) -2018 - Peter Grünberg, German physicist (b. 1939) -2019 - Hugo Ballesteros Reyes, Chilean politician and diplomat (b. 1931) -2019 - Michael E. Busch, American politician (b. 1947) -2019 - Seymour Cassel, American actor (b. 1935) -2019 - Cho Yang-ho, South Korean businessman (b. 1949) -2019 - Arie Irawan, Malaysian golfer (b. 1990) -2019 - Mya-Lecia Naylor, English actress (b. 2002) - -Holidays - Day of Maternity and Beauty in Armenia - Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda) - World Health Day (WHO) - Women's Day (Mozambique) - -April 07" -10276,35847,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guide%20dog,Guide dog,"Guide dogs are dogs trained to help blind or vision impaired people live on their own. They are sometimes called ""Seeing Eye"" dogs. Guide dogs are one type of assistance animals, which are animals trained to help people with a disability to lead more complete lives. - -The blind person (sometimes called a ""handler"") and the dog need to work together. Both the dog and the handler must take special training to learn how to work as a team. The handler needs to let the guide dog know the direction they want to go. The dog can lead the person around things that may be dangerous, such as moving cars or other things. Also, guide dogs may be taught to press buttons to work elevators or get things for their handler. Because dogs cannot see colors as well as people, they cannot read traffic signals, so the handler must use ways to tell if it is safe to cross a street. - -Because the guide dog and handler will be in public, it is important that the dog stays calm in busy or loud areas. In many countries, guide dogs are allowed inside places where animals normally are not allowed, such as restaurants, stores, buses and trains. - -History -Germany started the first guide dog schools during World War 1, to help soldiers who were blinded in the war. By 1931, schools and organizations such as The Seeing Eye in Morristown, New Jersey in the United States and the British Guide Dog Association in the United Kingdom were founded. - -Related pages -Blindness - -Working dogs -Service animals" -9207,31629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knob,Knob,"A knob is a round handle that can be turned or pulled. A doorknob is a round handle that is turned to open a door. A cabinet knob is a small handle that is pulled to open a cabinet door or drawer. A control knob can turn a lamp on and off or make the volume on a radio go up or down. - -A ""knob"" can also be any small, round thing that sticks out. - -Hardware (mechanical)" -10732,38288,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushion,Cushion,"A cushion is a soft bag of material, filled with wool, hair, feathers, or even paper in small pieces . It may be used for sitting on to make a chair or couch more comfortable. Cushions can be used for body support. Cushions and rugs can be used outside, to make hard ground softer. Cushions are often for a decorative purpose and can create more character and appeal to a room. Cushions can come in many different shapes and sizes. However, the most common shape of a cushion is a square or rectangle, like a pillow. - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Furniture -Home" -7561,24418,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx%20cat,Manx cat,"The Manx is a breed of domestic cat. It either has no tail at all, a ""rumpy"", or it has a very short tail, a ""stumpy"". This is because of a natural difference in spine length. The back legs are also longer than the front legs. The breed comes from the Isle of Man, where it was found as early as three hundred years ago. - -The Manx's character is nervous. The Manx's appearance is round on the whole. They are skilled hunters. - -Other websites - -Cat breeds" -6246,19982,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843,1843," - -Events - February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City). - February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people report killed. - February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi premieres in Milan. - May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh. - May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail. - July 19 – The SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol. - August 15 – Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark. - October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world). - November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day. The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation. - The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London. - December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. - James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat. - In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly. - The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body. - The first tunnel under the Thames is finished. - Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo. - Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton. - The Economist is first published. - Bishop's University is founded. - Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia. - - January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779)" -24960,98084,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf,Beowulf,"Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem. It is not known who wrote it, and there is no agreement as to when it was written. Estimates for the date range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there is no consensus. The poem has only one manuscript source, written about 1010. Beowulf is 3182 lines long. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay On translating Beowulf. - -The protagonist of the poem is Beowulf. In the poem, Beowulf fights three monsters: Grendel and Grendel's mother, and later in his life an unnamed dragon. - -Story -Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big mead hall, which is called Heorot. Hrothgar and his people live a good life and celebrate in Heorot. But then they are attacked by Grendel, who comes to Heorot every night and kills some of Hrothgar's people. - -Beowulf is a warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden). He hears of Hrothgar's troubles with Grendel. Beowulf and his men leave Geatland to help King Hrothgar. - -Beowulf and his men stay the night in Heorot. When Grendel comes to kill them, Beowulf fights him. Beowulf tears Grendel's arm off from his body and sticks it on the wall as a trophy. Grendel runs to his home in the marshes, where he dies. Everyone is happy that Grendel is killed and celebrates. -But the next night, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot and kills many people for revenge and grabs Grendel's arm. Beowulf then goes to the marshes where Grendel and his mother lived. Beowulf fights Grendel's mother and kills her. - -Beowulf later becomes a king. He fights a dragon that was living in a barrow. With the help of the young man Wiglaf, Beowulf kills the dragon. Beowulf is wounded in the final battle and dies and crowns Wiglaf as his successor. - -Adaptations - -The story of Beowulf has often been told in books, plays, and films. Sometimes the full story is told, sometimes just parts of the story. Sometimes the plot is altered. Sometimes only ideas or themes are taken from the story. -Some examples are: - Beowulf (1999 film) - Beowulf and Grendel (2005 film) - [[Grendel (movie)|Grendel]] (2007 film) - Eaters of the Dead, a book by Michael Crichton (1976) - Grendel, a book by John Gardner (1971) - The Ring-givers, a book by W.H. Canaway (1958). - -References - -Germanic mythology -Epic poems" -18906,71049,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia,Nubia,"Nubia was an ancient African Kingdom. It dates back to around 6000 BC. It was in northeastern Africa. - -They were a valuable culture because of their trading abilities. They were on the coast of the Red Sea. That gave them many ports from which they were able to trade. This culture, though, had many hardships. It declined in power many times, which forced it to break up into smaller kingdoms which flourished on their own. These are commonly referred to as the A-Group, B-Group, and C-Group. Their true decline was around 350 AD, when the kingdom of Axum invaded and broke up the culture once again. This time, the culture never recovered its strength, thus ending of Historic Nubia. - -Other websites -""Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia"", an old book from the 1800s that talks about Nubia - -Ancient Egypt -History of Africa" -22173,84156,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederico%20Mompou,Frederico Mompou,"Federico (Frederic) Mompou (born Barcelona, 16 April 1893; died Barcelona 30 June, 1987) was a Spanish (Catalan) composer. He is best known for his short works for solo piano and his songs. - -Life -Mompou was born in Barcelona (Spain), and studied piano there at the Conservatorio del Liceo. In 1911 he went to Paris. He was studying to be a concert pianist, but he was very shy, and decided to become a composer. - -Although he left Paris and returned to Barcelona when World War I broke out in 1914, he went to Paris again in 1921 and stayed there until 1941 when, once again he went back to Catalonia, because the German army were invading Paris in World War II. He continued to lecture about his music until he had a stroke. He died at the age of 94. - -His music -Mompou is best known as a miniaturist (someone who composes short pieces). His music often sounds as if is being improvised. When he wrote his Scènes d'enfants (1915-18) a French music critic, Émile Vuillermoz, said he would be the next great composer after Debussy. Although he did not become as famous as Debussy, his musical style shows the influence of French Impressionism and of Erik Satie. He liked using short, repeated note-patterns (ostinati), imitations of bells, and a kind of thoughtful, religious sound which is heard in his piece called ""John of the Cross."" His music often uses the rhythms and modes of Catalan folkmusic. - -References -Groves Music Online - -1893 births -1987 deaths - -20th-century Spanish composers" -5868,19007,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pituitary%20gland,Pituitary gland,"The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an important part of the endocrine system. It is at the base of the brain between the eyes. The pituitary is attached to the hypothalamus, which is also a gland. The pituitary controls a whole range of vital functions by secreting hormones. - -The pituitary gland consists of two parts: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. It is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibulum). - -The hypothalamus releases factors down the pituitary stalk to the pituitary gland where they cause the release of pituitary hormones. Although the pituitary gland is known as the 'master' endocrine gland, both of the lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus. -Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus. - -Hormones released -The gland releases several kinds of hormones. - -Anterior pituitary -The endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by neurosecretion from the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary cells synthesizes and secretes these important endocrine hormones: - -Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): released under conditions of stress. Increases corticosteroids. -Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): regulates thyroid gland. -Growth hormone ('HGH'): stimulates cell division and growth. -Prolactin (PRL): stimulates milk production in breasts. - -The two gonadotropins; -Luteinizing hormone (LH): in females, it triggers ovulation. In males it stimulates testosterone (acts with next). -Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): regulates development, growth, puberty, reproduction. - -Intermediate lobe -Here one hormone is produced: -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates the production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair. MSH signals to the brain have effects on appetite and sexual arousal. - -Posterior pituitary -The posterior pituitary is actually an extension of the hypothalamus. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus have axons that go right down into the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary stores and secretes the hormones produced by these neurosecretory cells: -Oxytocin, most of which is released from the hypothalamus: has effects on nerve transmission, and on females during and after birth. Has a role in pair-bonding, mating and maternal behaviour. Functions not yet entirely understood. -Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin): controls the reabsorption of molecules in the tubules of the kidneys. Increases arterial blood pressure. It plays a key role in homeostasis, and the regulation of water, glucose, and salts in the blood. - -Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a positive feedback loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues throughout birth labour. - -References - -Glands -Hormones -Endocrine system" -12625,46445,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifhorn,Gifhorn,"Gifhorn is a city in the German state of Lower Saxony. - -It has about 43,000 inhabitants. They have 3 star hotels. - -References - -Other websites" -3099,9700,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owl,Owl,"Owls are birds in the order Strigiformes. There are 200 species, and they are all animals of prey. Most of them are solitary and nocturnal; in fact, they are the only large group of birds which hunt at night. Owls are specialists night-time hunters. They feed on small mammals such as rodents, insects, and other birds, and a few species like to eat fish as well. - -As a group, owls are very successful. They are found in all parts of the world except Antarctica, most of Greenland, and some small islands. - -Owl families -There are two families of owls: the true owls and the barn owls: -True owls: the family Strigidae (185 species in 25 genera) -Barn owls: the family Tytonidae. This contains the genus Tyto, especially Tyto alba, with its many sub-species. The genus Pholidus has only a couple of species, known as bay-owls. It hunts mainly by sound. - -Appearance -An owl has a big head, flat face, hooked beak, short tail, and sharp talons, The wings of an owl are long. Owls have brown, gray, or white plumage with streaks or spots. - -Adaptations -Owls have a suite of adaptations which help them to be successful. - -Owls have large eyes and holes for ears, a hawk-like beak, and a rather flat face. Most birds of prey have eyes on the sides of their heads, but the owl's eyes are facing forwards to help it see better in the dark. Their eyes are also fixed inside their sockets, so they have to turn their whole head to look at other things. Owls can rotate their heads and necks up to 270 degrees in both directions. - -Owls are good at looking at things far from its eyes, but it cannot see anything clearly within a few centimeters of their eyes. Owls use small feathers on the beak and the feet that help it feel the prey it catches. - -Hunting -Most owls hunt at night, and in twilight (dawn and dusk). A few owls are also active during the day. - -The owls' hunting depends on surprising its prey. Their most important adaptation is their almost silent flight. The feathers are soft, with fringes on the back edge, and the base of each is downy. This all muffles noise, and makes for silence. Also, they glide when coming in for the kill. - -The dull colors of the owls' feathers make them less visible by camouflaging the owl. This helps them as they roost during the day. - -Owls have fantastic hearing. The shape of the head helps slight sounds reach the ears. The feathers of the facial disc are arranged in order to increase sound delivered to the ears. Their ears are asymmetrical allowing the owl to locate a sound. They can hear a mouse move in the grass. - -An owl's sharp beak and powerful talons allow it to kill its prey before swallowing it whole, unless it is too big. Owls usually regurgitate the parts of their prey that they cannot digest. These parts include bones, scales, and fur. Scientists who study the things that owls eat can get clues by studying the parts that the owl spit back out, called ""owl pellets"". These ""owl pellets"" are sold by supply companies to schools for use in the students' biology and ecology lessons. - -Winter larder -Many animals store food during times of plenty to prepare for leaner times. Owls may store dead mice for winter. - -Swivelling the head -Owls have special adaptations which help them swivel their heads 270 degrees. They have 14 neck vertebrae instead of our seven. Also, the big carotid arteries, instead of being on the side of the neck as in humans, are carried close to the centre of rotation just in front of the spine. So these arteries get much less twisting and stretching, and the potential for damage is greatly reduced. This arrangement is seen in other birds, but in owls the vertebral arteries – the vessels that travel through channels in the neck bones – are given extra space. - -Owls also have wide parts in their carotid arteries just under the base of the skull. Researchers found these could dilate and fill with a reservoir of blood. ""We believe this is kind of a new structure not really known before"", said a researcher. ""It's probably a way to pool blood and get some continuity of flow even if there is disruption below at the next level"". - -Owls in culture -Mythology and stories that include owls are: - - The owl is the symbol of the Greek goddess Athena (Minerva to the Romans) - Nursery rhyme: ""The wise old owl sat in an oak, the more he heard, the less he spoke"". - Poem by Tennyson: ""The wise owl in the belfry sits..."" - ""Wol"" is a character from the Winnie the Pooh books by A.A. Milne. - Owls carry the mail in the Harry Potter books by J.K. Rowling. - -Gallery - -Related pages -Great horned owl -Northern pygmy owl -Barred owl -Nocturnal animals -Barn owl - -References - -Other websites - Facts about Owls" -22986,87365,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daegu,Daegu,"Daegu (대구, also spelled Taegu, officially called Daegu Metropolitan City) is a city in South Korea. It is between Seoul and Busan, but is closer to Busan. Daegu is the fourth largest city in South Korea. About 2.4 million people live in Daegu. Of South Korea's 16 cities and provinces, Daegu is the poorest in terms of GDP per capita 2010 at $18,887 according to the IMF. Daegu residents are also regarded by all other South Koreans as the widely ultraconservative. - -History -In 1995, 101 people were killed by gas explosions. In 2003, 192 people were killed in a subway fire. - -Climate -Daegu has a humid subtropical climate (Cwb in the Koeppen climate classification). Summer is hot, with very high rainfall. Daegu is one of the hottest cities in Korea. Winters are dry and cool. - -Popular places -Palgong Mountain is north of Daegu. It is famous for Donghwa Temple and Gatbawi. Gatbawi is a statue of Buddha. -Apsan(Ap Mountain), also called Daedeok Mountain has many well known restaurants. It is a good place to hike. Many hikers visit the Apsan Mountain. The downtown area of Daegu is Dongseongro. There is a festival every year in June. It also is the shopping center of Daegu. Woobang Tower Land is an amusement park with many rides and roller coasters. Daegu is also famous for having Daegu Stadium where the World Cup tournament was held in 2002. - -Culture -Daegu was the known for apples in Korea before 1990. Daegu has a herbal medicine market located in a street 1 kilometre long. The textile (cloth) industry was the primary industry from the 1960s but has seen drastic decline to the present day.. People in Daegu enjoy food. One example is ddeokbokki. Ddeokboki is a Korean rice cake with spicy red pepper sauce and vegetables. Foods in Daegu are usually more spicy and salty than in other cities. - -Daegu is widely regard by majority of Koreans and its own residents as the most conservative in its approach to values and life. A fact that is widely broad up and which all of Daegu people are proud of. Every district within the city shares a similar theme in its collection of business- Phone Retails Shops, Ghim-bab cheap food shops, plant shops, Paris Bagguette or Tour Les Jours chain bakeries, Karaoke dens which sometimes double as ""good-time"" business clubs, family owned and operated pharmacies, Korean Barbecue eateries. - -Non-Korean citizens do not open businesses of any size within the city because city legislation dictates that two or more Koreans are required be partnered to the businesses. The effect is every functioning business is owned and envisioned solely by a South Korean national. - -Unlike more famous cities such as Seoul or Busan, there is a single, homogeneous dominant culture in Daegu - Right-wing orthodox South Korean ultra-conservatives. - -Foreign nationals form only three classes of long-term residents: -In descending numbers: -(1) US Army personnel and their families garrisoned within three giant military bases located in Daegu. -(2) Immigrant workers typically from Uzbekistan and Philippines hired to labour cheaply in Seo-Gu factories (all of West Daegu). -(3) Foreign English teachers from the USA or UK clustering together. The white-skinned is held by local Daegu beliefs in improved teaching quality derived, and also a point of bragging to others - a popular Daegu boast, ""My son has a white-skinned English teacher."". - -Short-term residents: -(1) Japanese & Chinese National exchange or language students (closest neighbours) who will find the racial climate: emotional & touchy. Japanese: averages 3 to 4 months before permanent departure. Chinese: 7–9 months before permanent departure, or VISA expiration and deportation. -(2) Adventurous backpackers passing through for two days as they tour the Korean Peninsula. - -References - -Cities in South Korea" -6305,20089,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/571,571," - -Events -The Monophysites again reject the Council of Chalcedon, causing another schism. - -Deaths - Emperor Kimmei, 29th emperor of Japan (b. 509, traditional date) - -References" -19561,74859,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kit-Cat%20Klock,Kit-Cat Klock,"A Kit-Cat Klock or Felix the Cat Clock is an art deco style clock. It looks like the cartoon character Felix the Cat. The eyes and tail move back and forth. - - thumb | right | A Kit Cat Klock - -Clocks -Art Deco" -1507,5179,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiff,Cardiff,"Cardiff is the capital and biggest city of Wales. It is also the 11th biggest city in the United Kingdom. Its name in the Welsh language is Caerdydd. A 2011 census says that around 346,100 people live in Cardiff. It is the most important city in Wales for tourism, culture, government, sport, transport, nightlife and business. - -Cardiff was declared a city in 1905, and it became the capital of Wales in 1955. - -History -The Romans built a fort here in about 55 AD. Later, a castle was built within the walls of the fort when the city was first founded. - -In 1404, Owain Glyndŵr set Cardiff on fire. Most of the buildings in Cardiff were made out of wood, so fire destroyed the city. - -Demographics -At the 2011 census, the biggest ethnic group in Cardiff is White (84.7%), other groups are Asian (8%), Black (2.4%), Arab (1.4%), Mixed (2.9%) - -Places -Cardiff has a big port that used to be known as Tiger Bay. It is now just called Cardiff Bay, and the Welsh Government works there. There are now lots of shops, pubs and restaurants in Cardiff Bay. Cardiff has an international airport, and is twinned with Nantes in France and Stuttgart in Germany. Cardiff has one of the largest stadiums in the United Kingdom, the Millennium Stadium, where important world sports matches and concerts happen. Other big stadiums in the city are the Cardiff City Stadium, where the main football team play, Cardiff Arms Park where the main rugby team play, and the SWALEC Stadium where cricket is played. - -Three big rivers flow through Cardiff - the Taff, the Ely and the Rhymney. - -Part of Cardiff is built on marshland. - -Transportation - -To get around, there are lots of bus routes and train lines in the city. There are two big train stations in Cardiff city centre, called Central station and Queen Street station, but there are also 18 other smaller stations in the city for local areas. There are lots of cycle paths in Cardiff on and off the road. - -Education -Cardiff has a large university, with 33,000 students, making it the tenth-largest university in Britain. The city also has 127 schools. - -References" -18642,69946,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer,Peer,"Peer may refer to: - - Peerage, a system of nobility in various countries - Peer group, a group of people of the same age, ability, etc. - Peer-to-peer computer network, in which users act as both client and server - Peer (Belgium) - -pl:BitTorrent#Podstawowe pojęcia" -16901,64298,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mourning%20dove,Mourning dove,"The mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) is a member of the dove family (Columbidae). It has five subspecies. The number of mourning doves is about 475 million. They live in North America. Mourning doves are light grey and brown, and males and females look similar. - -These birds usually have one partner at a time. Both parents sit on the eggs and care for their chicks. Adult mourning doves usually eat only seeds. The parents feed crop milk to the young. - -People hunt mourning doves for sport and for meat. Up to 70 million birds are shot in the United States every year. Its name, ""mourning,"" comes from its sad-sounding call. The bird is a strong flier, and can fly at up to 88 km/h (55 mph). - -Distribution - -The mourning dove has a large range of nearly 11 million square kilometers (6.8 million square miles). These birds live throughout the Greater Antilles, most of Mexico, the Continental United States, and southern Canada. In the summer, the birds are mostly in the Canadian prairies, and in southern Central America in the winter. The species is a vagrant in northern Canada, Alaska, and South America. It has been seen at least seven times in the Palearctic ecozone with records from the British Isles (five), the Azores (one) and Iceland (one). In 1963, the Mourning Dove was introduced to Hawaii, and in 1998 there was still a small population in North Kona, Hawaii. - -The mourning dove lives in many different habitats, such as farms, prairie, grassland, and woods. It does not live in swamps or thick forests. They also lives in places where humans live, such as in cities or towns. - -Description - -The mourning dove is a medium-sized, slender dove. It weighs an average of . It has a small head and a long tail. Mourning doves have perching feet, with three toes facing forward and one facing backward. The legs are short and reddish color. The beak is small and dark, usually a mixture of brown and black. - -Its feathers are generally light gray-brown and lighter and more pink below. The wings may have black spots, and the outer tail feathers are white. The eyes are dark, with light skin around them. The adult male has bright purple-pink patches on the sides of its neck, with light pink coloring up to the breast. Younger birds look more scaly and dark. - -All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and cannot be told apart easily. The Western subspecies has longer wings, a longer beak, shorter toes, and is lighter in color. The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs, a longer beak, and is grayer in color. The Clarion Island subspecies has larger feet, a larger beak, and is darker brown in color. - -Sounds -This species' call is a cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, which is used by males when attracting a mate. Other sounds include a nest call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their mates to the nests, a greeting call (a soft ork) by males upon joining their mates again, and an alarm call (a short roo-oo) by either male or female when in danger. -In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is quiet and hard to hear, but is louder at take-off and landing. - -Reproduction - -The male begins courtship by flying noisily, and then in a graceful, circular glide with its wings outstretched and head down. After landing, the male will go to the female with a puffed out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Once the pair is mated, they will often spend time preening each other's feathers. The mourning dove does not easily leave its mate. Pairs may sometimes remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary. - -After mating, the male shows the female all the potential nest sites, and lets the female choose one and build the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male stands on the female's back to give the material to the female, who builds it into the nest. The nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles, or grass. Sometimes, mourning doves will take place of the unused nests of other mourning doves, birds, or mammals such as squirrels. - -Most nests are in trees, but they can also be found in shrubs, vines, or on buildings and hanging flower pots. When there is no suitable place to nest above, mourning doves will nest on the ground. The nest is almost always big enough for exactly two eggs. Sometimes, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are small and white. - -Both sexes incubate; the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves rarely leave their nest alone. Incubation takes two weeks. - -Both parents feed the squabs crop milk for the first 3–4 days of life. After that, they gradually begin to eat seeds. The feathers and wing muscles begin to develop for flight in about 11–15 days. This happens before the squabs are fully grown, but after they digest the adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging. - -Mourning doves breed quickly. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is essential because they cannot live long. Each year, the mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young. - -Ecology - -Mourning doves eat mostly seeds. Seeds are at least 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their stomach and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow gravel or sand to help them digest. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to corn, millet, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, but only eat what they can see. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from them. - -Mourning doves especially prefer pine nuts, sesame, and wheat. When they cannot find their favorite foods, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat and rye. - -Mourning doves can be easily harmed with several different parasites and diseases, including tapeworms, nematodes, mites, and lice. The Trichomonas gallinae, a parasite which lives in the mouth, is especially severe. While the bird sometimes shows no ill effects, the parasite often causes a yellowish growth in the mouth and throat. This can cause the bird to starve to death. - -The greatest predators of this species are birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. Other times, during nesting, corvids, grackles, house cats or rat snakes will prey on their eggs. Cowbirds rarely pass parasites mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the cowbirds cannot eat the Mourning Dove's vegetarian diet. - -Behavior -Like other doves, the mourning dove drinks without lifting or tilting its head. They often gather at drinking spots around dawn and dusk. - -Mourning doves wash themselves in the sun or rain. These birds can also take baths in shallow pools or bird baths. They may sometimes bathe themselves in the dust as well. - -These birds are a strong fliers and can fly up to 88 km/h (55 mph). - -When they are not breeding, mourning doves roost in dense deciduous trees or in conifers. During sleep, the head rests between the shoulders, close to the body, and is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as most species do. Sometimes, roosting is delayed on colder days during the winter in Canada. - -Conservation status - -The mourning dove is of Least Concern to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The species is not at immediate risk. The population is about 475 million and they live across a wide area. However, around 40–70 million birds are shot as game every year. - -Taxonomy -The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove (Zenaida auriculata) and the Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni). Sometimes these three birds are put in the separate genus Zenaidura. The Socorro dove was once thought to be the same species as the mourning dove. However, differences in behavior, call, and appearance separate them as two different species. - -There are five subspecies of mourning dove: - Eastern Z. m. carolinensis (Linnaeus, 1766) - Clarion Island Z. m. clarionensis (C.H.Townsend, 1890) - West Indian Z. m. macroura (Linnaeus, 1758) - Western Z. m. marginella (Woodhouse, 1852) - Panama Z. m. turturilla (Wetmore, 1956) - -The West Indian subspecies lives throughout the Greater Antilles. It is also lives in the Florida Keys. The Eastern subspecies lives mainly in eastern North America, as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas. The Western subspecies lives in western North America and parts of Mexico. The Panamanian subspecies is in Central America. The Clarion Island subspecies lives near the Pacific coast of Mexico. - -The mourning dove is sometimes called the American mourning dove, because it may be confused with the distantly related African mourning dove (Streptopelia decipiens). It also used to be known as the Carolina turtledove or Carolina pigeon. The species' scientific name was given in 1838 by French zoologist Charles L. Bonaparte, honoring his wife, Princess Zénaide. The ""mourning"" part of its name comes from its call. - -Closest relative -The mourning dove is thought to be most closely related to the extinct passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius). - -As a symbol and in the arts -The Eastern mourning dove (Z. m. carolinensis) is Wisconsin's official symbol of peace. The bird is also Michigan's state bird of peace. - -The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle-dove on plate 286 of Audubon's The Birds of America. - -Mourning doves are referred to often in American literature. They are in some American and Canadian poetry such as in the works of Robert Bly, Jared Carter, Lorine Niedecker, and Charles Wright. - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - - - Mourning Doves on the Internet Bird Collection - USGS page - Information from Cornell Lab of Ornithology - South Dakota Birds page - Mourning Dove Movies (Tree of Life) - 28 Mourning Dove Photos - Video of a Mourning Dove's Call - Mourning Dove Bird Sound - -Doves -Birds of North America -Birds of Pakistan" -21975,83671,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeiningen,Zeiningen,"Zeiningen is a municipality of the district of Rheinfelden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -24099,92942,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%ADa%20Blanca,Bahía Blanca,"Bahía Blanca is a city in Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. - -History -The city was founded in 1828, it has a population is about 275,000 inhabitants. - -Location -It is in the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. - -Cities in Argentina -Buenos Aires Province -1828 establishments -19th-century establishments in Argentina -1820s establishments in South America" -6823,21564,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhattisgarh,Chhattisgarh,"Chhattisgarh is a state within the Republic of India. It occupies . In traditional Indian geography it falls under the East Indian zone. - -The capital at present is Raipur which would change to 'Naya Raipur' near Raipur. It has eighteen districts: Raigarh, Bilaspur, Bijapur, Korba, Durg, Janjgir, Raipur, Koria, Sarguja, Bastar, Dantewada, Narayanpur, Rajnandgaon, Kanker, Mahasamund, Dhamtari, Jashpur and Kabirdham (Kawardha). -The main languages spoken are Hindi and Chhattisgarhi. The main religion is Hindu. - -Provincial symbols of Chhattisgarh" -10471,37186,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesliga%20%28disambiguation%29,Bundesliga (disambiguation),"Bundesliga is the name of the highest level of play in many different sports. Bundesliga literally means ""Federal League"", or league of the whole country. The word is used in the countries Germany and in Austria. Soccer is the most popular sport in these countries. That is why Germany's soccer league is the best-known Bundesliga. - -Bundesligen in Germany - Other association football leagues: - Frauen-Bundesliga – Women's top division association football in Germany (1990–present) - Under 19 Bundesliga – Men's under 19 football (2003–present) - Under 17 Bundesliga – Men's under 17 football (2007–present) - Badminton Bundesliga - Baseball-Bundesliga (1984–present) - Basketball Bundesliga (1966–present) - Damen-Basketball-Bundesliga (founded 1947), women's basketball - Billard Bundesliga, carom billiards (1967–present) - Bundesliga (artistic gymnastics) - Bundesliga (baseball) (1984–present) - Feldhockey Bundesliga (Men's field hockey) - Feldhockey Bundesliga (Women's field hockey) - Bundesliga (handball) (1965–present) - Handball-Bundesliga (women) (founded 1975), women's handball - Bundesliga (shooting) (1997–present) - Bundesliga (speedway) - Bundesliga (table tennis) (1966–present) - Tennis Bundesliga (men) (1972–present) - Bundesliga (volleyball) - Bundesliga (weightlifting) (1964–present) - Bundesliga (wrestling) (1964–present) - Chess Bundesliga (1980–present) - Cricket Bundesliga - German Football League (1979–present), American football Bundesliga, renamed in 1999 - Ruder-Bundesliga (2009–present), rowing (eight) - Roller Hockey Bundesliga (founded 1967), men's roller hockey - Go-Bundesliga , Go - Ice hockey - Deutsche Eishockey Liga (1995–present) - Ice hockey Bundesliga (1958-1994) - German women's ice hockey Bundesliga (founded 1988), women's ice hockey - Rugby - Rugby-Bundesliga, rugby union (1971–present) - Women's Rugby Bundesliga (1987–present), women's rugby union - Unihockey-Bundesliga, Floorball - World League eSport Bundesliga (2005-2006), video games - -Bundesligen in Austria - Austrian Football Bundesliga – men's football - Austrian Football League – men's American style football - Österreichische Basketball Bundesliga – men's basketball - 1. Rugby Bundesliga - men's rugby - Austria women's ice hockey Bundesliga (founded 1988), women's ice hockey" -17484,66300,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1299,1299," - -Events - Osman I declares the independence of the Ottoman Principality - The house of Holland becomes extinct. The County of Holland becomes a part of a personal union with the County of Hainaut. - April 1, 1299 Kings Towne on the River Hull granted city status by Royal Charter of King Edward I of England. - King Håkon V Magnusson moves the capital of Norway from Bergen to Oslo, and builds Akershus fortress in Oslo. Norway is ruled from this fortress the next 500 years. - The Mexica settle Chapultepec, a former Toltec stronghold. - A serious fire occurs at Westminster Palace." -12060,44355,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20panda,Red panda,"The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is a mammal. It is the only species of the Ailuridae family. There are two subspecies: Ailurus fulgens fulgens and Ailurus fulgens styani. - -Overview -Most that are bred at Japanese zoos are Ailurus fulgens styani. They are called レッサーパンダ in Japan and 小熊貓 (xiǎo xìong māo ) in China, both literally translating to English as ""small bear cat"". They have become popular for how they look. The IUCN classes them as 'vulnerable' - -The red panda is not closely related to the giant panda: they are in different families, but share a vegetarian diet. They have both adapted to eating plant material, which is unusual for members of the Carnivora. - -A scientist by the name Brian Houghton Hodgson was one of the first people to look more deeply into the Red Panda because up until he did, there was not much known about the species. In addition to Bamboo, the Red Panda also eats fruits, tuberous roots, acorns, and beechmast. The Red Panda is not necessarily nocturnal but is classified as crepuscular which means they are active around dawn and sleep during the night and midday. Besides how they slept, Hodgson observed that they were monogamous and only breed once a year. - -Habitat -The red panda lives in the southern part of China, Sikkim, Nepal, and the Himalaya mountains in high trees. In the Indian kingdom of Sikkim it is the state animal. As an endangered species it is protected by laws in the countries where it lives. 2 nearly complete skeletons have been found at the Gray Fossil Site in Gray, Tennessee. - -Appearance and life -Red pandas are about 50-60 centimeters long. They weigh between three and five kilograms. They have chestnut colored hair, and their faces have white designs. They eat fruits, roots, bamboo shoots, acorns, and insects. They are active at night and sleep on trees in the daytime. They act alone, not in groups. They eat blossoms, berries, various plants, and bird eggs. - -References -Glatston, A. R. (2011). Red panda biology and conservation of the first panda (1st ed.). Academic Press. -Procyonids" -13983,51809,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepultura,Sepultura,"Sepultura is a thrash metal/death metal/groove metal band from Brazil that has sold over 15 million albums worldwide. The brothers Max and Igor Cavalera started it in Belo Horizonte in 1984. The two brothers have left the band since, Max in 1996, and Igor in 2006, with American singer Derrick Green and drummer Jean Dolabella replacing them after their exits, although Dolabella left in 2011 to be replaced with Eloy Casagrande. - -History -The band's name is Portuguese for the word ""grave"". The Cavalera brothers chose this name after translating English band Motorhead's song called ""Dancing On Your Grave"". - -Singer Wagner Lamounier and bass player Paulo Jr. were the first stable members to join the band along the Cavaleras. Lamounier left after a year and Max decided to sing as well as play guitar. The band added a second guitar player named Jairo Guedez. These members recorded their first album ""Morbid Visions"" in 1986. The song ""Troops of Doom"" from this album gave the band a small amount of popularity. - -Guedez left after the album was released, being replaced by Andreas Kisser. This line-up lasted until 1996 and accomplished several things. They recorded five more albums, where they began to play a more thrash metal sound than death/black metal in the first three albums, Schizophrenia (1987), Beneath The Remains (1989) and Arise (1991), and then moved on to groove metal with the last two of these five albums, Chaos A.D. (1993) and Roots (1996). Popular songs from the Chaos A.D. include Refuse/Resist and Roots Bloody Roots. On Roots, they also included a song they recorded with the Brazilian Xavantes tribe called Itsari, who also toured with them. - -Conflicts between Max and the other members led to Max leaving the band. He was replaced with American singer Derrick Green. Although the band's album sales have lowered with each album released with Green, he remains in the group today, having recorded the albums Against (1998), Nation (2001), Roorback (2003), Dante XXI (2006), A-Lex (2009) and Kairos (2011) with the band. - -Igor Cavalera left the band in 2006 after Dante XXI. A year later, he made up with his brother Max, and the two formed The Cavalera Conspiracy. Igor's first replacement in Sepultura was Jean Dolabella, who recored A-Lex and Kairos with the band before quitting. The band's drummer today is Eloy Casagrande. - -Members - Paulo Jr. - bass guitar (1984-) - Andreas Kisser - guitar (1987-) - Derrick Green - vocals, guitar (1997-) - Eloy Casagrande - drums (2011-) - Max Cavalera - vocals, guitar (1984-1996) - Igor Cavalera - drums (1984-2006) - Jairo Guedez - guitar (1984-1986) - Jean Dolabella - drums (2006-2011) - -Albums - Morbid Visions (1986) - Schizophrenia (1987) - Beneath the Remains (1989) - Arise (1991) - Chaos A.D. (1993) - Roots (1996) - Against (1998) - Nation (2001) - Roorback (2003) - Dante XXI (2006) - A-Lex (2009) - Kairos (2011) - The Mediator Between Head and Hands Must Be the Heart (2013) - Machine Messiah (2017) -Quadra (2020) - -Other websites - http://www.sepultura.com.br/ - -Thrash metal bands -Heavy metal bands -Death metal bands -Groove metal bands -Belo Horizonte -1984 establishments -1980s establishments in Brazil" -633,3033,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leg,Leg,"A leg is something used to support things; to hold them up. Birds and humans have two legs. Some objects, for example tables and chairs, also have legs to hold them up. - -Animals normally have 2 or 4 legs (vertebrates, which are animals with a backbone), or 6, 8, or 12 (arthropods, for example insects and spiders). Centipedes and millipedes have a lot more legs, but not exactly a hundred or a thousand as their names make people who do not know them think. Humans have 2 legs, complete with feet. - -Biped is an animal with two legs and quadruped is an animal with four legs. - -People also use the word ""leg"" in idioms, for example: -you do not have a leg to stand on (that means ""you have no support; you have no chance in this discussion"") -to leg it (to run) -to pull someone's leg (to play a little joke on someone for fun by trying to make them believe something that is not true) - -Basic English 850 words -Limbs and extremities" -18791,70612,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostradamus,Nostradamus,"Michel de Nostredame (14 or 21 December 1503 – 2 July 1566), also known as Nostradamus, was a French apothecary (or pharmacist) and allegedly a doctor. He was born in Provence. He is famous as a 'seer' who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous around the world. His best known book was called Les Propheties (The Prophecies) and first appeared in 1555. Since its first publication the book has rarely been out of print. Over the years, many people have come to believe that Nostradamus predicted a range of events in history. People often reached this conclusion by applying methods similar to the Bible code - i.e. by twisting the texts in such a way as to suggest that they predicted the future. He died of edema in Provence. - -Most academics say that these associations between Nostradamus' quatrains and world events are the result of misinterpretations, or bad translations, that are so far-fetched that they are useless as a source of genuine prediction. What is more, no interpretation has yet managed to predict any event before it happened. - -Fake Nostradamus prophecies -Some people have written prophecies that were wrongly assumed to be by Nostradamus. For example, in 1997 a college student in Canada wrote an essay that included a fake English quatrain (a four-line verse) written in the same style that Nostradamus used in French. The quatrain ended up on the Internet, where it was soon assumed that it was a verse by Nostradamus himself predicting the events of 9/11. So many people e-mailed it to their friends, thinking that it was by Nostradamus, that the associated websites and discussion forums were soon overwhelmed. - -References - -Sources -Lemesurier, Peter, The Nostradamus Encyclopedia, 1997; The Unknown Nostradamus, 2003; Nostradamus: The Illustrated Prophecies, 2003 - -Other websites - -1503 births -1566 deaths -Astrologers -Cardiovascular disease deaths in France -Deaths from cerebral edema -French esotericists -French physicians -Writers from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur -Pharmacists" -10412,36902,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship,Airship,"Airships are kind of aircraft. Airships float in the sky and do not have to move to stay up. This is different from aeroplanes that stay up in the sky by moving. An airship floats like a balloon. But an airship is different from a balloon. An airship has an engine for power and a way to control its direction of movement. A balloon does not have an engine or a way to control its direction of movement. - -Kinds of airships -There are three kinds of airships. The difference is the amount of structure in the airship. - -Rigid airships - Rigid airships have big structures in them. The biggest airships were rigid airships, made in the 1920s and 1930s. Big rigid airships were also called dirigibles. - -Semi-rigid airships - Semi-rigid airships have small structures in them. There are only a few semi-rigid airships. - -Non-rigid airships - Non-rigid airships have no structures in them. Non-rigid airships are also called blimps. Most airships are non-rigid airships. - -Blimps -Blimps were used by the United States in WWII to fight against submarines. Blimps are now used mostly for advertising and sometimes for looking down, for example at sport stadiums and tourist attractions. - -The Hindenburg - -The most famous airship was the Hindenburg. The Hindenburg was a rigid airship made by the Zeppelin airship company. It burned when it was landing on May 6, 1937. There were 97 people on the airship when the fire started. The fire killed 35 of these people and one person on the ground. - - -Gases -Aerospace engineering" -23112,88059,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara%20%28Buddhism%29,Tara (Buddhism),"Tārā or Ārya Tārā, also known as Jetsun Dolma in Tibetan, is a female Buddha linked with Buddhist tantra practice in Tibetan Buddhism. She is called the ""mother of liberation"". She stands for success in work and achievements. - -Tārā is a tantric deity whose practice is used by followers of the Tibetan branch of Vajrayana Buddhism to develop their inner qualities and understand outer, inner and secret teachings about compassion and emptiness. Tārā is not found in the Japanese branch of Vajrayana Buddhism, Shingon. - -There is more than one form of Tārā. They have to do with different forms of the same quality. Bodhisattvas are often considered metaphors for Buddhist virtues. - -The most widely known forms of Tārā are: - - Green Tārā, known as the Buddha of enlightened activity - White Tārā, also known for compassion, long life, healing and serenity; also known as The Wish-fulfilling Wheel, or Cintachakra - Red Tārā, of fierce aspect associated with magnetizing all good things - Black Tārā, associated with power - Yellow Tārā, associated with wealth and prosperity - Blue Tārā, associated with transmutation of anger - Cittamani Tārā, a form of Tārā widely practiced at the level of Highest Yoga Tantra in the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism, portrayed as green and often conflated with Green Tārā - Khadiravani Tārā (Tārā of the teak forest), who appeared to Nagarjuna in the Khadiravani forest of South India and who is sometimes referred to as the ""22nd Tārā."" - -In some schools of Buddhism there are twenty-one Tārās. A practice text with the title In Praise of the 21 Tārās is recited during the morning in all four sects of Tibetan Buddhism. - -The main Tārā chant or mantra is Oṃ tāre tuttāre ture svāhā. This Sanskrit mantra is pronounced by Tibetans and Buddhists who follow the Tibetan traditions as Oṃ tāre tu tāre ture soha. - -Buddhas -Bodhisattvas" -11243,40678,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/840s,840s," - -Events - After the death of Louis the Pious, his sons Charles the Bald, Louis the German and Lothair II of Lotharingia fight about the division of the empire until the treaty of Verdun (843). - Viking raid of Western Francia (France) (845). - Vikings conquer Frisia, the present Netherlands and the German North Sea coastline. - Beginning of Arab domination on Taranto, which will last until 880. - -Important people - Charles the Bald - Louis the German - Lothair I - Kenneth I of Scotland - Ragnar Lodbrok" -10131,34817,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto,Veneto,"Veneto is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in northeastern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Venice. - -COVID-19 has killed more than 200 people in Italy. the regions of Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Veneto have 92 per cent of recorded deaths and 85 per cent of all cases in Italy. - -Geography -The region is in Northeast Italy, bordered to the north by the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region (and Austria in the northeastern corner), to the east by the Friuli Venezia Giulia region, to the southeast and south by the Adriatic Sea, to the southwest by the Emilia-Romagna region, and to the west by the Lombardy region. - -Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main river in the region is the Po. The highest mountain in the region is Marmolada (), in the Belluno province, with an altitude of . - -Provinces -Veneto is divided in a Metropolitan City (Venice) and six provinces: - -Largest municipalities -The 10 communi with more people living in it are: - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites - - Regione del Veneto Official site" -2396,7747,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly,Butterfly,"A butterfly is a usually day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera. They are grouped together in the suborder Rhopalocera. Butterflies are closely related to moths, from which they evolved. The earliest discovered fossil moth dates to 200 million years ago. - -The life of butterflies is closely connected to flowering plants, which their larvae (caterpillars) feed on, and their adults feed and lay their eggs on. They have a long-lasting history of co-evolution with flowering plants. Many of the details of plant anatomy are related to their pollinators, and vice versa. The other notable features of butterflies are their extraordinary range of colours and patterns, and their wings. These are discussed below. - -Angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved in the Lower Cretaceous, but did not become common until the Upper Cretaceous. Butterflies were the last major group of insects to appear on the planet. They evolved from moths in the latest Cretaceous or the earliest Cainozoic. The earliest known butterfly fossils date to the mid Eocene epoch, between 40–50 million years ago. - -Like moths, butterflies have four wings covered with tiny scales. When a butterfly is not flying, its wings are usually folded over its back. The wings are patterned and are often brightly coloured. There are many different kinds of butterflies. The males and females of each kind are often slightly different from each other. Butterfly watching is a popular hobby. Some people also keep collections of dead butterflies that they have caught. - -Like all insects with complete metamorphosis, a butterfly's life goes through four distinct stages. It begins as an egg, which hatches into a larva (a caterpillar). After some time, the larva turns into a chrysalis. While it is in the chrysalis stage, it changes to become an adult butterfly. To complete the cycle, adults mate and the females lay the eggs. - -Butterflies are any of the species belonging to the superfamilies Papilionoidea and Hedyloidea. Butterflies, along with the moths and the skippers, make up the insect order Lepidoptera. Butterflies are nearly worldwide in their distribution. - -Predators and defences - -Predators -The main predators of butterflies are birds, just as the main predators of the crepuscular moths are bats. Also monkeys and tree-dwelling reptiles are predators, and some insects and spiders. All reptiles and monkeys have good colour vision, so that butterfly coloration works just as well on them as it does on birds. - -Defences -The extraordinary colours and patterns on the wings and body can only be understood in terms of their function. Some of the most obvious functions of colour are: - Camouflage: enabling the insect to remain hidden from view - Signalling to other animals - Warning colouration: signalling to other animals not to attack. Caterpillars may have stored poisons from their food plants. - Mimicry: taking advantage of another species' warning coloration - Sexual selection: finding a mate - Other kinds of signalling - Diversion - Startle defence: unexpected flashes of colour or eyespots - -The details vary from group to group, and from species to species. The caterpillars also have colours with similar functions. The poisonous substances which make some butterflies noxious to eat are got from the plants eaten by their caterpillars. - -Body - -Like most insects, butterflies have three main body parts. These parts are the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The body is protected by the exoskeleton. The body is made up of sections, known as segments. In between the segments there are flexible areas that allow the butterfly to move. All three parts of the body are covered in very small scales. The scales give the butterfly its colour. - -Wings and flight -Butterflies have a very characteristic flying style. They usually do not fly in straight lines. Their style is well described by the children's version of their name: 'flutter-by'. Some species are capable of strong, long flights (see monarch butterfly migration) and others never leave the woods they were born in. They can survive bird pecks on the wings quite well. Late in the season damage to their wings can often be seen, though they continue flying quite well. - -Head -The head is the first part of the body. It has the eyes, mouth parts, and antennae. - -The eyes of a butterfly are large. The eye is made up of smaller eyes or optical units. Eyes that are made up of optical units are called compound eyes. Butterflies do not see as many colours as humans, but they can see ultraviolet light. - -The mouth of an adult butterfly does not have jaws. It has a kind of mouth that is made to suck liquids. This mouth is called a proboscis. The proboscis is made up of two hollow tubes. The tubes are locked together in the middle. When the butterfly is not using its proboscis, it is coiled up in the head. It can uncoil the proboscis when it wants to feed. - -The antennae of a butterfly are used for smell and balance. The antenna in most butterflies is clubbed at the end. In some butterflies (like the Skippers), there is a hook at the end of the antenna, instead of a club. - -Thorax - -The thorax is the second part of the body. It is made up of three segments. The legs and wings are connected to the thorax. - -The legs of a butterfly are made for walking, holding onto things, and tasting. There are three pairs of legs. There are four main parts of the leg. They are the trochanter, the femur, the tibia, and the foot. At the end of each foot, there is a pair of claws. Butterflies in the family Nymphalidae have very short front legs. They keep there front legs close to their bodies. This makes it look like they only have two pairs of legs. In some species, there is a movable body part on the tibia that is used to clean the antennae. - -A butterfly has two pairs of wings. Each wing has hollow tubes called veins. The colors and patterns of butterflies are made by tiny scales. The scales overlap each other. They are connected to the wing. If a butterfly is handled, the tiny scales may rub off. - -Abdomen -The abdomen is the third part of the body. It is made up of ten segments. The abdomen is much softer than the head and the thorax. At the end of the abdomen are the reproductive organs. In the male, there is a pair of claspers. They are used to hold on to the female during mating. In the female, there is a tube made to lay eggs. - -Life cycle -Butterflies go through complete metamorphosis. This means that there are four parts in a butterfly's life. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar (sometimes called the larva). The third part is the chrysalis (sometimes called the pupa). The fourth part is the adult (sometimes called the imago). - -Egg - -A female butterfly will lay her eggs on or near the food plant of the caterpillar (the food plant is the plant that the caterpillar feeds on). The female will choose a place to lay her eggs using smell, taste, touch, and sight. Most species will lay just one egg on the food plant. Others will lay groups of five to over 100 eggs on the food plant. Most species will lay their eggs on the leaves of the food plant. Others will lay them on the flowers, stems, bark, or fruit of the food plant. - -The eggs come in many different shapes and colours. They may be round or oval, and flattened. In some species, the egg shell is ribbed. The most common colours in butterfly eggs are yellow and green. The eggs will turn dark just before hatching. Also, some butterflies take a day to come out of eggs, while others could take months. - -Caterpillar - -Butterfly caterpillars can vary in size, colour, and shape. They may have spines, bristles, or soft body extensions. All caterpillars have 13 body segments. The first three segments make up the thorax. The thorax has three pairs of legs. These legs are called true legs. The other 10 segments make up the abdomen. The abdomen has five pairs of soft legs called prolegs. The prolegs have tiny hooks at the end of each of the foot. They are used to hold on to things. The hooks are called crochets. - -A caterpillar's skin does not grow. As the caterpillar grows inside its skin, the skin becomes too tight. In order for the caterpillar to grow bigger, it sheds its too-tight skin. After the old skin is shed, there is a new, larger skin. This is known as moulting. A caterpillar will moult four to five times before turning into a pupa. Each part between moults is called an instar. - -All caterpillars can make silk. The silk is made from the salivary glands. Silk starts out as a liquid in the salivary glands. The caterpillar draws out the silk into a small thread. The silk hardens as soon as it is exposed to the air. Caterpillars use silk to make nests or cocoons. - -Most caterpillars feed on leaves of plants or trees. Most species of caterpillars will feed only on a small number of certain kinds of plants. If the caterpillar's food plant is not found, it will starve to death. - -Some species of caterpillars (in the family Lycaenidae) are tended by ants. The caterpillars have special glands that make a sweet liquid called honeydew. The ants like the honeydew. In return for the honeydew, the ants protect the caterpillars from predators. The caterpillars also have special body parts that make sounds. The caterpillar will make sounds with the body parts and ""call"" the ants when the caterpillar is being attacked by predators. The ants hear the sounds and come to protect the caterpillar. - -Caterpillars in the subfamily Miletinae eat insects in the order Hemiptera. This includes aphids, mealybugs, leafhoppers and treehoppers.p356 - -Caterpillars in the family Papilionidae have a special organ. This organ is called an osmeterium. It is a bad-smelling gland that is shaped like a snake's tongue. It is kept behind the inside of the head. When a predator tries to eat the caterpillar, the caterpillar will release the osmeterium. This scares the predators away.p161 - -Pupa - -The pupa (plural, pupae) is formed after the last moult. The caterpillar will find a special place to pupate (pupate means to turn into a pupa). The digestive tract is emptied. The caterpillar sheds its skin. The pupa is now exposed. The caterpillar's tissues are broken down and rebuilt into the butterfly's tissues. - -The pupa cannot move. It is attached to an object by tiny hooks on the end of the abdomen. These hooks make up what is called the cremaster. There are many tiny holes on the pupa. They allow respiratory gases to move in and out of the pupa. - -Many pupae are easy for predators to attack. Some caterpillars (in the family Hesperiidae and the subfamilies Parnassiinae and Satyrinae) make shelters out of silk and leaves to protect themselves when they become pupae. These shelters are called cocoons. Most butterfly pupae do not have cocoons to protect themselves. Instead, the pupae have brown or green colours to camouflage themselves among leaves and branches. Pupae that do not have cocoons are called chrysalids or chrysalises. - -Survival -Some butterflies may be in trouble because of habitat loss. Because of the destruction of forests and grasslands, some types of butterflies have nowhere to feed and lay eggs. To help, some people plant a butterfly garden with flowers having lots of nectar for butterflies to feed on. Some people also keep plants that butterflies lay eggs on, and enjoy watching the caterpillars hatch out and feed on the plant. Chemical sprays that are used to keep pests away from garden plants, also kill butterflies. - -Some colourful butterflies - -Monarch butterfly gallery - -Related pages -Differences between butterflies and moths -Defence against predation -Animal colour -Moth -Lepidoptera - -References - -Further reading - Boggs C; Watt W. & Ehrlich P. 2003. Butterflies: evolution and ecology: taking flight. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA. - Pyle R.M. 1992. Handbook for butterfly watchers. Houghton Mifflin." -14278,53346,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%ADrito%20Santo,Espírito Santo,"Espírito Santo is one of the states of southeastern Brazil. It is often referred to as ""ES"". The capital of ES is Vitória and its largest city is Vila Velha. Those who are born in the state are known as ""Capixabas"", but the more correct word is ""Espiritossantenses"". The name means ""holy spirit"" after the Holy Ghost of Christianity. - -Location -This Brazilian state is in the southeastern subdivision of Brazil, which also contains the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (east), the state of Bahia (north), the state of Minas Gerais (north and west), and the state of Rio de Janeiro (south). Espírito Santo's other main cities are Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, Colatina, Linhares, São Mateus and Aracruz. - -Geography -At , it is about the size of Estonia. The state has many different types of habitats, for example coastal planes, lakes, mountain forest and mangroves. - -The islands of Trindade and Martim Vaz, east of Vitória in the Southern Atlantic Ocean, are also a part of Espirito Santo state. - -References - - -States of Brazil" -4868,15368,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus%20Dei,Opus Dei,"Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei (more commonly known as Opus Dei) is an organization of the Roman Catholic Church. (""Opus Dei"" means ""Work of God"" in Latin.) Opus Dei says that the Catholic Church gave them a special job: to tell everyone that God wants them to be close to him. This means that everyone is called by God to become a saint. - -Opus Dei was started by St. Josemaría Escrivá, a Roman Catholic priest, in 1928. It was approved by Pope Pius XII in 1950. Now, Opus Dei has around 85,000 members in 80 different countries. - -In 1982, Pope John Paul II decided to make Opus Dei into a personal prelature. Usually, in the Catholic Church, there are separate dioceses in different areas. Each area has its own bishop who is in charge of just that diocese. But because Opus Dei is a personal prelature, its bishopm called the Prelate, is not limited to any specific area. He is in charge of members of Opus Dei wherever they are, around the world. The prelate of Opus Dei is Monsignor Fernando Ocáriz Braña. - -Beginnings and goals - -Opus Dei was started by a Roman Catholic priest, Josemaria Escrivá, on 2 October 1928 in Madrid, Spain. He said that God showed him what to do. On that day he ""saw Opus Dei."" - -Escrivá said that the goals of Opus Dei are: - To help Christians to know that ordinary life is a way to becoming a saint; and - To bring people close to God. - -Opus Dei gives classes, talks, and other help so that people can practice these teachings. - -Belief that Opus Dei is God's work - -Pope John Paul II has said that Escrivá was led by God when he started Opus Dei. - -In 2002, Pope Benedict XVI said that Opus Dei is God's work, not Escrivá's. He said that God just used Escriva as a tool to start his own work. - -What it teaches - -Escrivá and Opus Dei teach that a person can get close to God by doing these things: - -Becoming a saint in ordinary life -Living like saints. According to Opus Dei, when they were baptized, Christians became children of God. Because of this, they have to act like people who belong to the family of God. Most Christians should live like Jesus Christ, making their everyday lives holy. Jesus worked as a carpenter and lived as a son in a Jewish family in a small village for 30 years. -Making work holy -Doing work for God by doing things that help others and serve the needs of society. This work pleases God. By working to serve and help others, Jesus Christ ""did all things well"" (Mk 7:37). -Loving freedom -Being happy that God created them as free beings. Being free means each person can choose do something or not to do it. When God himself became a man, he also became free like any man. Throughout his life, he obeyed what God the Father wanted from him, even when he had to die in the process. ""Because he wants to,"" each person either decides to be with God or away from him. Those are the two basic choices in life. -Praying and sacrificing (doing good things which are hard to do) -Learning to love by praying throughout the day like a child. Love is what holiness is all about. Escrivá said that people can have great holiness just by doing the little duties of each moment. -Doing charity and bringing people to God -Loving God and others. Escrivá said this is the most important thing a Christian should do. Christians should understand others and be nice to each other. They should do their duties and also give God to others. -Becoming god-like. A Christian who seeks God not just in church, but also in material things (things he can own), does not have two lives. He has one life. He lives the life of Jesus Christ, and Jesus is both God and man. A good Christian becomes another Christ. - -Escrivá said that the basis of a Christian life is being a child of God. If people are aware of this, then they will always be very happy. He wrote that joy comes from knowing we are children of God. - -What it does - -According to the Catholic Church, people can find God in their daily work and activities. There they can be very close to him. They do not have to become priests or monks to become a saint. God wants them to become a saint by doing their ordinary duties and activities well. The Catholic Church gave Opus Dei the job of spreading this knowledge, and teaching people that they can be real saints just by doing ordinary things and offering them to God. - -Beliefs, newness and problems - -Pope John Paul II praised Opus Dei and said that its aim of bringing God into the place of work is something great. Cardinal Albino Luciani, who later became Pope John Paul I, said that Escriva brought about a big change in how people deal with God. Before, people saw prayers as the only way to be close to God. Luciani said that Escriva also gave importance to work. The work one does can become prayer. - -But when Escriva started teaching this, some Jesuits in the 1940s did not understand him. They said his beliefs were against the Catholic faith, because at that time Catholics thought that only priests and nuns could become holy. Some Jesuit leaders started saying that Opus Dei had secrets which it did not want the world to know, and that Opus Dei was dangerous. In fact, they said, Opus Dei just wanted to become very powerful and to control the world. - -All these accusations were cleared up by the Popes and Catholic officials. These officials say that Opus Dei is doing something good for the world, by teaching people how to practice good habits, like telling the truth, working hard, keeping promises, loving people, and being concerned with those who are in need. - -However, since the Jesuits are well-respected, a lot of people in the world believed what they said. Opus Dei has gotten a lot of criticism from Catholics and non-Catholics. They say that the members develop a strong drive to gain influence, and that the behaviour resembles that of a sect. Critics of Opus Dei also say there is a lot of gender inequality in the organization. They say Opus Dei has a very traditional view of the role of women in a Christian society. According to these critics, for Opus Dei the duty of the woman is to busy herself about the house and to raise the children of the family. - -In 2005, a writer named John L. Allen, Jr. wrote a book which argued against these accusations. He said that these claims are mainly based on not understanding Opus Dei. He argued that: - Opus Dei only teaches what the Catholic Church teaches - There are many Opus Dei women who are very good leaders in business, fashion, art, education, social work, and other professions - Half of Opus Dei's leaders are women, and these women also lead men - Opus Dei does teach that women are very good at taking care of their families. Escriva said that women are natural teachers. - -Another writer, Massimo Introvigne, said that Opus Dei is now being attacked by people who do not believe in God and people who think that God should not be present in the world of human beings. These people, he says, do not want religion to come back to the lives of many people in society. - -History: how it developed - -1928: October 2. Escrivá' starts Opus Dei -1930: February 14. Start of the Women's branch of Opus Dei -1939: The Way, Escrivá's book of spiritual thoughts, is first published -1941: March 19. The Bishop of Madrid approves Opus Dei -1943: February 14. Start of the Priestly Society of the Holy Cross -1946: Escrivá goes to Rome and puts up the headquarters of Opus Dei there -1950: June 16. Pope Pius XII gives the Catholic Church's approval of Opus Dei -1962: Start of the Second Vatican Council, a big meeting of Catholic bishops from all over the world. In this meeting, the bishops and the Pope teaches to everyone that they are all called to become holy -1975: June 26. Escrivá dies. Alvaro del Portillo, his closest co-worker, is chosen to become his successor -1982: November 28. Opus Dei become a personal prelature. John Paul II chooses del Portillo as prelate, or head of the prelature -1992: May 17. John Paul II declares that Opus Dei's founder, Escrivá, is in Heaven -2002: October 6. John Paul II says that Escriva is a saint. John Paul II calls Escrivá the ""saint of ordinary life"" - -References - -Further reading - Allen, John, Jr. (2005). Opus Dei: an Objective Look Behind the Myths and Reality of the Most Controversial Force in the Catholic Church, Doubleday Religion. — Some online excerpts are: Opus Dei: An Introduction, Chapter I: A Quick Overview , Chapter 4: Contemplatives in the Middle of the World , Chapter 7: Opus Dei and Secrecy - Berglar, Peter (1994). Opus Dei. Life and Work of its Founder. Scepter. — online here - -Estruch, Joan (1995). Saints and Schemers: Opus Dei and its paradoxes. — online Spanish version here - Hahn, Scott (2006). Ordinary Work, Extraordinary Grace: My Spiritual Journey in Opus Dei. Random House Double Day Religion. — online excerpt of Chapter One here -Introvigne, Massimo (May 1994). ""Opus Dei and the Anti-cult Movement"". Cristianità, 229, p. 3-12 — online here -John Paul II. Sacred Congregation for Bishops. (23 August 1982). Vatican Declaration on Opus Dei. — online here - - Martin, James, S.J. (25 February 1995). ""Opus Dei in the United States"". America Magazine. — online here - — online Spanish version here -O'Connor, William. Opus Dei: An Open Book. A Reply to ""The Secret World of Opus Dei"" by Michael Walsh, Mercier Press, Dublin 1991, -Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal (Benedict XVI) (9 October 2002). ""St. Josemaria: God is very much at work in our world today"". L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English, p. 3. — online here -Schall, James, S.J. (Aug-Sept 1996). ""Of Saintly Timber"". Homiletic and Pastoral Review. — review of Estruch's work, online here -Walsh, Michael (2004). Opus Dei: An Investigation into the Powerful Secretive Society within the Catholic Church. Harper San Francisco. - -Other websites - -Sites that support Opus Dei - Opus Dei Official Site - Romana, the Opus Dei's Official Bulletin - McCloskey's Perspectives — website of writer Fr. McCloskey, priest of Opus Dei - -Sites that criticize Opus Dei - Opus Dei Awareness Network - Opus Libros (in Spanish) - The Unofficial Opus Dei FAQ - -Roman Catholicism -Christian organizations -1928 establishments in Europe -1920s establishments in Spain" -18038,67864,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core,Core,"Core generally is the heart or inner part of a thing, as of a column, wall, rope, of a boil, etc.; especially, the central part of fruit, containing the kernels or seeds; as, the core of an apple or quince. - -Core could mean: - -In media: - Core (album), an album by Stone Temple Pilots - Core (Persefone album) - Core (radio station), a digital radio station in the United Kingdom - The Core, a 2003 science fiction film - Core Design, a videogame developer best known for the Tomb Raider series - C.O.R.E., a computer animation studio - -In science and academics: - Core (group), in mathematics, an object in group theory - Core (functional analysis), in mathematics, a subset of the domain of a closable operator - core (graph theory), in mathematics, the homomorphically minimal subgraph of a graph - core of a triangulated category in mathematics. - Core (economics), the collection of stable allocations that no coalition can improve upon - Planetary core, in planetary science, the center of a planet - Earth's core - Solar core, the region of the Sun where nuclear fusion takes place - Lithic core, in archaeology, a stone artifact left over from toolmaking - Core curriculum, in education, an essential part of the curriculum - Core sample, in Earth science, a sample obtained by coring - Core countries, in dependency theory, an industrialized country on which peripheral countries depend - Core (anatomy), in anatomy is everything except the appendages. - -In computers and technology: -Semiconductor intellectual property core, part of a CPU design -Multi-core (computing), a type of microprocessor design in which multiple processors coexist on the same chip - Intel Core, in processors, a brand of computer processor - Magnetic core memory, in computing, the primary memory - Core dump, in computing, a record of the core memory - Nuclear reactor core, a portion containing the fuel components - Magnetic core, in electricity and electronics, ferromagnetic material around which wires are wound - the signal-carrying portion of an optical fiber - -Acronyms: - Central Organization For Railway Electrification, an organization in India - Congress of Racial Equality, United States civil rights organization - Coordinated Online Register of Electors, central database in the United Kingdom - Challenge of Reverse Engineering, a warez group - Comment on Reproductive Ethics, a Christian pressure group in the United Kingdom" -19397,73925,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris%20Lessing,Doris Lessing,"Doris Lessing (Doris May Tayler, 22 October 1919 – 17 November 2013) was a British writer. In 2007, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Reporters told Doris that she had won the Nobel prize and they asked her ""Are you not surprised?"". She said she had already ""won every other European literature prize"" so winning prizes was normal. - -Early life -Lessing was born in Iran on 22 October 1919. Her parents were both English. They met at the Royal Free Hospital. Her father, Captain Alfred Tayler, was a patient because he had lost his leg in World War I. Her mother, Emily Maude Tayler (maiden name McVeagh), was a nurse. - -Alfred Tayler and his wife moved to Kermanshah, Iran. He started a job there as a clerk for the Imperial Bank of Persia. Doris was born here in 1919. Later, the family moved to the British colony of Southern Rhodesia (now called Zimbabwe) in 1925 to farm maize. - -Lessing studied at the Dominican Convent High School in Salisbury (now Harare). It was a Roman Catholic convent school for girls. She left school aged 14, and taught herself after that. She left home at 15 and worked as a nursemaid. She started reading about politics and sociology and began writing around this time. In 1937, Lessing moved to Salisbury to work as a telephone operator. She soon married her first husband, Frank Wisdom. They had two children (John and Jean), before the marriage ended in 1943. She took care of future author Jenny Diski after her parents abused her. Diski lived with Lessing for four years in London. - -After her divorce, Lessing became more involved with members of the Left Book Club. She had joined this communist book club the year before. She met her second husband, Gottfried Lessing there. They married soon after she joined the group, and had a child named Peter. This marriage ended in divorce in 1949. Gottfried Lessing later became the East German ambassador to Uganda. He was murdered in the 1979 rebellion against Idi Amin Dada. - -She went to London to pursue her writing career and communist ideals. Lessing left two young children with their father in South Africa. Peter, from her second marriage, went with her. She later said that she thought she had no choice at that time. She felt she had done the best she could and that she was not the best person to raise the children. She would have been very frustrated like her mother had been because it was diificult for an intelligent woman to spend all of her time with young children. - -Archive -The largest collection of Lessing's writing is at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, at the University of Texas at Austin. There are 45 boxes of Lessing's materials at the Ransom Center that contain nearly all of her available manuscripts and typescripts up to 1999. Lessing kept none of the originals of her early manuscripts. Other institutions, including the McFarlin Library at the University of Tulsa, hold smaller collections. - -Death -During the late 1990s, Lessing suffered a stroke which stopped her from travelling during her later years and focused her mind on death. Lessing died on 17 November 2013 at her home in London, aged 94. - -Awards - Somerset Maugham Award (1954) - Prix Médicis étranger (1976) - Austrian State Prize for European Literature (1981) - Alfred Toepfer Stiftung F. V. S., Hamburg (1982) - W. H. Smith Literary Award (1986) - Palermo Prize (1987) - Premio Internazionale Mondello (1987) - Premio Grinzane Cavour (1989) - James Tait Black Memorial Prize for biography (1995) - Los Angeles Times Book Prize (1995) - Premi Internacional Catalunya (1999) - Order of the Companions of Honour (1999) - Companion of Literature of the Royal Society of Literature (2000) - David Cohen Prize (2001) - Premio Príncipe de Asturias (2001) - S.T. Dupont Golden PEN Award (2002) - Nobel Prize in Literature (2007) - -Works - -Novels - The Grass is Singing (1950) - Retreat to Innocence (1956) - The Golden Notebook (1962) - Briefing for a Descent into Hell (1971) - The Summer Before the Dark (1973) - Memoirs of a Survivor (1974) - The Diary of a Good Neighbour (as Jane Somers, 1983) - If the Old Could... (as Jane Somers, 1984) - The Good Terrorist (1985) - The Fifth Child (1988) - Love, Again (1996) - Mara and Dann (1999) - Ben, in the World (2000) – sequel to The Fifth Child - The Sweetest Dream (2001) - The Story of General Dann and Mara's Daughter, Griot and the Snow Dog (2005) – sequel to Mara and Dann - The Cleft (2007) - Alfred and Emily (2008) -The Children of Violence series - Martha Quest (1952) - A Proper Marriage (1954) - A Ripple from the Storm (1958) - Landlocked (1965) - The Four-Gated City (1969) -Canopus in Argos: Archives series - Shikasta (1979) - The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980) - The Sirian Experiments (1980) - The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982) - The Sentimental Agents in the Volyen Empire (1983) -Opera libretti - The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (opera)|The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (music by Philip Glass, 1986) - The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (music by Philip Glass, 1997) -Comics - Playing the Game (graphic novel illustrated by Charlie Adlard, 1995) -Drama - Each His Own Wilderness (three plays, 1959) - Play with a Tiger (1962) -Poetry - Fourteen Poems (1959) - The Wolf People - INPOPA Anthology 2002 (poems by Lessing, Robert Twigger and T.H. Benson, 2002) - -Short story collections - Five Short Novels (1953) - The Habit of Loving (1957) - A Man and Two Women (1963) - African Stories (1964) - Winter in July (1966) - The Black Madonna (1966) - The Story of a Non-Marrying Man (1972) - This Was the Old Chief's Country: Collected African Stories, Vol. 1 (1973) - The Sun Between Their Feet: Collected African Stories, Vol. 2 (1973) - To Room Nineteen: Collected Stories, Vol. 1 (1978) - The Temptation of Jack Orkney: Collected Stories, Vol. 2 (1978) - Through the Tunnel (1990) - London Observed: Stories and Sketches (1992) - The Real Thing: Stories and Sketches (1992) - Spies I Have Known (1995) - The Pit (1996) - The Grandmothers: Four Short Novels (2003) - Cat Tales - Particularly Cats (stories and nonfiction, 1967) - Particularly Cats and Rufus the Survivor (stories and nonfiction, 1993) - The Old Age of El Magnifico (stories and nonfiction, 2000) - On Cats (2002) – omnibus edition containing the above three books -Autobiography and memoirs - Going Home (memoir, 1957) - African Laughter: Four Visits to Zimbabwe (memoir, 1992) - Under My Skin: Volume One of My Autobiography, to 1949 (1994) - Walking in the Shade: Volume Two of My Autobiography, 1949 to 1962 (1997) -Other nonfiction - In Pursuit of the English (1960) - Prisons We Choose to Live Inside (essays, 1987) - The Wind Blows Away Our Words (1987) - A Small Personal Voice (essays, 1994) - Conversations (interviews, edited by Earl G. Ingersoll, 1994) - Putting the Questions Differently (interviews, edited by Earl G. Ingersoll, 1996) - Time Bites (essays, 2004) - On Not Winning the Nobel Prize (Nobel Lecture, 2007, published 2008) - -References - -1919 births -2013 deaths -Deaths from stroke -English autobiographers -Companions of Honour -Royal Society of Literature -Booker Prize winners -British Nobel Prize winners -British academics -British communists -British feminists -English novelists -English playwrights -English poets -English science fiction writers -British socialists -Nobel Prize in Literature winners -Officers of the Order of the British Empire -Writers from London" -10113,34729,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna%20Carta,Magna Carta,"The Magna Carta was a document that was sealed by King John after negotiations with his barons and their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, Surrey, England in 1215. - -There they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin Magna Carta. It established a council of 25 barons to see John keep to the clauses, including access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, scutage limitations, and protection from illegal imprisonment. - -Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his spiritual overlord Pope Innocent III. Denouncing it as ""not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust"", the Pope agreed. The Magna Carta is still considered one of the most important documents ever written, having inspired the way we view issues of justice and liberty and influenced laws regarding such throughout the world. - -The Magna Carta has influenced English law right down to the present day. It is one of the most celebrated documents in the History of England. It is recognized as a cornerstone of the idea of the liberty of citizens. - -Content -The Magna Carta contains 63 clauses written in Latin on parchment. Only three of the original clauses in Magna Carta are still law today. One defends the freedom and rights of the English Church, another confirms the liberties customs of the City of London and other towns. This clause (translated) is the main reason the Carta is still famous: - -""No free man shall be seized, imprisoned, stripped of his rights or possessions, outlawed, exiled. Nor will we proceed with force against him except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land. To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice"". - -This clause limits the power of rulers, and introduces the idea of lawful process and the idea of a jury. The BBC summarised the main points of the document as: - -No one is above the law, not even the king. -Everyone has a right to a fair trial. -No taxation without representation. - -The BBC said the Magna Carta ""established a number of important principles, which have been copied around the world... It inspired the US Constitution and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights"". - -History -The origin is in the medieval feudal system, in which the King's word was law. It solved, at the time, a conflict between King John and his main men: the barons and bishops. Dispute grew between the barons and bishops and King John over taxes and disputes with the Pope. - -The barons chose their time to put John under pressure. John had lost a battle against the French, been excommunicated by the Pope (1209–1213), and feared civil war at home. He met the barons at Runnymede, 20 miles south-west of London, in June 1215. The negotiation was managed by John's half-brother, William Longspée, and Elias of Dereham, steward to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton. - -The content of the Carta was designed to re-balance power between the King and his subjects, but especially between John and the barons. When King John set his seal on Magna Carta he conceded the fundamental principle that even as king he was not above the law. That meant kings would not have as much power as they did before. The Carta also laid down rules of inheritance, and that convictions required some kind of official process. It stated that people had rights not to be unlawfully imprisoned. In other words, the king is bound to rule within the law. - -Thirteen original copies of the Carta were made and distributed. Only four survive today. The four copies are in The British Library, The Bodleian Library, Lincoln Castle and Salisbury Cathedral. The Magna Carta was sent out again in 1220 by Henry III. In 2009 UNESCO recognized it in its Memory of the World register. The British Library brought all four copies together in February 2015, so that scholars could examine them side by side. - -References - -Politics of the United Kingdom -Documents -13th century in England -Law -1215" -21853,83248,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel%20%28district%29,Biel (district),"Biel is a small district in the Swiss canton of Bern. It contains 2 municipalities: - -Other websites - Official Website of the city of Biel/Bienne - Tourism Information for Biel/Bienne and Region - Portal with numerous trip suggestions in the Seeland region - Portal with numerous trip suggestions in the Bern Jura region - Events Calendar - Nightlife in Biel - Watch Valley - -Former districts of Bern" -13249,48634,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20U.S.%20states%20and%20territories%20by%20time%20zone,List of U.S. states and territories by time zone,"This is a list of U.S. states (and the one federal district, Washington, D.C.) and territories showing their time zones. - -Most of the United States uses Daylight Saving Time (DST) in the summer. In the list, it will say if the state does not use DST. - -Note: the time zones listed on this page are listed in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as well as the names of the time zones as they are called within the United States. For an explanation on what UTC+# and UTC-# mean, please see the UTC page. - -Zones - These are the times zones that are used by the United States and its territories: - UTC-12: Anywhere on Earth (AoE) -UTC-11: Samoa Standard Time (ST) - UTC-10: Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time (HAT) -UTC-9: Alaska Standard Time (AKT) - UTC−8: Pacific Standard Time (PT) - UTC−7: Mountain Standard Time (MT) - UTC−6: Central Standard Time (CT) - UTC−5: Eastern Standard Time (ET) - UTC−4: Atlantic Standard Time (AST) - UTC+10: Chamorro Standard Time (ChT) - UTC+12: Wake Island Time Zone (WIT) - -States - -Federal district -Washington, D.C. does use Daylight Saving Time (DST). - -Territories -The territories of the United States do not use Daylight Saving Time (DST). - -Other websites - Official time zone site of the U.S.A. government - -Time zone, List of U.S. states by -Time zones" -19719,75480,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6ndorf,Schöndorf,"Schöndorf is the name of two municipalities in Germany: - Schöndorf, Rhineland-Palatinate, in the Trier-Saarburg district, Rhineland-Palatinate - Schöndorf, Thuringia, in the Saale-Orla-Kreis, Thuringia - -and to: - Schöndorf, the German name for Frumușeni Commune, Arad County, Romania - -Other - Schondorf am Ammersee, a municipality in the district of Landsberg am Lech, Bavaria" -22414,84871,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20de%20Maizi%C3%A8re,Thomas de Maizière,"Karl Ernst Thomas de Maizière (born 21 January 1954 in Bonn) was the Minister for Special Affairs in the German government and Head of the Federal Chancellery. On 3 March 2011, because of Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg's resignation, de Maizière became Federal Minister for Defence. - -His father was Ulrich de Maizière, who was Inspector General of the Bundeswehr. The senior officer in all German Armed Forces. In the UK, he would be Chief of the Defence Staff and in the US, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. - -Karl's cousin Lothar de Maizière was the only democratically elected Prime Minister of the German Democratic Republic. - -References - -1954 births -Living people -German academics -Government ministers of Germany -Members of the German Bundestag -People from Bonn -Politicians from North Rhine-Westphalia -Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany" -17543,66398,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency%20distribution,Frequency distribution,"In statistics, a frequency distribution is a list of the values that a variable takes in a sample. It is usually a list, ordered by quantity. It will show the number of times each value appears. For example, if 100 people rate a five-point Likert scale assessing their agreement with a statement on a scale on which 1 denotes strong agreement and 5 strong disagreement, the frequency distribution of their responses might look like: - -This simple table has two drawbacks. When a variable can take continuous values instead of discrete values or when the number of possible values is too large, the table construction is difficult, if it is not impossible. A slightly different scheme based on the range of values is used in such cases. For example, if we consider the heights of the students in a class, the frequency table might look like below. - -Applications -Managing and operating on frequency tabulated data is much simpler than operation on raw data. There are simple algorithms to calculate median, mean (statistics), standard deviation etc. from these tables. - -Statistical hypothesis testing is based on the assessment of differences and similarities between frequency distributions. This assessment involves measures of central tendency or averages, such as the mean and median, and measures of variability or statistical dispersion, such as the standard deviation or variance. - -A frequency distribution is said to be skewed when its mean and median are different. The kurtosis of a frequency distribution is the concentration of scores at the mean, or how peaked the distribution appears if depicted graphically—for example, in a histogram. If the distribution is more peaked than the normal distribution it is said to be leptokurtic; if less peaked it is said to be platykurtic. - -Frequency distributions are also used in frequency analysis to crack codes and refer to the relative frequency of letters in different languages. - -Statistics" -21711,82742,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camino,Camino,"Camino was a free, open source web browser, that was designed for the Mac OS X operating system. It was developed by the Camino Project, a community organization. It was based on Mozilla's Gecko rendering engine. - -Version history - -Web browsers -Mozilla" -12199,44986,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Nintendo%20Entertainment%20System,Super Nintendo Entertainment System,"The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (often shortened to SNES or Super NES) is a 16-bit video game console created by Nintendo, released first in 1990. It is the sucessor to the NES. It was called the Super Famicom in Japan, and the Super Comboy in South Korea. The console can display 2D graphics, with some limited support for 3D graphics with the Super FX chip. Super NES games are loaded from a cartridge. The major competitor for the Super Nintendo was the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, but it also competed with the Panasonic 3D0. - -Notable Games - Super Mario World - Super Castlevania IV - Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars - Super Metroid - Donkey Kong Country - EarthBound - The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past - Super Mario Kart - Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island - F-Zero - Star Fox - -Nintendo video game consoles" -14007,51906,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puce,Puce,"Puce is a medium grayish red-violet colour. - -Puce colours may be pale grayish red-violet, grayish red or brownish-purple colours. - -Basically, puce colours are reddish purple colours mixed with gray or brown. A wide range of tones of puce are shown below. - -Chinese dried plums, a favorite snack among Chinese people worldwide, can be said to be puce coloured. - -Where the name came from -The name is from the French word puce which means ""flea"". Some people say that the colour name comes from the colour of a squashed flea or the colour of a flea full of blood. Other people say that colour name comes from the flea's droppings of digested blood, which spread out in deep red stain when water contacts them. Still others say that the colour name means the colour of the belly of a flea. - -On the other hand, the colour name may refer to blue-lavender of the Pennyroyal flower, also named puce in French. The name may come from the use of strong-smelling Pennyroyal to ward off fleas. - -The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) dates the use of ""puce"" (in couleur puce)in English from 1787. The first recorded use of puce as a color name was in the 14th century, in the French language. - -Meaning of puce - The colour puce and/or its various tones are used to signify something that is odd, unusual, or bizarre. - Puce and its tones are favourite colours among those of the Goth subculture. - -Tones of puce colour comparison chart - Light Lavender Blush (Lavender Blush Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #FFF9FB) (RGB: 255, 245, 251) - Lavender Blush (web color) (Hex: #FFF0F5) (RGB: 255, 240, 245) - Light Melanie (Melanie Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #F4E5ED) (RGB: 244, 229, 237) - Light Kobi (Kobi Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #F5D3E6) (RGB: 245, 211, 230) - Light Can Can (Can Can Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #EBCBD6) (RGB: 237, 203, 214) - Light Pale Red-Violet (Xona.com color list ""Pale Violet-Red Light"") (Hex: #F0B7CD) (RGB: 240, 183, 205) - Light Puce (Puce Pink) (Hex: #FFAFC8) (RGB: 255, 175, 200) -
  • Light Cabaret (Cabaret Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #EF9BB9) (RGB: 239, 155, 185)
  • - Light Red-Violet (Xona.com color list ""Violet-Red Medium Light"") (Hex: #E79EC5) (RGB: 231, 94, 197) -
  • Kobi (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #C79FC4) (RGB: 231, 159, 196)
  • - Light Blush (Blush Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #DE98B2) (RGB: 222, 152, 178) - Light Night Shadz (Night Shadz Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #D98AA8) (RGB: 217, 138, 168) - Light Rouge (Rouge Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #D58EB5) (RGB: 213, 142, 181) -
  • Pale Persian Lilac (Ridgway) (Hex: #D597AE) (RGB: 213, 151, 174)
  • - Can Can (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #D591A4) (RGB: 213, 145, 164) - PUCE (Hex: #CC8899) (RGB: 204, 136, 153) - Persian Lilac (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #C17E91) (RGB: 193, 126, 145) - Turkish Rose (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #B57281) (RGB: 181, 114, 129) - Rose Gold (Hex: #B76E79) (RGB: 183, 110, 121) - English Lavender (Pantone TPX 17-3617) (Hex: #B48395) (RGB: 180, 131, 149) - Light Cosmic (Cosmic Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #BB8CAA) (RGB: 187, 140, 170) - Lavender Brown (Medium Vanda) (Plochere ""Vanda"") (Plochere) (Hex: #AA8A9E) (RGB: 170, 138, 158) - Pharlap (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #A3807B) (RGB: 163, 128, 123) - Bazaar (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #98777B) (RGB: 152, 119, 123) - Rose Dust (Crayola Silver Swirls) (Hex: #9E5E6F) (RGB: 158, 94, 111) - Mallow Purple (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #A8516E) (RGB: 168, 81, 110) - Deep Puce (Puce (Maerz & Paul)) (Hex: #A95C68) (RGB: 169, 92, 104) - Puce Orange (Hex: #D66F6C) (RGB: 214, 111, 108) - Dingy Dungeon (Crayola Silly Scents) (Hex: #C53151) (RGB: 197, 49, 81) - Light Black Rose (Black Rose Light (Xona.com Color List)) (Hex: #B12B7F) (RGB: 177, 43, 127) - Strong Red-Purple (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #9A366B) (RGB: 154, 54, 107) - Vietnamese Mauve (Hex: #993366) (RGB: 153, 51, 102) - Red-Violet Eggplant (Hex: #990066) (RGB: 153, 0, 102) - Twilight Lavender (Crayola Silver Swirls) (Hex: #8A496B) (RGB: 138, 73, 107) - Light Bulgarian Rose (Bulgarian Rose Light (Xona.com color list)) (Hex: #9A393D) (RGB: 154, 57, 61) - Cordovan (Pantone color planner) (Hex: #893F45) (RGB: 137, 63, 69) - Solid Pink (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #893843) (RGB: 137, 56, 67) - Copper Rose (Hex: #996666) (RGB: 149, 102, 102) - Dark Chestnut (Hex: #986960) (RGB: 152, 105, 96) - Rose Taupe (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #905D5D) (RGB: 144, 93, 93) - Mauve Taupe (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #915F6D) (RGB: 145, 95, 109) - Medium Puce (Hex: #8E616A) (RGB: 142, 97, 106) -
  • Galaxy (Resene color list) (Hex: #755258) (RGB: 117, 77, 82)
  • -
  • Cosmic (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #763950) (RGB: 118, 57, 93)
  • - Puce Red (Puce (ISCC-NBS)) (Hex: #722F37) (RGB: 114, 47, 55) - Internet Puce (color of the puce website www.puce.com) (Hex: #681C23) (RGB: 104, 28, 35) - Black Rose (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #67032D) (RGB: 103, 3, 45) - Bottle Puce (Hex: #631800) (RGB: 99, 24, 0) - Rose Ebony (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #674846) (RGB: 103, 76, 71) - Deep Tuscan Red (Hex: #6642D) (RGB: 102, 66, 77) - Dark Liver (Hex: #534B4F) (RGB: 83, 75, 79) - Purple Taupe (ISCC-NBS) (Hex: #504040) (RGB: 80, 64, 77) - Dark Puce (Puce Pantone TPX 19-1518) (Hex: #4F3A3C) (RGB: 79, 58, 60) - French Puce (Puce (Pourpre.com)) (Hex: #4E1609) (RGB: 78, 22, 9) - Bulgarian Rose (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #480607) (RGB: 72, 6, 7) - -Related pages - List of colors - -References" -13387,49107,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission,Transmission,"In mechanics, a transmission or gearbox means gears working together. The most common transmission is the transmission in a car. - -In a car, the engine makes the crankshaft spin. The crankshaft makes the transmission's gears spin, which spin some more parts, which make the wheels spin. But the wheels do not spin as fast as the engine makes the crankshaft spin. That is because the gears are made to slow down the spinning. The gears also give the spinning more force (or to be more scientifically exact, more torque), so the wheels can make the entire car move. most transmissions have a breather vent to let hot air escape. - -Transmission gears -A transmission has some gears that change the torque more than other gears. That is why a transmission has a first gear, second gear, third gear, and sometimes more gears. There is also a reverse gear and neutral. An automatic transmission shifts between gears by itself (except reverse gear, and a parking gear). A manual transmission needs the driver to decide when to shift gears. Manual transmission is also called standard transmission. This is confusing because almost all cars in the U.S. have automatic transmission. In other words, since the late 20th century ""standard"" transmission has been unusual. A manual transmission usually has a clutch pedal, which the driver must press while shifting gears. An automatic transmission has a fluid coupling called a torque converter instead of a clutch. Some cars have a ""clutchless"" manual (semi-automatic) transmission, which has an automatic clutch (no clutch pedal), but does not shift gears by itself. - -Layshaft -A layshaft is the middle shaft within a gearbox (transmission). When the clutch is engaged, the layshaft turns constantly. All gears on the layshaft turn at the same rate and are permanently attached. It carries gears but does not transfer the primary drive of the gearbox in of the gearbox or out of the gearbox. Layshafts are mostly known through their use in car gearboxes. The oil level in a gearbox is set to layshaft height. That way the spinning gears distribute oil to all the gears. - -Other types -Not all transmissions are in cars. For example, bicycles have transmissions. You can see the gears, so it is easier to see how it works. - -References - -Engineering -Mechanics" -23174,88463,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lago%20di%20Palagnedra,Lago di Palagnedra,"Lago di Palagnedra is a lake at Palagnedra, Ticino, Switzerland. The lake has a volume of . Its surface area is . - -Other website -Swissdams: Palagnedra - -Lakes of Ticino" -17869,67346,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortoise,Tortoise,"A tortoise is a reptile of the order Testudines which lives on land. Like their aquatic cousins, the sea turtles, tortoises are shielded from predators by a shell. Most are quite small, but island tortoises have several times evolved to a large size: those on the Galapagos are famous. Darwin made one of his rare mistakes when he did not note which island each of them came from. Later it became clear that they were slightly different on different islands. - -Further reading - Chambers, Paul. A sheltered life: the unexpected history of the giant tortoise. John Murray (Publishers), London. 2004. . - Gerlach, Justin. Giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean. Chimiara publishers, Frankfurt. 2004 - -Gallery - -Related pages - Turtle - Sea turtle - -Other websites - - Gulf Coast Turtle and Tortoise Society* Tortoise World - Several Types of Tortoises - Chelonia: Conservation and Care of Turtles. - Infotortuga - -Turtles" -15952,61240,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20%28parrot%29,Alex (parrot),"Alex (1976–2007) was an African grey parrot. - -Purpose -He was part of a study under animal psychologist Irene Pepperberg since 1977 at two different universities: Brandeis University in Massachusetts and before that, University of Arizona. He died on Sept 7, 2007, of yet unknown causes. He knew about 100 words as of 2000, and was not ordinary because he appeared to understand what he said. For example, when Alex was shown an object and was asked about its shape, color, or material, he could label it correctly. If he was asked the difference between two things, he would also answer that, but if there was no difference between the things, he would say “none.” - -Alex's name is an acronym. ALEX is short for Avian Learning EXperiment. - -Other websites -Alex Foundation - -Parrots -Individual animals" -22712,85966,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cureglia,Cureglia,"Cureglia is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -16033,61552,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiny%20mouse,Spiny mouse,"The term spiny mouse refers to any species of rodent within the genus Acomys. They are usually called spiny mice in English. They look like mice of the genus Mus. Spiny mice are small mammals with bare, scaled tails. Their coats have unusually stiff guard hairs that work the same way as the spines of a hedgehog. These stiff hairs are why they are called the spiny mouse. - -Even though they look like members of the genus Mus, scientists thhink that the African spiny mice may be more closely related to gerbils than to common mice. - -Spiny mice as exotic pets -African spiny mice originated in the deserts of Africa. They are often kept as exotic pets in other parts of the world, particularly Western nations such as the United States. In the pet trade, they are commonly called Egyptian spiny mice or, more simply, spiny mice. Though these animals are like pet mice and rats, the tail of a spiny mouse is much more delicate. The spiny mouse should never be picked up by its tail and should be handled with care to avoid a degloving injury. - -Housing -Because of their desert origin, spiny mice need warm temperatures and should be kept around 80 degrees Fahrenheit. These animals are very social and should always be housed in groups when possible. As spiny mice are prone to obesity (getting too fat), it is important to provide a big space and a complex environment to encourage exercise. They need constant attention and should NEVER be housed in a cage smaller than 4X4 ft. - -Reproduction -Gestation length is between 38 and 42 days. Litters are normally 2 to 3 pups, but females may have up to 6 pups in a single litter. Other females within the social group may help in the birthing process and look after the pups. Pups are born with their eyes open and covered in fur. They will begin to leave the nesting area at about 3 days of age. Pups are weaned around 5 to 6 weeks and reach sexual maturity at about 6 to 9 weeks. A female can become pregnant at any time in the year and may have up to 12 litters in a year. Spiny mice can live for 4 to 5 years. - -Other websites - -List of Rodent/Lagomorph Scientific Names - Includes several species of African spiny mouse - -References - -Rodents" -8344,28101,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20%28magazine%29,Time (magazine),"Time is an American news magazine. It was founded in 1923. It is printed every week in the United States. It is published by Time Inc. It has articles on politics and current events. It is read by more people than any other news magazine. - -There is also a magazine called Time For Kids, aimed at children. That magazine is eight pages long and contains more images and shorter articles than the regular Time magazine. - -1923 establishments in the United States -American magazines -Weekly magazines -Time Warner -Magazines published in New York City" -9022,30850,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercalli%20intensity%20scale,Mercalli intensity scale,"The Mercalli intensity scale (or more precisely the Modified Mercalli intensity scale) is a scale to measure the intensity of earthquakes. Unlike with the Richter scale, the Mercalli scale does not take into account energy of an earthquake directly. Rather, they classify earthquakes by the effects they have (and the destruction they cause). When there is little damage, the scale describes how people felt the earthquake, or how many people felt it. - -Very often, non-geologists use this scale, because it is easier for people to describe what damage an earthquake caused, than to do calculations to get a value on the Richter scale. - -Values range from I - Instrumental to XII - Catastrophic. - -Giuseppe Mercalli (1850-1914) originally developed the scale, with ten levels. In 1902, Adolfo Cancani extended the scale to include twelve levels. August Heinrich Sieberg completely rewrote the scale. For this reason, the scale is sometimes named Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg scale, or MCS scale. - -Harry O. Wood and Frank Neumann translated it into English, and published it as Mercalli–Wood–Neumann (MWN) scale. Charles Francis Richter also edited it. He also developed the Richter scale, later on. - -Modified Mercalli Intensity scale -The lower degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed damage to structures - -The large table gives Modified Mercalli scale intensities that are typically observed at locations near the epicenter of the earthquake. - -This is an accurate representation - -The Scale under here is also a really good source for the Mercalli Scale. - -Correlation with magnitude - -There is a correlation between the magitude and the intensity of the earthquake. Even though this correlation is there, it may be difficult to link one to the other: This correlation depends on several factors, such as the depth of the earthquake, terrain, population density, and damage. For example, on May 19, 2011, an earthquake of magnitude 0.7 in Central California, United States 4 km deep was classified as of intensity III by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) over away from the epicenter (and II intensity almost from the epicenter), while a 4.5 magnitude quake in Salta, Argentina 164 km deep was of intensity I. - -The small table is a rough guide to the degrees of the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale. The colors and descriptive names shown here differ from those used on certain shake maps in other articles. However, it will not be 100% accurate. - -Related pages -Seismic intensity scales -Seismic magnitude scales -Scales - -References - -Geology" -4841,15271,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herring,Herring,"A herring is a small teleost fish of the genus Cluptea. Best-known of this family is probably the Atlantic Herring. There are 15 different species of herring. When herrings migrate in the water they usually do this in large numbers; this is then called a school of herring. Like other fish, they do this for protection: see shoaling and schooling. - -Herrings can be eaten. They are often smoked or pickled. - -A red herring is used to describe a plot device in mystery fiction that leads the reader to a wrong solution. - -Clupeiformes -Teleosts -Edible fish" -10391,36704,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattoo,Tattoo,"A tattoo is a mark made by putting ink into the skin. Tattoos may be made on human or animal skin. Tattoos on humans are a type of body modification (a way of changing the body), but tattoos on animals are most often used for identification. People sometimes get tattoos to show that they belong to a gang or culture group. - -People get tattoos in tattoo parlors. Getting a tattoo is painful, although some people have more pain than others, and some body parts are more painful to tattoo than others. Most tattoos today are created using an electric tattoo machine, which uses needles to put ink into the body. - -History -Preserved tattoos on ancient mummified human remains reveal that tattooing has been practiced throughout the world for many centuries. In 2015, scientific re-assessment of the age of the two oldest known tattooed mummies identified Ötzi the Iceman as the oldest currently known example. This body, with 61 tattoos, was found embedded in glacial ice in the Alps, and was dated to 3250 BCE. In 2018, the oldest figurative tattoos in the world were discovered on two mummies from Egypt which are dated between 3351 and 3017 BCE. - -Tattooing is an ancient art. Ötzi the Iceman, a man who lived around 3300 BC and whose mummy was found in 1991, had 61 tattoos consisting of 19 groups of lines simple dots and lines on his lower spine, left wrist, behind his right knee, and on his ankles. These tattoos, which were made of soot, were possibly part of an early form of acupuncture. Tattoos have also been found on mummies from ancient civilizations throughout the world, including Egypt, Nubia the Pazyryk culture of Russia, and from several cultures throughout South America. - -Tattoos became popular in the Western world after Westerners first had contact with American Indians and Polynesians during the 1700s. James Cook, a famous British explorer, reported that he had seen tattooing being done when he was in Tahiti in 1769. The word ""tattoo"" comes from the Tahitian word ""tatau"". - -In some cultures, tattoos have special meaning and importance. For example, Polynesian people like the Māori in New Zealand have a tradition of face tattoos (called moko) which are sacred and have special meaning related to status and tribal history. - -In other cultures, tattoos are forbidden. For example, tattoos are forbidden in Jewish law. In the Old Testament of the Bible, the book of Leviticus 19:28 states: ""You shall not make any cuts on your body for the dead or tattoo yourselves."" - -Tattoos started to become popular in the United States and England during the 1860s and 1870s. At first, tattoos were most often given to soldiers and sailors. The first known professional tattoo artist in the United States was Martin Hildebrandt, a German immigrant who arrived in Boston in 1846. Between 1861 and 1865, he tattooed soldiers on both sides in the American Civil War. The first known professional tattooist in Britain worked in the port of Liverpool in the 1870s, tattooing mostly sailors. However, by the 1870s, tattoos had become fashionable among some members of the upper classes, including royalty. - -Since the 1970s, tattoos have become a mainstream part of Western fashion, common among both men and women, to all economic classes, and to age groups from the later teen years to middle age. For many young Americans, tattoos have a very different meaning than they did for earlier generations. In the past, tattoos were viewed as a form of deviance - a way of breaking social rules and standards. Today, it has become an acceptable form of expression. - -At times during history, people have been forced to get tattoos to mark them as slaves, criminals, or outsiders. For example, the ancient Romans tattooed criminals and slaves. In the 19th century, the United States marked convicts with tattoos before releasing them from jail, and the British Army marked deserters with tattoos. In the 20th century, prisoners in Siberian and Nazi concentration camps were tattooed with identification numbers. - -Types of tattoos - -Amateur and professional tattoos -Today, people choose to be tattooed for many different reasons. Tattoos may also be used to show that a person belongs to a specific group. For example, gang tattoos may show that a person belongs to a certain criminal gang. Criminal tattoos may also show a person's criminal accomplishments (such as the number of years they spent in prison, or the number of people they have killed). Tattoos, including full-body tattoos, are popular among the Yakuza (JapaneseMafia). - -Cosmetic tattoos -Tattoos can be used for cosmetic reasons. Cosmetic tattoos include ""permanent makeup,"" which uses tattooing to make designs that look like real makeup. For example, cosmetic tattooers can create tattooed eyebrows for people who have lost their eyebrows because of old age, diseases that cause hair loss (like alopecia), or medications that make the hair fall out (like chemotherapy). Cosmetic tattoos can also cover up moles or hide skin that is discolored because of diseases like vitiligo. - -Cosmetic tattoos can also be used to cover up surgical scars, like scars from mastectomy (surgical removal of the breast). The use of artistic tattoos to cover mastectomy scars is becoming more popular in the United States and the United Kingdom. Cosmetic tattooing is also used to tattoo nipples onto reconstructed breasts after breast reconstruction surgery (where the breast which was removed during mastectomy is re-created using fat from another part of the body). - -Medical tattoos - -Tattoos can also be used for medical reasons. For example, a person may get a medical alert tattoo, which warns that they have a certain medical condition (like diabetes or a severe allergy). When people get radiation therapy for cancer, tattoos may be used to mark exactly where the beam of radiation should be pointed. This helps to make sure that the person gets the same treatment, in the right place, every time they have radiation therapy. - -Genital -Genital tattooing is the practice of placing permanent marks under the skin of the genitals in the form of tattoos. -Nearly the entire genital region can be tattooed, including the shaft and head of the penis, the skin of the scrotum, the pubic region and the outer labia. - -Health risks -Because it breaks the skin, tattooing carries health risks. These risks include infection and allergic reactions to tattoo inks. These problems can often be avoided if the tattooer follows rules of cleanliness, uses certain tools on one person only, and sterilizing their equipment after every use (cleaning it in a special way that will kill germs). - -In many places, tattooers are required to have training on blood-borne diseases (diseases which can be spread through the blood, like HIV and hepatitis). As of 2009 in the United States, there were no reported cases of a person getting HIV from a professional tattoo. - -In amateur tattooing (like tattooing in prisons), however, there is a much higher risk of infection. Unsterilized (unclean) tattoo equipment or contaminated ink could spread infections on the surface of the skin, fungal infections, some forms of hepatitis, herpes simplex virus, HIV, staph, tetanus, and tuberculosis. - -Most people are not allergic to tattoo inks. However, there have been cases of allergic reactions to tattoo inks, especially to certain colors. Sometimes this happens because the ink includes nickel, which sets off a common metal allergy. - -Sometimes, if tattooing pierces a blood vessel, a bruise might appear. - -Removal - -Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that break down the ink particles in the tattoo into smaller particles. Dermal macrophages are part of the immune system, tasked with collecting and digesting cellular debris. In the case of tattoo pigments, macrophages collect ink pigments, but have difficulty breaking them down. Instead, they store the ink pigments. If a macrophage is damaged, it releases its captive ink, which is taken up by other macrophages. This can make it particularly difficult to remove tattoos. When treatments break down ink particles into smaller pieces, macrophages can more easily remove them. - -Some people who have tattoos wish that they had not gotten them. Tattoos can be taken off with laser surgery, but this is painful and often requires several visits to a dermatologist or skin care professional. - -Related pages - - Body modification - Scarification - Flash (tattoo) - a sheet of paper or card board with tattoo designs printed or drawn on - -References - -Dermatology -Body art" -20527,78870,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obwalden,Obwalden,"Obwalden is a canton of Switzerland. It is in the centre of Switzerland. As of 2004, 33,300 people lived there. Its capital is Sarnen. - -Geography -Lakes in the canton include: parts of Lake Lucerne, Lake Sarnen, Lungerersee, Wichelsee, Tannensee and Melchsee. - -Municipalities - -There are seven municipalities: Sarnen, Kerns, Sachseln, Alpnach, Giswil, Lungern and Engelberg. - -Other websites - Official site - Obwalden.net Official statistics - Pilatus - Titlis - Obwalden map" -24471,94297,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid%20cache,Squid cache,"Squid cache, or simply Squid, is a type of proxy server. They have many different uses, including making web servers faster. It is mostly used in HTTP and FTP protocols, but it has some support for some other types of protocols, like SSL, TLS, and HTTPS. It has been made over several years by people in the University of California in San Diego. It was made to be run on Linux-type computers, but with the use of Cygwin, it can also run completely on Windows computers. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License. - -Other websites - Official project homepage - -Web server software -Free software" -4387,13756,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Mario%2064,Super Mario 64,"Super Mario 64 is a 1996 video game created by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64. The game was the first in the Mario series that used 3D graphics. Many fans and critics think that it is one of the best video games ever made. - -Story -Princess Peach makes a special cake and invites Mario to her castle in Mushroom Kingdom. As Mario arrives, he learns that Bowser took over the castle and kidnapped Peach. To defeat Bowser and rescue Peach, Mario enters each worlds on painting walls. The main hub of the game is Peach's castle. The player can unlock doors by collecting stars. There are 120 of them scattered among 15 maps and some secret maps. The player can get each of the stars by completing each of the achievements per level. One world requires two stars, for instance. Each locked door leads to more levels and challenges. Mario can also leave the castle and explore the small courtyard. - -Development -Super Mario 64 was made in less than two years, but it was reported that Shigeru Miyamoto had thought about a 3D Mario game, called Super Mario FX, five years before, while working on Star Fox. Miyamoto came up with most of the ideas during the era of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) and thought about using the Super FX chip to make it a SNES game, but decided to build it for the Nintendo 64 due to the SNES's technical limitations. On his Twitter Dylan Cuthbert stated that there was never a Super Mario FX game ever made, and that ""Super Mario FX"" was the internal code name of the FX chip. - -Nintendo started making the game with the creation of the characters and camera system. Miyamoto and the other designers were initially unsure of which direction the game should take; months were spent selecting a camera view and layout that would be appropriate. The original concept involved the game having fixed path much like an isometric type game (similar to Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars), before the choice was made to settle on a free-roaming 3D design. Although the majority of Super Mario 64 would end up featuring the free-roaming design, elements of the original fixed path concept would remain in certain parts of the game, particularly in the three Bowser encounters. One of the programmers of Super Mario 64, Giles Goddard, explained that these few linear elements survived to force players into Bowser's lair rather than to encourage exploration. The development team placed a great amount of attention, time, and effort on getting Mario's movements right. Before levels were created, the team was testing and perfecting Mario's animations on a simple grid. The first test scenario used to try out controls and physics involved Mario and a golden rabbit named ""MIPS"" by the developers (named for the MIPS-type CPU used by the Nintendo 64), the latter of which was included in the final release of the game as a way to find two of the Power Stars. At first, the developers tried to make the game split screen co-op using both Mario and Luigi. Initially, the two characters would start at separate points in the castle and work their way through the game together. However, developers were unable to make the gameplay work. - -Shigeru Miyamoto's guiding design philosophy behind Super Mario 64 was to ""include more details"" than found in games prior to the Nintendo 64. Some details were inspired by real life. For example, the Boos are based on assistant director Takashi Tezuka's wife, who, as Miyamoto explained, ""is very quiet normally, but one day she exploded, maddened by all the time Tezuka spent at work. In the game, there is now a character which shrinks when Mario looks at it, but when Mario turns away, it will grow large and menacing."" Super Mario 64 is also known for having more puzzles than earlier Mario games. It was developed at the same time as The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, but as Ocarina of Time was released more than two years later, some puzzles were taken from that game for Super Mario 64. - -Information about Super Mario 64 first leaked out in November 1995, and a playable version of the game was presented days later as part of the world premiere for the Nintendo 64 (then known as Nintendo's ""Ultra 64"") at Nintendo Space World. The basic controls had at this point been set in place, and the game was reportedly 50% finished, although most of the course design remained. Thirty-two courses were made for the game. Miyamoto thought he would create more, up to 40 courses, not including bonus levels. The actual number turned out much lower in the final game, though, as only 15 courses could fit. - -Appearances in other games -In the original Super Smash Bros. for the Nintendo 64 console, Princess Toadstool's castle is a playable stage in which the fighters fight on top of the roof. - -In Mario Party, Peach's stage is a large birthday cake which the player can travel through. - -Sequel and remake - -In 1999, a sequel, titled Super Mario 64 2, was planned to be released for the Nintendo 64DD (N64 Disk Drive), but it was cancelled, due to the commercial failure of the Nintendo 64DD and unlike its predecessor, Luigi was going to be playable and there would be a multiplayer mode. Super Mario 64 DS is a 2004 enhanced remake made for the Nintendo DS console. In this game Mario, Luigi, and Wario all get a letter saying Peach baked a cake for them. Bowser has kidnapped Princess Peach, Mario, Luigi, and Wario and has jailed them in Princess Peach's castle, by Gomboss, King Boo, and Chief Chilly. Yoshi is told that he must save them. Yoshi finds a rabbit and unlocks the door to the castle. When the player finds keys, they save a character, and can play as them. Super Mario 64 DS also has a multiplayer wireless versus mode where up to four players can play and minigames which are unlocked by getting keys from rabbits. Here, there are 150 stars, 30 more than the original game. - -References - -Nintendo 64 games -1996 video games -3D platform games -Mario platform games" -14321,53592,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20bush,The bush,"The bush is a phrase used to describe land where people do not live, land a long way from cities, or forests. The word is mainly used in Australia, New Zealand, Africa, Canada, and Alaska. - -Australia -In Australia, the phrase, the bush, has a special symbolic meaning in Australian life. When used to describe the land, the bush means a wooded area, but not dense forest. It is usually dry and nitrogen-poor soil, mostly grassless, with thin to thick woody shrubs and bushes, with some eucalypt trees. - -When talking about people, the bush means any unpopulated areas outside of the major metropolitan areas. This can include mining and farming areas. It is not unusual to have a mining town in the desert, such as Port Hedland, Western Australia (Pop. 14,000) called the bush in the media. - -The word bush is also added to any number of other words, things or activities to describe their rural, country or folk nature, e.g. ""Bush Cricket"", ""Bush Music"", etc. - -References - -Biomes -Geography of Alaska -Geography of Australia -Geography of Canada -Geography of New Zealand" -23535,90722,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allmendingen%20bei%20Bern,Allmendingen bei Bern,"Allmendingen bei Bern is a municipality of the administrative district Bern-Mittelland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland. - -The municipality is between Rubigen and Muri bei Bern, near Berne. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -Municipalities of Bern" -8235,27514,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Howard,John Howard,"John Winston Howard (born 26 July 1939) is a former Australian politician who was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia from 11 March 1996 to 3 December 2007. John Howard is the second longest serving prime minister of Australia after Robert Menzies. John Howard is a member of the Liberal Party. - -John Howard was a lawyer before he became a politician. He was in parliament from 1974 until 2007. From 1977 to 1983 he was the Treasurer in Malcolm Fraser's government. Malcolm Fraser lost the 1987 election to Bob Hawke. On 24 November 2007, John Howard lost to Kevin Rudd and his parliamentary seat to Maxine McKew. He became the second prime minister to lose a parliamentary seat after Stanley Bruce in 1929. - -Early life - -John Howard is the fourth son of Mona (nee Kell) and Lyall Howard. His parents were married in 1925. His eldest brother Stanley was born in 1926, followed by Walter in 1929, and Robert (Bob) in 1936. Lyall Howard was an admirer of Winston Churchill, and a sympathiser with the New Guard. Howard's ancestors were English, Scottish and Irish. - -Howard was born and raised in the Sydney suburb of Earlwood, in a Methodist family. His mother had been an office worker until her marriage. His father and his paternal grandfather, Walter Howard, were both veterans of the First AIF in World War I. They also ran two Dulwich Hill petrol stations. Howard worked there as a boy. - -Howard suffered from a hearing impairment in his youth. It ruled out the chances of him becoming a barrister as a likely career from his mind. To this day, John wears a hearing aid. - -Prime Minister (1996-2007) - -First term - -One of Howard's first initiatives was to unite the state governments of Australia to place a ban on gun ownership in Australia. This move came after the Port Arthur Massacre in Tasmania in 1996, where 35 people were killed and a further 37 injured at the hands of a gunman. In 1998, Howard and his Treasurer, Peter Costello took a big tax reform (the GST) to the election and won. - -Second term -In 1999 John Howard's government held a referendum on whether Australia should become a republic and have a President instead of a Queen. However, John Howard did not support the referendum and urged people to vote no. The Australian Labor Party opposition led by Kim Beazley criticised John Howard's handling of the 1998 Australian Waterfront Dispute. - -In 1999, Howard led a United Nations force into East Timor (INTERFET), to help them set up an independent democracy. - -Third term - -After the September 11 attacks, John Howard was involved in world issues. He was close with George W. Bush who was the leader of the United States. George Bush called John Howard a ""key ally"". John Howard sent SAS troops to Afghanistan and Iraq to support the United States, and signed a free trade agreement with the United States. Despite this alliance, Australia remained fairly neutral on Israel and Palestine. - -Like before Howard, Australian trade with Asia got bigger while John Howard was leader. He invited the Chinese leader Hu Jintao to speak to the Australian Parliament for the first time. After the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami, John Howard called the President of Indonesia and offered a billion dollars to help. John Howard increased immigration a lot and people came to Australia from all over the world, but he tried to stop boats of people coming without asking for visas first. - -Fourth term - -In 2005, he made it easier for bosses to get rid of workers by introducing the controversial WorkChoices industrial legislation introduced by his Workplace Relations Minister Kevin Andrews. This upset people and the Labor Party became more popular. On 24 November 2007, Kevin Rudd won an election and John Howard stopped being Prime Minister. John Howard also lost his seat in the Parliament to the Labor Party candidate Maxine McKew, a former ABC TV journalist. - -References - -1939 births -Living people -Australian Anglicans -Australian lawyers -Commonwealth Chairpersons-in-Office -Leaders of the Opposition (Australia) -Liberal Party of Australia politicians -Monarchists -Politicians from Sydney -Prime Ministers of Australia -Treasurers of Australia -University of Sydney alumni" -23304,89173,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metic,Metic,"In Ancient Greece, a metic () was a foreigner living in a Greek city-state (polis). The metic did not have the same citizen rights as a citizen who was born in the state he was living in. - -The term 'metic' was especially used in ancient Athens in the 4th and 5th centuries BC. A notable metic was Aristotle, who was born in Stageira but lived in Athens for a long time. - -Regardless of how many generations of the family had lived in the city, metics did not become citizens unless the city chose to bestow citizenship on them as a gift. This was rarely done. Citizenship at Athens brought eligibility for numerous state payments such as jury and assembly pay, which could be significant to working people. During emergencies the city could distribute rations to citizens. None of these rights were available to metics. They were not permitted to own real estate in Attica, whether farm or house, unless granted a special exemption. - -Metics shared the burdens of citizenship without any of its privileges. Like citizens, they had to perform military service and, if rich enough, were subject to special tax contributions. Citizenship was very rarely granted to metics. More common was the special status of ""equal rights"" (isoteleia) under which they were freed from the usual liabilities. - -The system came to an end in Hellenistic Athens, when the purchase of citizenship became very frequent. The census of 317 BC gave 21,000 citizens, 10,000 metics and 400,000 slaves in Attica. - -In the Greco-Roman world, free people (non-citizens) living on the territory of a polis were called ""paroikoi"" (see etymology of parish), in Asia Minor ""katoikoi"". - -References - -Ancient Greece" -22864,86784,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus%20%28optics%29,Focus (optics),"In geometrical optics, a focus (also called an image point) is the point where light rays that come from a point on the object converge (come together). - -In reality the focus is never a point but a small spot called the blur circle. - -An image, or image point or region, is in focus if light from object points is converged almost as much as possible in the image, and out of focus if light is not well converged. - -References - -Optics -Photography" -7721,25233,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Year%27s%20Eve,New Year's Eve,"New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year. - -Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday. - -Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto, and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations. - -New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela. - -Related pages - - Chinese New Year - Omisoka (Japan) - Áramótaskaupið (Iceland) - -Holidays" -24617,96289,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinfelden%20%28Baden%29,Rheinfelden (Baden),"Rheinfelden is a town in Germany that was started in 1922. The name means the fields of the Rhine, like Rheinfelden in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites" -3331,10036,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%2029,June 29," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 226 Cao Pi dies and his son Cao Rui succeeds him as Emperor of the Kingdom of Wei in present-day China. - 1149 Raymond of Poitiers is defeated and killed at the Battle of Inab by Nur ad-Din Zangi. - 1194 King Sverre of Norway is crowned. - 1534 Jacques Cartier becomes the first-known European to reach Prince Edward Island. - 1613 The Globe Theatre burns to the ground. - 1644 King Charles I of England defeats a Parliamentarian detachment at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge. - 1749 New Governor, Charles de la Ralière Des Herbiers, arrives at Isle Royale (Cape Breton Island). - 1786 Alexander Macdonnell and over five hundred Catholic highlanders leave Scotland to settle in Glengarry County, Ontario. - 1807 Russo-Turkish War: Admiral Dmitry Senyavin destroys the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Athos. - 1850 Coal is discovered on Vancouver Island. - 1855 The Daily Telegraph newspaper is founded in London. - 1863 George Custer is appointed as a U.S. Union brigadier-general - 1864 Ninety-nine people are killed in Canada's worst railway disaster near St-Hilaire. - 1880 France annexes Tahiti. - 1891 National Forest Service is organized. - 1891 Street railway in Ottawa starts running. - 1895 Doukhobors burn their weapons as a protest against conscription by the Tsarist Russian government. - -1901 2000 - 1913 The Second Balkan War begins. - 1914 Jina Guseva attempts to kill Grigori Rasputin at his home town in Siberia. - 1916 The UK sentences Irish Easter Rising leader Roger Casement to death. He is executed on August 3. - 1922 France grants 1 km² at Vimy Ridge ""freely, and for all time, to the Government of Canada, the free use of the land exempt from all taxes"". - 1925 Canada House opens in London. - 1926 Arthur Meighen returns as Prime Minister of Canada. - 1927 First test of Wallace Turnbull's variable-pitch propeller. - 1933 Italian boxer Primo Carnera knocked out American Jack Sharkey to become the heavyweight champion of the world. - 1937 Joseph-Armand Bombardier receives patent for sprocket and track traction system used in snow vehicles. - 1939 The state of Hatay becomes part of the Republic of Turkey. - 1945 Carpathian Ruthenia was annexed by Soviet Union. - 1950 At the 1950 FIFA World Cup, the United States national football team, through a goal from Joe Gaetjens, defeats the England national football team 1-0. - 1956 Marilyn Monroe marries Arthur Miller. - 1958 Brazil wins the FIFA World Cup for the first time, beating the host country Sweden 5-2 in the final. - 1974 Isabel Perón takes over Presidential duties in Argentina, as her husband Juan Perón is dying. - 1974 Mikhail Baryshnikov defects from the Soviet Union to Canada while on tour with the Kirov Ballet. - 1975 Steve Wozniak tests his first prototype Apple Inc. I computer. - 1976 The Seychelles become independent. - 1986 Argentina wins the FIFA World Cup, defeating West Germany 3-2. - 1986 Richard Branson sets the record for the fastest powerboat crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. - 1995 The Space Shuttle Atlantis docks with the Russian Space Station Mir. - 1995 In Seoul, South Korea, the Sampoong department store collapses, killing 501, and injuring 937 people. - 1996 Olafur Ragnar Grimsson is elected President of Iceland, taking office on August 1. He succeeds Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, who decided not to run for election for a fifth time. - -From 2001 - 2002 Naval clashes occur between North Korea and South Korea. 6 South Korean sailors are killed and a North Korean vessel is sunk. - 2007 Two explosive devices are found in cars outside nightclubs in London, UK. - 2007 The IPhone goes on sale in the United States. - 2008 UEFA Euro 2008 in Austria and Switzerland: The tournament is won by the Spain national football team, with a goal by Fernando Torres securing a 1-0 victory over the Germany national football team. - 2009 American financier Bernard Madoff is sentenced to 150 years in prison for a multibillion Dollar fraud. - 2009 Tennis: Wimbledon Centre Court's new roof is used for the first time. - 2014 A building collapse in Delhi, India, kills at least 10 people, and another building collapse in Chennai in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu kills at least 17. - 2014 The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant self-declares a caliphate in Syria and Iraq. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1139 Petronilla of Aragon (d. 1173) - 1397 John II of Aragon (d. 1479) - 1475 Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan (d. 1497) - 1482 Maria of Aragon, Queen of Portugal (d. 1517) - 1516 Rembert Dodoens, Flemish botanist and physician (d. 1585) - 1528 Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1589) - 1543 Christine of Hesse (d. 1604) - 1596 Emperor Go-Mizunoo of Japan (d. 1680) - 1609 Pierre-Paul Riquet, French engineer and canal builder (d. 1680) - 1636 Thomas Hyde, English orientalist (d. 1703) - 1746 Joachim Heinrich Campe, pedagogue (d. 1818) - 1782 Christian Lyngbye, Danish minister and botanist (d. 1837) - 1793 Josef Ressel, Czech-Austrian inventor (d. 1857) - 1798 Giacomo Leopardi, Italian poet (d. 1837) - 1798 Willibald Alexis, German writer (d. 1871) - 1818 Angelo Secchi, Italian astronomer (d. 1878) - 1819 Thomas Dunn English, American politician (d. 1902) - 1844 Peter I of Serbia (d. 1921) - 1845 George W. Atkinson, American politician, 10th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1925) - 1847 Paul Flechsig, German neuranatomist (d. 1929) - 1849 John Hunn, American politician, 51st Governor of Delaware (d. 1926) - 1849 Pedro Montt, President of Chile (d. 1910) - 1849 Sergei Witte, Russian politician (d. 1915) - 1858 George Goethals, American army engineer (d. 1928) - 1861 Dr. William Mayo, American surgeon and founder of the Mayo Clinic (d. 1939) - 1865 (disputed) Shigechiyo Izumi, Japanese centenarian (d. 1986) - 1868 George Ellery Hale, American astronomer (d. 1938) - 1873 Leo Frobenius, German ethnologist, archaeologist (d. 1938) - 1879 Benedetto Aloisi Masella, Italian cardinal (d. 1970) - 1880 Ludwig Beck, German general (d. 1944) - 1881 Harry Frazee, American director, producer and agent (d. 1929) - 1882 Henry Hawtrey, English runner (d. 1961) - 1886 Robert Schuman, French politician and statesman (d. 1963) - 1888 Alexander Friedmann, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1925) - 1889 Willie McFarlane, Scottish golfer (d. 1961) - 1890 Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper, Dutch supercentenarian (d. 2005) - 1893 Aarre Merikanto, Finnish composer (d. 1958) - 1900 Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, French pilot and writer (d. 1944) - -1901 1925 - 1901 Nelson Eddy, American singer and actor (d. 1967) - 1901 Putte Kock, Swedish footballer, ice hockey and contract bridge player (d. 1979) - 1903 Alan Blumlein, English engineer (d. 1942) - 1906 Ivan Chernyakhovsky, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1945) - 1907 Junji Nishikawa, Japanese footballer (d. unknown) - 1908 Leroy Anderson, American composer (d. 1975) - 1910 Frank Loesser, American composer (d. 1969) - 1911 Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands (d. 2004) - 1911 Bernard Herrmann, American composer (d. 1975) - 1912 Lucie Aubrac, French Resistance activist (d. 2007) - 1912 José Pablo Moncayo, Mexican composer and conductor (d. 1958) - 1913 Earle Meadows, American pole vaulter (d. 1992) - 1914 Rafael Kubelik, Czech conductor (d. 1996) - 1915 Ruth Warrick, American actress (d. 2005) - 1919 Slim Pickens, American actor (d. 1983) - 1919 Lloyd Richards, American actor and director (d. 2006) - 1920 César Rodriguez Alvarez, Spanish footballer (d. 1995) - 1920 Ray Harryhausen, American movie maker (d. 2013) - 1921 Jean Kent, English actress (d. 2013) - 1921 Reinhard Mohn, German publisher (d. 2009) - 1922 Vasko Popa, Yugoslav poet (d. 1991) - 1924 Philip H. Hoff, American politician, former Governor of Vermont (d. 2018) - 1924 Flo Sandon's, Italian singer (d. 2006) - 1925 Giorgio Napolitano, 11th President of Italy - -1926 1950 - 1926 Jaber Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Emir of Kuwait (d. 2006) - 1926 Jorge Enrique Adoum, Ecuadorean writer (d. 2009) - 1928 Ian Bannen, Scottish actor (d. 1999) - 1929 Oriana Fallaci, Italian journalist and writer (d. 2006) - 1930 Ernst Albrecht, German politician (d. 2014) - 1931 Ed Gilbert, American actor (d. 1999) - 1932 Brian Hutton, Baron Hutton, British politician - 1933 John Bradshaw, American author (d. 2016) - 1936 Harmon Killebrew, American Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 2011) - 1939 Amarildo Tavares da Silveira, Brazilian footballer - 1941 Kwame Ture, (born ""Stokely Carmichael""), civil rights activist (d. 1998) - 1943 Little Eva, American singer (d. 2003) - 1943 Louis Nicollin, French entrepreneur (d. 2017) - 1944 Gary Busey, American actor - 1944 Sean Patrick O'Malley, Archbishop of Boston, Massachusetts - 1944 Roger Wootton, English aeronautical engineer and balloonist (d. 2017) - 1945 Chandrika Kumaratunga, Sri Lankan politician and former President - 1946 Ernesto Pérez Balladares, 46th President of Panama - 1946 Egon von Fürstenberg, Swiss fashion designer (d. 2004) - 1948 Ian Paice, British musician (Deep Purple) - 1949 Dan Dierdorf, American football player - 1949 Joan Clos i Matheu, 116th Mayor of Barcelona - -1951 1975 - 1951 Don Rosa, American cartoonist - 1952 Joe Johnson, English snooker player - 1956 Pedro Santana Lopes, former Prime Minister of Portugal - 1957 Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, President of Turkmenistan - 1957 Michael Nutter, 98th Mayor of Philadelphia - 1958 Rosa Mota, Portuguese runner - 1958 Dieter Althaus, German politician - 1958 Ralf Rangnick, German football manager - 1959 Atsushi Uchiyama, Japanese footballer - 1959 Gary Rydstrom, American sound designer - 1961 Sharon Lawrence, American actress - 1962 Joan Laporta, Spanish lawyer and politician - 1962 George D. Zamka, American colonel, pilot and astronaut - 1963 Anne-Sophie Mutter, German violinist - 1968 Theoren Fleury, Canadian ice hockey player - 1970 Mike Vallely, American Professional Skateboarder - 1971 Anthony Hamilton, English snooker player - 1971 Kaitlyn Ashley, American erotic actress - 1971 Matthew Good, Canadian rock musician and activist - 1971 Nawal Al-Zoghbi, Lebanese singer - 1972 Samantha Smith, American social activist and actress (d. 1985) - -From 1976 - 1977 Sotiris Liberopoulos, Greek footballer - 1978 Nicole Scherzinger, American actress and singer (Pussycat Dolls) - 1979 Tomoyuki Sakai, Japanese footballer - 1980 Katherine Jenkins, Welsh singer - 1981 Nino, Greek singer - 1981 Nicolas Vuyovich, Argentine Formula One driver - 1984 Christopher Egan, Australian actor - 1984 Derek Lee Rock, American musician - 1984 Emil Hallfredsson, Icelandic footballer - 1986 José Manuel Jurado, Spanish footballer - 1987 Jena Lee, French singer - 1988 Troy Deeney, English footballer - 1988 Ever Banega, Argentine footballer - 1988 Adrian Mannarino, French tennis player - 1990 Kim Little, Scottish footballer - 1990 Yann M'Vila, French footballer - 1991 Suk Hyun-Jun, South Korean footballer - 1991 Kawhi Leonard, American basketball player - 1991 Addison Timlin, American actress - 1992 Adam G. Sevani, American dancer and actor - 1993 George Sampson, English dancer and actor - 1993 Fran Kirby, English footballer - 1993 Lorenzo James Henrie, American actor - 1994 Shin Dong-ho, South Korean singer (U-KISS) - 1994 Leandro Paredes, Argentine footballer - 2000 Red Gerard, American snowboarder - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 67 Paul the Apostle, preacher, teacher and writer (b. 5) - 226 Cao Pi, Emperor of the Kingdom of Wei - 1059 Bernard II, Duke of Burgundy (b. 995) - 1149 Raymond of Poitiers (b. 1115) - 1252 King Abel of Denmark (b. 1218) - 1509 Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII of England (b. 1443) - 1520 Moctezuma II, Aztec ruler (b. 1466) - 1575 Baba Nobuharu, Japanese samurai (b. 1515) - 1763 Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, Swedish writer (b. 1718) - 1779 Anton Raphael Mengs, German painter (b. 1728) - 1831 Heinrich Friedrich Karl von und zum Stein, Prussian politician (b. 1757) - 1837 Nathaniel Macon, American politician (b. 1758) - 1840 Lucien Bonaparte, French politician (b. 1775) - 1852 Henry Clay, United States Senator (b. 1777) - 1855 John Gorrie, American physician and humanitarian (b. 1803) - 1861 Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English poet (b. 1806) - 1875 Ferdinand I of Austria (b. 1793) - 1895 Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist and educator (b. 1825) - 1895 Floriano Peixoto, President of Brazil (b. 1839) - 1900 Ivan Mikheevich Pervushin, Russian mathematician (b. 1827) - -1901 2000 - 1925 Christian Michelsen, Prime Minister of Norway (b. 1857) - 1928 Alvaro de Castro, Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1878) - 1933 Olaf Bull, Norwegian poet (b. 1893) - 1933 ""Fatty"" Arbuckle, American actor (b. 1887) - 1940 Paul Klee, Swiss painter (b. 1879) - 1941 Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Polish pianist and composer (b. 1860) - 1950 Melitta Bentz, German businesswoman and inventor of the coffee filter (b. 1873) - 1955 Max Pechstein, German painter (b. 1881) - 1957 Malcolm Lowry, English writer (b. 1909) - 1958 Karl Arnold, German politician (b. 1901) - 1967 Primo Carnera, Italian boxer (b. 1906) - 1967 Jayne Mansfield, American actress and singer (b. 1933) - 1969 Moise Tshombe, Congolese politician (b. 1919) - 1975 Tim Buckley, American singer-songwriter (b. 1947) - 1977 Magda Lupescu, former Queen of Romania (b. 1895) - 1978 Bob Crane, American actor (b. 1928) - 1992 Mohammed Boudiaf, President of Algeria (b. 1919) - 1994 Kurt Eichhorn, German conductor (b. 1908) - 1994 Jack Unterweger, Austrian writer and murderer (b. 1950) - 1995 Lana Turner, American actress (b. 1921) - 1997 William Hickey, American actor (b. 1927) - 1998 Horst Jankowski, German pianist (b. 1936) - 1999 Karekin I, Catholicos (Head) of the Armenian Apostolic Church (b. 1950) - -From 2001 - 2002 Ole-Johan Dahl, Norwegian computer scientist (b. 1931) - 2002 Rosemary Clooney, American actress and singer (b. 1928) - 2003 Katharine Hepburn, American actress (b. 1907) - 2006 Lloyd Richards, American actor and director (b. 1919) - 2008 Don S. Davis, American actor (b. 1942) - 2013 Margherita Hack, Italian astrophysicist (b. 1922) - 2013 Jim Kelly, American actor and martial artist (b. 1946) - 2014 Damian D'Oliveira, South African-English cricketer (b. 1960) - 2014 Dermot Healy, Irish poet, novelist and actor (b. 1947) - 2015 Josef Masopust, Czech footballer (b. 1931) - 2015 Charles Pasqua, French politician (b. 1927) - 2015 Jackson Vroman, American-Lebanese basketball player (b. 1981) - 2016 Inocente Carreño, Venezuelan composer (b. 1919) - 2016 Vasyl Slipak, Ukrainian opera singer (b. 1974) - 2016 Xu Jiatun, Chinese politician and dissident (b. 1916) - 2016 Gunnar Garbo, Norwegian politician (b. 1924) - 2016 Ojo Maduekwe, Nigerian politician (b. 1945) - 2017 John Monckton, American swimmer (b. 1938) - 2017 Louis Nicollin, French entrepreneur (b. 1943) - 2017 Dave Semenko, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1957) - 2018 Kwesi Amissah-Arthur, Ghanaian economist and politician (b. 1951) - 2018 Matt Cappotelli, American professional wrestler (b. 1979) - 2018 Arvid Carlsson, Swedish pharmacologist (b. 1923) - 2018 Liliane Montevecchi, French-Italian dancer and actress (b. 1932) - 2019 Jeon Mi-seon, South Korean actress (b. 1970) - 2019 Gunilla Pontén, Swedish fashion designer (b. 1929) - -Observances - Independence Day (Seychelles) - Veterans Day (Netherlands) - Roman Catholic Feast Day of Saint Peter and Paul - -Days of the year" -21396,81925,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyankatesh%20Madgulkar,Vyankatesh Madgulkar,"Vyankatesh Madgulkar (1927-2001) was one of the most popular and well-known Marathi writers of his time. He became well-known mainly for his realistic writings about village life in a part of southern Maharashtra called Maandesh. These writings about Maandesh are set in a period of 15 to 20 years before and after India's Independence. - -Vyankatesh Madgulkar was a man of many interests. He also read a lot of books on different subjects. He was lovingly called Tatya (“old man”, or “grand old man” in Marathi) by his admirers, friends and family members. - -Childhood -Vyankatesh Madgulkar was born in Madgul, a village in Sangli district of Maharashtra. The Madgulkar family had probably come from the neighbouring state of Karnataka a few centuries back. They were one of the eight Brahmin families Madgul, which had a population of over a thousand. - -The family owned some land. Vyankatesh Madgulkar's grandfather and the earlier generations had lived off the land. However, in Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father’s time, the land could not feed the family. The family was large. Apart from Vyankatesh Madgulkar, there were seven children, one of whom died early. - -Vyankatesh Madgulkar's father took a job in the government of the Aundh princely state, which ruled over Madgul and the region around it known as Maandesh . The job took him to various villages and small towns of Maandesh. For some time, the family moved with him. In this way, Vyankatesh Madgulkar got to see life in many parts of Maandesh. - -Although his mother was an old-fashioned woman who believed Brahmins should not mix with people of 'lower' castes, Vyankatesh Madgulkar freely mixed with children of other castes and communities. From them he learnt how to climb trees, how to identify birds, how to trap fish, how to hunt. - -Madgul had no electricity, bus service or shop. But it had a primary school. Vyankatesh Madgulkar studied there and later in a secondary school in a small town nearby. But he was not a good student. Some of his teachers told him he had no future. - -When he was a teenager, he left home and joined a group of people fighting for India’s freedom. For two years he was considered a criminal by the British government. - -Working life -After India got Independence, Vyankatesh Madgulkar returned home. His elder brother (“Anna”), Gajanan, had already left home and become a writer for Marathi films.`GaDiMa’ (Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar), as he was called, went on to become a famous poet, song and screenplay writer, and a well-known name in Maharashtra. - -GaDiMa’s success might have helped Vyankatesh Madgulkar to also think of becoming an artist. However, he had his own personality, different from that of his brother. - -As he said often, he had always had the feeling he was “different”. He first wanted to be a poet. He also loved sketching and painting. And though he did not complete school education, he developed an enormous love for reading. He learnt and read English books the hard way, with the help of a dictionary. He read books by the American novelist John Steinbeck, the famous British writer George Orwell and the Irish writer Liam O’ Flaherty, and several other Western writers. - -Vyankatesh Madgulkar first tried to become a painter. He went to the city of Kolhapur in western Maharashtra to learn painting. However, he lost interest in becoming a painter and turned to writing. He wrote his first short story when he was 19 years old. It won a literary prize. This encouraged him to become a writer. - -In 1948, when he was 21, he took up a job as a journalist. Two years later he moved to the capital of Maharashtra, Mumbai, to write scripts for Marathi films. - -In 1955 he took up a job in Pune, in the rural programming department of the government's All India Radio (AIR) station . He worked here till he retired in 1985. All this time, he continued to write. - -He visited Australia and the island of Tasmania while he was in the service of All India Radio and wrote stories based upon his experiences there. - -Vyankatesh Madgulkar died in August 2001 at the age of 73. He died of complications from diabetes. - -Writing -Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote in many different ways. He wrote nearly 40 screenplays for films. He wrote several folk plays. He attempted a Marathi version of Fiddler on the Roof.He translated books, especially wild life books, from English to Marathi. He wrote essays on his travels, nature and interesting people he had read about, like Richard Burton, the British traveler. - -However, he is most fondly remembered for his short stories and novellas (long stories). He wrote 8 novellas and over 200 short stories. - -His first book, Maandeshi Manse (People of Maandesh), was published when he was only 22 years old. Maandeshi Manse is about different kinds of people Vyankatesh Madgulkar had met during his childhood in Maandesh. The descriptions of these people are realistic. However, Vyankatesh Madgulkar explained later that the descriptions were are not fully true. The people in Maandeshi Manse are creations of the author, based on real people he knew. - -Vyankatesh Madgulkar mixed the real world with his own imagination in the same way in all his Maandeshi stories. He also did not change his style of writing. - -That style is generally of a person telling a story to people sitting in front of him. - -Many of the stories told in this way are about poor people. Some stories are about things that had happened during Vyankatesh Madgulkar's childhood. Some stories are about family members. Only a few stories have a plot. Most stories have one central character. But a few stories are about happenings rather than on people. We see all this in his book 'Karunashtak' which mainly revolves around his mother. - -Bangarwadi -The most famous of Vyankatesh Madgulkar's writing is his novella called Bangarwadi (1954). It is about the experiences of a young schoolteacher in a village of shepherds in Maandesh. The story begins with the schoolteacher walking alone towards the village called Bangarwadi, in the night, across a landscape with few trees. When the teacher reaches Bangarwadi, he finds that the school is not working. Over the next months, the schoolteacher successfully runs the school. However, at the end of the story, lack of rainfall forces all the people of Bangarwadi to leave the village. The school again has no students. - -Within this story, Vyankatesh Madgulkar gives us an unforgettable and detailed picture of a way of living. One reviewer, Taya Zinkin reviewing the English translation of the book in The Economic Weekly in 1958 said, “(it) is perhaps the most important book written by an Indian about India to appear in English since [Jawaharlal] Nehru’s Discovery of India.” - -Bangarwardi was translated in several languages. The great German scholar on India Gunther Sontheimer translated it in German. Bookstores in Pune and other Maharashtra cities still sell the original book in Marathi. It has been reprinted over 15 times. - -Bangarwardi was also make into a film by Amol Palekar. - -Other writing -Vyankatesh Madgulkar wrote stories about Maandesh for around 20 years, from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. Later, he wrote about his family and then about nature. His last novella, Sattantar (1981), about a community of monkeys, won him the central government’s Sahitya Parishad award for best Marathi book published in that year. - -About translations -Vyankatesh Madgulkar has been translated in several languages. Brief details of translation in English with year of publication are as below: - Bangarwadi was translated as The village had no walls by Ram Deshmukh. The book was published by Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, in 1958 and again by Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, in 1994. - Vavtal (Whirlwind) was translated as Winds of fire by Pramod Kale. The book was published by Hind Pocket Books, New Delhi, in 1974. The book is out of print. - An excerpt from The village had no walls was published in Treasury of Modern Asian Stories (Mentor Books, New York, 1961). - An excerpt from The village had no walls was published in Stories from South Asia (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988). - A story translated as School Inspection was published in The Rough and the Smooth (Asia Publishing House, Mumbai, 1966). - A translation of Mulanyacha Bakas (The Mulanas’ Bakas ) was published in Modern Indian Literature: An Anthology- Volume Two (Fiction) (Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1993) - -The following are brief details of translation of his work in languages other than English with year of publication: - Bangarwadi was translated in German by the noted Indologist Gunther Sontheimer (1986) - Service Motar (Bus service) was translated in German (1969) - An excerpt from Bangarwadi was translated in Danish (1964) - Bangarwadi was translated in Hindi (1962?) - Around 20 stories including Bus Service and Shala (School) were translated in Hindi between 1958 and 1981 - Sattantar was translated in Kannada (1990) - Vavtal (Whirlwind) was translated in Russian (publication details not available) - - References - Yeshwant Shripad Raste, Vyankatesh Madgulkar Samagra Vadmay Soochi, Utkarsh Prakashan, Pune, 1996 - M. D. Hatkangalekar (ed.), Vyankatesh Madgulkar: Maandeshi Manus aani Kalavant, Shabdh Prakashan, Satara, 2000 - Vyankatesh Madgulkar, Karunashtak'', Majestic Prakashan, Mumbai, 2003 - -Other websites -Marathi Songs Of Ga Di Madgulkar - The Official Madgulkar Website -Gadima On Facebook - The Official Madgulkar Facebook Page - -1927 births -2001 deaths -Indian writers" -16277,62591,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster%20Cathedral,Westminster Cathedral,"Westminster Cathedral in London, England, is a Roman Catholic cathedral. It is the mother church of the Roman Catholic community in England and Wales and the Metropolitan Church and Cathedral for the Archbishop of Westminster. - -The cathedral is near Victoria in the City of Westminster. It is the largest Roman Catholic church in England and Wales. It should not be confused with Westminster Abbey. - -The cathedral was opened in 1903. It was designed by John Francis Bentley and is in the style of Byzantine church architecture. The nave is the widest of any church in England. The sanctuary is higher than the nave, so that the altar can be seen from any part of the nave. A very large crucifix hangs from the chancel arch. The Archiepiscopal Throne or cathedra, of marble and mosaic, is modelled on the Papal Throne at the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome. There are beautiful marble pillars which are all carved differently. In the crypt there are monuments to famous people. - -Westminster Cathedral has a famous choir. The first Master of Music (choirmaster) was Sir Richard Runciman Terry. Since 2000, the Master of Music has been Martin Baker. Mass is sung every day. - -The choir are famous for singing Gregorian chant and polyphony of the Renaissance. Composers such as Benjamin Britten and Ralph Vaughan Williams have written music for the choir. - -All the boys of the Choir are boarders at the nearby Westminster Cathedral Choir School. - -The organ is very large. It is in the west gallery (above the entrance). It was built by the organ builder Henry Willis III from 1922 to 1932. One of Louis Vierne's best-known organ pieces, ""Carillon de Westminster,"" was composed for it and dedicated to the builder. - -On 28 May 1982, the first day of his six-day visit to the United Kingdom, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass in the Cathedral. - -In 1995, Cardinal Basil Hume invited HM The Queen. This was the first visit of a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom to a Catholic liturgy since 1688 when James II & VII was king. - -Other websites -Westminster Cathedral official site - -Cathedrals in England -Roman Catholic Cathedrals -Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster -Westminster" -15421,58629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty%20Years%27%20War,Thirty Years' War,"The Thirty Years' War was fought from 1618 until 1648. Though it was primarily centered in Germany, several other countries became involved in the conflict, including France, Spain, and Sweden. In fact, almost all of the powerful countries in Europe were involved in the war. It began as a fight about religion — the Protestants and Catholics were the two groups that disagreed. As the war continued, the Habsburg dynasty (a Catholic family) and other organizations used the war to try and get more power. One of the examples of this is that Catholic France fought for the Protestants. This made the France-Habsburg even worse. - -The Thirty Years' War caused things like famine and disease in almost every country involved. The war lasted for 30 years, but the problems that caused the war were not fixed for a long time after the war was over. The war ended with the Treaty of Westphalia. - -Origins of the War -There were several reasons that the Thirty Years' War started. - -First, the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which was signed quickly by Charles V, stopped the fighting between the Lutherans and the Catholics in Germany. - -The Peace of Augsburg said that: - German Princes (there were 225 princes) could choose the religion (whether they were Lutheran or Catholic) in their states (this was called cuius regio eius religio). - Lutherans that lived in a state under the control of a bishop, called an ecclesiastical state, could stay Lutherans. - Lutherans could keep the land that they had taken from the Catholic Church after the Peace of Passau (1552). - The bishops of the Catholic Church that switched to Lutheranism had to give their land back (the principle called reservatum ecclesiasticum). - People that lived in a state that had chosen Lutheranism or Catholicism were not allowed to change their religion. -The Peace made the violence end for a bit. But it did not fix the real reason that the Lutherans and Catholics were fighting. Both of them said it meant different things. The Lutherans said it was only an agreement that would last for a short time. Calvinism came quickly into Germany. Calvinism was a third Christian group in Germany, but it was not part of the Peace of Augsburg. This meant it argued with both Lutherans and Catholics. - -Second, the powerful countries in Europe in the 17th century often disagreed about matters of Politics or Economics. Spain wanted land in some of the German states, because the Germans owned some of the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch fought the Spanish to get independence. They got it in some wars that ended in 1609. - France was afraid of the two Habsburg states on both of France's sides (Spain and the Holy Roman Empire). France wanted to show its power to the weak German states. - Sweden and Denmark wanted to control the German states in the north next to the Baltic Sea. - -Third, the Holy Roman Empire was a broken group of nations inside a bigger empire. The empire had nations like the Austrian House of Habsburg, Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margravate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier and Württemberg, and other small nations and towns. Only Austria was capable of operating on its own. Countries often made alliances with other places ruled by relatives. Because there were so many nations inside the empire, the nations disagreed with each other a lot and the government couldn't control the whole empire very well. This meant that the government couldn't fix the problems in the country. - -Fourth, religious groups were not agreeing during the second half of the 16th century. The Peace of Augsburg was not working because some bishops had not given up their bishoprics, and Catholic rulers in Spain and Eastern Europe wanted to make Catholicism strong in the region. This caused fighting between the groups. The Catholics made many Protestants leave their home lands. -Some places gave Protestants permission to worship. These disagreements caused violence. - -Fifth, the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias died without any children to take his place in 1619. He was Catholic. His lands were given to his cousin Ferdinand of Styria. Ferdinand was Matthias's closest male relative. He became Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand had been educated by the Jesuits, and was a Catholic. He wanted to make Catholicism the only religion again. This made him unpopular in the German state of Bohemia (the people in Bohemia were mostly a non-Catholic religion called Hussites). They rejected Ferdinand and launched the Thirty Years' War. The War can be divided into four major phases: the Bohemian Revolt, the Danish intervention, the Swedish intervention, and the French intervention. - -The Bohemian Revolt -Time: 1618–1625 - -Emperor Matthias, who had no children, wanted to give the throne of the Holy Roman Empire to Ferdinand II when he died. So, to ensure that the transition would work, he wanted to make Ferdinand the Crown Prince of Bohemia (a country that was part of the Holy Roman Empire) in the meantime. Ferdinand was extremely Catholic, so some of the Protestant leaders of Bohemia thought Ferdinand would take away their religious rights. They liked the Protestant Frederick V, Elector of the Palatinate better. However, some of the other Protestants supported Ferdinand. Enough people preferred Ferdinand that, in 1617, he was elected to become the Crown Prince of Bohemia. - -Ferdinand sent two Catholic governors to Prague, the capital of Bohemia, in May 1618. Ferdinand wanted them to run the government while he was gone. Suddenly, a lot of angry Protestants took them and threw them out of the high palace window (this is called the Defenestration of Prague). This made the Catholics angry at the Protestants. - -The Protestants who threw the Catholics out the window created a new Protestant government in Bohemia. A lot of Protestants in Bohemia and the nearby countries started hating the rest of the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire wanted to stop them from doing that, so it wanted to fight Bohemia and borrow Spain's money to do that. However, they thought that if that happened, Bohemia's Protestant friends might come in and start fighting them. So they tried to peacefully make an agreement with Bohemia to stop the fighting. But when Emperor Matthias died in 1619, Bohemia decided not to make the agreement because they thought the Holy Roman government was weak now. - -Bohemia was so mad about the Catholics that they decided to not make Ferdinand II the king of Bohemia anymore and made Frederick V the king instead. But now because Matthias was dead and Ferdinand was the next person waiting to be the emperor, Ferdinand was in charge of the whole Holy Roman Empire now. Some people also thought Frederick shouldn't be allowed to be king of Bohemia because they had already decided Ferdinand was king and they weren't allowed to undo that. Because of all this, the Holy Roman Emperor decided to fight Bohemia. - -A big army that got money from a German politician called Maximilian I and was led by a man called Count Tilly invaded Bohemia. At the Battle of White Mountain, the Holy Roman Empire beat the Bohemian rebels. Frederick ran away and the revolt collapsed. - -Frederick was also in charge of an German nation called the Palatinate. Maximilian I, who was in charge of a nearby nation called Bavaria, wanted more power and decided to take over some of the Palatinate. Spain (a Catholic country) joined the war and tried to take over the rest of the Palatinate, but the Netherlands said Frederick should be in charge of the whole Palatinate instead. This was the first time other countries were involved in this war. After some fighting, Maximilian and Spain won, and Emperor Ferdinand decided that all of the Palatinate should go to Maximilian. This made some of the other Protestant nations very scared because this meant that some Protestant areas were being taken over by Catholics. - -Related pages -Battle of White Mountain - -17th century in Europe - -Wars involving England -Wars involving France" -4097,12565,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning%20disability,Learning disability,"Learning disabilities, also called learning difficulties, are conditions that make it difficult to learn and understand things in the same way others do. Some people with learning difficulties also find it hard to fit in with other people because there are many things that people must know to live in society that are not easy to learn. - -Learning difficulties can be things that people can learn to live with on their own, like dyslexia (a difficulty with reading) and dysgraphia (a difficulty with writing). They can also be big things that mean a person needs more help (like autism). People with learning disabilities may have average intelligence. Learning disabilities are not the same as mental illnesses. They can often deal with their difficulties by doing things in different ways. - -Related pages -Down's syndrome - -References - -Disability -Learning" -15575,59423,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20large%20wind%20farms,List of large wind farms,"This is a list of large wind farms, with a generating capacity of 100 megawatts (MW) or more, which are currently operating, under construction, or proposed. Wind power capacity has expanded quickly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was about 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing fast. - -Wind power is widely used in Europe, and more recently in the United States and Asia. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generation in Denmark, 11% in Spain and Portugal, and 9% in the Republic of Ireland. - -Operational wind farms -Many of the largest onshore wind farms are in the USA. As of January 2014, the Alta Wind Energy Center is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 1,020 MW. - -Many of the largest offshore wind farms are in Europe. As of January 2014, the London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 630 MW. - -Related pages - List of renewable energy topics - Wind power in Denmark - Wind power in Germany - Wind power in South Australia - Wind power in Texas - Wind power in the United States - Clyde Wind Farm - Markbygden Wind Farm - Gwynt y Môr Wind Farm - -Notes - -Science-related lists" -5816,18848,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20the%20United%20States,Supreme Court of the United States,"The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States of America. Because of this, the Court leads the Judicial Branch of the United States Federal Government. It is the only U.S. court established by the United States Constitution. Its decisions are supposed to be followed by all other courts in the United States. The Court meets in its own building in Washington, D.C. However, until 1935, the Supreme Court met in the United States Capitol. - -There are 9 justices on the court now: one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. The most recent justice, Amy Coney Barrett, replaced Ruth Bader Ginsburg after she died. Courts are unofficially named for the Chief Justice; the current Court is called the ""Roberts Court"" after Chief Justice John Roberts. - -The Supreme Court chooses which cases it will decide on. Many people ask the Supreme Court to decide their cases, but the court refuses most of them. For the Supreme Court to decide a case, the case must be about federal law or be about the laws of more than one state. Cases must first be decided by a federal District Court and a federal Court of Appeals or by a state supreme court. Even after that, the Supreme Court can choose not to decide a case for any reason. There are some cases that can start in the Supreme Court and that the Supreme Court must decide, but those are rare. - -The justices serve for life unless they want to retire earlier or are impeached. If a justice retires, he or she can still be asked to serve as a judge on a federal Court of Appeals. New justices are nominated (picked) by the President of the United States, and later must be approved by the United States Senate. In February 2022, President Joe Biden nominated first back woman Ketanji Brown Jackson as judge of supreme court. - -The present Court -The current court is named ""The Roberts Court"" named after Chief Justice John Roberts. - -References - -Supreme Court of the United States" -1570,5416,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%2015,April 15," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1071 - Norman forces under Robert Guiscard conquer Bari, present-day Italy. - 1191 - Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned. - 1450 – Battle of Formigny; Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly destroy English forces, ending English domination in northern France. - 1632 – Battle of Rain; Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War. - 1638 - Tokugawa shogunate forces put down the Shimabara Rebellion when they retake Hara Castle from the rebels. - 1736 - Corsicans rebel against the Republic of Genoa and declare the Westphalian Theodor von Neuhoff as King. - 1738 – Premiere in London of Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel. - 1755 – Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language published in London. - 1783 – Preliminary articles of peace ending the American Revolutionary War ratified. - 1802 – William Wordsworth and his sister, Dorothy come across a ""long belt"" of daffodils, inspiring the former to pen I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud. - 1861 - Abraham Lincoln calls for a volunteer force of 25,000 to stop the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War. - 1865 – Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by John Wilkes Booth. Andrew Johnson becomes the 17th President of the United States. - 1892 – The General Electric Company is formed through the merger of the Edison General Electric Company and the Thomson-Houston Company. - 1896 - Closing ceremony of the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens. - 1900 - Philippine-American War: Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on the United States infantry and begin the four-day Siege of Catubig, Philippines. - -1901 2000 - 1912 – The passenger liner RMS Titanic sinks at about 2:20 am after hitting an iceberg almost three hours earlier. - 1915 – The Armenian Genocide began when the Ottoman Empire undertook the systematic destruction of Armenian intellectuals and entrepreneurs within the city of Constantinople and later the entire Armenian population of the Empire. - 1917 - Troop transporter Cameronia is sunk by a German U-boat east of Malta. - 1920 – Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti allegedly murder two security guards while robbing a shoe store. - 1923 – Insulin first became generally available for use by diabetics. - 1924 – Rand McNally publishes its first road atlas. - 1927 – Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and Norma and Constance Talmadge become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in cement at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood. - 1935 – Roerich Pact signed in Washington D.C. - 1936 - First day of the Arab revolt in Palestine. - 1936 - Aer Lingus is founded, as the national airline of the Republic of Ireland. - 1940 – The Allies start their attack on the Norwegian town of Narvik which was occupied by Nazi Germany. - 1941 - World War II: The German Luftwaffe attack Belfast in a bombing raid, killing 1,000 people. - 1942 – George Cross given to ""to the island fortress of Malta - its people and defenders"" by King George VI of the United Kingdom. - 1945 – The Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated. - 1947 – Jackie Robinson's first time playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team, breaking that sport's color line. - 1955 – The first McDonald's restaurant opens in Des Plaines, Illinois. - 1962 - Georges Pompidou becomes Prime Minister of France. - 1969 - North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 people on board. - 1970 - Cambodian Civil War: Massacres of the Vietnamese minority result in bodies flowing down the Mekong River to South Vietnam. - 1983 – Tokyo Disneyland opens. - 1984 - The first World Youth Day is held in St. Peter's Square, Vatican City. - 1985 – Bernhard Langer becomes the first German to win The Masters Tournament (a golf tournament). - 1985 – Marvin Hagler defeats Thomas Hearns by a knockout in round three to retain boxing's world middleweight championship in a fight nicknamed The War. - 1986 - The United States launches Operation El Dorado Canyon, its bombing raids against Libyan targets in response to a bombing in West Germany that killed two American servicemen. - 1989 – Hillsborough disaster: A human stampede occurs at Hillsborough, a football stadium in Sheffield, England, resulting in the loss of 96 lives. All of the people killed had come to support Liverpool FC against Nottingham Forest in an FA Cup match. - 1989 – Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in the People's Republic of China. - 1994 – Representatives of 124 countries and the European Communities sign the Marrakesh Agreements revising the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and setting up the World Trade Organization (effective January 1, 1995). - 1997 – Fire sweeps through a campsite of Muslims making the Hajj pilgrimage; the official death toll is 343. - -From 2001 - 2001 – Easter day (not again until 2063). - 2002 – An Air China Boeing 767-200, flight CA129 crashes into a hillside during heavy rain and fog near Pusan, South Korea, killing 128. - 2010 – Response to the eruption of the volcano Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland: Norway, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland shut all of their airspace for a week. Several European countries also have to shut their airspace in the following days and weeks, due to the volcanic ash cloud. - 2013 - 2013 Boston Marathon bombings: Two bombs explode near the finishing line of the Boston Marathon, killing 3 people and injuring over 140. - 2014 - A lunar eclipse in which the Moon turns dark red is seen throughout the Americas and parts of the South Pacific Ocean. - 2017 - A bomb attack on a bus convoy outside Aleppo, Syria, kills at least 126 people, most of them children. - 2018 - The 2018 Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, come to an end. - 2019 - Notre-Dame de Paris fire: Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris is heavily damaged by fire. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1282 - Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329) - 1367 - King Henry IV of England (d. 1413) - 1452 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian polymath (d. 1519) - 1469 – Guru Nanak Dev, Sikh guru (d. 1539) - 1552 - Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician (d. 1626) - 1563 - Guru Arjun Dev, Sikh guru (d. 1606) - 1641 - Robert Sibbald, Scottish physician (d. 1722) - 1642 – Suleiman II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1691) - 1646 – King Christian V of Denmark (d. 1699) - 1646 - Pierre Poiret, French mystic and philosopher (d. 1719) - 1684 – Catherine I of Russia (d. 1727) - 1707 – Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician (d. 1783) - 1710 - Marie-Anne de Cupis de Camargo, French dancer (d. 1770) - 1710 - William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1790) - 1721 – Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland (d. 1765) - 1744 - Charles Wilson Peale, American painter (d. 1827) - 1783 - Maria Branwell, mother of the Bronte siblings (d. 1821) - 1793 - Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer (d. 1864) - 1797 - Adolphe Thiers, French writer and politician (d. 1877) - 1800 – James Clark Ross, English explorer (d. 1862) - 1809 - Hermann Grassmann, German polymath (d. 1877) - 1814 - John Lothrop Motley, American diplomat (d. 1877) - 1817 - Benjamin Jowett, English educator and theologian (d. 1893) - 1821 - Joseph E. Brown, American politician, Governor of Georgia (d. 1894) - 1828 - Jean Danjou, French captain (d. 1863) - 1832 – Wilhelm Busch, German poet and writer (d. 1908) - 1832 - Herbert Vaughan, English cardinal (d. 1903) - 1841 - Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian politician and philanthropist (d. 1919) - 1843 – Henry James, American writer (d. 1916) - 1851 - Ponnambalam Ramanathan, Ceylonese-Tamil statesman (d. 1930) - 1858 – Emile Durkheim, French sociologist and ethnologist (d. 1917) - 1865 - Olga Boznanska, Polish painter (d. 1940) - 1866 - Robert Livingston Beeckman, Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1935) - 1874 - George Harrison Shull, American geneticist (d. 1954) - 1874 – Johannes Stark, German physicist (d. 1957) - 1877 – W. D. Ross, Scottish philosopher (d. 1971) - 1883 – Stanley Bruce, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967) - 1886 - Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet (d. 1921) - 1890 - Percy Shaw, English inventor (d. 1976) - 1891 - Wallace Reid, American actor (d. 1923) - 1892 – Corrie ten Boom, Dutch writer, activist, and Holocaust survivor (d. 1983) - 1894 – Bessie Smith, American blues singer (d. 1937) - 1894 - Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union (d. 1971) - 1896 – Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov, Russian chemist (d. 1986) - 1898 - Harry Edward, English sprinter (d. 1973) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - René Pleven, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993) - 1901 - Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978) - 1901 - Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986) - 1904 - Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter (d. 1948) - 1907 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch ethologist (d. 1988) - 1908 - Lita Grey, American actress (d. 1995) - 1910 - Miguel Najdorf, Polish-Argentine chess player (d. 1997) - 1912 – Kim Il-Sung, President of North Korea (d. 1994) - 1915 - Elizabeth Catlett, American-Mexican artist and sculptor (d. 2012) - 1915 – Walter Washington, American politician, Mayor of Washington, DC (d. 2003) - 1917 - Hans Conried, American actor (d. 1982) - 1920 – Richard von Weizsaecker, former President of Germany (d. 2015) - 1920 - Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist (d. 2012) - 1921 – Georgi Beregovoi, Soviet-Russian cosmonaut (d. 1995) - 1922 – Harold Washington, American politician, Mayor of Chicago (d. 1987) - 1922 - Michael Ansara, Syrian-American actor (d. 2013) - 1924 - Neville Marriner, English conductor and violinist (d. 2016) - 1924 - Rikki Fulton, Scottish actor and comedian (d. 2004) - 1927 - Ernie Copland, Scottish footballer - 1927 - Robert Mills, American physicist (d. 1999) - 1929 - Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015) - 1930 – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, 4th President of Iceland - 1931 - Giovanni Reale, Italian historian and philosopher (d. 2014) - 1931 – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet (d. 2015) - 1932 - Eva Figes, German-born English author (d. 2012) - 1933 - Roy Clark, American singer, musician and television host - 1933 - Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress (d. 1995) - 1936 - Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist - 1938 - Claudia Cardinale, Tunisian-born Italian actress - 1938 - Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician - 1938 - Jay Garner, American lieutenant general - 1939 – Marty Wilder, British rock singer - 1940 – Jeffrey Archer, British politician and writer - 1940 - Yossef Romano, Israeli weightlifter (d. 1972) - 1940 - Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model and beauty queen - 1941 - Howard Berman, American politician - 1942 – Walt Hazzard, American basketball coach (d. 2011) - 1943 - Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and Nobel Prize winner - 1943 - Mighty Sam McClain, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015) - 1944 - Dzhokhar Dudayev, Chechen general and politician (d. 1996) - 1944 - Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer and guitarist - 1944 - Kunishige Kamamoto, Japanese footballer - 1946 – Pete Rouse, American politician - 1946 - Michael Tucci, American actor - 1947 - Mike Chapman, Australian songwriter - 1949 - Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer and composer - 1949 - David Rendel, English politician (d. 2016) - 1949 - Craig Zadan, American director, producer and screenwriter - 1950 - Josiane Balasko, French actress, director and screenwriter - 1950 - Paul Lüönd, Swiss musician (d. 2014) - -1951 1975 - 1951 - John L. Phillips, American astronaut - 1951 - Stuart Prebble, English broadcaster - 1951 - Choei Sato, Japanese footballer - 1955 - Jeff Golub, American musician (d. 2015) - 1955 – Dodi al-Fayed, Egyptian businessman (d. 1997) - 1956 - Michael Cooper, American basketball player and coach - 1957 - Evelyn Ashford, American athlete - 1957 - Hwang Kyo-ahn, South Korean politician, former Prime minister of South Korea - 1958 – Benjamin Zephaniah, British writer - 1958 – Abu Hamza al-Masri, Egyptian Islamic fundamentalist preacher - 1959 – Emma Thompson, British actress - 1960 – King Philippe of Belgium - 1960 - Pedro Delgado, Spanish cyclist - 1960 - Susanne Bier, Danish movie director - 1961 – Carol W. Greider, American molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner - 1961 - Luca Barbarossa, Italian singer - 1962 - Tom Kane, American voice actor - 1963 - Beata Szydlo, Polish politician, Prime Minister of Poland - 1966 – Samantha Fox, British singer, actress and model - 1967 – Dara Torres, American swimmer - 1967 - Frankie Poullain, British musician - 1968 – Ed O'Brien, British musician (Radiohead) - 1968 - Vano Merabishvili, Georgian politician - 1969 - Jimmy Waite, Canadian ice hockey player - 1971 - Kate Harbour, English voice actress - 1972 - Trine Dyrholm, Danish actress and singer - 1972 – Arturo Gatti, Canadian boxer (d. 2009) - 1972 - Lou Romano, American voice actor - 1973 - Teddy Lucic, Swedish footballer - 1974 - Danny Way, American skateboarder - 1975 - Adolfo Cambiaso, Argentine polo player - -From 1976 - 1976 - John Lamont, Scottish politician - 1976 - Seigo Narazaki, Japanese footballer - 1977 - Sudarshan Pattnaik, Indian sand artist - 1977 - Lilia Vaygina-Efremova, Ukrainian biathlete - 1978 – Soumaila Coulibaly, Malian footballer - 1978 – Milton Bradley, American baseball player - 1979 - Luke Evans, Welsh actor - 1982 – Albert Riera, Spanish footballer - 1982 – Seth Rogen, Canadian actor and writer - 1983 - Alice Braga, Brazilian actress - 1983 – Matt Cardle, English singer - 1983 - Dudu Cearense, Brazilian footballer - 1983 – Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player - 1986 - Tom Heaton, English footballer - 1986 - Quincy Owusu-Abeyje, Ghanaian footballer - 1988 - Steven Defour, Belgian footballer - 1988 – Eliza Doolittle, English singer - 1988 - Leonie Elliott, English actress - 1989 - Shawn Nicklaw, American footballer - 1989 - Brandur Enni, Faroese singer - 1990 – Emma Watson, English actress - 1990 - Lily Carter, American pornographic actress - 1991 - Daiki Arioka, Japanese actor and singer - 1991 – Anastasia Vinnikova, Belarussian singer - 1992 – Amy Deasismont, Swedish singer - 1992 - Richard Sandrak, American bodybuilder, martial artist and actor - 1992 - John Guidetti, Swedish footballer - 1993 - Madeleine Martin, American actress - 1997 - Maisie Williams, British actress - 1999 - Denis Shapovalov, Israeli-born Canadian tennis player - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 571 - Emperor Kimmei of Japan - 628 - Empress Suiko of Japan (b. 554) - 1053 - Godwin, Earl of Wessex - 1220 - Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157) - 1415 - Manuel Chrysolaris, Greek humanist and grammarian (b. 1355) - 1446 – Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian architect (b. 1377) - 1558 - Roxelana, Polish wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. 1500) - 1621 - John Carver, English merchant and Governor of Plymouth Colony (b. 1576) - 1641 - Domenico Zampieri, Italian painter (b. 1581) - 1659 – Simon Dach, German poet (b. 1605) - 1697 – King Charles XI of Sweden (b. 1665) - 1719 - Françoise d'Aubigne, marquise de Maintenon, Queen of France (b. 1635) - 1754 - Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician (b. 1676) - 1764 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV of France (b. 1721) - 1765 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian scientist and writer (b. 1711) - 1854 - Arthur Aikin, English chemist, mineralogist and writer (b. 1773) - 1865 – Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (b. 1809) - 1889 – Father Damien, Belgian Roman Catholic priest and missionary (b. 1840) - 1894 - James M. Harvey, American politician, 5th Governor of Kansas (b. 1833) - 1898 - Kepa Te Rangihiwini, Maori military leader - -1901 2000 - 1912 - People who died in the sinking of the RMS Titanic, including: -Edward Smith, captain of the RMS Titanic (b. 1850) -Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder (b. 1873) -Jack Phillips, British wireless telegraphist (b. 1887) -John Jacob Astor IV, American businessman and billionaire (b. 1864) -Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865) - 1913 – Gabdulla Tukay, Tatar poet (b. 1886) - 1925 – Fritz Haarmann, German serial killer (b. 1879) - 1925 – John Singer Sargent, American painter (b. 1856) - 1927 - Gaston Leroux, French writer (b. 1868) - 1935 - Anna Ancher, Danish painter (b. 1859) - 1938 - César Vallejo, Peruvian poet (b. 1892) - 1942 – Robert Musil, Austrian writer (b. 1880) - 1944 - Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Soviet military commander (b. 1901) - 1949 - Wallace Beery, American actor (b. 1885) - 1957 - Pedro Infante, Mexican actor and singer (b. 1917) - 1962 - Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880) - 1962 - Arsenio Lacson, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912) - 1967 - Totò, Italian comedian, actor, writer and singer-songwriter (b. 1898) - 1969 – Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (b. 1887) - 1971 – Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915) - 1972 – Frank Knight, American economist (b. 1885) - 1974 - Giovanni D'Anzi, Italian songwriter (b. 1906) - 1980 – Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher (b. 1905) - 1983 – Corrie ten Boom, Dutch writer, activist and Holocaust survivor (b. 1892) - 1984 – Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedy magician (b. 1921) - 1986 – Jean Genet, French writer (b. 1910) - 1988 – Kenneth Williams, British actor and comedian (b. 1926) - 1989 - Hu Yaobang, Chinese politician (b. 1915) - 1989 - Charles Vanel, French actor and director (b. 1892) - 1990 – Greta Garbo, Swedish actress (b. 1905) - 1994 – John Curry, British figure skater (b. 1949) - 1998 – Pol Pot, Cambodian dictator (b. 1925) - -From 2001 - 2001 – Joey Ramone, American punk rocker (b. 1951) - 2002 - Byron White, American football player, lawyer and jurist (b. 1917) - 2004 – Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese manga artist (b. 1934) - 2008 – Sean Costello, American blues musician (b. 1979) - 2009 – Clement Freud, British writer, broadcaster and Member of Parliament (b. 1924) - 2009 - Laszlo Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist (b. 1907) - 2011 – Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian activist (b. 1975) - 2012 – Murray Rose, British-born Australian swimmer (b. 1939) - 2013 - Richard Collins, Canadian actor (b. 1947) - 2013 - Richard LeParmentier, British-American actor (b. 1946) - 2013 - Sal Castro, American activist and teacher (b. 1933) - 2014 - Owen Woodhouse, New Zealand judge (b. 1916) - 2014 - Shane Gibson, American guitarist (b. 1979) - 2014 - John Houbolt, American aerospace engineer (b. 1919) - 2014 - Hugo Villar, Uruguayan physician and politician (b. 1925) - 2015 - Surya Bahadur Thapa, Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928) - 2015 - Alexander Nadson, Belarussian religious leader (b. 1926) - 2015 - Jonathan Crombie, Canadian actor (b. 1966) - 2015 - Tadahiko Ueda, Japanese footballer (b. 1947) - 2016 - Anne Grommerch, French politician (b. 1970) - 2017 - David Brumbaugh, American politician (b. 1956) - 2017 - Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920) - 2017 - Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last-surviving person born in the 1800s (b. 1899) - 2017 - Sylvia Moy, American songwriter and record producer (b. 1938) - 2018 - R. Lee Ermey, American actor (b. 1944) - 2018 - Michael Halliday, English-Australian linguist (b. 1925) - 2018 - Judy Kennedy, American politician (b. 1944) - 2018 - Waqar Ahmad Shah, Indian politician (b. 1943) - 2018 - Frank Skartados, Greek-American politician (b. 1956) - 2018 - Vittorio Taviani, Italian movie director (b. 1929) - 2018 - Bob Braden, American computer scientist (b. 1934) - 2018 - Frank Drowota, American judge (b. 1938) - 2019 - Owen Garriott, American astronaut (b. 1930) - 2019 - Aleksandar Kostov, Bulgarian footballer (b. 1938) - 2019 - Les Reed, English songwriter (b. 1935) - 2019 - Winston L. Shelton, American inventor and entrepreneur (b. 1922) - 2019 - Joaquim Alberto Silva, Angolan footballer (b. 1974) - -Observances - Tax Day (United States) - Kim Il-Sung's birthday (North Korea) - Father Damien Day (Hawaii) - Jackie Robinson Day in Major League Baseball - Bengali New Year - World Art Day - -Days of the year" -15124,57033,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptospirosis,Leptospirosis,"Leptospirosis (also known as Weil's disease, canicola fever, canefield fever, nanukayami fever or seven day fever) is a bacterial disease. It is caused by spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. This bacterium affects humans and many animals, including mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles. It was first described by Adolf Weil in 1886. At the time he reported an ""acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice and nephritis"". The pathogen, Leptospira-genus bacteria was isolated in 1907 from a post mortem kidney slice. - -Leptospirosis is a relatively rare bacterial infection in humans. The infection is commonly transmitted to humans by allowing fresh water that has been contaminated by animal urine (often from rats) to come in contact with the skin, eyes or with the mucous membranes. - -It usually causes heart failure, kidney failure or liver failure, and most sufferers die if they are not treated urgently. The disease causes little concern, as it is quite rare - -Except for tropical areas, Leptospirosis seems to occur most often in the months August to September, in the Northern Hemisphere. - -Diseases caused by bacteria -Animal diseases" -16564,63503,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20White,Jack White,"Jack White (born John Anthony Gillis, July 9, 1975 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American singer, guitarist, composer and actor. He is best known as one half of The White Stripes with his ex-wife Meg White. - -Because of his successful career with The White Stripes, he has gotten the chance to work many other famous musicians, including Bob Dylan and Loretta Lynn. He has performed many different genres of music, including blues music, folk music, alternative rock, garage rock, and indie music, among other music, in his songs. - -He married model Karen Elson in 2005. They currently have two children, Scarlett Teresa White and Henry Lee White. As of today, they live in Nashville, Tennessee. - -Other websites - -1975 births -Living people -American guitarists -American songwriters -American composers -American movie actors -Actors from Detroit, Michigan -Singers from Detroit, Michigan" -22489,85069,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakker%20Prize,Wakker Prize,"The Wakker Prize (in German: Wakkerpreis, in French Prix Wakker) is given every year by the Swiss Heritage Society to a municipality of Switzerland for the making and saving of its historical buildings. - -In 2005, the prize was given to the Swiss Federal Railways, rather than a municipality. - -The prize is named for Henri-Louis Wakker. - -Prize winners - -Other websites -Patrimoine suisse: Prix Wakker - -Swiss culture -Awards" -1748,5816,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship,Ship,"A ship is a large vehicle used to travel on water. It is bigger than a boat. Most are cargo ships, which carry most of the world's international trade. There are also many warships, passenger ships and other kinds for different purposes. - -When people talk about a ship, they often use the pronoun ""she"". For example: She was launched on 29 December 1878. - -History - -Early ships -The first ships used oars or the wind (or both) to make them move. - -From about 4000 BC the Ancient Egyptians were making wooden sail boats. By 1200 BC the Phoenicians and Greeks had begun to make bigger sailing ships which were about 30 metres (100 feet) long and could carry 90180 tonnes of cargo. The Romans made even bigger ships which could carry up to 1,000 people and 1,000 tonnes of cargo. The 8th century saw the rise of the Vikings, who were famous for their ""longships"" and which were mainly used for raiding other countries, but also for trading. The longships had flat bottoms so they could move in shallow (not deep) rivers. - -Age of sail -Sailing ships were used for thousands of years, but they were very important from the Age of Discovery to the 19th century. The Chinese admiral Zheng He commanded a fleet of large 'treasure ships' on seven voyages all over Asia up to East-Africa in the early fifteenth century. The most successful and largest fleet in the 17th century was the Dutch fleet (see the Netherlands). For trade and transport the Dutch often used a particular kind of trading ship, called a flute (fluyt in Dutch). Transport of people and cargo on sailing ships became rare in the early 20th century. - -Some famous ships from this era include: - Niña, Pinta, Santa Maria - Christopher Columbus' ships - The Mayflower - The ship that carried the Pilgrims to Massachusetts - Queen Anne's Revenge - The pirate Blackbeard's ship - HMS Bounty - Captain Bligh's ship. Site of the most famous mutiny of all time - USS Constitution - The most powerful ship in the early United States Navy - HMS Victory - Admiral Horatio Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar - -The age of steam -In the 19th century, steamboats became commonplace. - -At one time, the steamships Titanic, Olympic, and Britannic were the largest ships in the world, Titanic sank on her maiden voyage after hitting an iceberg, becoming one of the most famous shipwrecks of all time, the Olympic was Titanic 's nearly identical twin, and actually set sail before Titanic and was scrapped in the 1930s after a very successful career including her being a passenger liner and a warship in World War I. The Britannic was the largest of these three sister ships, and was supposed to be more grand and elegant than the Titanic, but before she set sail on her maiden voyage, WWI broke out and she was stripped of her elegant furniture and elaborate paneling and became a hospital ship. During her term as a hospital ship, she was sunk by either a mine or torpedo, no one knows for sure. The Titanic lies at the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Nova Scotia, and the Britannic lies in the Aegean Sea, off the coast of the Island of Kea. - -Modern ships -After World War II ships with diesel engines became commonplace. Passenger airliners replaced passenger ships for long trips in the late 20th century. Cargo ships became much bigger. The main kinds are container ships for mostly manufactured goods, and bulk carriers including oil tankers. - -Largest ship -The world's largest ship is the Prelude, owned by Shell. It is being built on Geoje Island, South Korea. It is 488m long and has the internal capacity greater than the total volume of four large aircraft carriers. What it will do is collect natural gas off the coast of Australia, and liquify it. When liquified, the hydrocarbon takes up 600 times less space than its gas. Smaller tankers will take the liquid gas to its buyers. The ship will do liquifying and temporary storage, which is usually done on land. Shell believes this justifies the cost of the ship. - -The shipping yard builds all kinds of structures for the oil industry. It employs 30,000 workers. - -Some names for parts of a ship - - Amidships - near the middle of the ship. - Bow - the front of the ship. - Stern - the back of the ship. - Aft - in the direction of the stern. - Astern - behind the ship. - Starboard - the right side of the ship. - Port - the left side of the ship. - Bridge - the room in which the ship is controlled. - Cabin - a room where a crew member lives. - Decks - the floors. - Galley - the kitchen. - Hold - an area inside the ship used to carry goods. - Hull - the main body of the ship. - Keel - a beam running from stern to bow. - Mast - a central pole on which sails are hung. - Brig - Prison cells in the ship. - -Some types of ships - - Bulk carrier - very large ship used for carrying very heavy cargo. - Catamaran - a ship with two hulls. - Cruise ship - a large passenger ship that takes people on holiday or vacations. - Ferry - a passenger ship which often carries vehicles as well as people. - Supertanker - a very large ship usually used for carrying oil. - Warship - Aircraft carrier - a warship which carries aircraft - Battleship - a large warship - PT boat- a small warship - Submarine - an underwater boat - -References - -Basic English 850 words - -Navigation" -20637,79367,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian%2C%20Mississippi,"Meridian, Mississippi","Meridian is the county seat of Lauderdale County in Mississippi, a state of the United States of America. Meridian is the sixth-largest city in the state of Mississippi and the principal city of the Meridian, Mississippi Micropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 39,968 at the 2000 census. The current population is larger than in the 2000 census. A recent annexation, in addition to seeing many displaced coastal residents after Hurricane Katrina (many of them have made Meridian their permanent residence), have put the population over 40,000. - -Other websites - - City of Meridian website - The Meridian Star Newspaper - History of Meridian's Jewish community - MeridianOnline.info - -County seats in Mississippi -Cities in Mississippi -1854 establishments in the United States -19th-century establishments in Mississippi" -22918,87012,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii,Pompeii,"Pompeii was a Roman city. Now it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - -On 24 October, 79 AD, a volcano called Mount Vesuvius erupted and destroyed the city and its people, killing 2,000 of them. - -Pompeii is now considered one of the world's most important historical sites because of the way the volcanic ash preserved the city and its people. This gives historians and archaeologists a vivid picture of life in the Roman Empire around 2,000 years ago. - -Archaeologists have found graffiti written by the people who lived in the town. - -People often wrote on walls, and archaeologists have been able to read some of what they wrote. Pompeii is an interesting attraction for tourists from around the world and is visited by 2.5 million people every year. - -History -The town was started around the year 600 BC. It was started by a group of people from central Italy, the Osci. They chose to start it in this location because it was already an important location for trade by both land and sea. By the 5th century BC, Pompeii had become part of Rome. While under Roman control, Pompeii was improved a lot. The Romans built Aqueducts, and these were used to provide the citizens with water. - -Before the eruption, Pompeii was a beautiful and wealthy city. At the time of the eruption, the town may have had about 11,000 people living there. It was in an area where Romans had holiday villas. Modern professor William Abbott said, ""At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations."" - -Witnesses -Pliny The Younger was a witness to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. He sent letters to a friend describing the eruption. For he was much too scared to go any closer, he stayed where he was. He was quite a distance from the sight, but close enough to see the eruption clearly. - -Dating -Recent research has questioned the day of the eruption, with some scholars arguing for an autumn date. - -Related pages -Herculaneum - -References - -Places of Ancient Rome -Cities and towns in Italy -World Heritage Sites in Italy" -12607,46363,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pak%20Ch%C5%8Fng%20H%C5%ADi,Pak Chŏng Hŭi,"Pak Chŏng Hŭi (sometimes spelled: Park Chung-hee) (November 14, 1917 – October 26, 1979) was the dictator of South Korea from 1961 until he was assassinated. He was named one of the top 100 Asians of the Century by Time Magazine (1999). He has been severely criticized for his government's brutality, especially after 1971. A penname was Jungsu(중수;中樹). - -Birth -Pak was born in Seonsan, a small town in Gumi-si(구미시), Gyeongsangbuk-do(경상북도) near Daegu(대구). He was the seventh child from a family of modest means. His father was Park Seong-bin (age 46 at the time) and his mother was Baek Nam-hui (age 45). - -Pak came from an undistinguished local branch of Goryeong Bak descent group. - -Pak won admission to Daegu Teacher's College through a competitive examination. He entered on April 8, 1932 and graduated on March 25, 1937, after five years of study. His formative years coincided with the Japanese invasion of China, starting with the Manchurian incident in 1931 and culminating in all-out war in 1937. - -He went on to teach for several years in Mungyeong, where the school has been preserved as a museum. - -Military career -Pak won admission to a two-year training program in Manchukuo, the Japanese puppet state in Manchuria. Under the Japanese policy of sōshi-kaimei, he adopted the Japanese-style name Takaki Masao (高木正雄). He graduated from the Japanese Manchurian military academy at the top of his class in 1944. He then was selected for another two years of training at the Imperial Military Academy in Tokyo. - -Pak had served as a lieutenant in the Kantogun, part of the Imperial Japanese Army, in Manchuria, fighting Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist forces. Although the Kantogun also carried out actions against Korean guerrillas, it's improbable that Pak participated in such action since there were no Korean guerrillas in the region at the time of his brief deployment. - -Post World War II -In the aftermath of Japan's defeat in World War II, under his communist elder brother's influence, Pak joined a communist group, the South Korean Workers' Party, in the American occupation zone, which later became South Korea. Pak was involved in a rebellion in Yeosu and Suncheon, Jeollanam-do, led by units of the new American-supported army. Pak was arrested and sentenced to death, but released soon after revealing the names of communist participants to the South Korean authorities. He was then released and left the army in dishonor. However; the outbreak of the Korean War enabled him to be reinstated, and he served the new country fighting against the communists. - -Ascension to presidency -Syngman Rhee, the first president of the Republic of (South) Korea, was forced out of office on April 26, 1960 as an aftermath of the April 19 Movement, a student-led uprising. A new government took office on August 13. This was a short-lived period of parliamentary rule in South Korea with a figurehead president, Yun Po-son, in response to the authoritarian excesses and corruption of the Rhee administration. Real power rested with Prime Minister Chang Myon. - -Yun and Chang did not command the respect of the majority of the Democratic Party. They could not agree on the composition of the cabinet and Chang attempted to hold the tenuous coalition together by reshuffling cabinet positions three times within five months. - -Political background -Meanwhile, the new government was caught between an economy that was suffering from a decade of mismanagement and corruption by the Rhee presidency and the students who had led to Rhee's ouster. The students were regularly filling the streets, making numerous and wide-ranging demands for political and economic reforms. Law and order could not be maintained because the police, long an instrument of the Rhee government, were demoralized and had been completely discredited by the public. Continued factional wrangling caused the public to turn away from the party. - -Coup d'état -Seizing the moment, then-Major General Pak Chŏng Hŭi led a bloodless military coup (called the 5.16 Revolution) on May 16, 1961, a coup largely welcomed by a general populace exhausted by political chaos. Although Chang resisted the coup efforts, President Yun sided with the junta and persuaded the United States Eighth Army and the commanders of various South Korean army units not to interfere with the new rulers. - -The Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) was created on June 19, 1961 to prevent a countercoup and to suppress all potential enemies domestic and international. It was to have not only investigative power, but also the power to arrest and detain anyone suspected of wrongdoing or harboring anti-junta sentiments. The KCIA extended its power to economic and foreign affairs under its first director, Colonel (retired) Kim Jong-pil, a relative of Pak and one of the original planners of the coup. - -Yun remained in office to provide legitimacy to the regime, but resigned on March 22, 1962. Pak Chŏng Hŭi was the real power as chairman of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction. Following pressure from the Kennedy administration in the United States, a civilian government was restored, with Pak narrowly winning the 1963 election as the candidate of the newly created Democratic Republican Party over Yun, candidate of the Civil Rule Party. He was re-elected in 1967, again defeating Yun by a narrow margin. - -First two terms as president - -Economic reform - -Pak is generally credited as playing a pivotal role in the development of South Korea's economy by shifting its focus to export-oriented industrialization. When he came to power in 1961, South Korean per capita income was only USD 72, and North Korea was regarded as the greater economic and military power on the peninsula because North Korea was industrialized under the Japanese régime due to its geographical proximity to Manchuria and merit in terms of natural resources, and managed to rebuild after heavy bombing by the Americans during the Korean War. During Pak's tenure, per capita income increased twentyfold, and South Korea's rural, undeveloped economy was transformed into an industrial powerhouse. Even Kim Tae Jung, one of Pak's most prominent opponents during his rule, has retrospectively praised him for his role in creating the modern-day South Korea. - -The strength of Pak's leadership was evidenced by the remarkable development of industries and rise in the standard of living of average South Korean citizens during his presidency. Many still question Pak's judgment, however, as his 1965 normalization of diplomatic relations with Japan had been extremely unpopular and resulted in widespread unrest as memories from Japan's 35-year brutal colonization of Korea proved vivid. However, by normalizing relations with Japan, Pak allowed Japanese capital to flow into the country. These aids and loans—although criticized by many Koreans to be too meager for the 35 years of occupation by Imperial Japan—along with American aid, helped to restore the depleted capital of South Korea. Nonetheless, it must be noted that with North Korea's economy at the time being bigger and more vibrant than that of South Korea, Pak did not have many options or much time to negotiate for more fitting reparations and apologies. This issue still plagues Japan and South Korea's relationship today. - -Pak was reelected in 1967 against Yun. - -Creation of agencies to oversee economic development - The Economic Planning Board (EPB) - The Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI) - The Ministry of Finance (MoF) - -Yusin Constitution -The Constitution of 1963 barred a South Korean president from seeking a third consecutive term. However, with the assistance of the KCIA, Pak's allies in the legislature succeeded in amending the Constitution to allow the current president—himself—to run for three consecutive terms. In 1971, Pak was victorious again, this time over Kim Dae-jung in the general election. - -Just after being sworn in for his third term, Pak declared a state of emergency ""based on the dangerous realities of the international situation."" In October 1972, he dissolved Parliament and suspended the Constitution. In December, a new constitution, the Yusin Constitution, was approved easily by the general public. The new document dramatically increased Pak's power. It transferred the election of the president to an electoral college, the National Conference for Unification. The presidential term was increased to six years, with no limits on reelection. In effect, the constitution converted Pak's presidency into a legal dictatorship. Pak was re-elected in 1972 and 1978 with no opposition. - -Assassination attempts - -On January 21, 1968, a team of about 10—15 North Korean spies was secretly sent to South Korea to kill Pak. They crossed the border mountains and hijacked a bus in Seoul. No civilians were in the bus. The spies drove it towards the Blue House (the presidential residence of South Korea), where Pak was at the time. When the Korean military was informed of the presence of the North Koreans, they hurriedly went to protect the president. Armed with machine guns and grenades, the spies drove almost to the Blue House until they met South Korean soldiers. After a short grenade and gun battle, all but one spy were killed. Thirty-seven South Koreans were also killed. - -On August 15, 1974, a botched assassination attempt by North Korean agent Mun Se-gwang claimed his wife, Yuk Yeong-su, instead. After this attack he finished the speech he had been giving. His wife died later that day. - -Assassination -On October 26, 1979, Pak was gunned down by Kim Jae-kyu, the director of the KCIA. Kim claimed that Pak was an obstacle to democracy and that his act was one of patriotism. After Kim shot the president to death and the leader of his guards, his agents quickly killed four more of the presidential bodyguards before the group was apprehended. The entire episode is usually either considered a spontaneous act of passion by an individual and that the actions of the other agents only occurred because the men felt loyalty to Kim and naturally followed his lead, or as part of a pre-arranged attempted coup by the intelligence service, , with the latter being more widely believed. - -Legacy -It is alleged by supporters that despite his dictatorial rule and the high growth that occurred during his years in power, Pak did not engage in corruption and led a simple life. Detractors allege he was simply a brutal dictator and only brought about high growth through military control over labour. - -Being a complex man as a policy maker, many Koreans continue to hold Pak in high regard in great part due to the industrial and economic growth experienced by South Korea under his presidency. But there are also many who condemn Pak for the brutality of his dictatorship and for his service to the Japanese army during World War II. Today, Pak's critics deplore the widespread human rights abuses in South Korea during his rule. However, his supporters argue that the human rights abuse accusation is mostly fabricated or exaggerated. One example of his many abuses was the kidnapping of opposition activist Kim Tae Jung. Around noon of August 8, 1973, Kim was attended a meeting with the leader of the Democratic Unification Party held in the Room 2212 of the Hotel Grand Palace in Tokyo. At around 13:19, Kim was abducted by a group of unidentified agents as he walked out of the room after the meeting. He was then taken into the empty Room 2210 where he was drugged and became unconscious. Later Kim was moved to Osaka and later to Seoul, South Korea. Kim was later quoted as saying that a weight had been attached to his feet aboard the boat heading toward Korea, indicating that the kidnappers had intended to drown Kim by throwing him into the sea. They were, however, forced to abandon this plan as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force began a pursuit of the kidnappers' boat. Subsequently Kim was released in Busan. He was found alive at his house in Seoul five days after the kidnapping. According to some reports U.S. Ambassador Philip Habib intervened with the South Korean government to save Kim's life. - -Pak's daughter Park Geun-hye was elected the chairwoman of the conservative Grand National Party in 2004. She has resigned her post in order to prepare a presidential bid for the upcoming election. - -Family -Park Chung-hee was married three times. first wife Kim Ho-nam (김호남; 1918 - 1990, m.1936 - 1945), birth one daughter, Park Jae-ok(박재옥, b.1937). second wife Lee Hyon-lan (이현란; ? -?, m.1945 - 1947), birth one son, early death(b.1947 and d.1947). three wife Yuk Young-soo(육영수, 1926 - 1974, m.1950 - 1974, her death), birth daughter Park Geun-hye(박근혜, b.1952) and Park Geun-ryoung(박근령, b.1954), son Park Chi-man(박지만, b.1958). - -References - -Other websites - BBC News' ""On this day"": a recollection of Park's assassination. - -1917 births -1979 deaths -Anti-Communists -Assassinated people -Former dictators -Generals -Military personnel of the Korean War -Murders by firearm -People of the Vietnam War -Presidents of South Korea -South Korean military people" -3459,10321,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay,Gay,"Gay is a word used to describe someone who is homosexual. Today, the word usually means a person who is sexually attracted to people of the same sex. Often that person is also romantically interested in people of the same sex. A gay person can be a male who likes other males or a female who likes other females. - -The word ""gay"" can mean any homosexual person, but sometimes it is used just for homosexual men. In that case, homosexual women are called ""lesbian"" instead. Sometimes, people use the word ""queer"" to mean the same thing as ""gay"" when talking about sexuality. - -In the early 20th century and before, ""gay"" used to mean 'happy' or 'carefree', but now people use it to define sexuality. - -People who don't like gay people are called homophobes (or homophobic.) Some people are homophobes because of how they were brought up as a child. Some might belong to a religion that believes homosexuality is not okay. - -Related pages - Gay man - Lesbian - -Other websites - The International Lesbian and Gay Association - The Human Rights Campaign - The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation - -LGBT variations" -6372,20249,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street%20Fighter%20II,Street Fighter II,"Street Fighter II is a 1991 fighting game made by Capcom. - -The player controls a martial arts fighter and has to knock out the opponent. There are many playable characters, including Ryu, Ken Masters, Guile and Chun Li. Each character has special moves that require special commands to perform. The game has 4 bosses - Balrog (M. Bison in Japan), Vega (Balrog in Japan), Sagat, and M. Bison (Vega in Japan). (Balrog and Sagat were also featured in the first Street Fighter game). There have been many follow-up games to Street Fighter II. The franchise for the games became popular. The game was released for arcades and different consoles. - -It is sequel to the first Street Fighter. - -1991 video games -Arcade games -Capcom games -Fighting games -Cancelled Nintendo Entertainment System games -Super Nintendo Entertainment System games -Street Fighter video games -Video game sequels -Video games developed in Japan" -8957,30423,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20in%20Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a,Museum in Bielsko-Biała,"The Bielsko-Biała Museum is a museum at Bielsko Castle, Poland. Since the 1970s there are three local branches: the Julian Fałat Museum, the Museum of Technology and Textile Industry and the Weaver's House Museum. - -The castle -The castle was built in the 14th century by the Piast family, the rulers of the Cieszyn Duchy in Poland, the castle was used as one of their residences for over two centuries. In 1752 the Bielsko state became a duchy owned by the Sulkowski family. The castle was their property until 1945. After World War II the castle was taken over by the Polish State. Since 1983 its only owner has been the Bielsko-Biała Museum. - -The permanent exhibition in the castle -In the west wing of the building the hunting room and armoury are located. The next two rooms display three centuries of art history from the 15th to the 17th century. Neighbouring with these rooms are a rococo concert hall and a Biedermeier room. The castle's east wing contains a gallery of the 19th and 20th century painting and graphic art. Next rooms located in the north wing display an exhibition of the history of the city and castle, as well as craftsman traditions of old Bielsko and Biała. The east wing of the castle is occupied by art gallery (the 19th century paintings displayed here include works of art representing realism and academism, Młoda Polska (Young Poland) paintings, works of artists connected with Bielsko-Biała during the twenty years of independence after World War I and during the modern times) - -Museum of Technology and Textile Industry - -The museum shows traditions of wool industry in Bielsko-Biała, by means of collecting machines, equipment and documents. The exhibits are stored in four rooms and show the look of old textile factory A separate room displays machines for making hats and the history of Bielsko-Biała fire brigade. There is also a little printing office and a room where all the historical household equipments, radio sets, typewriters etc., are being stored. - -The weaver’s house -Reconstruction of the weaver’s house and workshop owned by a guild master. It shows live and work in 19th and 20th centuries. There are two main rooms – workshop on the left and living room on the right, with a kitchen and a bedroom. -The weaver’s house is an original example of the old wooden house. It tries to show craftsman’s work. - -Julian Fałat’s villa -The museum of Julian Fałat in Bystra Śląska is housed in a historical villa of the artist, called “Fałatówka” and its visitors can see the art and some biographical documents of the artist. This is the house where the artists lived after he stoped being a headmaster of the Cracow Academy of Fine Arts. The exhibition presents oil paintings and watercolours: self-portraits, portraits of his family and friends, landscapes from his travels and hunting scenes. - -Related pages -Poland - -Other websites - -Museum in Bielsko-Biała - -Museums in Europe -Castles -Buildings and structures in Poland -Education in Poland -14th-century establishments in Europe" -1007,3924,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain,Mountain,"A mountain is a large natural rise of the Earth's surface that usually has a ""summit"" (the name for a mountain's top, which can also be called a peak). It is usually steeper and taller than a hill. By definition, mountains are often thought of as being a hill which is higher than 600 meters (about 2,000 feet). However, some definitions say a mountain is a hill higher than 300 meters (about 1,000 feet). - -Definition of a mountain -The highest point of a mountain is called the peak. A mountain's summit is the highest area where an individual can reach. A mountain climber will not reach the peak of the mountain but can reach the summit. - Britannica Student Encyclopedia says that the term ""mountain"" usually means a rise of over 2,000 feet (610 m)"". - Polytechnic Student Encyclopedia says that the term ""mountain"" usually means a rise of over 1,000 feet (300 m)"". - The standard height for a mountain in England is 600 metres. In England, this is important because in English law people have the ""Right to Roam"" in mountains, but they do not have the same right to walk on someone-else's land. - -Formation - -The forming of a mountain is called orogeny. Mountains are formed when rock layers in the ground are pushed from opposite sides, and by being pushed, they push the crust up. A mountain range is a large group of mountains beside each other. There are three main ways a mountain may be made: - -Fold mountains - -Fold mountains occur when two plates collide. The less dense continental crust ""floats"" on the denser mantle rocks beneath. The continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines. The Jura Mountains are an example of fold mountains. - -Folded mountains make up some of the highest mountains in the world. Folded mountains commonly form along boundaries, where 2 continents meet. Some really complex folds are in parts of the Andes, Alps, Himalayas, Appalachians, and Russia's Ural Mountains. These long mountain chains also show lots of signs of folding. - -Block mountains - -Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The dropped blocks are called graben. They can form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned. - -Volcanic mountains - -Volcanoes are formed in one of these ways: -When a tectonic plate is pushed below another tectonic plate, -at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot. At a depth of around , melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano. - -Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the states of Utah and Arizona, in the United States. - -Volcanic mountains form when molten rock erupts onto the Earth's surface. They can either form on land or in the ocean. The Cascade Range in Washington, Oregon and northern California is made of volcanoes. Some of the largest volcanoes are on divergent boundaries, which form the mid-ocean ridges. The mid-ocean ridges have big volcanic mountain chains that run through the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The mountains in the mid-ocean ridges can grow tall enough to create islands such as Iceland or the Azores. - -Other volcanic mountains form over hot spots, pockets of magma beneath the crust which erupt onto Earth's surface. The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of really high volcanic islands that have formed over a hot spot on the sea floor. The main Hawaiian island is a volcano about above the ocean floor. Its base is about wide. Almost of this island is above sea level. - -Other terms - -Dome mountains -Dome mountains, like those in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains of New York, are an unusual domish type of mountain that is formed when molten rock rises through the crust and push up the rock layers above it. This creates a circular dome on the Earth's surface. The molten rock later cools off and forms hardened rock. When the pushed up rocks are worn away, the hardened rock is shown. This hardened rock then wears away in places. When it wears away, it leaves mountains, and they are called dome mountains. - -Plateau mountains -Plateau mountains are formed a bit like folded mountains. They are large areas of flat topped rocks that have been lifted high above the crust by continental plates. Most plateaus are near folded mountains. - -Height -The height of a mountain is measured as distance above sea level. - -Tallest mountains - -The highest known mountain in the Solar System is the Olympus Mons (27 km high) on Mars. The highest mountain on earth is Mount Everest (8,848m) which is in Nepal and Tibet, in Asia. - -The ""tallest"" mountain in the world is Mauna Loa, in Hawaii. The ""height"" of a mountain is measured from sea level, but the ""tallness"" of a mountain is measured from its base, even if under water. The highest mountain in North America is Mount McKinley (6,194m) in Alaska in the USA. The highest in South America is Aconcagua (6,962m) in Argentina. For Africa, it is Kilimanjaro (5,963m) of Tanzania. In Europe, the highest mountain is in Russia called Elbrus (5,633m). Antarctica's highest mountain is Vinsin Massiff (5,140m). In Oceania, a mountain called Puncak Jaya (5,030m) is the highest there. This particular mountain is in Papua New Guinea / Indonesia. - -References - -Basic English 850 words" -10306,36045,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground%20squirrel,Ground squirrel,"Ground squirrels are marmots. These are small rodents, squirrels which live on and in the ground. - -Most of them live in the mountains, like the Sierra Nevada, or the Alps. Marmots make holes in the ground. They live in burrows, underground. They hibernate, that is they sleep through the winter. Marmots are very social animals. They group together easily. They also like to communicate with each other, with whistles, especially when they sense danger. - -They vary in size and habits. Most are able to rise up on their hind legs and stand fully erect comfortably for long periods. This way they watch for predators. They tend to live together more than other squirrels, and many live in colonies with complex social structures. Most Marmotini are rather short-tailed and large squirrels. The Alpine marmot (Marmota marmota) is the largest living member of the Sciuridae, at 53–73 cm in length and weighing 5–8 kg. - -Many historians suggest that marmots, rather than rats, were the carriers of bubonic plague epidemics in the Middle Ages. - -Related pages -Chipmonk -Groundhog -Prairie dog - -Other websites - -Squirrels" -18672,70043,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scooch,Scooch,"Scooch are a British bubblegum dance group. The members of Scooch are Natalie Powers, Caroline Barnes, David Ducasse, and Russ Spencer. They formed in 1998. - -Scooch represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland, with their song ""Flying the Flag (for You)"". - -The song reached #5 in the UK Top 40 Singles Chart on 13 May 2007. People had already had the chance to download the song 2 months before. If however the download and CD were released at the same time it is considered that they would have been #1 in the UK for 2 weeks in a row. - -Performance in the ESC final -Scooch performed in 19th place on the final night and after the votes were confirmed, came 22nd out of 42 entries. The quartet received 7 points from Ireland and the maximum 12 points from Malta. This was the first time since 2002 that a UK Eurovision entrant had received the maximum 12 points in the competition from any country. - -Other websites -Facebook - -1998 establishments in the United Kingdom -1990s British music groups -2000s British music groups -2010s British music groups -English pop music groups -Musical groups established in 1998" -15907,60999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcal%C3%A1%20de%20Henares,Alcalá de Henares,"Alcalá de Henares is a city in the Community of Madrid, Spain. It is thirty kilometres from Madrid. It has about 200,000 people. There is a university. Miguel de Cervantes, an important Spanish writer, the author of the ""Don Quixote"", was born there. - -Cities in the Community of Madrid -Municipalities in the Community of Madrid" -14327,53680,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling,Boiling,"Boiling is the phase change that occurs when a liquid becomes gas throughout the substance. When bubbles are formed you can tell a substance is boiling. This is not to be confused with evaporation. - -The temperature at which boiling happens is called the boiling point and depends on the particular nature of the substance. - -For example, water boils at around 100 °C (Celsius degrees). When water is boiling, it transforms into a vapor called water vapor. - -Uses for boiling - Food can be cooked by boiling. - Germs in a liquid (for example, water) can be killed by boiling the liquid. - Germs on an object can be killed by putting the object in boiling liquid. - -Related pages - Evaporation - -Cooking methods -Chemical processes -Heat transfer -Gases" -15726,60228,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class,Class,"Class could mean: - -Social class refers to the differences between groups in societies or cultures, and is a basic idea in economics, sociology and other social sciences -Class (education), a group of students in a course or lesson - class, a lesson, in education - class, short for a classroom - -Class (biology), a rank used in taxonomy -Class (philosophy), distinguishes between classes and types -Class (set theory), in mathematics -Travel class - -Media, entertainment and sport -Character class in role-playing games and other genres -Class (film), a romantic comedy released in 1983 -Class: A Guide Through the American Status System, a book by Paul Fussell -The Class, a CBS sitcom which began in fall 2006 -Class, known as one-design in sailing, where boats built the same way race against each other - -Technology -Appliance classes, in making electric appliances -Class (emission), a type of radio emission -Ship class, in a navy, a set of vessels that are built the same way - -Computer science -Class (programming), related to object-oriented programming -Class (file format), a Java file format -Class (warez), a warez group that stopped being used -Class attribute, a part of many HTML and XHTML elements, such as span and div, often to help apply styles - -Railroads -Class (locomotive), a railroad locomotive design as assigned by the railroad -The classification of United States railroads by income: -Class I railroad -Class II railroad -Class III railroad - -Other -Classes of United States Senators -CLASS, Community Leaders At Service of Society, a non-profit organization in Silicon Valley, California. - ""Class"", British slang word meaning ""great"" or ""fabulous""." -17247,65294,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helene%20%28moon%29,Helene (moon),"Helene is a moon of Saturn. It shares its orbit with larger moon Dione. It leads in front of Dione in its orbit around Saturn by 60 degrees. It was discovered in 1980 by a couple of astronomers based on observations from the Earth. - -Saturn's moons" -7832,25679,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heresy,Heresy,"Heresy is a word used by different religious groups, used to describe someone who has ideas that are different from what the religion or law teaches. Such a person is known as heretic. - -In the Middle Ages it was not uncommon to accuse someone of heresy. If the accusations could be proven, the culprit would go through a ritual. Since torture could be used, the accusations were often proven. The ritual was done to save the soul of the convicted criminal. It involved being burnt while tied to a post. - -Still in the 21st century Muslims who apostatize are often treated very harshly and frequently killed. - -Jesus Christ himself was regarded as a heretic by the Jewish leaders at the time- see Gospel of Matthew 26:57-67 - -The Roman Catholic Church in early times had great trouble with heretical christological doctrines, such as Monophysitism and Arianism. The Church sees several heresies in Protestantism: -Protestants claim only scripture (the Bible) is relevant for the faith (sola scriptura); the Catholic Church says traditions are also important. -Protestants say that belief is enough to be saved (sola fide). Catholics say that good deeds are necessary as well. -Protestants say that anyone can be a priest; the only requirement is that the person is baptised. In the Catholic and Orthodox churches, priests are ordained. This means that some people are not priests, even though they have been baptised. -According to Protestants, there is no Transubstantiation during mass (liturgy). -The Roman Missal contains heresies, according to Protestants - -As a result of the Protestant Reformation, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith was created in the Roman Catholic Church which protects the Church against heresies. It is the last instance to decide what constitutes a heresy, and how to deal with it. - -References - - -Theology" -7746,25360,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonese%20language,Aragonese language,"The Aragonese language is a Romance language spoken in the north of Aragon by 10,000 people. - -It is similar to nearby languages: Spanish, Catalan and Occitan. Also, many Aragonese words are similar to Basque words. - -History -Aragonese, which developed in parts of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages almost the same as modern Basque might have been spoken before. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded to the south from the mountains. It pushed the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language. - -The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two areas; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended when James I of Aragon gave Murcia to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess. - -The best-known writer in Aragonese was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote a lot of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe). - -The spread of Spanish, the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Spanish and Aragonese helped the decline of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera. - -In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in the schools and the institution of Spanish as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707. - -In recent times, Aragonese was mostly seen as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. After the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy new books and studies of the language have been published. - -References" -20643,79409,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamsui,Tamsui,"Tamsui (Chinese: 淡水鎮, Taiwanese: Tām-súi/Tām-chúi, Tongyong Pinyin: Danshuei, Hanyu Pinyin: Danshui) is a sea-side town in Taipei County, Taiwan. The town has a population of 130,105 people. It is named after a river whose name means ""Freshwater"". The town is also popular as a site for viewing the sun setting into the Taiwan Strait. There are three universities in this small town. - -Settlements in Taiwan" -23132,88252,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Denmark,Coat of arms of Denmark,"The coat of arms of Denmark consists of three crowned blue lions with nine red hearts, all in a golden shield. - -The seal of King Canute VI of Denmark is the oldest known example of the coat of arms of Denmark. It is from around 1190. - -Until around 1960 Denmark also had a large coat of arms. Both were used by the government. In 1959, the large coat of arms changed status and became the royal coat of arms - that is a coat of arms for the king and the royal family. The large coat of arms is inspired by one which was designed in 1819 and adopted by king Frederik VI. - -The large coat of arms comprise symbols representing all parts of the Danish kingdom - or to be precise: only territories that are still part of the Kingdom of Denmark. In the coat of arms shown to the left the upper left part of the shield (the three lions) represents Denmark. In the lower part the three crowns (only two are visible) represents Sweden, this is for historic reasons. The polar bear represents Greenland and the ram represents the Faroe Islands. The two lions in the upper right side represents the principality of Slesvig. Until 1972, it also included other symbols representing principalities in Germany and parts of present-day Sweden that used to be ruled by the Danish king. - -In 1972 when King Frederik IX died and Margrethe II became queen the coat of arms of the royal family was redesigned, and today it only comprises symbols representing the current parts of the Danish Kingdom. - -Denmark -Denmark" -11997,44123,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlett%20O%27Hara,Scarlett O'Hara,"Scarlett O'Hara is the main charcater in Margaret Mitchell's book Gone with the Wind with the movie adaptation, and Scarlett by Alexandra Ripley. She is one of the residents of Georgia who had histrionic personality disorder. - -Characters in written fiction -Fictional American people -Fictional people with personality disorders -Histrionic personality disorder in fiction -Movie characters" -17111,64844,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrant%20worker,Migrant worker,"A migrant worker is someone who regularly works away from home, if they even have a home. - -The United Nations' use of this term overlaps with 'foreign worker'. In the United States, the term is commonly used broadly to describe people who move frequently to find work or, more narrowly, those who earn low wages performing manual labor in the agriculture field. - -Migrant workers are often forced into poor situations. Some are illegal immigrants and can be expelled if found. They are supported by the International Labour Organization. In 1990, the United Nations also adopted the Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers to protect them. - -Often migrant workers can boost regional economy by spending their wages there. - -Open borders help migrant workers. In Europe for example countries that recently joined European Union have seen massive outflow of workers to the countries with higher wages. Some people who work in foreign countries are called ""expatriates""'. - -Canada -In Canada, migrant workers are commonly referred to as foreign workers in general, and temporary foreign workers in particular. - -It is through the Temporary Foreign Worker Program [TFWP] that the Government of Canada hires foreign nationals in order to fill temporary skills and labour shortages in the country. Temporary foreign workers can be hired by Canadian employers only when qualified Canadian citizens or Canada permanent residents are not available to fill the same vacancy. - -Currently, there is a great labour gap in the Canadian market. Dealing with a declining birth rate on one hand along with many in the workforce retiring soon, Canada is finding it hard to fill the significant labour gap that it is facing. Immigration is regarded to hold the answer to a great extent. - -With the TFWP, Canadian employers can easily hire international workers. At times, there might not even be the requirement to get someone from abroad. Canadian employers hiring through the TFWP might find qualified foreign workers that are already in the country. - -Such skilled foreign workers already in Canada that can easily be hired by a Canadian employer might be about to complete a job contract with a different employer. Or, they might be working in Canada on an open work permit that allows them the freedom to work for any employer anywhere in Canada. - -Usually, such temporary foreign workers or migrant workers in Canada are hired to address a specified short-term labour requirement. Nevertheless, certain foreign workers that had initially come to Canada for filling a temporary vacancy might transition to Canadian permanent residence, provided they meet specific requirements. - -Canada’s immigration programs – like the Canadian Experience Class [CEC] and Provincial nominee Program [PNP] – provide pathways to Canada PR for migrant workers. As per the Government of Canada’s official website, “These routes exist to ensure that workers who have shown that their skills are in continuing demand and that they have already adapted well to life in Canada can build a future here.” - -Since the imposition of COVID-19 special measure on March 18, Canada has been holding program specific draws from the Express Entry System. The latest draw to be held – Express Entry Draw No. 148 – was specifically for those candidates that had Canadian experience thereby qualifying them for the Canadian Experience Class [CEC] program. - -While more than 192,000 temporary foreign workers came to Canada in 2011, around 29,000 foreign workers took up Canada permanent residency eventually. - -References - -Other websites - Dust bowl migrants (Okies) - In China, Filmmakers Get Involved with Migrant Workers - China Labour Bulletin - Removals Services - Beijing's Min Gong migrants - -Occupations -Migration" -16802,64067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20for%20large%20numbers,Names for large numbers,"Naming very large numbers is relatively easy. There are two main ways of naming a number: scientific notation and naming by grouping. For example, the number 500,000,000,000,000,000,000 can be called 5 x 1020 in scientific notation since there are 20 zeros behind the 5. If the number is named by grouping, it is five hundred quintillion (American) or 500 trillion (European). - -When large numbers have many different decimals in them, such as 642 500 000 000, naming them with scientific notation is about the same, but with one difference. Still counting the number of numbers after the first number (in this case, after the 6 there are 11 numbers) you need to include the ones that are not zero in the formula, but after a decimal point. So 642 500 000 000 will be 6.425 x 1011. When naming by grouping, each group is the name of the group. With the same number, it would be said to be 642 billion, 500 million (US) or 642 milliard, 500 million (Eur). - -Some examples - -Forms of numbering -The American way or ""Short form"" for naming large numbers is different from the European way or ""Long form"" of naming large numbers. This is mainly because of American finance. Short form numbering is based on thousands and Long form is based on millions. Because of this, in Short form a billion is one thousand millions (109) while in Long form it is one million millions (1012). The change in the United Kingdom to Short form numbering happened in 1974. Today, Short form is most commonly used in most English speaking countries. - -Names for large numbers -{| class=""wikitable"" style=""text-align:center; vertical-align:top "" -!Scientificnotation !!width=200|American name Trevlionllion -(Short Form) -! width=""200"" |European name unknown -(Long Form) -!Old-British name heyshllion -! -!Metric prefix -|- -| -|One -|One -|DA -| -|- -| 101 || Ten -|Ten -|Ten -|da -|Deca- -|- -| 102 || Hundred -|Hundred -|Hundred -|h -|Hecto- -|- -| 103 || Thousand -|Thousand -|Thousand -|K -|Kilo- -|- -| 104 || Ten thousand -|Ten thousand -|Ten thousand -|my (Now obsolete) -|Myria- (Now obsolete) -|- -| 105 || Hundred thousand -|Hundred thousand -|Hundred thousand -| -| -|- -| 106 || Million -|Miljoen -|Million -|M -|Mega- -|- -| 109 || Billion -|Miljard -|Thousand million -|G -|Giga- -|- -| 1012 || Trillion -|Biljoen -|Billion -|T -|Tera- -|- -| 1015 || Quadrillion -|quadriljoen -|Thousand billion -|P -|Peta- -|- -| 1018 || Quintillion -|kwintiljoen -|Trillion -|E -|Exa- -|- -| 1021 || Sextillion -|Sekstiljoen -|Thousand trillion -|Z -|Zetta- -|- -| 1024 || Septillion -|Septiljoen -|Quadrillion -|Y -|Yotta- -|- -| 1027 || Octillion -|Octillion -|Thousand quadrillion -|- -| 1030 || Nonillion -|Nie-miljoen -|Quintillion -|- -| 1033 || Decillion -|Desilljoen -|Thousand quintillion -|- -| 1036 || Undecillion -|Ondecillion -|Sextillion -|- -| 1039 || Duodecillion -|Duodecillion -|Thousand sextillion -|- -| 1042 || Tredecillion -|Tredecillion -|Septillion -|- -| 1045 || Quattuordecillion -|Quattuor-Decillion -|Thousand septillion -|- -| 1048 || Quindecillion -|kwiljoen -|Octillion -|- -| 1051 || Sexdecillion -|Sexdecillion -|Thousand octillion -|- -| 1054 || Septendecillion -|Septen-Decillion -|Nonillion -|- -| 1057 || Octodecillion -|Octodecillion -|Thousand nonillion -|- -| 1060 || Novemdecillion -|Novemdecillion -|Decillion -|- -| 1063 || Vigintillion -|Vigintillion -|Thousand decillion -|- -| 1066 || Unvigintillion -|Undecillion -|Undecillion -|- -| 1069 || Duovigintillion -|Undecilliard -|Thousand undecillion -|- -| 1072 || Trevigintillion -|Duodecillion -|Duodecillion -|- -| 1075 || Quattuorvigintillion -|Duodecilliard -|Thousand duodecillion -|- -| 1078 || Quinvigintillion -|Tredecillion -|Tredecillion -|- -| 1081 || Sexvigintillion -|Tredecilliard -|Thousand tredecillion -|- -| 1084 || Septenvigintillion -|Quattuordecillion -|Quattuordecillion -|- -| 1087 || Octovigintillion -|Quattuordecilliard -|Thousand quattuordecillion -|- -| 1090 || Novemvigintillion -|Quindecillion -|Quindecillion -|- -| 1093 || Trigintillion -|Quindecilliard -|Thousand quindecillion -|- -| 1096 || Untrigintillion -|Sexdecillion -|Sexdecillion -|- -| 1099 || Duotrigintillion -|Sexdecilliard -|Thousand sexdecillion -|- -| 10100 || Googol -|Googol -|Googol -|- -|10102 -|Tretrigintillion -|Septendecillion -|Septendecillion -|- -|10105 -|Quattuortrigintillion -|Septendecilliard -|Thousand septedecillion -|- -|10108 -|Quintrigintillion -|Octodecillion -|Octodecillion -|- -|10111 -|Sextrigintillion -|Octodecilliard -|Thousand octodecillion -|- -|10114 -|Septentrigintillion -|Novemdecillion -|Novemdecillion -|- -|10117 -|Octotrigintillion -|Novemdecilliard -|Thousand novemdecillion -|- -|10120 -|Novemtrigintillion -|Vigintillion -|Vigintillion -|- -|10303 -|Centillion -|Centillion -|Thousand quinquagintillion -|trevlionllion - -There is also the number googol, which is a 1 with 100 zeros behind it (10100), and the number googolplex, which is a 1 with a googol of zeros behind it, (10googol) (1010100). And also the number googolplexian, 1 with a googolplex number of zeros behind it. Googolplexianplex, or googolplexianplexian are still theoretical numbers, but they might have some use in real life. - -The name centillion was devised in the 19th century for the 100th ""illion"", being 10303 in short form and 10600 in long form. - -Related pages -Names for small numbers -Googol -Googolplex - -References - -Other websites -Big numbers -Counting Really,REALLY,REALLY High -Numbers" -9953,34010,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81ori,Māori,"Māori might mean: - -Māori people -Māori language" -16721,63887,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20Armenian%20Cultural%20Society,Austrian Armenian Cultural Society,"The Austrian Armenian Cultural Society was founded in 1974 at Vienna, Austria, the Austrian-Armenian Cultural Society is an organization that promotes cultural ties between Armenia and Austria and a lot more. - -Its main goal is to introduce Austrians to the Armenian culture and heritage as well as informing Armenians about the Austrian culture and history. The Austrian-Armenian Cultural Society whose members are Armenians as well as Austrians, e.g. scientists, writers, artists, renowned leaders, and more. The organization is maintaining cultural ties to different organizations in Austria, Armenia and the diaspora. - -Among its many activities, it runs Armenian language lessons, useful programs to Armenia, youth camping events and way more. - -Other websites -Official Website - -20th-century establishments in Armenia -1970s establishments in Austria -1974 establishments in Europe" -20971,80584,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic%20Reconstructionist%20Paganism,Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism,"The article about the original faith of the Celts is at Celtic polytheism -Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, which is sometimes just called by its initials, ""CR"", is a religion. People who belong to the religion call themselves ""Celtic Reconstructionists"" or ""Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans"". Sometimes they just call themseleves ""CRs"". - -The Celts were the people who lived long ago in many parts of Europe, but mainly in the countries of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Gaul (modern-day France). The Modern Celts are the people who live in those countries now, or whose ancestors lived there. - -Like the ancient Celts did before them, CRs are polytheistic and have many gods and goddesses. They believe in spirits and ancestors, too, and they often honour them with rituals and offerings. Offerings to the spirits might be food, or songs, or poetry. CRs often learn the languages spoken by the Celts, if they do not speak them already. These languages include the Irish language, Scottish Gaelic, the Welsh language and others. - -Celtic Reconstructionists are a type of Pagan Reconstructionist. Reconstructionists believe in practicing a religion that is from one culture. They are different from eclectic Pagans, who mix parts of different cultures together. - -How it started -Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (CR) started in the 1980s, when people interested in the Celts and in Paganism were looking for an authentic religion. By the 1990s there were lots of CRs. Some of them met each other at Pagan gatherings, and later more people met each other on the Internet. - -The first person to write about being a ""Celtic Reconstructionist Pagan"" was Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann. She wrote this in the Spring, 1992 issue of Harvest Magazine. She says she got the idea for the name from Kathryn Price NicDhàna, who had also written about it. Margot Adler's 1979 book, Drawing Down the Moon has a chapter on ""Pagan Reconstructionists"", and Kathryn NicDhàna says this is probably where she got the idea, even though the book does not mention Celtic Reconstructionists, just other kinds. - -What Celtic Reconstructionists believe, and what they do -Celtic Reconstructionists base their religion on what we know of the Ancient Celtic people's religion, and also on Celtic folklore. They focus on a particular Celtic culture, such as the Gaelic Welsh or Gaulish. Many CRs are scholars, or mystics, though many believe it's important to be both. CRs read lots of books and do things like meditation, prayer, and rituals. CRs believe that honesty and honorable behaviour is important. - -Many CRs view each act of daily life as a form of ritual, and they accompany daily activities with traditional prayers, chants and songs from sources such as the Scottish Gaelic Carmina Gadelica or manuscript collections of ancient Irish or Welsh poetry. - -Community rituals are usually based on traditional community celebrations found in folkloric collections by authors such as Marian McNeill, Kevin Danaher or John Gregorson Campbell. These celebrations often involve bonfires, dances, songs, divination and children's games. More formal or mystical CR rituals are often based on traditional techniques of interacting with the Otherworld, such as the act of making offerings of food, drink and art to the spirits of the land, ancestral spirits, and the Celtic deities. CR ritual structures are based on the ancient Celtic idea of the ""Three Realms"" - Land, Sea and Sky - with the fire of inspiration seen as a central, uniting force. Many CRs have altars and shrines to the spirits and deities they believe in. They may place these altars at outdoor, natural locations such as wells, streams, and special trees. Some CRs practice divination, such as the taking of omens from the shapes of clouds or the behaviour of birds and animals. - -Other names for Celtic Reconstructionists -While Celtic Reconstructionism was the earliest name in use, and is still used the most often, other names for a Celtic Reconstructionist approach have also come into use, with varying degrees of success. - -Pàganachd / Págánacht -Some CR groups have looked to Celtic languages for a more culturally specific name for the tradition, or for their branch of the tradition. There are groups who now described their traditions as Pàganachd (""Paganism, Heathenism"" in Scottish Gaelic) or the Irish version, Págánacht. Some Gaelic-oriented groups use the two terms somewhat interchangeably, or further modify these terms to describe the CR sub-tradition practiced by their particular group, such as Pàganachd Allaidh (“Wild Paganism”) or Pàganachd Bhandia (“Paganism of Goddesses”), -both used by Gaelic Reconstructionist groups on the East Coast of the US. - -Senistrognata -In the late 1990s, members of Imbas, a Celtic Reconstructionist group in Seattle, began promoting the name Senistrognata, which they say means ""the ancestral customs of the Celtic peoples"" in reconstructed Old Celtic. - -Other -The Irish word for “polytheism”, Ildiachas, is in use by at least one group on the West Coast of the US as Ildiachas Atógtha (“reconstructed polytheism”). -Aurrad, which came into use among members of the Nemeton mailing list in the mid 1990s, means ""person of legal standing in the túath"" in Old Irish. - -Related pages -Celt -Celtic mythology -Celtic polytheism -Modern Celts -Polytheistic Reconstructionism - Festivals -Imbolc -Beltane -Lughnasadh -Samhain - -References - -More reading - -Celtic Reconstructionism -Adler, Margot (1979) Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today -Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group Chapter 9: ""Celtic Reconstructionists and other Nondruidic Druids"" -Fairgrove, Rowan (1994) What we don't know about the ancient Celts. Originally printed in The Pomegranate, 2. Now available online -Kondratiev, Alexei (1998) The Apple Branch: A Path to Celtic Ritual. San Francisco, Collins. (1st edition), (2nd edition) [also reprinted without revision under the title Celtic Rituals] -Laurie, Erynn Rowan (1995) A Circle of Stones: Journeys and Meditations for Modern Celts. Chicago, Eschaton. -McColman, Carl (2003) The Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom. Alpha Press -NicDhàna, Kathryn Price; Erynn Rowan Laurie, C. Lee Vermeers, Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann, et al. (2007) The CR FAQ - An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism. River House Publishing. -Telesco, Patricia [editor] (2005) Which Witch is Which? Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books / The Career Press , p. 85-9: ""Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism"" - -Celtic polytheism and folklore - -Celtic Reconstructionists rely on primary mythological texts, as well as surviving folklore, for the basis of their religious practices. No list can completely cover all the recommended works, but this is a small sample of sources used. - -General Celtic -Evans Wentz, W. Y. (1966, 1990) The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries. Gerrards Cross, Colin Smythe Humanities Press -MacCana, Proinsias (1970) Celtic Mythology. Middlesex, Hamlyn. -MacKillop, James (1998) A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford, Oxford University Press. -Rees, Alwyn and Brinley (1961) Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales. New York, Thames and Hudson. -Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise (1982) Gods and Heroes of the Celts. Translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation. - -Gaelic (Irish and Scottish) -Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. -Carmichael, Alexander (1992) Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations (with illustrative notes on wards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the highlands and islands of Scotland by Alexander Carmichael). Hudson, NY, Lindisfarne. -Clark, Rosalind (1991) The Great Queens: Irish Goddesses from the Morrigan to Cathleen ni Houlihan. Savage, MD, Barnes and Noble Books. -Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland. Dublin, Mercier. -Dillon, Myles (1994) Early Irish Literature. Dublin, Four Courts Press. -Gray, Elizabeth A (1982) Cath Maige Tuired: The 2nd Battle of Mag Tuired. Dublin, Irish Texts Society -McNeill, F. Marian (1959). The Silver Bough, Vol. 1-4. Glasgow, William MacLellan -Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition. Berkely, University of California Press. -Patterson, Nerys Thomas (1994) Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press (2nd edition) -Power, Patrick C. (1976) Sex and Marriage in Ancient Ireland. Dublin, Mercier -Smyth, Daragh (1988, 1996) A Guide to Irish Mythology. Dublin, Irish Academic Press - -Comparative European -Davidson, H.R. Ellis (1988) Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press. -Epstein, Angelique Gulermovich (1998) War Goddess: The Morrígan and Her Germano-Celtic Counterparts. Los Angeles, University of California -Lincoln, Bruce (1991) Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. - -Other websites -The CR FAQ - An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism: Written by representatives of different CR groups - including some of the founders of the tradition - the FAQ is only the second document to present a consensus view that speaks for more than one group's vision. -Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism : The much-briefer consensus tradition statement from 2003. Contains unclear bits that were later cleared up in the FAQ, but a much quicker read than the FAQ. -What we mean by Celtic Reconstructionism : Statement from Imbas - -Organisations -Dùn Sgàthan (New Hampshire) -Gaol Naofa: Gaelic Polytheism Organisation (Florida) -IMBAS (Seattle, Washington) -New Tara : Diverse Celtic group which includes Reconstructionists (Toronto) -Macalla : Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas Celtas (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) - -Online portals -CAORANN: Celts Against Oppression, Racism and Neo-Nazism -Pàganachd / Págánacht: Home of the CR FAQ and other CR resources. - Tres Mundos : Paganismo Reconstrucionista Celta (Portuguese) - -Paganism" -4408,13803,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSP,PSP,"PSP may refer to: - PlayStation Portable - made by Sony - Progressive supranuclear palsy" -18997,71627,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastic%20modulus,Elastic modulus,"An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e. non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. - -The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region: - -where λ is the elastic modulus; stress is the force that causes the deformation divided by the area to which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change caused by the stress to the original state of the object. - -If one specifies how stress and strain are to be measured, that allows for many types of elastic moduli to be defined. - -Related pages - Elasticity (physics) - Tensile strength - -Materials science -Mechanics" -18597,69802,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eraser,Eraser,"An eraser, or a rubber, is a tool made from rubber that is used to get rid of marks made from a pencil, or some types of pen. Another kind of eraser is made of felt and is used to remove chalk marks from a blackboard. Some may also be automatically be attached to a pencil, or could be bought to be shoved on a top of a pencil. Erasers can be used by rubbing the mistake and it will slowly clear away. All erasers will produce some dust called debris after rubbing and it will usually be black as it cleared away the pencil marks. Some erasers produce a lot of dust while some produce dust that all stick together. There are some good-quality erasers which are very soft and can erase easily, while some are very hard, and a lot of rubbing is needed. The classic pink eraser is made for smaller, lighter errors, whereas a thick, white eraser is made for bigger and/or darker marks. - -Writing tools" -7197,22881,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaba%20Ma%20Kyei,Kaba Ma Kyei,"""Kaba Ma Kyei"" (), which means ""Until the World Crumbles"", is the national anthem (song) of Myanmar. The melody and lyrics were created by Saya Tin, and became the Burmese national anthem in 1947. - -Burmese lyrics - -Burmese - -IPA pronunciation - -MLC Transcription System|MLC transcription -kam.bha ma.kye / mran.ma prany / -tui. bhui: bwa: a.mwe cac mui. hkyac mrat nui: pe // -prany htaung su. kui a.sak pe: lui. tui. ka kwai ma.le / -da tui. prany da tui. mre to. puing nak mre // -tui. prany tui. mre a.kyui: kui -nyi nya cwa tui. ta.twe htam: hsaung pa sui. le -to. ta wan pe a. hpui: tan mre // - -English translation - -Official -Till the end of the world, Myanmar -Since she is the true inheritance from our forefathers, we love and value her. -We will fight and give our lives for the union -This is the country and land of our own -For her prosperity, we will responsibly shoulder the task, -Standing as one in duty to our precious land. - -Literal -Until the world crumbles, Myanmar!, -Our ancestors gave us the inheritance after fighting wars with love. -We will sacrifice our lives and our labours to protect the Union. -This is our Nation, this is our Land, the land that we own. -Our nation, our land will prosper with productivity and equality as pictured -To unite in keeping to the duties of our valuable land. - -National anthems -Myanmar" -5005,15797,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia,Yugoslavia,"Yugoslavia was a country in Europe that lied mostly in the Balkan Peninsula. It existed in one of three forms from 1918 to 2006. Yugoslavia means “land of the south Slavs”. The name derives from those who came in the 7th century from the area that is now Poland. - -From 1918 until 1928 it was called the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. From 1928 until World War II it was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After WWII it was renamed to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with six republics, 2 autonomous provinces: Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia and two autonomous provinces in Serbia: Vojvodina in the north, and Kosovo, next to Albania. - -In 1991, came the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, in 1992, North Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing the end of the country. Serbia and Montenegro, were the last two republics in the Socialist Yugoslavia. In 1992, they formed a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) which ended in 2006 with Montenegro declaring independence. - -Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918-1945) -In 1903 the Serbian king was murdered and replaced with Peter I. After this Serbia became more nationalist. Tensions with Austria-Hungary heightened when it conquered Bosnia in 1908. During this period Serbia managed to extend its borders and capture Kosovo and North Macedonia from the Ottoman Empire. Many Serbian nationalists wanted to create a unified state for the Slavs of the Balkans. Covert gangs attempted to assassinate Austro-Hungarian officials, like the Bosnian governor. In June 1914 a Bosnian Serb called Gavrilo Princip killed Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This event eventually led to the outbreak of the Great War (World War One). - -Yugoslavia came into existence in 1918 after World War I. The State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which came from of a part of Austria-Hungary, joined with the Kingdom of Serbia. The King of Serbia became the king of the new country. Southern territories of Yugoslavia were taken by Serbia from the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars (1912-13). - -For ten years it was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It began using the name 'Yugoslavia' in 1929. The name 'Yugoslavia' is Serbo-Croatian for 'Land of the Southern Slavs'. The Kingdom was invaded by axis powers in 1941 and quickly fell during World War II. A Federal Democratic Republic was declared in 1943 with the King's approval, but the monarchy was abolished shortly after. - -Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945-1992) -A People's republic was created in 1945 by a newly established communist government. It was ruled by Josip Tito from then until 1980. The country renamed itself SFR Yugoslavia in 1963. It was made up of six individual Socialist Republics: SR Croatia, SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SR Macedonia, SR Montenegro, SR Serbia and SR Slovenia. The SFR Yugoslavia was different to other socialist states of the Cold War, deciding to keep itself out of it. Yugoslavia was the only socialist state to have open borders and allowed Yugoslavs and tourists to freely move around the country. Yugoslavia also kept warm relations with the West. It was also an enemy of the Soviet Union after the Tito-Stalin split as Stalin considered him a traitor. In 1968 the Soviet Union invaded socialist Czechoslovakia to stop its leader from making the country more free. Tito told the Czechoslovak leader that he was willing to fly to Prague to help him face the Soviets if he wanted. - -The Yugoslav republics began turning against one another in the 1970s and 1980s. Josip Tito ruled Yugoslavia with an iron fist and crushed any nationalist movements that wanted to see the country break up. His government forced the six republics to stay part of Yugoslavia. When he died in 1980, the new leaders were less strict and let nationalist feelings to grow in the republics of Yugoslavia. The breakup was caused by many things like nationalism, economic difficulty and ethnic problems. The Socialist state was dissolved in 1992 during the Yugoslav wars. Serbia and Montenegro stayed together as FR Yugoslavia. - -Federal Republic of Yugoslavia/Serbia & Montenegro (1992-2006) - -After the dissolution of the SFR Yugoslavia only Serbia and Montenegro were willing to remain in union. They renamed themselves the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992. The country was led by the controversial statesman Slobodan Milosevic from 1996 until 2000. He was widely accused of having his opposition assassinated in 2000. Yugoslavia applied for UN membership in October 2000 and was granted the following month. For most of its existence the country was involved with what was called the Yugoslav Wars. There was much ethnic violence including mass genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1995) and ethnic cleansing in Kosovo (1998). It was the worst acts of war seen in Europe since World War II. The country was bombed by NATO forces in 1999 during the Kosovo war. In the late 1990s separatism was growing in Yugoslavia and the country dropped the name Yugoslavia in favour of a state union in 2003. Serbia and Montenegro became independent states in 2006, formally ending the last remaining parts of Yugoslavia - -Now, Yugoslavia has been split up and made into these countries: - Slovenia - Croatia - Bosnia and Herzegovina - Montenegro - Serbia - North Macedonia - -References" -3003,9459,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashford%2C%20Kent,"Ashford, Kent","Ashford is a large town in Kent in England. Many villages in are nearby and Ashford attracts lots of locals for its shopping. The Ashford international railway station is connected by the Channel Tunnel to mainland Europe. Ashford is an established and populated area of Kent with lots of houses. The UK Government is going to build many more houses in the town and will double its population in a few years. About 120,000 people live there. - -There's also an Ashford Designer Outlet Shopping Centre nearby. - -Towns in Kent" -13353,48978,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sunday%20Night%20Project,The Sunday Night Project,"The Sunday Night Project is a British comedy television programme. It was broadcast on Channel 4 from 2005-2009. The show was presented by Justin Lee Collins and Alan Carr with a different guest host each week. - -Other websites - -2005 British television series debuts -2009 British television series endings -2000s British television series -British comedy television series -English-language television programs" -15991,61412,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowley%2C%20Wyoming,"Cowley, Wyoming","Cowley is a town in the American state of Wyoming. It is in Big Horn County in northern Wyoming. The mayor of Cowley is Roland Simmons. - -History -The town of Cowley was settled by a group of Mormon followers in Wyoming's Big Horn Basin. The town was named for Matthias F. Cowley, one of the Apostles of the Mormon church at the time. The first group of Mormons got to the area May 2, 1900. When they got there, they started building the Sidon Canal to bring water to the town from the Shoshone River. The Canal was over 30 miles long. They finished building it in 1904. - -By the end of 1900 there were about 18 log houses built in the area. The first school was opened in a log house in January 1901. There were about 24-30 students. - -On September 26, 1910, the Big Horn Academy was opened in Cowley. It was the area's first High School. The first class to be graduated from the Big Horn Academy was the class of 1912. It had 13 students. - -A new stone building was made for the Big Horn Academy in 1916. In 1925 the name was changed to the Cowley High School. The mascot of the school was the Jaguars. The Cowley High School remained in the Big Horn Academy building until 1983, when the last class was graduated from Cowley High School. There were only six students in the class of 1983. Because of the small number of students, the school in Cowley was closed. Beginning in 1984, the town's students began attending the consolidated Rocky Mountain High School in Byron, Wyoming. - -Schools -Student from Cowley attend school at: -Rocky Mountain Elementary School -Rocky Mountain Middle School -Rocky Mountain High School - -References - -Towns in Wyoming -Big Horn County, Wyoming -1900 establishments in the United States -20th-century establishments in Wyoming" -4528,14172,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear,Fear,"Fear is a feeling or an emotion. When a person has fear, they are afraid or scared. A person who fears something does not want it to happen. The fear response comes from sensing danger. It leads to the fight-or-flight response. In extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) there may be a freeze response or paralysis. - -In humans and animals, fear is adjusted by cognition and learning. Thus fear is rational or appropriate, or it is irrational or inappropriate. An irrational fear is called a phobia. - -Fear is the body's way of protecting itself from doing things that may be dangerous. For example, if one has a fear of jumping off a cliff, he/she will not do it. This saves one from death. In this case, fear is a good thing but in others, it can be bad. An example of fear being bad is if it stops one from doing something important, like going to see a doctor. Methods of controlling phobias include facing the fear over and over so the effect of the phobia becomes less until it stops being a phobia. - -There is only a small set of basic or innate emotions and fear is one of them. The fear response helps survival by triggering appropriate behavioral responses. It has been preserved throughout evolution. - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Emotions" -8297,27875,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Canterbury%20Tales,The Canterbury Tales,"The Canterbury Tales is a book of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer. It was written in the 14th century. It was one of the first books to be written in Middle English. The book is about a group of pilgrims travelling from London to Canterbury. As they travel along, each person tells a story to pass the time. Chaucer planned to write 120 stories, with each person telling two stories on the way there and two on the way back. However, only 23 were completed, and one was partially finished. Two of the stories are written in prose. The others are written in verse. They were so popular that he was invited to read his stories to the king and royal court. - -Background - -Canterbury Cathedral - -The Canterbury Tales is about a group of people who are pilgrims. They are travelling to an important sacred site. In the Middle Ages, many Christian people went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem, Rome, Santiago de Compostela and Canterbury. Canterbury Cathedral was a famous pilgrimage site because it contained the shrine (a place for remembering) of Saint Thomas Becket. - -Thomas Becket -Thomas Becket had been the Archbishop of Canterbury in the 1100s. He had an argument with his old friend, King Henry II, and in 1170 he was murdered by some of the King's knights on order from the King. The King felt very sad and guilty. He had a magnificent tomb built for his old friend. - -People began to visit the tomb. Soon, some people said that Thomas Becket was a saint, and that his bones could work miracles. He is regarded as a martyr for the Christian faith and as a saint by both the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. In the late Middle Ages his shrine made Canterbury one of the four most important pilgrimage places in Europe. - -Pilgrims -Many pilgrims used to meet together in London. The Canterbury Tales tells of the meeting of a group at an inn in Southwark, which was a village south of the Thames River and now making up part of London. This was a good place to meet because people from the north could cross the Thames River by London Bridge. - -Canterbury is in the south-east of England. Pilgrims used to gather in groups because it was dangerous to travel alone. In the days before modern banking, every traveller had to carry a lot of money to pay for food and accommodation (a place to sleep). Robbers often attacked people along the roads. - -When pilgrims gathered in a group, the group could be made up of many different kinds of people, both rich and poor, noble and humble. The groups often contained a number of religious people such as priests, monks and nuns. In Chaucer's story, the most noble person is a knight. - -The tales -The Canterbury Tales begins with a Prologue (which means ""a few words to begin""). In the prologue Chaucer describes the time of year, which is April, when the weather begins to get warmer after winter. He says that it is at this time that people begin to go on pilgrimage. Chaucer tells the reader about the people who are gathered at the inn. He describes the people so clearly that many of them have become famous characters in English Literature, and have often been shown in paintings. Chaucer describes how each person tells a story to entertain the other as they travel along. - -The Tales are: - The General Prologue it introduces each of the Pilgrims - The Knight's Tale the Knight tells of two friends duel with one another over the love of a woman - The Miller's Prologue and Tale the drunken Miller tells a vulgar tale of how a foolish Reeve was made a Cuckold by his unfaithful wife and a lodging scholar - The Reeve's Prologue and Tale the Reeve tells a nasty tale of how a cheating miller was beaten and his arrogant wife humiliated and his daughter seduced by a pair of students he had tried to steal and cheat from - The Cook's Prologue and Tale the drunken cook tells a vulgar tale of how a lazy apprentice is let go by his master to dance and revel - The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale the Man of law tells how a virtuous princess goes through many trials - The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale the Wife of Bath tells of how a Knight must find out what women most desire-or be executed - The Friar's Prologue and Tale the friar tells a morality tale of how a theving summoner tries to cheat a widow and ends up in Hell - The Summoner's Prologue and Tale the Summoner tells a vulgar tale of how a greedy friar gets his compupence - The Clerk's Prologue and Tale the clerk tells how a loving and patient wife endures a series of tests by her suspicious husband - The Merchant's Prologue and Talethe Merchant tells a vulgar tale of how a foolish merchant was made a Cuckold by his unfaithful wife - The Squire's Prologue and Tale the Squire tells a tale of romance [unfinished] - The Franklin's Prologue and Talethe Franklin tells a tale of a wife making a rash promise and the consequences - The Physician's Tale the physican tells a moral tale of a virtuous daughter - The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale the greedy and hypocritical Pardoner tells an ironic tale of how three drunken fools try to ""kill"" death-but end up killing one another - The Shipman's Tale the Shipman tells a comic tale of a miserly merchant was made a Cuckold by his greed wife - The Prioress' Prologue and Tale the prioress tells a conventional [although false] tale of a martyr - Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas- Chaucer tells a parody of a heroic Knightly Tale it is never finished at the request of the other Pilgrims! - Chaucer's The Tale of Melibee-Chaucer tells of a man and his wife arguing how best to avenge himself on his enemies - The Monk's Prologue and Tale-the Monk tells of tragedy-giving 17 examples out of 100! - The Nun's Priest's Prologue and Tale-the Nun priests tale is a retelling of Chanticleer and the Fox - The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale-the second Nuns tells a conventional story of Saint Cecilia - The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale-the Canon Yeoman [a newcomer to the Pilgrims] warns about how the search for the Philosopher's stone leads to ruin and then tells how a Canon tricks a gullible priest out of his money - The Manciple's Prologue and Tale the Manciple tells a morality tale against gossip - The Parson's Prologue and Tale the Parson delivers a prose treatise on penance - Chaucer's Retraction-Chaucer asks for forgiveness for the vulgar and unworthy parts of this and other past works, and seeks absolution for his sins. Some versions of the tales include: - The Plowman's Tale a anti-lollard tract added to the tales - The Tale of Gamelyn a tale Chaucer may have wanted to adapt to the Tales - Prologue and Tale of Beryn a spurious 15th century additions to Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales-the Pilgrims arrive at Canterbury - -Some of the tales (stories) are serious and others are funny. Some of the funny stories are vulgar (sexually rude). A lot of the tales talk about the Christian faith. Sometimes the theme (main idea) of one story is followed into the next story, as a new story-teller responds (or answers) to a story they have just heard. All of the tales are about the way that people think and behave towards each other. - -About The Canterbury Tales - -The Canterbury Tales is written in the type of English that most ordinary people used in Chaucer's day. Chaucer was one of the first authors (writers) who wrote stories in English. Before, stories were written in Latin or French. Some other writers of Chaucer's time also wrote in English. Some of these writers were John Gower, William Langland, and the Pearl Poet. - -Chaucer planned the stories before he wrote them but he did not finish his plan. He planned that each character would tell four stories: two while going to Canterbury and two while returning to London. If Chaucer had finished, he would have written 120 stories. He only actually wrote 24. Chaucer began to write the stories in the 1380s. He stopped writing them in the 1390s. Some think that he deliberately did not write the total 120 stories. - -Chaucer was an important person in the royal court. Some people think that, in the stories, Chaucer was saying things about court politics. Some people think that Chaucer based his characters on people that he really knew and who were at the royal court. - -Some people think that Chaucer copied ideas from others peoples’ writings because some of the stories in The Canterbury Tales are very similar to them. The characters, however, are very different. The characters have different occupations and personalities. They all tell different types of stories and they tell them in different ways.The big story is about many pilgrims traveling to Canterbury. They are riding horses and the trip takes several days. Chaucer does not say much about the big story and most of the writing is about the stories told by the pilgrims. - -The two earliest manuscripts (hand-written copies) of The Canterbury Tales are the Hengwrt manuscript and the Ellesmere manuscript. There are also 84 manuscript and four printed copies of The Canterbury Tales that were made before 1500. There are quite a lot of differences in the different copies. Some experts on Chaucer have started The Canterbury Tales Project. The project is to read all these copies of The Canterbury Tales, find out the differences and write the most accurate copy. - -Gallery of the Pilgrims -With the exception of the Innkeeper/host Harry Bailey, the various manuscripts of The Canterbury Tales had various drawings of each of the Pilgrims who told a tale; other Pilgrims mentioned who did not tell a tale or who were illustrated were the knight's yeoman, a haberdasher, a carpenter, a weaver, a dyer, a tapestry weaver; a plowman. The original intenent was that each pilgrim was to tell two tales to Canterbury and two on the way back for a free meal; that would have been an estimated 120 tales-instead of the 23 in the book. Indeed, the only Pilgrim who tells two tales is Chaucer himself: Sir Thopas [unfinished] and Tale of Melibee. - -North Reading Room, west wall. Detail of mural by Ezra Winter illustrating the characters in the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. Library of Congress John Adams Building, Washington, D.C - -Related pages - English literature - William Shakespeare - Pilgrimage - -British poems" -6323,20124,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion,Emotion,"Emotions are what people feel. They are very ancient, and can be seen in all mammals. - -Emotions are caused by a complex mixture of hormones and the unconscious mind. Only with great difficulty can we control our emotions by conscious effort. They cause mammals to change behaviour according to changes in their situation. In our case they sometimes run against our attempt to live our lives in a logical way. - -A scientific definition is not simple; over 90 definitions have been offered by experts. A definition of emotion needs to includes three things: -conscious experience (feelings) -expressions which can be seen by others -actions of the body ('physiological arousal') - -Here is one definition: -""Emotion is a complex psychological phenomenon which occurs as animals or people live their lives. Emotions involve physiological arousal, appraisal of the situation, expressive behaviours, and conscious experience. Emotion is associated with feeling, mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation"". - -In physical terms, emotions involve body systems which have operated for hundreds of millions of years. These are the hormone system, the autonomic nervous system and the 'lower' brain centres (hindbrain and midbrain). - -Function of emotions - -The study of emotions became one of Darwin's books after The Descent of Man. He published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1873. He had discovered, by sending letters and a list of questions worldwide, that in different societies emotions were expressed in almost the same way. - -If so, the mechanisms which made the expressions must be inherited. They must have been developed in the same way as all other features of man, evolution by natural selection. It was already known from anatomy that the muscles and nerves of the face were the same or similar in all humans. - -Darwin illustrated the expression of the emotions with a series of photographs and woodcut illustrations. Ekman did the same thing on a research visit to New Guinea, where he asked villagers to identify the emotions shown in the photographs. This was part of a long-term effort to test and extend Darwin's insights into emotions. Some of Ekman's conclusions are: -Micro expressions last only a fraction of a second. They occur when people conceal their feelings. (p15, p222) -Emotions are autoappraisers, reactions to matters which seem to be very important to our welfare. (p21) -Emotions often begin so quickly that we are not aware of the processes in our mind which set them off. (p21) -Autoappraisers scan for events which are critical to our welfare and survival. (p23) -Our evolutionary heritage makes a major contribution to the shaping of our emotional responses. (p26) -The desire to experience or not to experience an emotion motivates much of our behaviour. (p217) -An efficient signal – clear, rapid and universal – informs others of how the emotional person is feeling. (p217) - -Related pages - List of emotions - -References" -14682,55352,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whigs,Whigs,"The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties. - -The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715. They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in. - -When they held power, the Whigs purged (got rid of) the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession and local officials. - -Their most famous leader was Robert Walpole, who kept control of the government from 1721 to 1742. - -References - -Other websites - -Karl Marx on the Tories and the Whigs (1852) - -Former political parties in the United Kingdom -1678 establishments -1868 disestablishments -1670s establishments in Europe -17th-century establishments in England -19th-century disestablishments in the United Kingdom -Liberal Party (UK)" -18121,68106,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vamana,Vamana,"Hindus believe that Vishnu has many important avatars. The Vamana avatar was the fifth avatar. In this avatar, Vishnu was in the form of a human.Vamana avatar is basically in the form of a bramhin(a caste in hinduism which is responsible for ancient spiritual, cultural, educational activitiesand the highest in the Varnas) was taken for a demon king 'Bali'. Lord Vishnu in this avatar asked Bali to offer him 'three feet land' as a form of offering a king offered to a brahmin as a goodwill during ancient times in hindu culture. The story goes when king Bali captured the Adobe of hindu demigods and caused them a fierce battle. 'Aditi' - the mother figure of demigods in hinduism prayed to Lord Vishnu and pleased by her prayers, Lord Vishnu appeared and assured her a boon. In a thought of revenge , she wished that may Bali loose his whole wealth and power."" -Lord Vamana (lord Vishnu) when asked Bali for three feet land then Bali laughed and said ""Brahamandeva (O Brahmin) you might have asked many luxurious things from me as dakshina but you asked such a menial thing of land of a three feet quantity?"" After which Lord Vamana grew so large in size as his one feet could cover whole Earth and other whole heaven! That means, whole land property of Bali was under control of lord Vamana. As per Bali's oath, there was no more land to donate and one feet of lord was remaining. Bali asked lord about who is greater, the thing or who gives the thing? Lord answer was the donar or giver of the thing is greater than the thing. Then king Bali asked the Lord to keep his third feet on his (Bali) head! Pleased by this act of Bali lord promised him the rule of 'Patal' (the underEarth) and promised to protect Bali and his kingdom and slay whosoever disobeys Bali in patal. -It is believed that for 3 day during 'savan'or rainy season , king Bali returns to Earth. These three days are celebrated as Onam in Indian state of 'kerala'. During this festival , the idols of lord Vishnu and king bali are made out of rice and worshiped. A famous boat race is also organised across kerala in honour of king Bali. The people from every faith in kerala celebrate this feast. It is a regional festival of Keralites. - -Hinduism -Hindu mythology" -19414,73985,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil,Basil,"Basil (Ocimum basilicum) ( or ) is a plant of the Family Lamiaceae. It is also known as Sweet Basil or Tulsi. It is a tender low-growing herb that is grown as a perennial in warm, tropical climates. Basil is originally native to India and other tropical regions of Asia. It has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years. It is prominently featured in many cuisines throughout the world. Some of them are Italian, Thai, Vietnamese and Laotian cuisines. It grows to between 30–60 cm tall. It has light green, silky leaves 3–5 cm long and 1–3 cm broad. The leaves are opposite each other. The flowers are quite big. They are white in color and arranged as a spike. - -The plant tastes somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, sweet smell. Basil is very sensitive to cold. It is best grown in hot, dry conditions. While most common varieties are treated as annuals, some are perennial, including African Blue and Holy Thai basil. - -The word basil comes from the Greek βασιλεύς (basileus), meaning ""royal"". This is because it is believed to have grown above the spot where St. Constantine and Helen discovered the Holy Cross. The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in ""some royal unguent, bath, or medicine"". Basil is still considered the ""king of herbs"" by many cookery authors. An alternative etymology has ""basil"" coming from the Latin word basilicus, meaning dragon and being the root for basilisk, but this likely was a linguistic reworking of the word as brought from Greece. - -Basil for cooking - -Most of the time, Basil should be used fresh. In recipes it is generally added at the last moment. Cooking it quickly destroys the meal. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator. Using a freezer will allow for it to be kept a longer time. In both cases, it needs being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavour, and what little flavour remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavour, like hay. - -Mediterranean and Indochinese cuisines frequently use basil. In Mediterranean cuisines it is often combined with tomato. Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce from the city of Genoa. The other two main ingredients of Pesto are olive oil and pine nuts. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are ""Genovese"", ""Purple Ruffles"", ""Mammoth"", ""Cinnamon"", ""Lemon"", ""Globe"", and ""African Blue"". Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves into thick soups (羹湯; gēngtāng). They also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. - -Basil is sometimes used with fresh fruit and in fruit jams and sauces. Most commonly this is done with strawberries, but also raspberries or dark-colored plums. Some people say that the flat-leaf basil used in Vietnamese cooking is more suitable for use with fruit. - -Basil seeds - -When soaked in water the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous. They are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as falooda or sherbet. Such seeds are known variously as sabja, subja, takmaria, tukmaria, falooda, or hột é. They are used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda, the traditional medicinal system of India. - -other types - -Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavour that is generally stronger than the Mediterranean basils. In China, the local cultivar is called 九層塔 (jiǔcéngtǎ; literally ""nine-level pagoda""), while the imported varieties are specifically called 羅勒 (luólè) or 巴西里 (bāxīlǐ), although [巴西里] often refers to another different kind plant—parsley. - -'Lemon basil' has a strong lemony smell and flavour very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, broken up, are a zesty salad condiment. - -Growing Basil -Basil grows well in hot weather. It behaves like an annual if there is any chance of a frost. In Northern Europe, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand it will grow best if sown under glass in a peat pot. It can be planted out in late spring/early summer, when there is little risk of frost. It fares best in a well-drained sunny spot. - -Although basil will grow best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot. Like most herbs, it will do best on a south-facing windowsill (in the Northern Hemisphere). It should be kept away from extremely cold drafts. It grows best in strong sunlight. A greenhouse or cloche is ideal if available. Basil plants can even be grown in a basement, under fluorescent lights. - -If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant needs more sunlight or less fertilizer. - -In sunnier climates such as Southern Europe, the southern states of the U.S., the North Island of New Zealand, and Australia, basil will thrive when planted outside. It also thrives over the summertime in the central and northern United States, but dies out when temperatures reach freezing point, to grow again the next year if allowed to go to seed. It will need regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates. - -Basil can also be propagated very reliably from cuttings in exactly the same manner as ""Busy Lizzie"" (Impatiens), with the stems of short cuttings suspended for two weeks or so in water until roots develop. - -If a stem successfully produces mature flowers, leaf production slows or stops on any stem which flowers, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines.To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. - -Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds. These can be saved and planted the following year. Picking the leaves off the plant helps ""promote growth"", largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems. - -Diseases - -Basil suffers from several plant diseases that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soilbourne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may also be killed by Pythium damping off. - -A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea, can also cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can also be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum. - -Health issues -Basil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, the rodent experiments indicate that it would take 100–1000 times the normal anticipated exposure to become a cancer risk. - -Cultural aspects - -There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The French call basil ""herbe royale"". Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting. It is a symbol of love in present-day Italy, but represented hatred in ancient Greece, and European lore sometimes claims that basil is a symbol of Satan. African legend claims that basil protects against scorpions, while the English botanist Culpeper cites one ""Hilarius, a French physician"" as affirming it as common knowledge that smelling basil too much would breed scorpions in the brain. - -Holy Basil, also called 'Tulsi', is highly revered in Hinduism and also has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to prepare holy water. It is said to have been found around Christ's tomb after his resurrection. The Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Macedonian: босилек; Romanian: busuioc, Serbian: босиљак) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars. - -In Europe, they place basil in the hands of the dead to ensure a safe journey. In India, they place it in the mouth of the dying to ensure they reach God. The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed that it would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on. - -In Boccaccio's Decameron a memorably morbid tale (novella V) tells of Lisabetta, whose brothers slay her lover. He appears to her in a dream and shows her where he is buried. She secretly disinters the head, and sets it in a pot of basil, which she waters with her daily tears. The pot being taken from her by her brothers, she dies of her grief not long after. Boccaccio's tale is the source of John Keats' poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil. A similar story is told of the Longobard queen Rosalind. - -References - - Diseases of Basil and Their Management - -Other websites - - Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages explain the culinary use of basil in European and Asian cooking; further web links. - -Lamiaceae -Herbs" -14170,52479,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Armenia,History of Armenia,"The history of Armenia and Armenians is very ancient and can go back at least 2000 BC. Archaeologists say the Shulaveri-Shomu culture of the central Transcaucasus region, and Armenia today, as the earliest known prehistoric culture in the area, carbon-dated to around 6000 - 4000 BC. But, a newer discovered tomb has been dated to 9000 BC. Another early culture in the Armenian Highlands and surrounding areas—the Kura-Araxes culture is in the period of ca. 4000 - 2200 BC, and is believed to have to go into the Trialeti culture (ca. 2200 - 1500 BC), and meaning Armenians are one of the oldest Indo-European subgroups. - -Urartu -Urartu was an ancient kingdom in the Armenian Highlands. - -Some experts say that the Armenians started as a mixture of the different peoples to move through the area in history: The Hurrians, Urarteans, Luvians and Mushki. This last group, also knowns as Phrygians may have brought their Indo-European language to Armenia. The Armenian language today is Indo-European, but shows a lot of influence from the earlier languages, especially Urartean. - -Ancient period - -The Armenians had friendly relations with the Parthian empire. The fighting between the Roman Empire and Parthia was centered in Armenia. Armenia was in between Parthian and the Roman Empire. The Armenians had already played a role in the early history of the Roman-Parthian relations. Tigranes put military and political relations with Rome and Parthia on an international legal foundation. The Parthians were allies to Armenians in many times. Many Parthian noble families had moved out and they went to Armenia. - -Related pages -Hayasa-Azzi -Battle of Rhandeia - -References - -Other websites - Armenia at Livius.Org (ancient history) - All about Armenia by www.haias.net - Rulers.org — Armenia list of rulers for Armenia - History of Armenia - A book about the history of Armenia from 1827. It was written by a priest." -19687,75421,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfights,Dogfights,"Dogfights is a TV show on The History Channel. It uses computer animation to show dogfights from wars and talks with the pilots. - -2006 television series debuts -English-language television programs" -1306,4701,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft,Aircraft,"An aircraft is a flying machine. - -The word aircraft originally meant airships and balloons. It comes from the words air and craft, a term from boating as were many early aviation words. - -There are many different kinds of aircraft. - -Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopters, and gliders. Some aircraft keep in the sky by floating. Examples are balloons and airships. - -Most aircraft use engine power. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopter, and airships. Gliders and balloons use no power. A few aircraft use muscle power. - -Big aeroplanes for transporting people are called airliners. Airliners are the quickest way to travel. Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather. Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely and for less money. - -A few fighter aircraft can fly at 3,200 km/h (2,000 mph). - -The person who drives an aircraft is called the pilot. - -Scales, sizes and speeds - -Sizes - -Smallest -The smallest aircraft is a nano-aircraft. - -Largest -These are the largest aircrafts. They are: -The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume is the British Airlander 10. -The largest aircraft by weight and largest regularly used fixed-wing aircraft is the Antonov An-225 Mriya. -The largest military aircraft and the second largest airplane is the Antonov An-124 Ruslan. - -Related pages -Flight recorder - Aircraft videos - -References - - -Aerospace engineering" -9078,31075,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic%20violence,Domestic violence,"Domestic violence means that in a relationship or marriage, one or both of the partners uses physical, sexual or psychological violence to try to get power or control over the other or due to losing their temper. Domestic violence can occur in heterosexual and same-sex relationships. There is often a predictable pattern or cycle of violence in a relationship and the abuse tends to get worse over time. Domestic violence can be also a factor to be homeless, as pointed out by Principles 15 of the Yogyakarta Principles. - -In any culture or community, there are beliefs and attitudes that support domestic violence and beliefs and attitudes that do not support domestic violence. In most countries, laws exist to protect the victim of such violent acts. There are also organisations that can help in such situations. - -Domestic violence sometimes does not get reported to the police. Estimates say that only a third of domestic violence cases (or even less) get reported to the authorities. - -Many people who use violence against their partners have mental disorders, especially antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder. - -Related pages - Domestic Abuse Advice -Cycle of abuse (patterns in relationships where there is domestic violence) -Domestic violence -Women's rights -Violence against women" -23747,91583,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apex%2C%20North%20Carolina,"Apex, North Carolina","Apex is a town in the U.S. State of North Carolina. It is part of Wake County. - -Other websites -ApexNC.com Community Website -Official town of Apex website - -Towns in North Carolina -Wake County, North Carolina -1873 establishments in the United States -19th-century establishments in North Carolina" -2869,9106,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Altman,Robert Altman,"Robert Bernard Altman (February 20, 1925 - November 20, 2006) was an American movie director. He was born in Kansas City, Missouri and died of leukemia in Los Angeles, California. In 2006, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognized his body of work with an Academy Honorary Award. - -His movies MASH (1970), McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971), and Nashville (1975) have been selected to keep in the United States National Film Registry. - -Personal life -In the 1960s, Altman lived for nine years with his second wife in Mandeville Canyon in Brentwood, California. He moved to Malibu but in 1981 sold that home and the Lion's Gate production company. ""I had no choice"", he told the New York Times. ""Nobody was answering the phone"" after the flop of Popeye. He moved his family and business headquarters to New York. Eventually he moved back to Malibu, where he lived until his death. - -In November 2000, he said he would move to Paris if George W. Bush were elected. He joked that he had meant Paris, Texas when Bush became president. Altman was an outspoken marijuana user. He was a member of the NORML advisory board. He was against the 2003 invasion of Iraq. - -Death -Altman died on November 20, 2006, at age 81 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. He died of complications from leukemia. - -Altman is survived by his wife, Kathryn Reed Altman; six children, Christine Westphal, Michael Altman, Stephen Altman (his production designer of choice for many movies), Connie Corriere, Robert Reed Altman, and Matthew Altman; 12 grandchildren; and five great-grandchildren. - -The movie director Paul Thomas Anderson dedicated his 2007 movie There Will Be Blood to Altman. - -Filmography - -Shorts - -Motion pictures - -Television work - -Television movies and miniseries - Nightmare in Chicago (1964) [previously ""Once Upon a Savage Night"" in Kraft Suspense Theater] - Precious Blood (1982) – Television film written by Frank South - Rattlesnake in a Cooler (1982) – Television film written by Frank South - Secret Honor (1984) - The Laundromat (1985) (60 min.) - Basements (1987) – two one-act plays by Harold Pinter: The Dumb Waiter and The Room (the former was released to video as its own feature by Prism Entertainment) - Tanner '88 (1988) – six-hour mini-series for HBO - The Caine Mutiny Court Martial (1988) – Television film based on the play by Herman Wouk - Vincent & Theo (1990) – British Mini-series in 4 parts, later released in edited form worldwide as feature movie. - McTeague (1992) – an opera for PBS - The Real McTeague (1993) – making of ""McTeague"", also for PBS - Black and Blue (1993) – an Emmy nominated filmed play which aired on PBS' ""Great Performances"" - Robert Altman's Jazz '34 (1996) – PBS special about the music from Kansas City - Tanner on Tanner (2004) – two-hour mini-series for the Sundance Channel, a follow-up to Tanner '88 - -Television episodes - Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1957–58) - ep. 3–9: ""The Young One"" (air-date December 1, 1957) - ep. 3–15: ""Together"" (a.d. January 12, 1958) - M Squad (1958) ep. 1–21: ""Lover's Lane Killing"" (a.d. February 14, 1958) - The Millionaire aka If You Had A Million (1958–59) - directed by Altman - ep No. 148 / 5–14: ""Pete Hopper: Afraid of the Dark"" (a.d. December 10, 1958) - ep No. 162 / 5–28: ""Henry Banning: The Show Off"" (a.d. April 1, 1959) - ep No. 185 / 6–14: ""Jackson Greene: The Beatnik"" (a.d. December 22, 1959) - written by Altman - ep No. 160 / 5–26: ""Alicia Osante: Beauty and the Sailor"" (a.d. March 18, 1959) - ep No. 174 / 6-3: ""Lorraine Dagget: The Beach Story"" [story] (a.d. September 29, 1959) - ep No. 183 / 6–12: ""Andrew C. Cooley: Andy and Clara"" (a.d. December 8, 1959) - Whirlybirds (1958–59) - ep. No. 71 / 2–32: ""The Midnight Show"" (a.d. December 8, 1958) - ep. No. 79 / 3-1: ""Guilty of Old Age"" (a.d. April 13, 1959) - ep. No. 80 / 3-2: ""A Matter of Trust"" (a.d. April 6, 1959) - ep. No. 81 / 3-3: ""Christmas in June"" (a.d. April 20, 1959) - ep. No. 82 / 3–4: ""Til Death Do Us Part"" (unknown air-date, probably April 27, 1959) - ep. No. 83 / 3–5: ""Time Limit"" (a.d. May 4, 1959) - ep. No. 84 / 3–6: ""Experiment X-74"" (a.d. May 11, 1959) - ep. No. 87 / 3–9: ""The Challenge"" (a.d. June 1, 1959) - ep. No. 88 / 3–10: ""The Big Lie"" (a.d. June 8, 1959) - ep. No. 91 / 3–13: ""The Perfect Crime"" (a.d. June 29, 1959) - ep. No. 92 / 3–14: ""The Unknown Soldier"" (a.d. July 6, 1959) - ep. No. 93 / 3–15: ""Two of a Kind"" (a.d. July 13, 1959) - ep. No. 94 / 3–16: ""In Ways Mysterious"" (a.d. July 20, 1959) - ep. No. 97 / 3–19: ""The Black Maria"" (a.d. August 10, 1959) - ep. No. 98 / 3–20: ""The Sitting Duck"" (a.d. August 17, 1959) - U.S. Marshal (original title: Sheriff of Cochise) (1959) - verified - ep. 4–17: ""The Triple Cross"" - ep. 4–23: ""Shortcut to Hell"" - ep. 4–25: ""R.I.P."" (a.d. June 6, 1959) - uncertain; some sources cite Altman on these episodes; no known source cites anybody else - ep. 4–18: ""The Third Miracle"" - ep. 4–31: ""Kill or Be Killed"" - ep. 4–32: ""Backfire"" - ep. ""Tapes For Murder"" - ep. ""Special Delivery"" - ep. ""Paper Bullets"" - ep. ""Tarnished Star"" - Troubleshooters (1959) (13 episodes) - Hawaiian Eye (1959) ep. 8: ""Three Tickets to Lani"" (a.d. November 25, 1959) - Sugarfoot (1959–60) - ep. No. 47 / 3–7: ""Apollo With A Gun"" (a.d. December 8, 1959) - ep. No. 50 / 3–10: ""The Highbinder"" (a.d. January 19, 1960) - Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse (1960) - ep. ""The Sound of Murder"" (a.d. January 1, 1960) - ep. ""Death of a Dream"" - The Gale Storm Show aka Oh! Susanna (1960) ep. No. 125 / 4–25: ""It's Magic"" (a.d. March 17, 1960) - Bronco (1960) ep No. 41 / 3-1: ""The Mustangers"" (a.d. October 17, 1960) - Maverick (1960) ep. #90: ""Bolt From the Blue"" (a.d. November 27, 1960) - The Roaring '20s (1960–61) - ep. 1–5: ""The Prairie Flower"" (a.d. November 12, 1960) - ep. 1–6: ""Brother's Keeper"" (a.d. November 19, 1960) - ep. 1–8: ""White Carnation"" (a.d. December 3, 1960) - ep. 1–12: ""Dance Marathon"" (a.d. January 14, 1961) - ep. 1–15: ""Two a Day"" (a.d. February 4, 1961) - ep. 1–28&29: ""Right Off the Boat"" Parts 1 & 2 (a.d. May 13/20, 1961) - ep. 1–31: ""Royal Tour"" (a.d. June 3, 1961) - ep. 2–4: ""Standing Room Only"" (a.d. October 28, 1961) - Bonanza (1960–61) - ep. 2–13: ""Silent Thunder"" (a.d. December 10, 1960) - ep. 2–19: ""Bank Run"" (a.d. January 28, 1961) - ep. 2–25: ""The Duke"" (a.d. March 11, 1961) - ep. 2–28: ""The Rival"" (a.d. April 15, 1961) - ep. 2–31: ""The Secret"" (a.d. May 6, 1961) - ep. 2–32 ""The Dream Riders"" (a.d. May 20, 1961) - ep. 2–34: ""Sam Hill"" (a.d. June 3, 1961) - ep. 3–7: ""The Many Faces of Gideon Finch"" (a.d. November 5, 1961) - Lawman (1961) ep. No. 92 / 3–16: ""The Robbery"" (a.d. January 1, 1961) - Surfside 6 (1961) ep. 1–18: ""Thieves Among Honor"" (a.d. Jan 30, 1961) - Peter Gunn (1958) ep. 3–28: ""The Murder Bond"" (a.d. April 24, 1961) - Bus Stop (1961–62) - ep. 4: ""The Covering Darkness"" (a.d. October 22, 1961) - ep. 5: ""Portrait of a Hero"" (a.d. October 29, 1961) - ep. 8: ""Accessory By Consent"" (a.d. November 19, 1961) - ep. 10: ""A Lion Walks Among Us"" (a.d. December 3, 1961) - ep. 12: ""... And the Pursuit of Evil"" (a.d. December 17, 1961) - ep. 15: ""Summer Lightning"" (a.d. January 7, 1962) - ep. 23: ""Door Without a Key"" (a.d. March 4, 1962) - ep. 25: ""County General"" [possibly failed pilot] (a.d. March 18, 1962) - Route 66 (1961) - ep. #40/2-10: ""Some of the People, Some of the Time' (a.d. December 1, 61) - ep. 3–17: ""A Gift For A Warrior"" (a.d. January 18, 1963) – often incorrectly cited, Altman did not direct this - The Gallant Men (1962) pilot: ""Battle Zone"" (a.d. October 5, 1962) - Combat! (1962–63) - ep. 1-1: ""Forgotten Front"" (a.d. October 2, 1962) - ep. 1–2: ""Rear Echelon Commandos"" (a.d. October 9, 1962) - ep. 1–4: ""Any Second Now"" (a.d. October 23, 1962) - ep. 1–7: ""Escape to Nowhere"" (a.d. December 20, 1962) - ep. 1–9: ""Cat and Mouse"" (a.d. December 4, 1962) - ep. 1–10: ""I Swear By Apollo"" (a.d. December 11, 1962) - ep. 1–12: ""The Prisoner"" (a.d. December 25, 1962) - ep. 1–16: ""The Volunteer"" (a.d. January 22, 1963) - ep. 1–20: ""Off Limits"" (a.d. February 19, 1963) - ep. 1–23: ""Survival"" (a.d. March 12, 1963) - Kraft Suspense Theatre (1963) - ep 1–8: ""The Long Lost Life of Edward Smalley"" (also writer) (a.d. December 12, 1963) - ep 1–9: ""The Hunt"" (also writer) (a.d. December 19, 1963) - ep 1–21: ""Once Upon a Savage Night"" - released as Television film Nightmare in Chicago in 1964 - The Long Hot Summer (1965) pilot - Nightwatch (1968) pilot: ""The Suitcase"" - Premiere (1968) ep. ""Walk in the Sky"" (a.d. July 15, 1968) - Saturday Night Live (1977) ep. No. 39 / 2–16 ""h: Sissy Spacek"", seg. ""Sissy's Roles"" (a.d. March 12, 1977) - Gun (aka Robert Altman's Gun) (1997) ep. 4: ""All the President's Women"" (a.d. May 10, 1997) - this episode, along with another, was released on DVD as Gun: Fatal Betrayal; subsequently, the entire six-episode series was released - -Awards and nominations -Academy Awards: - 1971: Best Director (MASH, nominated) - 1976: Best Picture (Nashville, nominated) - 1976: Best Director (Nashville, nominated) - 1993: Best Director (The Player, nominated) - 1994: Best Director (Short Cuts, nominated) - 2002: Best Picture (Gosford Park, nominated) - 2002: Best Director (Gosford Park, nominated) - 2006: Honorary Oscar (won)BAFTA Awards: - 1971: Best Direction (MASH, nominated) - 1979: Best Direction (A Wedding, nominated) - 1979: Best Screenplay (A Wedding, nominated) - 1993: Best Film (The Player, nominated) - 1993: Best Direction (The Player, won) - 2002: Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film (Gosford Park, won) - 2002: David Lean Award for Direction (Gosford Park, nominated) - -Berlin International Film Festival: - 1976: Golden Berlin Bear (Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson, won) - 1985: FIPRESCI Prize – Forum of New Cinema (Secret Honor, won) - 1999: Golden Berlin Bear (Cookie's Fortune, nominated) - 1999: Prize of the Guild of German Art House Cinemas (Cookie's Fortune, won) - 2002: Honorary Golden Berlin Bear (won) - 2006: Golden Berlin Bear (A Prairie Home Companion, nominated) - 2006: Reader Jury of the ""Berliner Morgenpost"" (A Prairie Home Companion, won)Cannes Film Festival: - 1970: Golden Palm (MASH, won) - 1972: Golden Palm (Images, nominated) - 1977: Golden Palm (3 Women, nominated) - 1986: Golden Palm (Fool for Love, nominated) - 1987: Golden Palm (Aria, nominated) - 1992: Golden Palm (The Player, nominated) - 1992: Best Director (The Player, won) - 1996: Golden Palm (Kansas City, nominated) - -Directors Guild of America Awards: - 1971: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (MASH, nominated) - 1976: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (Nashville, nominated) - 1993: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (The Player, nominated) - 1994: Lifetime Achievement Award (won) - 2005: Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Movies for Television (Tanner on Tanner, nominated)Emmy Awards: - 1989: Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (Tanner '88, won) - 1993: Outstanding Directing in a Variety or Music Program (Great Performances – Black and Blue, nominated) - -Golden Globe Awards: - 1971: Best Director (MASH, nominated) - 1976: Best Director (Nashville, nominated) - 1993: Best Director (The Player, nominated) - 1994: Best Screenplay (Short Cuts, nominated) - 2002: Best Director (Gosford Park, won)Independent Spirit Awards: - 1994: Best Director (Short Cuts, won) - 1994: Best Screenplay (Short Cuts, won) - 1995: Best Feature (Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle, nominated) - 2000: Best Feature (Cookie's Fortune, nominated) - 2007: Best Director (A Prairie Home Companion, nominated) - -Venice Film Festival: - 1993: Golden Lion (Short Cuts, won) - 1996: Career Golden Lion (won') - 2000: Golden Lion (Dr T and the Women'', nominated) - -References - -Other websites - - -Actors from Kansas City, Missouri -American movie actors -American television directors -American television producers -American television writers -BAFTA Award winning directors -Cancer deaths in Los Angeles -Deaths from leukemia -Emmy Award winning directors -Golden Globe Award winning directors -Movie directors from Missouri -Movie producers from Missouri -Screenwriters from Missouri -1925 births -2006 deaths" -22753,86106,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligornetto,Ligornetto,"Ligornetto is a former municipality of the district Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Besazio, Ligornetto and Meride merged into the municipality of Mendrisio. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -Former municipalities of Ticino" -8586,29119,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colima%2C%20Colima,"Colima, Colima","Colima is the capital city of the Mexican state Colima. About 240,000 people live in this town. - -Capital cities in Mexico -Colima" -14064,52150,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20Pictures,Columbia Pictures,"Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. is an American company that produces movies and at one time, television shows. It is now one of the ""Big Five"" American movie studios and the oldest, busiest and most well-known member of the Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group, which is owned by the Japanese company Sony. Sony Pictures also includes smaller studios like TriStar Pictures, Screen Gems, and Sony Pictures Animation. The studio buildings are located at the Sony Pictures Studios lot in Culver City, California. - -History -Formed in 1918 as CBC Film Sales by brothers Jack and Harry Cohn and their partner Joe Brandt, the studio started out very small. It eventually adopted the ""Columbia"" name in 1924 and became better known and successful under president Harry Cohn and film director Frank Capra making Western movies, comedy movies, and short films. After Harry Cohn died, the studio went under hard times in the 1960s and 1970s before being bought by the Coca-Cola Company in 1982. It created a side project with CBS and HBO that became TriStar Pictures and started making more successful films again such as the Ghostbusters movies and The Karate Kid. - -Coca-Cola spun off Columbia into its own company again in 1987, which at that point had fully bought TriStar and other companies such as Merv Griffin's company, which was known for making Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy!. In 1989, Sony Corporation decided to buy Columbia Pictures Entertainment, which included both Columbia and TriStar. Under Sony, Columbia moved into the former MGM studios after years of sharing space with Warner Bros. Columbia and TriStar continued making their own movies and TV shows before combining under the Sony name in 1999. - -Movies Columbia Pictures has made - -Columbia is known for making movies such as Ghostbusters, The Karate Kid, Men in Black, Stuart Little, 21 Jump Street, Zombieland, Bad Boys, and several movies about The Three Stooges and Spider-Man. It has also helped make a few James Bond movies with MGM. - -TV studio -At one point, one of the only ways that Columbia was still making money in the 1960s and 70s was through its TV department, which was originally the first version of Screen Gems and later renamed Columbia Pictures Television. TV shows that Columbia made through Screen Gems/CPT included I Dream of Jeannie, Days of Our Lives and Walker, Texas Ranger. The TV department was eventually renamed ""Columbia TriStar Television"" and is now known as Sony Pictures Television, and the ""Columbia"" name is now only tied to movies. - -References - -Further reading - -Other websites - Official Sony Pictures website - Sony Pictures Movies - SonyPictures.net - -Movie studios -Sony -Coca-Cola -Companies based in California" -20537,78903,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raron,Raron,"Raron is the capital city of the district of Raron in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Valais" -8592,29137,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Scottish%20monarchs,List of Scottish monarchs,"This is a list of the Kings and Queens of Scotland. This list goes from 843 until when England and Scotland joined together in 1707. - -House of Alpin - -The House of Alpin traditionally ends in 1034, although this list continues to 1058. - Kenneth I (c. 843–858) - Donald I (858–862) - Constantine I (862–877) - Aed (877–878) - Eochaid (878–889) (disputed) - Giric (878–889) - Donald II (889–890) - Constantine II (900–943) - Malcolm I (943–954) - Indulf (954–962) - Dub (962–967) - Culen (967–971) - Amlaíb (971-977) (disputed) - Kenneth II (971–995) - Constantine III (995–997) - Kenneth III (997–1005) - Malcolm II (1005–1034) - Duncan I (1034–1040) - Macbeth (1040–1057) - Lulach (1057–1058) - -House of Dunkeld - -The House of Dunkeld may have begun in 1034. - Malcolm III (1058–1093) - Donald III (1093–1094) - Duncan II (1094) - Donald III (1094–1097) - Edmund (1094–1097) - Edgar (1097–1107) - Alexander I (1107–1124) - Saint David I (1124–1153) - Malcolm IV (1153–1165) - William I (1165–1214) - Alexander II (1214–1249) - Alexander III (1249–1286) - Margaret (1286–1290) - -First Interregnum 1290–1292 -Guardians of Scotland - William Fraser, Bishop of St Andrews - Duncan Macduff, 8th Earl of Fife - Alexander Comyn, 2nd Earl of Buchan - Robert Wishart, Bishop of Glasgow - James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland - John Comyn - -House of Balliol - John (1292-1296) - -Second Interregnum 1296–1306 -Guardians of Scotland - Andrew de Moray (1297) - William Wallace (1297–1298) - Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick (1298–1300) - John Comyn (1298–1301) - William Lamberton, Bishop of St Andrews (1299–1301) - Sir Ingram de Umfraville (1300–1301) - John de Soules (1301–1304) - John Comyn (1302–1304) - -House of Bruce - Robert I the Bruce (1306–1329) - David II (1329–1371) - -House of Balliol - Edward Balliol (1329 – 1363) - -House of Stewart (Stuart) - Robert II (1371–1390) - Robert III (1390–1406) - James I (1406–1437) - James II (1437–1460) - James III (1460–1488) - James IV (1488–1513) - James V (1513–1542) - Mary I (1542–1567) (executed 1587) - James VI (1567–1625), Union of the Crowns with Kingdom of England from (1603) - Charles I (1625–1649) - Charles II (1649–1685) (See also English Interregnum) - James VII (1685–1689) - Mary II (1689–1694), co-monarch - William II (1689–1702), co-monarch until 1694 - Anne (1702–1714), though the Scottish throne was replaced with that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 - -Disputed or unrecognized claims -Note: there have been other claims to the Scottish throne besides these - Margaret, the Maid of Norway was unrecognized by some Scots (ruled 1286-1290) - Henry Lord Darnley proclaimed himself king in 1565 as Henry I of Scotland (ruled 1565-1567) - Charles II claimed to rule even during Oliver & Richard Cromwell's reigns (ruled 1649-1685) - James VII was recognized by France to rule after his deposal (ruled 1685-1702) - -Related pages -In 1707, England and Scotland joined together. For Kings and Queens after 1707, see British monarchs. The same monarchs had ruled Scotland, England, and Ireland since James VI and the Union of the Crowns in 1603. - - -Lists of British monarchs" -8509,28894,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domenico%20Scarlatti,Domenico Scarlatti,"Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti (born Naples, Italy, on 26 October 1685; died Madrid, Spain, on 23 July 1757) was an Italian composer and harpsichordist. He was the son of the famous composer Alessandro Scarlatti. Part of his life he spent in Venice and Rome. His father Alessandro was a famous composer who wrote many operas. Domenico became famous for his sonatas for harpsichord. He wrote over 550 of them. They are mostly quite short pieces in one movement, most written in an early Classical style, which influenced many future Classical composers. He had some unusual effects in his music such as the crossing of hands as they leap wildly from one end of the keyboard to another. He also liked crunchy chords which sound like the strumming of Spanish guitars. He gave harpsichord lessons to the Infanta Maria Barbara at the Royal Court in Lisbon in Portugal. When she married she took Scarlatti, her harpsichord teacher, with her to Madrid in Spain where he spent the rest of his life. - -Scarlatti, Domenico -Scarlatti, Domenico -1685 births -1757 deaths -People from Naples" -10201,35377,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Frusciante,John Frusciante,"John Anthony Frusciante is an American musician. He was born on March 5, 1970 in Queens, New York. He was the guitarist of the funk rock band, Red Hot Chili Peppers. He has also made a number of solo records. Some of these albums have been made with other artists, for example Josh Klinghoffer. In December 2009 Frusciante claimed on his website that he had left the band over a year ago. - -Early RHCP era (1988-92) -John Frusciante joined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1988 after the previous guitarist, Hillel Slovak, died of a drug overdose. The band went on to record and release their fourth album, Mother's Milk in 1989. Following an international tour, Frusciante co-recorded the band's fifth album, Blood Sugar Sex Magik. In 1992, he left the band because he was overwhelmed by the international success of Blood Sugar Sex Magik. Frusciante abruptly announced his departure from the band just a few moments before a performance in Tokyo. He ended up playing the show and left quickly for a plane back to the USA. - -1992 to 1997 -From 1992 to 1997, he recorded a couple of solo albums, which received various criticism due to Frusciante's use of lo-fi and strange synthesizer effects. Frusciante released Niandra LaDes & Usually Just A T-Shirt in 1994 as a cure for there being ""no good music around any more"". From the time of being out of the band, Frusciante had started to experiment with drugs such as cocaine and heroin. In 1997, he released Smile From The Streets You Hold because he needed money for drugs at the time. He later took the album off the shelves as he did not feel comfortable with it being sold. - -Return and Red Hot success -Band mate and long-time friend Flea asked John if he would like to rejoin the band in 1998. Frusciante was so overjoyed by the question that the band regrouped and started the recording process. In 1999, the band released Californication. During the Californication tour, Frusciante recorded some more songs in what would eventually become To Record Only Water For Ten Days, which was released in 2001. Frusciante returned to the recording studio in early 2002 in which they would later release the band's eighth album, By the Way. Four Years later the Peppers released their ninth studio album, Stadium Arcadium. In December of 2009 he announced that he would leave the Red Hot Chili Peppers and focus more on his solo albums. - -Solo records and side projects -After yet another world tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Frusciante decided to release some more of his own material between 2004-2005. During this time, John released six of his own solo records, some of which were co-written by Josh Klinghoffer. - -Equipment -John has used a wide range of guitars throughout his years with RHCP and as a solo artist. He is known for using a lot of guitars under the Fender brand. He was number 18 on Rolling Stones list of ""The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time"" in 2003. In 2011, he was at number 72. Below is a list of equipment that John has used through the years. - -Guitars - '55 Fender Stratocaster (2 color sunburst with maple neck - '61 Fender Stratocaster (olympic white finish) - '62 Fender Stratocaster (3 color sunburst finish) heavily beat up *his favorite guitar - '63 Fender Telecaster (with Fender ""f"" on pickguard) - '61 Fender Stratocaster (Fiesta red) - '65 Fender Mustang (Red) -60's Fender Jaguar (for warmups and solo career) - '56 Gibson ES-335 (two color sunburst finish) - '61 Gibson SG (custom cherry red finish) - '69 Gibson Les Paul Custom Black Beauty - Ibanez RG250 (for recording of Mother's Milk) - Martin 0-15 acoustic - '55 Gretsch White Falcon - -Amplifiers - Marshall Major 200W (KT 88 tubes) - Marshall Silver Jubilee (50/25 watts) - -Picks -Green Jim Dunlop Tortex 0.88mm picks (from 1989 to 1999) -Orange Jim Dunlop Tortex 0.60mm picks (from 2000 to 2012 current) - -Strings - D'Addario XL .010s-.046 (with a .011 on the high E string) - -Effects - BOSS CE-1 Chorus - BOSS DS-1 Distortion - BOSS DS-2 Turbo Distortion - 2x Digitech PDS-8000 Delay - - Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress Flanger - Electro-Harmonix Big Muff - Electro-Harmonix POG Polyphonic Octave Generator - Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail Reverb - Ibanez WH10 Wah - Line6 FM4 Filter Modeler - Line6 DL4 Delay Modeler - MXR Micro Amp - Moog MF-101 Low-Pass Filter - Moog MF-102 Ring Modulator - Moog MF-103 12-Stage Phaser - Moog MF-105 MURF - Moog MF-105B Bass MURF - Moog CP-251 Control Processor - Electro-Harmonix Microsynthesizer - MXR phase 90 - -Discography - -As a solo artist - Niandra LaDes & Usually Just A T-shirt (1994) - Estrus EP (1997) - Smile From The Streets You Hold (1997) - Going Inside EP (2001) - To Record Only Water For Ten Days (2001) - From The Sounds Inside (2001) - Shadows Collide With People (2004) - The Will To Death (2004) - DC EP (2004) - Inside Of Emptiness (2004) - A Sphere In The Heart Of Silence (2004) - Curtains (2005) - The Empyrean (2009) - Letur- Lefr EP (2012) - PBX Funicular Intaglio Zone (2012) - Outsides (2013) - -RHCP - Mother's Milk (1989) - Blood Sugar Sex Magik (1991) - Californication (1999) - By the Way (2002) - Stadium Arcadium (2006) - -Ataxia - - Automatic Writing (2004) - AWII (2007) - -References - -Other websites - John Frusciante's official website - Red Hot Chili Peppers official website - -American rock guitarists -Musicians from New York City -Electronic musicians -1970 births -Living people -Red Hot Chili Peppers" -2495,7990,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Jennings,Ken Jennings,"Kenneth Wayne Jennings III (born May 23, 1974) is the second-highest money earning contestant on the American television game show Jeopardy!. He won a total of 74 times, earning $2,522,700. His winning streak lasted from June 2, 2004 through November 30, 2004. He lost after that time to a player named Nancy Zerg, who lost within a day to Katie Fitzgerald. He was brought back to appear in the final three games of the show's Ultimate Tournament of Champions. In the tournament, he lost to Brad Rutter, who became the highest money winner on Jeopardy!. - -According to the introduction given at the start of the show, Jennings is a ""Software Engineer from Salt Lake City, Utah"" His highest one day total was a record $75,000, which was later broken by Roger Craig in 2010. Jennings is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, or Mormon. - -In February 2005, Ken started appearing in Cingular commercials as himself. - -In October 2008, Jennings appeared on an episode of Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?. He won $500,000, making him the highest winner in game show history once again. - -In February 2011, Jennings, along with Rutter, competed in the ""IBM Challenge"" against an artificial intelligence computer named Watson. Jennings placed second, losing to Watson. He won half of a $300,000 prize; with the other half going to charity. - -In the spring of 2014, Jennings and Rutter competed in the Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades tournament. They faced off in the finals alongside Roger Craig. Rutter won the tournament with the $1,000,000 top prize, reclaiming the game show record from Jennings. - -In January 2020, Jennings beat Rutter and James Holzhauer in Jeopardy! The Greatest of All Time, claiming the $1,000,000 first place prize. - -During Season 37 of Jeopardy!, Jennings became a consulting producer and records video clues. In January 2021, he became a guest host after the death of longtime host Alex Trebek. And during the show's 38th Season, Jennings and Mayim Bialik are co-hosting the show after Mike Richards resigned. - -References - -1974 births -Television game shows -Living people -Jeopardy! -American bloggers" -1185,4444,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach,Beach,"A beach is a landform along the coast of an ocean, sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles, such as sand, gravel, shingle, or pebbles. The particles of a beach are sometimes biological in origin, such as mollusc shells or bits of coral and sometimes bits of igneous rock, but the most common mineral in beaches is quartz. - -Beaches are natural landing and launching places for boats, and landing craft are specially made for beaches. - -People often use beaches for recreation. They swim, bask in the sun, or just relax. The most popular beaches have fine white or light-colored sand and warm water to swim in. Beaches are also used for diving or for seeing marine life. - -Among the world's most popular and well-known beaches are Aruba (Dutch Caribbean), Long Beach (Canada), Copacabana Beach (Brazil), Hot Water Beach (New Zealand), Megan Bay (St. Thomas), Kailua Beach (Hawaii), Zandvoort Beach (Netherlands), Jeffreys Bay (South Africa), Bondi Beach (Australia) and Lake Como beaches (Italy). - -Taking holidays on the beach is something of a British cultural export. Early railways in the 19th century took people to places they had never seen before. This tourism was made possible by the industrial revolution. Whole seaside resort towns grew to support visitors, where before there were just villages. Vacations at the sea became common all over the world. - -Beaches are never static. They are always being built up or eroded, more quickly than other landforms. Over time the boundary between the land and the sea changes. New Romney, a small town in Kent, is one of the Cinque Ports, a mile from the sea. In Henry VIII's time it was a port on the south coast of England. The growth of Dungeness has cut it off from the sea. Dungeness is a huge shingle beach. - -References" -5616,18306,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk,Gdańsk,"Gdańsk is a city in the north of Poland in Pomeranian Voivodeship, near the place where the Vistula river meets the Baltic Sea. It is Poland's 6th largest city (population of 500 000 people) and the largest and most important sea port. - -It has existed since the 10th century and many times played a very important role in Poland's history. In the 19th century it was part of Prussia. This is where Solidarity, the movement which helped end Communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe, came to life. - -Gdansk has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification). - -Wikimania -The sixth Wikimania was hosted in this city in 2010. - -Related pages - Golden Gate in Gdańsk - -References - - -Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea" -10499,37314,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul%20Aziz%20Al%20Ghurair,Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair,"Abdul Aziz Al Ghurair (1954) from the United Arab Emirates is the chief executive of the publicly traded Mashreq Bank. His family's most valuable holding is worth an estimated US$8 billion. - -References - -Business people -1954 births -Living people -Emirati people" -8355,28140,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple%20Plan,Simple Plan,"Simple Plan is a rock band from Montréal, Canada that was founded in 1999. - -Members - Pierre Charles Bouvier, Vocals & Acoustic Guitar (born May 9 1979 in Montréal) - David Phillippe Desrosiers, Bass & Background Vocals (born August 29 1980 in Sept-Îles, Canada) - Charles André ""Chuck"" Comeau, Drums (born September 17 1979 in Montréal) - Sébestien Lefebvre, Rhythm Guitar and Background Vocals (born June 5 1981 in Montréal) - Jean-François ""Jeff"" Stinco, Lead guitar (born August 22 1978 in Montréal) - -When they were 13, schoolmates Pierre Bouvier and Chuck Comeau founded the band Reset. They published their first album in 1997. Soon after that, Comeau left the band because school was more important to him. He came back in 1999 and founded Simple Plan with Sebastien Lefebvre and Jeff Stinco. Bouvier met up with Comeau at a Sugar Ray concert, and Comeau offered Bouvier to join his band. David Desrosiers, who had replaced Bouvier in Reset, joined the band in 2000. in 2002, they published the album No Pads, No Helmets,... Just Balls. They worked together with Joel Madden (Good Charlotte) and Mark Hoppus (Blink-182). One year later, the album Still Not Getting Any... was published. - -Singles - No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls. - ""I'm Just a Kid"" (2001) - ""I'd Do Anything"" (2002) #51 US - ""Addicted"" (2003) #45 US, #63 UK, #10 AUS (2004 release) - ""Perfect"" (2004) #24 US, #6 AUS (2004 release) - - Still Not Getting Any.... - ""Welcome To My Life"" (2004) #40 US, #7 AUS, #1 CAN, #1 SPAIN, #12 FR - ""Shut Up!"" (2004) #99 US, #14 AUS, #12 CAN, #14 SP - ""Untitled (How Could This Happen to Me)"" (2005) #49 US, #9 AUS,#3 CAN, #1 SPAIN - ""Crazy"" (2005) #32 AUS, #4 CAN - ""Perfect World"" (2006) (Single only in iTunes, but not launched in CD single) - - Simple Plan - ""When I'm Gone"" (2007) - ""Your Love is a Lie"" (2008) - ""Save You (2008) - -Albums - No Pads, No Helmets...Just Balls (2002) - Live in Japan 2002 (2003) - Live in Anaheim (2004) (Limited Edition) - Still Not Getting Any... (2004) - MTV Hard Rock Live (2005) - Simple Plan (2008) - Get Your Heart On! (2011) - -DVDs - A Big Package for You (2003) - MTV Hard Rock Live (2005) - -Other websites - - Official website - -Pop punk bands -Canadian rock bands -2000s music groups -2010s music groups -Atlantic Records artists" -17185,65119,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah,Shah,"Shah () is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. This word is used in different countries in the world, including Iran, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Presently the term ""Shah"" is used as a surname commonly by many people in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan who are Hindu, Moslem and Jain. Many Indian names which have Shah in them; the most famous of them is Shah Jahan, who as the Emperor of India ordered the creation of Taj Mahal. One possible etymology of the chess term checkmate is the Persian shah mat, meaning ""the king cannot escape"" - -The term ""Shah"" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979. - -References - -Heads of state" -18519,69443,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount,Mount," -Mount has three main meanings. - -Mountain - -""Mount"" is often used to mean ""mountain"", as part of a name e.g. Mount Vesuvius, Mount McKinley, Mount Everest. - -Mount as a verb -To ""mount"" something means to put it onto something else. - - An artist mounts his paintings on cardboard. An architect mounts his models on foamcore. - A camera is mounted on a tripod. A gun is mounted on the deck of a ship. - A rider mounts a horse. A gymnast mounts the balance beam for a display. - A male animal mounts a female animal to have sexual intercourse. - -Mount as a noun -A ""mount"" is a thing for mounting something on. - -It might be a piece of equipment such as: - A lens mount for a camera. This is the part of the camera that is made specially so that lenses can be attached. - -It might be a piece of stiff flat ""backing"" such as: - A mount for a stuffed animal. This is a piece of polished wood that a stuffed animal can be fixed to, for display. - A picture mount. This is a piece of cardboard which a photograph or other picture is attached to. - -It might be an animal: - ""Frederick's mount was a fine black horse, Ernest's mount was a chestnut mare, Clumsy Jack's mount was a skinny old goat."" - -Mount in computing and software - Mount (in computing), the process of making a file system accessible - Mount Unix, the utility in Unix-like operating systems which mounts file systems - Mount (streaming), a concept used in streaming software programs" -13267,48724,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20per%20hour,Miles per hour,"Miles per hour is a unit of measurement. It measures speed. It is the number of miles moved in an hour. - -Miles per hour is the unit used for speed limits on roads in the United Kingdom and the United States. It is normally abbreviated in everyday use to mph or MPH. In technical publications it is sometimes abbreviated as mi/h. - -The SI unit for velocity (speed, with a direction of movement) is m·s−1 (metres per second). - -Conversions -1 mph is equal to: - - 0.44704 m·s−1, the SI derived unit - 1.609344 km·h−1 - 22/15 =1.4667 feet per second - approx. 0.868976 knots - -Related pages - metre per second - Speed - Velocity - -Other websites - Speed online conversion. - Conversion Calculator for Units of Speed - -Physics -Units of measurement -Imperial units" -10720,38267,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corner%20kick,Corner kick,"A corner kick is a kick awarded to the team for their opportunity to shoot at goal in soccer. It happens when the ball has come off a footballer at his or her own goal. There are two corner posts at each end of the ground, so two for each team depending where the ball is kicked out. - -Football (soccer) terminology" -22163,84107,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courgenay,Courgenay,"For the town in France, see Courgenay, Yonne. - -Courgenay is a municipality of the district of Porrentruy in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites -Official website of the municipality of Courgenay - -Municipalities of Jura" -17238,65263,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCchner%20flask,Büchner flask,"A Büchner flask (also called a vacuum flask, a filter flask, a side-arm flask or a kitasato flask) is a flask made of glass. - -Structure -A Büchner flask has thick walls so that a pressure change will not break it. It has a hole in the top where a Büchner funnel can be put and a small tube in the side where a vacuum can be attached. The small tube has barbs on it so that the vacuum will not weaken. - -Uses -A Büchner flask can be used with a Büchner funnel for separating solids and liquids. Water is poured into the Büchner funnel and the liquid passes through filter paper and is sucked up by a vacuum attached to the side of the Büchner flask, while the solid stays behind in the Büchner funnel. - -The Büchner flask can also be used as a vacuum trap in a vacuum line to ensure that no fluids are carried over from the aspirator or vacuum pump (or other vacuum source) to the evacuated apparatus, or vice versa. - -History -It is commonly thought to be named after the Nobel Laureate, Eduard Buchner, but it is actually named after the industrial chemist Ernst Büchner. - -Related pages - Büchner funnel - -Other websites - A Büchner funnel manufacturer - Experiment using Büchner funnels - More examples of Büchner funnels - -Laboratory equipment" -23235,88820,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta,Eta,"Eta (uppercase/lowercase Η η) is a letter of the Greek alphabet. In very early Greek writing it stood for the consonant sound ""h"", but in Classical Greek it stood for a long vowel ""e"". In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as ""i"". In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 8. Letters that came from it include the Roman H and Cyrillic И. - -In mathematics, the lowercase η is used to represent Dirichlet eta function. The same letter is also used to represent conformal time in cosmology, efficiency in telecommunications and elasticity in economics. - -Related pages - Heta - -References - -Greek alphabet -Vowel letters" -18068,67939,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss%20stick,Joss stick,"Joss sticks are a type of incense. They are traditionally burned before an Asian religious image, idol, buddha statue, or shrine. But some joss stick burning rituals (and the prayers that come with it) do not need to be done in front of religious images. They can be burned before anything without limits; like in front of a door, or open window as an offering. In modern days, the burning of joss sticks can be used for any reason, like making the smell of a room better or lighting fireworks up. - -Religious objects -Perfumery" -22605,85536,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Biden,Joe Biden,"Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. (; born ) is an American politician and the 46th and current president of the United States since 2021. Biden was also the 47th vice president from 2009 through 2017 during the Barack Obama presidency. He is a member of the Democratic Party and is from Wilmington, Delaware. Before becoming vice president, Biden was a U.S. Senator from Delaware from 1973 to 2009. He had served in the Senate longer than any other President or Vice President. - -He tried to become the Democratic candidate for president in 1988 and 2008 but did not win. During the 2008 election, then-Senator Barack Obama picked him to be his running mate. He is a Roman Catholic. Biden has received several awards. He has five honorary doctorates, including one from his alma mater and one from where he has taught law. He has also earned the ""Best of Congress Award"", an award from the Pakistani government, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction. - -After finishing his second term as vice president, Biden began working at the University of Pennsylvania. On April 25, 2019, Biden launched his presidential campaign for the 2020 election. On April 8, 2020, Biden became the presumptive nominee for the Democratic nomination after Bernie Sanders ended his campaign. On November 7, he defeated former President Donald Trump and became the president-elect of the United States. He became president on January 20, 2021, after he became inaugurated. He is the oldest person to become president and the first from Delaware. - -Early life - -Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. was born on November 20, 1942 at St. Mary's Keller Memorial Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania to a family of Irish Catholics. His father, Joe Sr., was a businessman. When he was young, his family moved to Wilmington, Delaware. He also began to stutter at an early age. In high school, Biden played football and baseball, but he was not a very good student. Biden attended college at the University of Delaware and Syracuse University. He did not have to fight in the Vietnam War because he was going to college and had asthma as a child. - -In the Senate - -For many years, Biden was a U.S. Senator from Delaware. Biden was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1972 when he was 29 years old. His election was somewhat of a surprise. The other candidate, J. Caleb Boggs, had more experience and more money to spend on his campaign. He is one of the youngest people to become a U.S. Senator, because he was only two months older than the minimum age, 30, required to be one. (While he was 29 during the election, he turned 30 before he became a senator.) - -Biden was re-elected to the Senate six times. He became a prominent defender of Israel as a senator, and said that if there was no country like Israel the U.S. would have to make one. Later in his time in the Senate, Biden served as chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee. The Foreign Relations committee deals with American issues in other countries. When Biden was chair, the committee dealt with the 1991 Gulf War, the 2003 War in Iraq, and several treaties. The Judiciary Committee dealt with the choice of Clarence Thomas, Robert Bork, and others for the Supreme Court (SCOTUS). Biden thought that Thomas and Bork should not be on the Court. Though U.S. senators work in Washington, DC, Biden took the train home to Delaware every night. - -Running for President and Vice President -Biden ran for president three times, in 1988, 2008 and 2020. The first time he was viewed as a good choice early on, but quit after it was discovered he gave a speech that was copied from Neil Kinnock, a British politician. - -Biden tried again to get the Democratic Party's nomination in the 2008 presidential election. He ran mostly on foreign issues, especially getting U.S. troops out of Iraq. Many thought of him as a good choice for Secretary of State. He stopped his campaign on January 3, 2008 after he did not get many votes in the Iowa caucus. However, he later became Barack Obama's pick for vice president due to what he knew about Iraq and because the working class liked him. - -When Biden was running for president, he criticized Obama, talking about his lack of experience, but later he supported Obama to become president. His opponent as vice president was Sarah Palin, who had less experience but was seen as more interesting by the media. Before the election, there were debates between the different candidates running for president or vice president. In the debate between Biden and Palin, many people believed that he knew more about running America than Palin did. When Obama was elected president on November 4, 2008, Biden was elected vice president. - -As Vice President - -Biden became vice president on January 20, 2009, and is the first person from Delaware and first Roman Catholic to be vice president. When Biden became vice president, he said he would do things differently from Dick Cheney, who had been vice president before him. Biden has said that his vice-presidency will not be like any other. - -Biden's main role was as an advisor to Obama, mostly on issues of foreign policy and the economy. Obama has asked for Biden's input on most of his major decisions, such as who to put in his Cabinet and how to fight the War in Afghanistan. Obama has put him in charge of groups to deal with the problems of the working class, as well as to watch the money in his stimulus bill. Biden had also traveled to the Middle East several times on behalf of Obama and the U.S. while Vice President. In 2011, Biden led talks on the budget and the debt. On November 6, 2012, Biden was re-elected for a second term as vice president along with President Barack Obama. - -In August 2015, Biden said that he was looking for a possible chance of running for president again in the 2016 U.S. election. Biden formed a PAC for his possible run. On October 21, speaking from a podium in the Rose Garden with his wife and President Obama by his side, Biden announced his decision not to enter the race for the Democratic nomination for the presidency for the 2016 election. - -Biden never had to brake a tie vote in the United States Senate, making him the longest-serving vice president to do this. - -After winning the election, Biden served the Vice Presidency until January 20, 2017. - -2020 presidential election - -During a tour of the U.S. Senate with reporters before leaving office on December 5, 2016, Biden said that a presidential bid was possible in the 2020 presidential election, after leaving office as vice president. While on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on December 7, he stated ""never say never"" about running for president in 2020, while also admitting he did not see a scenario in which he would run for office again. On January 13, 2017, exactly one week before Donald Trump took office. he said he would not run. However, four days later, on January 17, he took the statement back, saying ""I'll run if I can walk."" - -Biden was mentioned by many news outlets as a potential candidate for the 2020 Democratic nomination. In March 2019, he said he may run. - -He formally launched his campaign on April 25, 2019. - -In April 2020, Biden became the only candidate in the primary making him the presumptive nominee for the nomination. At first, he lost the first three primary contests to Senator Bernie Sanders. After winning the South Carolina primary, he gained traction and won most of the Super Tuesday races. - -Biden promised when elected he would protect Roe v. Wade decision, create a public option for health insurance, decriminalization of recreational cannabis, pass the Equality Act, create free community college, and a $1.7 trillion climate plan supporting the Green New Deal. He supports regulation instead of a complete ban on fracking. - -In early 2020, Biden promised he would pick a woman as his running mate. He also promised that his first Supreme Court appointment would be a black woman. In August 2020, he picked California U.S. Senator Kamala Harris as his running mate. - -On November 3, 2020, FiveThirtyEight's statistical model projected that Biden had a 89% chance to defeat Donald Trump. He defeated Trump in the general election after officially being projected as the winner on November 7, 2020. With more than 81 million votes, Biden received the most votes ever cast for a candidate in a U.S. presidential election. - -President of the United States - -Transition - -Biden was elected the 46th President of the United States in November 2020, defeating the incumbent Donald Trump, the first sitting president to lose re-election since George H. W. Bush in 1992. - -He became the second non-incumbent vice president to be elected president, and the first Democrat to do so. He is also expected to become the oldest president at the time of inauguration, as well as the first president from Delaware. - -At first, General Services Administrator Emily W. Murphy did not want to acknowledge Biden as the winner of the 2020 election. On November 23, however, she formally recognized Biden as the apparent winner of the 2020 election and authorized the start of a transition process to the Biden administration. - -In late December 2020, Biden received his first dose of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine in Delaware. He returned for his second dose in early January 2021. - -First 100 days - -Biden was inaugurated shortly before noon on January 20, 2021 as the 46th president of the United States. At 78, he is the oldest person to become president. He is the second Catholic president (after John F. Kennedy) and the first president whose home state is Delaware. - -In his first two days as president, Biden signed 17 executive orders, more than most recent presidents did in their first 100 days. Biden signed more executive orders than any other president since Franklin D. Roosevelt had in their first month in office. His first actions were rejoining the Paris Climate Agreement, ending the state of national emergency at the border with Mexico, rejoining the World Health Organization, a 100-day mandatory face mask requirements on federal property and acts to stop hunger in the United States. His presidency has been focused around his Build Back Better Plan agenda. - -On February 4, 2021, he announced that the United States will stop giving weapons to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates for use in the Yemeni Civil War. - -On March 11, 2021, the first anniversary of COVID-19 being declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization, Biden signed into law the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, a $1.9 trillion economic stimulus relief package. The package included direct payments to most Americans, an extension of increased unemployment benefits, funds for vaccine distribution and school reopenings, support for small businesses and state and local governments, and expansions of health insurance subsidies and the child tax credit. Biden tried to raise the minimum wage to $15 an hour, but removed it from the stimulus package after criticism from both parties. - -In March 2021, when there was an increase in migrants coming to the United States from Mexico, Biden told migrants: ""Don't come over."" He said that the U.S. was arranging a plan for migrants to ""apply for asylum in place"", without leaving their original locations. In the meantime, migrant adults ""are being sent back"", Biden said, in reference to the continuation of the Trump administration's Title 42 policy for quick deportations. Biden earlier announced that his administration would not deport unaccompanied migrant children and told the Federal Emergency Management Agency to help take care of children separated at the border. - -On March 23, 2021, all of his cabinet members were confirmed by the United States Senate. Biden is the first president since Ronald Reagan in 1981 to have all of his original Cabinet secretary nominees confirmed to their posts. Two days later, Biden announced that he would run for re-election in the 2024 election. - -Rest of 2021 - -On April 22–23, Biden held an international climate summit at which he announced that the US would cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 50%–52% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. - -On April 28, 2021, Biden addressed the United States Congress in his State of the Union Address. Presiding over this joint session was the House Speaker, Nancy Pelosi, and the Vice President of the United States, Kamala Harris as President of the Senate ― the first time two women preside over an address to Congress. - -On June 17, Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which officially declared Juneteenth a federal holiday. Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. - -In July 2021, when not many people were getting their COVID-19 vaccine and the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, Biden said that the country has ""a pandemic for those who haven’t gotten the vaccination"". He also criticized the increase of COVID-19 misinformation on social media, saying it was ""killing people"". - -By early July 2021, most of the American troops in Afghanistan were leaving or had left. On August 15, during an offensive by the Taliban, the Afghan government collapsed. Biden reacted by ordering 6,000 American troops to help the evacuation of American personnel and Afghan allies. He has been criticized for the way he handled the withdrawal. He defended his decision to withdraw, saying that Americans should not be ""dying in a war that Afghan forces are not willing to fight for themselves"", since the ""Afghan military collapsed [against the Taliban], sometimes without trying to fight"". - -In August 2021, the Biden administration pushed for an infrastructure bill that can reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of the United States by 45% by 2030. He would also support lowering taxes for people who invest in renewable energy and electric vehicles and would add a fee on methane emissions. The Senate passed a $1 trillion bipartisan infrastructure bill, while the House, also in a bipartisan manner, approved that bill in early November 2021, covering infrastructure related to transport, utilities, and broadband. Biden signed the bill into law in mid-November 2021. - -2022 - -In the start of 2022, Biden's approval ratings were low. He started speaking more in public. - -In January, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer said he would retire from the Supreme Court. Breyer's retirement gave Biden his first chance to nominate a justice to the Supreme Court. Biden had promised to nominate the court's first black female justice. On February 25, Biden nominated D.C. Appeals Court Judge Ketanji Brown Jackson to replace Breyer. - -On 24 February, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In response, Biden announced economic sanctions on Russia and Putin. - -Allegations of physical misconduct - -There have been many photographs of Biden hugging, kissing, and touching women and/or children in what commentators said to be inappropriate. Biden has said that the behavior had got him in trouble in the past. - -In March 2019, former Nevada assemblywoman Lucy Flores said that Biden kissed her without consent at a 2014 campaign rally in Las Vegas. Flores wrote that Biden walked up behind her, put his hands on her shoulders, smelled her hair, and kissed the back of her head. In an interview with HuffPost, Flores stated she believed Biden's behavior should force him not to run in 2020. By early April 2019, a total of seven women had made such allegations regarding Biden. - -In April 2019, former Biden staffer Tara Reade said that she had felt uncomfortable many times when Biden touched her on her shoulder and neck while working in his Senate office in 1993. In March 2020, Reade said Biden had pushed her against a wall and penetrated her while on Capitol Hill in 1993. Biden denied the allegations. - -Personal life - -While in college, he married his first wife, Nelia Hunter. They had three children: two sons (Beau and Robert) and a daughter (Naomi). After college, he became a lawyer and served on a County Council, a group of people who run a county. In 1972, Biden's family got into a car accident. Nelia and Naomi were killed, and Beau and Robert were hurt very badly. Both survived the accident. Beau was the Attorney General in Delaware until January 2015 and served as a soldier in Iraq. Beau died from brain cancer on May 30, 2015 in Bethesda, Maryland at the age of 46. Biden thought of resigning as vice president because of his son's death. - -Biden married his second wife, Jill Tracy Jacobs Biden, in 1977. She is a teacher and the former Second Lady of the United States. In 1981, they had a daughter, Ashley, who is now a social worker. In 1988, Biden suffered from bleeding in his brain and needed brain surgery twice. Because of what he saw in his family and neighborhood, Biden does not drink alcohol. - -In February 1988, Biden had surgery to help heal a brain aneurysm. While recuperating, he had a pulmonary embolism and recovered a few months later. - -In November 2020, while playing with his two dogs Champ and Major, he suffered a stress fracture in his foot and was hospitalized. - -Biden lives just outside of Wilmington, Delaware and often goes there on the weekends since becoming president. - -Awards and honors - -Biden has received honorary degrees from -the University of Scranton (1976), -Saint Joseph's University (1981), -Widener University School of Law (2000), -Emerson College (2003), -his alma mater the University of Delaware (2004), -Suffolk University Law School (2005), and his other alma mater Syracuse University (2009). - -Biden got the Chancellor Medal from his alma mater, Syracuse University, in 1980. In 2005, he got the George Arents Pioneer Medal—Syracuse's highest alumni award—""for excellence in public affairs."" - -In 2008, Biden got the Best of Congress Award, for ""improving the American quality of life through family-friendly work policies,"" from Working Mother magazine. -Also in 2008, Biden shared with fellow Senator Richard Lugar the Hilal-i-Pakistan award from the Government of Pakistan, ""in recognition of their consistent support for Pakistan."" In 2009, Biden got The Golden Medal of Freedom award from Kosovo, that region's highest award, for his vocal support for their independence in the late 1990s. - -Biden is an member of the Delaware Volunteer Firemen's Association Hall of Fame. - -In 2017, during his final days as president, Barack Obama awarded Biden the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction. - -In 2020, Biden and his Vice President Kamala Harris were named Time Person of the Year. - -Related pages - President of the United States - -References - -Other websites - - White House official biography - - Senate campaign website (archived) - - - - -1942 births -Living people - -1984 United States presidential candidates -1988 United States presidential candidates -2008 United States presidential candidates -2020 United States presidential candidates -20th-century American politicians -21st-century American politicians -Lawyers from Pennsylvania -American Roman Catholics -People from Scranton, Pennsylvania -Current national leaders -Politicians from Pennsylvania -Politicians from Wilmington, Delaware -United States senators from Delaware -United States vice-presidential candidates, 2008 -US Democratic Party politicians -Vice Presidents of the United States -Writers from Wilmington, Delaware -Writers from Pennsylvania -Wikipedia semi-protected pages -Lawyers from Delaware" -10455,37097,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravicherla,Ravicherla,"Ravicherla is a village in Nuzvid Mandal, Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is a peaceful village with about 1300 people living in it. Most of the people living here work on agriculture. The main crops are mango and paddi. This village has different religions including Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. - -In recent times, youths in this village are very interested in Information techology (IT) and getting good education and income in this field. Its a great place to learn many things in life. No of people are settled in IT profession from this small village. There are MBA's, MCA's and B.tech minds which come from this village, mainly favouritism for Tekugu Desam Partty and Nandamuri fans especially for Junior NTR - -Villages in Andhra Pradesh" -13033,47835,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Lorre,Peter Lorre,"Peter Lorre (born was Ladislav (László) Löwenstein, June 26, 1904 – March 23, 1964) was a Hungarian-American actor. - -Biography -Lorre's family was Jewish. Lorre was born in Rózsahegy (Rosenberg) in a country called Austria-Hungary. Now the place where he was born is in the country Slovakia. He began acting in theaters in Vienna, Breslau, and Zürich. In the 1920s, he moved to Berlin to work as an actor. In 1931, the movie director Fritz Lang chose Lorre to act in a movie about a serial killer who kills children called M. Lorre got married three times: Celia Lovsky (1934 - 13 March 1945, divorced); Kaaren Verne (25 May 1945 - 1950, divorced) and Annemarie Brenning (21 July 1953 - 23 March 1964, his death). He had his only child with Brenning, a daughter named Catharine (1953-1985). - -When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, Lorre had to leave Germany. Lorre went to England to be safe from the Nazis. Lorre got work as an actor in a movie by Alfred Hitchcock called The Man Who Knew Too Much. Lorre only knew a little English. At first, it was hard for him to act in English movies. - -In the 1940s, Lorre moved to Hollywood, California (USA). Hollywood is a town where many movies are made. Lorre acted in many movies, playing foreign characters. Lorre played the role of Joel Cairo in the movie The Maltese Falcon (1941) and played the role of ""Ugarte"" in the movie Casablanca (1942). Lorre played the character of Dr. Einstein in the movie Arsenic and Old Lace (1944). - -Related pages - Film noir - -Other websites - - The Peter Lorre Library of Sound - The Peter Lorre Companion - -1904 births -1964 deaths -American movie actors -Deaths from stroke -Hungarian Jews -Hungarian movie actors -Jewish American actors" -6419,20348,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1560s,1560s," - -Events - In 1565 St. Augustine is founded by the Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés on August 28 in modern-day Florida. The city is the oldest continually occupied European settlement in the continental United States. - In 1569, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is founded. - Start of Eighty Years' War. - -World leaders - Queen Elizabeth I in England - Philip II, King of Spain - -Births - William Shakespeare, British writer - Karl I of Liechtenstein, first Prince of Liechtenstein - Jahangir, Mughal Emperor of India - -Deaths - Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Flemish painter - Vladimir of Staritsa, Russian prince" -11359,41221,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushido%20%28rapper%29,Bushido (rapper),"Bushido is a German rapper. He was born in Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia, 28 September 1978 and raised in Berlin. His real name is Anis Mohamed Youssef Ferchichi. Bushido left the record company Aggro Berlin in 2001. Now he has his own record label ersguterjunge and insults his old label, for example in the song Sonnenbank Flavour. Other big hits are Von der Skyline zum Bordstein und zurück and Nie Ein Rapper ( Never a rapper ). In 2006, he won the category German act of the European Music Awards in Copenhagen. - -History -The artist name ""Bushido"" is Japanese and means ""Way of the Warrior"". Bushido was raised by his mother. He met his Tunisian father when he was 26 years old. Bushido was raised in Berlin-Tempelhof and went to the ""Gymnasium"" (German ""grammar school"", the highest school form) which he quit without his Abitur (German ""A-level"", right to study at university). He started his drug-selling career. - -He first came to rap through graffiti where he painted walls using the name ""Fuchs"" (German ""Fox""). He learned about rap music from his friend Vader(-licious) from DMK (Dark Mingz Klique). Together with King Orgasmus, the three recorded a tape under the name ""030"" which is the telephone number for Berlin. Bushido's first commercial appearance was on the Frauenarzt-Tape with King Orgasmus for I Luv Money Records in 2002. A short time later he published his self-made first album King of Kingz. - -German Rap is based on a monarchy view of things. Everything is a kingdom and the best rappers are kings. There are currently three Kings: Kool Savas, Azad and Bushido himself. However at that time, nobody knew him, but his raps were thought of being very good. Because he knew that, he named his record ""King of Kingz"". He said ""there can be 2 Kings, one for Berlin (Kool Savas) and one for Frankfurt am Main (Azad). Whatever. I shit on 'em. I'm the King. There is noone despite me. Fuck it. I'm the King of Kings."" - -This record was his way up. He was signed by Aggro Berlin which released this tape. He then made his well known record Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten (English: Carlo, Cocain, Hoes) and Vom Bordstein bis zu Skyline (From Pavement to the Skyline) which gained him fame nationwide. - -In 2004 he quit Aggro Berlin and started his own label Ersguterjunge (""First best boy"", a term which was used in the 1930s). He recorded albums and released them every 6 months. Including Electroghetto, Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten 2 and Staatsfeind Nr 1 ( State enemy No. 1). He was officially accused for making racist material and disrespect of minorities and females. However, this could not stop him from gaining success and fame. All his Albums gained Top-3 Chart placements. He was the first German Rapper to have two Albums in TOP-10 Charts placement. - -Real life -Other rappers, for example the American rapper Raptile, said that Bushido rapped about a way of life he never lived. Media like CNN showed that this is not true. In August 2005 he was sentenced to jail in Austria for beating someone with his bodyguards. They beat up the person because that person damaged the tires of his car. The Austrian judge gave him the option to pay 100.000 Euro ( 150,000 USD) to get out of jail. This was the highest amount possible by law and the judge thought Bushido could not afford that. - -Discography - -Albums - 1999: Demotape (Not distributed) - 2001: King of KingZ - 2002: Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten, as Sonny Black with Fler aka Frank White - 2003: King Of KingZ [Digital Remastered Version] - 2003: Demotape 1999 (First limited distribution, just 300 copies) - 2003: Vom Bordstein bis zur Skyline - 2004: King of KingZ 2004 Edition - 2004: Electro Ghetto - 2005: Carlo Cokxxx Nutten 2, as Sonny Black with Saad - 2005: King of KingZ & Demotape - extended version - 2005: Staatsfeind Nr. 1 - 2005: Electro Ghetto (Limited Pur Edition) (18. November 2005) (non-explicit with 5 Remixes) - 2006 Von der Skyline zum Bordstein zurück - 2008: Heavy Metal Payback - 2009 Carlo,Cokxxx Nutten 2,as Sonnyblack with Fler aka Frank White - 2010 Zeiten ändern dich - 2011 Jenseits von Gut und Böse 2011 23 (with Sido) - 2012 AMYF - 2014 Sonny Black - 2015 Carlo, Coxxx, Nutten III - 2016 CLA$$IC with Shindy - -Singles - 2003: Bei Nacht 2003: Gemein wie 10 2004: Nie wieder 2004: Mitten ins Gesicht (Promo track in Electro Ghetto Player) - 2004: Electro Ghetto 2004: Nie wieder 2004: Zukunft - 2005: Hoffnung stirbt zuletzt (with Cassandra Steen) - 2005: FLERräter (Free track with Eko Fresh) - 2005: Nie ein Rapper (feat. Saad) - 2005: Worldwide (Strapt & Bushido) - 2005: Endgegner / Staatsfeind Nr.1 2006: Von der Skyline zum Bordstein zurück - 2006: Sonnenbank Flavour - 2006: Vendetta (with Chakuza & Eko Fresh) - 2007: Janine - 2007: Eure Kinder (Chakuza feat. Bushido) - 2007: Alles verloren - 2007: Reich mir nicht deine Hand - 2007: Ring frei! (Eko Fresh feat. Bushido) - 2007: Alles Gute kommt von unten (with Chakuza & Kay One) - 2008: Regen (Saad feat. Bushido) - 2008: Unter der Sonne (Chakuza feat. Bushido) - 2008: Ching Ching - 2008: Für immer jung (feat. Karel Gott) - 2009: Kennst du die Stars (Oliver Pocher & Bushido) - 2009: Eine Chance / Zu Gangsta (Bushido produziert Sonny Black & Frank White) - 2010: ''Alles wird gut - -1978 births -Living people -Entertainers from Berlin -German criminals -German musical entertainers -Musicians from North Rhine-Westphalia -Rap musicians" -5870,19010,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing,Boeing,"The Boeing Company ( ) (NYSE: BA ) is an American company which makes aircraft and defense items. The company was started in 1916 by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington. Boeing has grown to become very big. It bought its main rival, McDonnell Douglas, in 1997. Boeing moved its headquarters from Seattle to Chicago, Illinois in 2001. Boeing is made up of many smaller parts. These parts are called divisions. The divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA); Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS); Engineering, Operations & Technology; Boeing Capital; and Boeing Shared Services Group. - -Boeing is one of the biggest aircraft manufacturers in the world. It is the second-biggest defense contractor in the world as of 2011. - -References - -Other websites - Boeing - -Aircraft companies -Companies based in Chicago, Illinois -1916 establishments in the United States" -18086,67999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dtei,Ryōtei,"A is a type of very expensive and elegant Japanese restaurant. Traditionally they only accept new customers who are recommended by known and trusted clients. They usually include entertainment by geisha, but not always in modern times. Ryōtei are usually a place where very important business or political meetings can take place in private. - -Other websites -New York Times article: In Tokyo's Ryotei, The Art of Service -The Traditional Ryotei Are in Danger at japaninc.com - -Asian restaurants -Japanese culture" -11019,39657,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database,Database,"A database is a system for storing and taking care of data (any kind of information). - -A database engine can sort, change or serve the information on the database. The information itself can be stored in many different ways; before digital computers, card files, printed books and other methods were used. Now most data is kept on computer files. - -A database system is a computer program for managing electronic databases. A very simple example of a database system would be an electronic address book. - -The data in a database is organized in some way. Before there were computers, employee data was often kept in filing cabinets. There was usually one card for each employee. On the card, information such as the date of birth or the name of the employee could be found. A database also has such ""cards"". To the user, the card will look the same as it did in old times, only this time it will be on the screen. To the computer, the information on the card can be stored in different ways. Each of these ways is known as a database model. The most commonly used database model is called the relational database model. It uses relations and sets to store the data. Normal users talking about the database model will not talk about relations; instead, they will talk about database tables. - -Uses for database systems -Uses for database systems include: - They store data and provide facilities (tools) to search for specific records in a given set of data. - They store special information used to manage the data. This information is called metadata and it is not shown to all the people looking at the data. - They can solve cases where many users want to access (and possibly change) the same entries of data. - They manage access rights (who is allowed to see the data, who can change it) - When there are many users asking questions to the database, the questions must be answered faster. In this way, the last person to ask a question can get an answer in a reasonable time. - Certain attributes are more important than others and can be used to find other data. This is called indexing. An index contains all the important data and can be used to find other data. - They ensure that the data always has context. There are a lot of different rules that can be added to tell the database system if the data makes sense. One of the rules might say November has 30 days. This means if someone wants to enter November 31 as a date, this change will be rejected. - -Changing data -In databases, some data changes occasionally. There may be problems when data is changed; for example, an error might have occurred. The error might make the data useless. The database system looks at the data to ensure that it meets certain requirements. It does this by using a transaction. There are two points in time in the database, the time before the data was changed, and the time after the data was changed. If something goes wrong when changing the data, the database system simply puts the database back into the state before the change happened. This is called a rollback. After all the changes are done successfully, they are committed. This means that the data makes sense again; committed changes can no longer be undone. - -In order to be able to do this, databases follow the ACID principle: - - All. Either all tasks of a given set (called a transaction) are done, or none of them is. This is known as Atomicity. - Complete. The data in the database always makes sense. There is no half-done (invalid) data. This is known as Consistency. - Independent. If many people work on the same data, they will not see (or impact) each other. Each of them has their own view of the database, which is independent of the others. This is known as Isolation. - Done. Transactions must be committed, when they are done. Once the committed, they can not be undone. This is known as Durability. - -Database model -There are different ways how to represent the data. - - Simple files (called flat files): This is the most simple form of Database system. All the data is stored in a file in plain text. Every piece of information can be separated by a new line or a comma etc. - Hierarchical model: The data is organized like a tree structure. The interesting data is at the leaves of the tree. The relationships among the data entries is such that some entries are directly dependent to other entries. - Network model: Use records and sets to store the data. Similar to Hierarchical model, but this has much more complex structure. - Relational model: This uses set theory and predicate logic. It is widely used. Data looks like it is organized in tables. These tables can then be joined together so that simple queries can be chosen from them. - Object oriented model: The data is represented in the form of objects as used in Object Oriented Programming. They can interact directly with the OOP language being used, as both of them have the same representation of the data internally. - Object relational model: This is a hybrid of the Object oriented model and the relational model. - NoSQL model: This is a new kind of database model and is increasing being used in the industry in big data and real-time web applications. The data in this model is stored as key-value pairs without any strict hierarchy as in other models. NoSQL systems are also referred to as ""Not only SQL"" because they do not allow Structured Query Language-like query languages to be used. - -Ways to organize the data -As in real life, the same data can be looked at from different perspectives, and it can be organized in different ways. There are different things to consider, when organizing the data: - Each item of data should be stored as few times as possible. Imagine that an unmarried woman is listed in the county records, State Motor Vehicle Department, Federal Social Security Department and International Passport Department. If she marries, and decides to change her name, all the these departments have to be notified. If all the departments were linked, and her name stored in only one place, then updating is easy. - If the data is stored in several different databases, it may contradict itself. - This problem makes finding data slower. If there is a lot of data, this problem of storing one piece of data in many places, will take up a lot of space. In our example there were four databases for one person. That will be eight changes made, if a second person has exactly the same problem. - If you have this problem, a method called Database Normalisation was developed to solve it. Currently there are six Normal forms. These are ways to make a database faster, and make the data take less space. - -References - -Related pages -Archive" -1576,5430,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral%20purchasing,Moral purchasing,"Moral purchasing is when a person uses moral reasoning to decide what to buy. For example, when a person chooses to buy local goods instead of those from other countries, helps neighbours and processes that one can point to quickly. - -Other page -Fair trade - -Ethics" -9384,32100,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransom,Ransom,"Ransom can mean two things: -Holding a person against their will, in order to get some money (or some other things) -The money, or the goods which (could possibly) be obtained in such a way. - -If people talk about that they need to pay money to the state or the police, to get free, the correct legal term used is usually bail. - -Often in piracy, pirates would steal something or someone important and demand a ransom payment. - -Piracy -Kidnapping" -13798,51089,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylon,Cylon,"The Cylons are fictional robots on the science fiction television series Battlestar Galactica. - -The Story So Far - -The people from the Twelve Colonies of Kobol created the Cylon robots. They told them to work for them and fight for them. The Cylons stood up to the people from the Colonies and fought against them. The Cylons went away after the war and changed into real people as well as robots. After forty years, the Cylons came back and almost killed all the people in the Colonies. They went after the people that were not killed in many ships. - -Types of Cylons -Skinjob Cylons look the same as normal people. It is very hard to know if they are Cylons or normal people. There are many Skinjobs that look the same. There are only twelve looks. Cylons that look the same do not always act the same. - -Centurions are metal robots with armor. Humans sometimes call them toasters because they are shiny like a toaster. Centurions fight and work. They are the only type of Cylons to not be alive. - -Cylon raiders are small ships that fight other small ships. The ship is actually a type of animal. - -Fictional races -Battlestar Galactica" -23878,92250,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20the%20Mixed-Up%20Files%20of%20Mrs.%20Basil%20E.%20Frankweiler%20%281995%20movie%29,From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler (1995 movie),"From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler is a 1995 television movie based on E.L. Konigsburg's novel From the Mixed-Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler. The story is about a girl and her brother who run away from home to live in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art and find what they think is a lost treasure. The children, Claudia and Jamie, are amazed with the treasure and would not leave without knowing what its secret is. Lauren Bacall stars in the title role. - -Before this movie, the book was made into a 1973 feature movie starring Ingrid Bergman, later released on home video as The Hideaways. - -Cast - Lauren Bacall as Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler - Jean Marie Barnwell as Claudia Eleanor Kincaid - Jesse Lee Soffer as James Lincoln ""Jamie"" Kincaid - Miriam Flynn as Evelyn Kincaid - Mark L. Taylor as Ralph Kincaid - M. Emmet Walsh as Morris - Devon Gummersall as Steve Kincaid - Del Hunter-White as Cora - Warren Munson as Mr. Jordan - Everett Wong as Bruce - Tim Haldeman as Herbert - El Konigsburg as Sarah - -Other websites - - -1995 movies -Television movies -Movies based on books" -14232,52922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctivitis,Conjunctivitis,"Conjunctivitis (also known as pinkeye) is a medical condition when the Conjunctiva (a transparent membrane that lines the outer eye, and inner part of the eyelid) becomes inflamed. The cause of conjunctivitis can be either bacterial or viral infection. - -Other websites - - Mayo Clinic - Pink-eye - All About Vision - Kid's Health - MedicineNet - WebMD - Learning the Herbs - Natural treatment for pink-eye - -Infectious diseases" -10475,37204,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Airways,British Airways,"British Airways (sometimes known as just ""BA"") is the United Kingdom's largest airline, and is the UK's flag carrier. It was formed in 1974 when the UK's two government owned airlines, the British Oversea Airways Corporation and British European Airways were joined together. It is now owned by a company called International Airlines Group, which also owns Iberia Airlines, and is one of the largest companies in the United Kingdom. It operates domestic flights within the UK as well as international flights to Europe and the rest of the world. - -British Airways has a large fleet of aircraft, including planes built by Boeing, Airbus and Embraer. They are now operating the Airbus A380, the largest passenger plane ever built. -For a while during the 1990s British Airways' planes had tails each painted in a design to symbolise a country of the world. This was called the World Tails scheme, and it wasn't very popular. However, they now have tails that are based on the Union Jack. - -British Airways also flew the Concorde, one of only two aircraft types that could fly faster than the speed of sound. However, this plane was taken out of the fleet in 2003 after the crash of Air France flight 4590, after being used for 27 years. - -Heathrow Airport - -British Airways has its own terminal at Heathrow Airport in London called Terminal 5 or T5. It was opened on 14 March 2008 by the UK monarch Queen Elizabeth II, and cost £4.3 billion ($6.2 billion) to build. It is between Heathrow's two runways- 27L/09R and 27R/09L. The site is 260 hectares in size, and has its own train station. It also has over 100 shops and restaurants. - -The only airlines to use terminal 5 are British Airways and Iberia Airlines. Not all of British Airways' flights go through T5. Some flights, such as those to Thailand, Singapore and Sydney in Australia depart from Terminal 3. - -In 2011, 26.3 million passengers and 184,616 flights departed from Terminal 5. - -Other Airports -British Airways also has many flights from Gatwick Airport, and London City Airport which are both in London. These two airports, along with Heathrow Airport, are British Airways' main airports. - -Aircraft -British Airways has a fleet of 253 planes: - -Pictures - -BA CityFlier and OpenSkies -British Airways also owns two other smaller airlines called BA CityFlier and OpenSkies, which run different services than the large airline. - -BA CityFlier runs flights from London City Airport to other major cities in the UK (such as Edinburgh and Glasgow) and the rest of Europe (such as Nice in France, Dublin in Ireland, Frankfurt in Germany, Madrid in Spain and Zurich in Switzerland). It began flying passengers in March 2007. It is also a much smaller airline than British Airways, and has 14 Embraer E-Jet family planes. - -OpenSkies in an even smaller airline with only two aircraft- old Boeing 757s from that used to belong to British Airways. At the moment, the airline only flies to/from Paris in France and New York in the United States of America. The two Boeing 757s have enough room for 110 passengers, and have 20 Business class seats, 24 Premium Economy class seats and 66 Economy class seats. - -Oneworld - -British Airways is a member of Oneworld. Oneworld is a partnership between 11 airlines: American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia Airlines, Japan Airlines, LAN, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas, Royal Jordanian Airlines, S7 Airlines and British Airways. Smaller airlines that are owned by these 12 member airlines are also part of Oneworld- for example BA CityFlier. There is one exception- OpenSkies however is not part of Oneworld. - -Being part of Oneworld means that the airlines sell tickets for their own flights as well as for other members' flights (for example, British Airways sells tickets for American Airlines flights). This is good for the airlines because the customers can get their tickets in one place and it lets the airlines use flights that they wouldn't normally have. Also, Oneworld has a frequent flier program, where all the separate member airlines' airmiles can be used, so they can be used across all the member airlines. The three levels are Oneworld Ruby (lowest), Oneworld Sapphire (middle) and Oneworld Emerald (highest). It is up to the airlines to decide how many air miles a passenger needs to get rewards from their own scheme. A passenger is awarded one air mile for each mile that they fly with the airline for. - -Other facts about British Airways - - It was the first airline to introduce flat beds in Business Class, although many airlines now have this feature - It is shown in the James Bond movie series. - The airline was awarded 'Airline of the Year 2015' - It formerly operated more Boeing 747s than any other airline (however with the introduction of the B777 and the A380 that number is predicted to drop). As a result of the global Covid-19 Pandemic and subsequent drop in air travel, British Airways permanently retired its 747 Fleet in 2020. -In 1989, the airline launched a 90-second advert known as “Face” which has become a classic. It features groups of people in the shape of parts of the face which forms together by the end of the advert, as well as scenes of people uniting. Other versions of the advert soon followed. - -References - -Other websites - British Airways Official Site - -1974 establishments in the United Kingdom -Airlines of the United Kingdom" -502,2044,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20semantics,General semantics,"General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning. It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s. - -The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified. How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality. General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed. - -Branches of philosophy -Reality" -18917,71120,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956%20Summer%20Olympics,1956 Summer Olympics,"The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVI Olympiad, were held at Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. - -Melbourne was chosen as the host city over instead of Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal and six American cities on 28 April 1949 at the 43rd IOC session. - -The equestrian events were not held in Australia because of quarantine regulations. These events were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden, making it the second time that events of the same Olympics were held in different countries. - -Participating nations -A total of 67 nations sent athletes to compete at the Melbourne games. - -Five nations competed in the horse riding events in Stockholm; however, athletes from these nations did not take part in the Games in Melbourne. The five were Cambodia, Egypt, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland. - -Related pages - List of IOC country codes - -References - -Other websites - - Melbourne-Stockholm 1956 at Olympic.org - -1956 Summer Olympics -1956 in Sweden -1956 in sports -1950s in Australia -History of Melbourne -History of Stockholm" -20899,80378,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20Wikipedia,French Wikipedia,"The French Wikipedia, the free Wikipedia ( or ) is the French language edition of Wikipedia, spelled Wikipédia. It started in March 2001. It is the largest Wikipedia in a Romance language. It was the third largest Wikipedia after the English language and German language editions, but dropped to sixth. - -As of , it has about articles. - -References - -Other websites - - French Wikipedia, the Free Wikipedia's Main page7 - -Wikipedias -Websites established in 2001" -22254,84324,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibstadt,Leibstadt,"Leibstadt is a municipality of the district of Zurzach in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Aargau" -9345,32023,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman%20Returns,Batman Returns,"Batman Returns was the second (and last) Batman movie directed by Tim Burton. It was released on June 19, 1992 worldwide to critical and financial success although a backlash criticized the movie's dark and mature undertones. - -Release Dates - -Plot -A couple throws their child into the sewers because he is deformed. 33 years later, the child becomes the supervillain, Penguin. He kidnaps businessman Max Shreck, blackmailing him into helping him become a citizen of Gotham City using evidence of his corporate crimes. Meanwhile, Max finds out his secretary, Selina Kyle, has found out he is planning to build a power plant which will drain Gotham City of its electricity. Max pushes her out of a window, ensuring that she will not tell anyone. However, a flock of alley cats lick her semi-corpse, reviving her. She returns home, suffering a mental breakdown, becoming the supervillain, Catwoman. - -Penguin makes one of his costumed henchman to kidnap the mayor's baby while he ""saves"" him, becoming a hero in the eyes of the people however, billionaire Bruce Wayne is suspicious of the Penguin and finds out that he is the leader of the Red Triangle Circus Gang who commits crimes throughout Gotham. As Batman, Bruce decides to protect Gotham from the gang. After Penguin finds out his parents are dead and his name is Oswald Cobblepot, Max decides to make Penguin the mayor of Gotham City because the current mayor will not approve Max's power plant. - -To do this, Penguin makes the Red Triangle Circus Gang create a riot, making the people lose all faith in the mayor but Batman stops it. During the riot, Catwoman vandalizes Shreck's Department Store. When Batman and Penguin confront each other, she intervenes, saying ""Meow"" before the store blows up(she rigged it to blow). Penguin escapes but Catwoman fights Batman. Batman pushes her off a rooftop but a sandbox on a truck saves her. The next day, Penguin and Catwoman work together to destroy Batman. Bruce and Selina also have a romantic relationship. Penguin and Catwoman kidnap the Ice Princess, an actress chosen to turn on the Gotham City Christmas Tree Lights, framing Batman for it. Batman finds her but Catwoman takes her to a rooftop where Penguin releases a swarm of flying bats which make the Princess retreat backwards, falling off, making the people believe Batman killed her. Catwoman rejects Penguin's advances, prompting him to kill her, unsuccessfully though. Batman enters the Batmobile and finds out that Penguin has control over it. Penguin takes it on a devastating rampage but Batman regains control over it, escaping death. - -During the rampage, Batman recorded Penguin's evil plans and plays it during Penguin's election speech, turning the people against him. Penguin goes mad with rage and kidnaps all the first-born sons of Gotham City and Max too. Batman saves all the babies and pushes Penguin into toxic liquid. Catwoman tries to kill Max but Batman stops her. Max shoots Batman, knocking him out and Catwoman claims that she has six of her nine lives left but Max shoots her four times, leaving her with two lives. Catwoman kisses Max with an electrical taser between their lips and connects it to a broken wire, creating an explosion which kills Max but Batman cannot find Selina's corpse. Penguin emerges from the water but the heat kills him. - -Afterwards, Alfred, Bruce's butler, drives Bruce home. Suddenly, Bruce spots Selina's shadow in an alley. He investigates the area, only finding her black cat, Miss Kitty, taking her with him. He and Alfred exchange Christmas wishes. Finally, Batsignal lights up in the night sky and Catwoman rises up, staring at it, confirming that she is alive. - -Production -Tim Burton was not willing to direct a second Batman. However, when the studio told him if it was a Burton movie, not a Batman movie, it got his attention and he agreed to direct it. They cast Michael Keaton as Batman, Danny DeVito as Penguin and Annette Bening as Catwoman. However, Bening dropped out due to pregnancy and every actress from 20-45 on the plant wanted to be Catwoman. When Michelle Pfeiffer expressed an interest, something clicked to the producers thinking ""You know, she's perfect. She also could be both Selina Kyle and Catwoman."" The final shot of Catwoman staring at the Batsignal was shot during post-production and cost US$250 000. - -Release -The movie was released on June 19, 1992 worldwide. It received a score of 81% approval on Rotten Tomatoes and grossed $282,822,354 worldwide, being the sixth highest-grossing film of 1992. It is then and now, the best reviewed Batman movie from the Burton/Schumacher movie series. - -Related pages - Batman - Batman (1989 movie) - Batman Forever - -References - -Other websites - -Movies based on comic book characters -1992 movies -1990s superhero movies -Batman (1989 movie series) -Batman movies -Movies composed by Danny Elfman -English-language movies -Warner Bros. movies -American superhero movies" -15994,61418,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Bragg%2C%20California,"Fort Bragg, California","Fort Bragg is a town in California's Mendocino County. The population was 7,026 at the 2000 census. Fort Bragg is located on the Pacific Coast Highway, California Rte-1. A US Army officer named it for one of his old commanding officers, Braxton Bragg (1817–1876) who was a career U.S. Army officer. He was later a general in the Confederate States Army. Because of this, the town shares a name with Fort Bragg, North Carolina, and they are named for the same man. - -Cities in California -Settlements in Mendocino County, California" -19394,73895,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laborschule%20Bielefeld,Laborschule Bielefeld,"Laborschule Bielefeld (Laboratory school Bielefeld) is school in Bielefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The school was created in 1974. It is based on the ideas of Hartmut von Hentig. Laborschule Bielefeld tries new ways of teaching. The University of Bielefeld runs the school. - -Laborschule Bielefeld has students from grade 0 through grade 10. Each grade has 60 students in it with a total of 660 students in the school. Laborschule Bielefeld does not group children by age. It groups them by level of learning. In that way, there are groups of children of different ages that are together to learn. Only students in grades nine and ten get written marks for their work. - -The school was rated with a PISA-Test. The test showed that students at the school were generally better at reading and in sciences than students of the same age who went to other schools. - -Education in North Rhine-Westphalia -Bielefeld" -19909,76161,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/81P/Wild,81P/Wild,"Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced Vilt), who discovered it in 1978. - -It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit). - -Gallery - -Other websites - NASA Team Analyzes Stardust Particle Capture January 18, 2006 - NASA/JPL homepage for Stardust project - Stardust@Home Volunteer Particle Analysis Project - IAU Ephemerides page for 81P - Catalogue of all 72 raw images of Wild 2 - -Comets" -14740,55562,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%20of%20the%20Queen%27s%20Music,Master of the Queen's Music,"Master of the Queen's Music (or Master of the King's Music when the United Kingdom has a king) is the title given to one chosen composer of classical music; it is a post in the Royal Household of the King or Queen of the United Kingdom. Only one person holds the title at any one time. It is very similar to the post of Poet Laureate which is for a poet. - -The Master of the Queen's Music is now Sir Peter Maxwell Davies. Instead of being appointed for life, he was appointed for a ten-year term, starting March 2004. The change was to give more composers the opportunity to serve. - -The Master of the Queen's Music has the job of composing music for special royal occasions such as anniversaries, marriages and funerals, and for special ceremonies. - -The title was created in 1626 by Charles I. It was spelt Master of the King's Musick and was always spelt that way until the time of Sir Edward Elgar who was Master from 1924 to 1934. - -Holders of the post have been: - -Nicholas Lanier (1625-1649 and 1660-1666) -Louis Grabu (1666-1674) -Nicholas Staggins (1674-1700) -John Eccles (1700-1735) -Maurice Greene (1735-1755) -William Boyce (1755-1779) -John Stanley (1779-1786) -William Parsons (1786-1817) -William Shield (1817-1829) -Christian Kramer (1829-1834) -Franz Cramer (1834-1848) -George Frederick Anderson (1848-1870) -Sir William George Cusins (1870-1893) -Professor Sir Walter Parratt, KCVO (1893-1924) -Sir Edward Elgar, Bt OM GCVO (1924-1934) -Sir Henry Walford Davies, KCVO OBE (1934-1941) -Sir Arnold Bax, KCVO (1942-1952) -Sir Arthur Bliss, CH KCVO (1953-1975) -Malcolm Williamson, CBE AO (1975-2003) -Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, CBE (2004-appointed until 2014) - -References - -British music -Musicians -British monarchy" -23540,90737,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write%20Once%20Read%20Many,Write Once Read Many,"Write Once Read Many (times) or WORM is a classification of computer storage media. It is used to describe media that can only be written once. After they are written, they can only be read. - -There are two different kinds of such media: -In some, the hardware prevents multiple writes, examples of such media are the CD-R and DVD-R discs. There is also some kind of computer memory (called PROM) which can only be written once. -Certain kind of media use a software solution to emulate this behaviour. Examples are certain kinds of backup tapes and harddisks that can also have this property. - -Storage devices" -2976,9343,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Clyde,River Clyde,"The River Clyde (, ) is a river in Scotland. It flows through Glasgow before opening up into the Firth of Clyde. - -Other websites - - River Clyde: Source to Firth Panorama Project - The Clyde-built ships data base - lists over 22,000 ships built on the Clyde - Clyde Waterfront regeneration - Clyde Waterfront Heritage - Glasgow Digital Library: Glimpses of old Glasgow - In Glasgow Photo Gallery of pictures of the River Clyde - Clydebank Restoration Trust - -Rivers of Scotland" -4004,12349,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Cure,The Cure,"The Cure are a British rock band. They formed in Crawley, West Sussex, England in 1976. - -History -The Cure began in 1974 as 'Easy Cure'. It was formed by Robert Smith (vocals, guitar) together with schoolmates Michael Dempsey (bass), Lol Tolhurst (drums), and local guitarist Porl Thompson. - -They began writing and demoing their own songs almost immediately, playing throughout 1975 in Southern England to an ever growing army of fans. In September 1976 the 'Easy' was dropped, along with Porl, and an eager trio now known simply as The Cure were quickly signed to Chris Parry's new Fiction label. - -First album -In September 1977 their debut album Three Imaginary Boys was released to great acclaim, and as the band toured extensively around the UK, the singles “Boys Don't Cry” and “Jumping Someone Else's Train” were released. Michael left the band at the mid of the year, and Simon Gallup (bass) and Matthieu Hartley (keyboards) joined. In early 1978 the 4-piece Cure embarked on an exploration of the darker side of Robert's songwriting, and emerged with the minimalist classic Seventeen Seconds, along with their first real 'hit single' “A Forest.” They supporting Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias in October 1978. - -Results and second album -After an intense world tour Matthieu left the group, and in early 1979 the trio recorded an album of mournful atmospheric soundscapes entitled Faith, which included another successful single in “Primary.” - -Third album -The band then set out on a second trip around the world, named “The Picture Tour,” and they put out the single “Charlotte Sometimes.” In 1982 The Cure went back into the studio to record the album “Pornography” which had a dark mood. The trip was difficult for the band members, and the single “The Hanging Garden” came out just as Simon left the band. - -First dance single -Robert Smith and Lol Tolhurst were now the only band members. To feel better, the band chose to change the dark mood of the band into a more fun “pop” mood. So they recorded a dance single called “Let's Go To Bed,” and became good friends with the song's film-clip director, Tim Pope. The band continued into 1983 with two more fun singles: “The Walk” and “The Lovecats.” - -Fourth album -In 1984 The Top was released, a strange hallucinogenic mix, which contained the infectiously psychedelic single “The Caterpillar.” - -Expansion of the band -The world ‘Top Tour’ saw the band expand to a 5-piece, with the addition of Andy Anderson (drums) and Phil Thornalley (bass), and the return of Porl Thompson (guitar). - -The new Cure sound was captured live for the album Concert. Andy and Phil left soon after the end of the tour, and were replaced by Boris Williams (drums) and further returnee Simon Gallup (bass). This new incarnation started work on 1985's The Head On The Door with a very real sense of 'something happening'... The vibrant hit single “Inbetween Days” was followed up by “Close To Me,” and the ensuing world tour paved the way for the massive success of the singles collection Standing On A Beach in 1986. That summer saw the band headline the Glastonbury Festival for the first time, and a year of extensive gigs and festivals was crowned by Tim Pope's live concert film The Cure In Orange. - -First double album -In 1987 The Cure brought out Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me, an immense double album of extreme and extraordinary stylistic range, and with the arrival of Roger O'Donnell on keyboards the 6-piece Cure traveled the world with the 'Kissing Tour', enjoying four more hit singles along the way. The wonderfully atmospheric Disintegration was demoed in 1988 and released in 1989, and despite being a work of powerful brooding grandeur, it too gave rise to four hit singles. The 'Prayer Tour' followed, with the band back down to a five-piece following the departure of Lol Tolhurst. It was captured live for the album Entreat. - -Replacing Roger O'Donnell -In early 1990 Roger O'Donnell left the group, and was replaced by long-time band friend Perry Bamonte, just in time for a series of headlining European festival shows that included the band's second Glastonbury headline slot. The album Mixed Up was released, supported by the re-mixed singles “Never Enough,” “Close To Me” and “A Forest,” and in 1991 The Cure at last won some long overdue “home” recognition with a Brit Award for “Best British Group.” - -Sixth album -In 1992 they recorded Wish, a richly diverse multi-faceted guitar driven album hailed by some as their best work to date. It spawned 3 fabulous hit singles, and the glorious ‘Wish Tour' that followed was a worldwide sell out. The sheer power of the shows inspired the release of two live works in 1993, Paris and Show. Immediately after the tour ended, guitarist Porl Thompson left the band again (this time with a smile!), and The Cure headlined the XFM 'Great Xpectations Show' in London's Finsbury Park as a 4-piece. The band also contributed ”Burn” to the film “The Crow” and covered “Purple Haze” for the Hendrix tribute album 'Stone Free'. - -Seventh album -In 1994 Boris Williams decided to move on, and in early 1995 Jason Cooper took up residency behind the drum kit, with Roger O'Donnell rejoining once more on keyboards. Work on the next album was interspersed with recording “Dredd Song” for the film “Judge Dredd,” a cover of Bowie's “Young Americans” for an XFM album, and headlining several major European festivals, including the 25th Glastonbury. Wild Mood Swings was released in 1996, and went straight into almost every top ten around the world. The Cure hit the road once more with 'The Swing Tour', their longest to date, and released 4 more singles. - -Eighth album -Galore, the follow up singles and video compilation to Standing On A Beach, was released in 1997, after which work took place in 1998 on a variety of projects, including “More than This” for the “X Files” album, and a memorable appearance by Robert in “South Park” In 1999 the band completed the recording and mixing of what many regard as their best studio album so far, the Grammy Nominated Bloodflowers. With its release in 2000 the band set off on the massive world-wide 'Dreamtour' - playing to more than a million people in 9 months. - -Ninth album -2001 saw the long-awaited release of the Cure's “Greatest Hits” album, which featured all the band's biggest selling singles along with 2 new songs, the elegiac “Cut Here” and the ebullient “Just Say Yes,” a duet with Saffron. This year also saw the end of the group's relationship with Fiction Records, the label they had been instrumental in starting 23 years before. - -Festivals in Europe -In 2002 the band spent the summer headlining a number of European festivals before going into rehearsals for two very special nights in November at the Tempodrom Berlin, where they performed all the tracks from Pornography, Disintegration and Bloodflowers plus encores. Both performances were shot in Hi-Def video on 12 cameras, and Trilogy DVD was released in 2003 as another chapter of The Cure story opened, the band signing a 3 album global deal with the Geffen label. - -Tenth album -2004 saw the release of 'Join the Dots', a 4cd Boxset of all the B-sides and Rarities, followed by the widely acclaimed new album ‘The Cure’, and another hugely successful world tour. - -In 2005 Perry Bamonte and Roger O’Donnell left the band and Porl Thompson joined for a third time. The quartet’s debut show was headlining Live 8 Paris, followed by a number of other summer European Festivals. The first 4 Cure albums (Three Imaginary Boys, Seventeen Seconds, Faith and Pornography) were re-released, with Robert providing 'rarities' for Deluxe Edition extras CD's, as part of an ongoing campaign to remaster and re-issue all the Cure albums. Immediately after closing a week of Teenage Cancer Trust Shows at the Royal Albert Hall in April 2006, the band started recording their 13th studio album. - -Eleventh album -In August 2006, the second set of re-releases (The Top, The Head On The Door, Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me) was released, each album as a 2CD Deluxe Edition, along with 1983’s Glove album Blue Sunshine, while in the studio The Cure passed the 30 new songs mark. In November ‘Festival 2005’, a 155 minute 5.1 DVD comprising a 30 song selection of live performances captured the previous summer by a mix of fans, crew and ‘on-the-night-big-screen cameras’, was released. - -Thirteenth album -In 2006 The Cure started writing and recording 4:13 Dream. It was released in 2008. It was going to be a double album but featured 13 songs. - -Present -In 2013 the band started The Great Circle Tour. - -References - -Musical groups established in 1976 -1970s British music groups -1980s British music groups -1990s British music groups -2000s British music groups -2010s British music groups -English rock bands -Entertainers from Sussex" -14067,52200,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementary%20color,Complementary color,"Complementary colors are pairs of opposite colors. What is meant by opposite can be different between color science, and art and the printing process. - -Color science - -In color science ""complementary colors"" are colors opposite to each other on the color wheel. Primary colors and secondary colors are typically paired in this way: - -red and cyan ( red   cyan ) (where cyan is the mixture of green and blue) -green and magenta ( green   magenta ) (where magenta is the mixture of red and blue) -blue and yellow ( blue   yellow ) (where yellow is the mixture of red and green) - -Afterimages -If a person stares at a single color for about a minute then looks at a white surface, an afterimage of the complementary color will appear. This is because of eye fatigue. For example, if the person stares at a red color, the photoreceptors (cells in the eye which catch colored light) for red light in the retina (the back part of the eye) become fatigued. When photoreceptors are fatigued they are less able to send information to the brain. If the person then looks at white light, all photoreceptors will send information. Because the photoreceptors for red light are fatigued, the information they send will not be as strong as the information about the colors other than red and the illusion of seeing the complementary color is created. - -Art and design - -Because of the limited range of colors that was available throughout most of the history of art, many artists still use a traditional set of complementary pairs, including: - - red and green - blue and orange - yellow and purple - -The complement of each primary color (red, blue, or yellow) is roughly the color made by mixing the other two in a subtractive system (red + blue = purple; blue + yellow = green; red + yellow = orange). When two complements are mixed they produce a gray or brown. - -The use of complementary colors is an important aspect of art and graphic design. This also extends to other fields such as contrasting colors in logos and retail display. When placed next to each other, complements make each other appear brighter. On an artistic color wheel, complementary colors are placed opposite one another. Although these artistic complements may not be precise complements under the scientific definition, most artistic color wheels are laid out roughly like the HSV color wheel discussed above. - -References - -Color" -1592,5465,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/5,5,"5 (V) is a common year of the Julian calendar which started on a Thursday. According to the Gregorian calendar, it started on a Saturday. It was known as the Year of the Consulship of Messalla and Cinna. It was the 5th year of the 1st century. - -It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), 100 AD (C), 500 AD (D), and 1000 AD (M). - -Events - -Roman Empire -Rome acknowledges Cunobelinus, King of the Catuvellauni, as King of Britain. - Germanic Tribes Cimbri and Charydes send ambassadors to Rome - Gnaeus Cornelius Cinna Magnus, Lucius Valerius Messalla Volesus (or Gaius Ateius Capito) become Roman consuls - Tiberius conquers Germania Inferior - Agrippina the Elder marries Germanicus her second cousin. - Livilla marries Drusus Julius Caesar, Tiberius's son. - Polycharmus Azenius becomes Archon of Athens. - -China - Emperor Ping of Han is assassinated. Grand Empress Dowager Wang appoints Wang Mang as acting-emperor of Han until a suitable successor is found to replace the childless Ping. - -Births - Julia, daughter of Drusus Julius Caesar and Livilla (d. 43) - Drusilla of Mauretania - Ruzi Ying, great-grandson of Emperor Xuan Han, Emperor of China (d. 25) - Yin Lihua, Empress of China (d. 64) - -Deaths - Gaius Asinius Pollio, Roman orator, poet and historian (b. 76 or 75 BC) - Ping of Han, Emperor of China is assassinated, poisoned it is believed on the orders of Wang Mang (b. 14 BC). - -References - -0s" -744,3343,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEWI%20Cefn%20Druids%20F.C.,NEWI Cefn Druids F.C.,"NEWI Cefn Druids Football Club (they used to be called Flexsys Cefn Druids) are a Welsh football (soccer) team. - -They play in the Welsh League - -Welsh football clubs" -377,765,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed,Seed,"A seed is the part of a seed plant which can grow into a new plant. It is a reproductive structure which disperses, and can survive for some time. A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat. - -There are many different kinds of seeds. Some plants make a lot of seeds, some make only a few. Seeds are often hard and very small, but some are larger. The coconut is as big as a child's head, but it contains more than just a seed. At the start, seeds are dormant (resting inside their coat) for a while. When the seed is ready to develop, it needs water, air and warmth but not sunlight to become a seedling. - -Seeds carry the food that helps the new plant begin to grow. This food store is in the endosperm, and/or in the cotyledons. Many kinds of seeds are good food for animals and people. The many kinds of grain that people grow, such as rice, wheat, and maize, are all seeds. Seeds are often inside fruits. - -Development from the seed -A seed, though not active, is a tiny living thing. It contains the embryo of the future plant, which is not changing or developing: it is dormant. The common idea is that the seed ""sleeps"" until it gets what it needs to wake up. That is not correct. Different seeds have different habits, no doubt adapted to their habitat. There are different kinds of resting stages in seeds: -1. Seed dormancy: means the seed does not develop for a while even when conditions are suitable.p98 Delayed germination (development) allows time for dispersal. Changes take place inside the seed which sooner or later make it germinate. The details vary hugely between species. -2. Seed hibernation: fails to germinate because conditions are not right. Growth is triggered by particular events in the environment. Details of the triggers are known for some, but not all, seeds. Rain, fire, ground temperature, are examples. Many seeds only germinate after they have been eaten and passed through the digestive system of an animal. This also is a dispersal method. - -When a seed germinates (""wakes up""), it begins to grow into a little plant called a seedling. It uses the soft fleshy material inside the seed for nutrients (food) until it is ready to make food on its own using sunlight, water and air. - -Most seeds germinate underground where there is no sunlight. The plant does not need the nutrients in soil for a few days or weeks, because the seed has all the things it needs to grow. Later, though, it will begin to need sunlight. If there is sunlight, the plant will use it to grow healthy. If there is no light, the plant will still grow for a while, but its plastids will not mature: the chlorophyll does not turn green. If the plant does not get enough light, it will eventually die. It needs light to make food for itself when the reserve in the seed runs out. - - The oldest carbon 14-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at Herod the Great's palace on Masada in Israel. It was germinated in 2005. - The largest seed is produced by the Coco de mer, or ""double coconut palm"", Lodoicea maldivica. The entire fruit may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed. - -Origin and evolution -Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of conifers and flowering plants. Plants such as mosses, liverworts and ferns do not have seeds, and use unprotected spores and other methods to propagate themselves. Before the upper Devonian period, land plants, like modern ferns, reproduced by sending spores into the air. The spores would land and become new plants only in favourable conditions. Spores have little food stored, and may be just single cells rather than embryos. - -The evolution of seeds changed the plant life cycle by freeing plants from the need for external water for sexual reproduction, and by providing protection and nutrients for the developing embryo. These functions allowed plants to expand beyond the immediate neighbourhood of water sources. They were able to exploit environments which were drier and more upland.p92 This can be seen by the success of seed plants in important biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates. The present-day seed plants are the Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, and the Angiosperms with covered seeds, usually fruits. - -The first true seeds are from the upper Devonian 370–354 million years ago, which is probably the theatre of their first evolutionary radiation. The earliest seed-producing trees were in the forests of the Carboniferous period.p112 The seed plants steadily became one of the most important elements of nearly all ecosystems. - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Plant anatomy" -4447,13964,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet,Sweet,"Sweet can mean: - -sweetness, the taste of sugar -Sweets: British English for the confectionery which Americans call candy. -Sweet (band), a British band - -Basic English 850 words" -20243,77727,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20Iraq,Provinces of Iraq,"Iraq is divided into 18 provinces (muhafazah). also the Iraqi Constitution has recognized only one autonomous federal region inside Iraq, the name of the region is Iraqi Kurdistan Region, this region consists of the three provinces of Dahuk ( دهوك ), Arbil ( اربيل ) and As-Sulaymaniyyah (السليمانية )" -10706,38216,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capra%20%28genus%29,Capra (genus),"Capra is a genus of the subfamily Caprinae and the family Bovidae. The domestic goat and other animals like it belong to this genus. - -Taxonomy - Genus Capra - Wild Goat (Capra aegagrus), and the domestic goat - Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex) - Walia Ibex (Capra walie) - West Caucasian Tur (Capra caucasica) - East Caucasian Tur (Capra cylindricornis) - Spanish Ibex (Capra pyrenaica) - Markhor (Capra falconeri) (National animal of Pakistan) - -Other websites - -Caprids" -2346,7655,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1452,1452," - -Events - March – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor becomes the last to be crowned in Rome. - Portuguese navigator Diogo de Teive discovers Corvo Island in the Azores. - 18 June – Pope Nicholas V issues the bull Dum Diversas, legitimising the colonial slave trade. - October – English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight. - A major eruption of the South Pacific volcano Kuwae in Vanuatu has a subsequent global cooling effect (the eruption released more sulfate than any other event in the past 700 years). - Battle of Bealach nam Broig, a Scottish clan battle. - Murder of William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas by James II of Scotland at Stirling Castle. - Revolt of Ghent: Forces of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, clash multiple times with rebel militia from Ghent in the region around Ghent. - -Births - February 6 – Joana, Crown Princess of Portugal (d. 1490) - March 10 – King Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516) - April 15 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and inventor (d. 1519) - April 19 – King Frederick IV of Naples (d. 1504) - July 10 – King James III of Scotland (d. 1488) - July 27 – Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1508) - September 21 – Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer and ruler of Florence (d. 1498) - October 2 – King Richard III of England (d. 1485) - December 10 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician (d. 1531) - -Deaths - February 10 - Svitrigaila, Grand Prince of Lithuania - Michał Bolesław Zygmuntowicz, Prince of Black Ruthenia - May 26 – John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury - December 12 – Guillaume Huin d'Estaing, Catholic cardinal - date unknown - Nicholas Close, English bishop - Gemistus Pletho, philosopher - William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas" -6714,21195,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilo%20%26%20Stitch,Lilo & Stitch,"Lilo & Stitch is a 2002 animated movie, released by Walt Disney Pictures and produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation. on June 21, 2002. The 41st animated movie in the Disney animated features canon, it was written by and directed by Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois. It was the second of three Disney animated movies produced mainly at the Walt Disney Feature Animation Florida studio in Walt Disney World's Disney-MGM Studios in Orlando, Florida. The movie was rated PG for ""mild sci-fi action"". Lilo & Stitch was nominated for the 2002 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, which went to Hayao Miyazaki's movie, Spirited Away which also was released by Walt Disney Pictures and starred Daveigh Chase (in the English version). - -The movie was so popular that it started a franchise. A direct-to-video sequel, Stitch! The Movie, was made. It launched a television series, Lilo & Stitch: The Series, and a second direct-to-video sequel, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, was released in August 2005. A third and final television sequel, Leroy & Stitch, was released in June 2006 and ended the TV series. Another television series, an anime called Stitch!, aired in Japan from 2008 to 2011, later gaining two post-series specials in 2012 and 2015. A third TV series, a Chinese animated series called Stitch & Ai, began airing in 2017. Both the later two series took out Lilo as a main character, separating Stitch from her and putting him into different countries on Earth where he makes new friends with other human girls and becomes part of their families. - -The movie was released on VHS and DVD on December 3, 2002. In 2003, a 2-disc DVD version was announced to come out along with Alice in Wonderland and Pocahontas, which were released in 2004 and 2005. A 2-Disc Special Edition DVD of Lilo & Stitch was released in the UK on August 22, 2005, along with the UK release of Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, but a release in the US was affected by many delays. On March 24, 2009, Disney finally released the special edition DVD, which is called a 2-Disc ""Big Wave Edition"". This new DVD has everything that the original DVD had and adds an audio commentary, a 2-hour documentary, more deleted scenes, a number of behind-the-scenes featurettes, and some games. The original DVD is no longer available, with the new one having the same list price. - -Plot -An evil alien scientist named Dr. Jumba Jookiba creates ""Experiment 626"", a creature built to cause chaos and destruction. This is against the law of his planet, and he is arrested. 626 escapes the planet, flying a spaceship to Earth. - -On Earth, a little human girl named Lilo adopts 626 (thinking he is a dog) and names him ""Stitch"". Lilo lives in Hawaii, a series of islands in the United States of America. Lilo's mother and father have died in a car crash, so her older sister Nani takes care of her. - -Stitch at first uses Lilo to avoid being captured by the alien officials, but the they become friends when Lilo teaches Stitch how to be good. She uses music by Elvis Presley in her lessons. Stitch also learns a new phrase: ""'Ohana"" means family. Family means nobody gets left behind, or forgotten."" Because of this, Stitch decides to go against his original purpose in order to keep his family together. The alien officials manages to find Stitch on Earth and prepare take him away, but they decide to let Stitch stay with Lilo in Hawaii after she explains that she legally purchased Stitch. Jumba and Pleakley become members of Nani, Lilo, and Stitch's family, and the movie ends with various footage and pictures of Stitch and his new family's life together. - -Cast - Daveigh Chase as Lilo Pelekai - Chris Sanders as Stitch - Tia Carrere as Nani Pelekai - David Ogden Stiers as Dr. Jumba Jookiba - Kevin McDonald as Agent Pleakley - Ving Rhames as Cobra Bubbles - Zoe Caldwell as Grand Councilwoman - Jason Scott Lee as David Kawena - Kevin Michael Richardson as Captain Gantu - Susan Hegarty as Rescue Lady - Hans Zimmer as Male Officer - -Production -An animated scene that had to be changed due to the September 11, 2001 attacks was where Stitch hijacks a Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and follows Gantu to the city of Honolulu. Stitch is the launched out of Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and lands on Gantu’s ship but he is blown off and lands on the road. Gantu is able to find Stitch by using his computer. He tries to shoot the alien but misses. A truck comes close to Stitch and he commandeers it. Stitch drives over a volcano and dumps the fuel into it. This shoots Stitch up like a rocket and he lands on Gantu’s ship. Crashes through the windshield into the cockpit, Furiously trying to pound Stitch with his fist, Grabs Gantu's hand. and throws him through the windshield onto the wing of Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 below, Gantu tries to shoot Stitch, Stitch breaks the capsule with his head and takes Lilo out. Lilo kisses Stitch’s nose as he jumps off, When Stitch saves Lilo and they jump back onto Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 and destroy Gantu's ship. The Tsunami Air Boeing 747-400 then crashes into the ocean near David on his surfboard. Lilo asks if he will give them all rides back to shore In the final movie, Stitch finds Jumba's spaceship and follows Gantu to the mountains and volcanoes. - -Reception -The movie opened at #2 with $35,260,212 in its first weekend, less than $500,000 behind the movie Minority Report. In its second week, fell to #3, again behind the Steven Spielberg movie at #2. The movie made $145,794,338 in the United States and Canada, and $127,349,813 internationally, finishing with $273,144,151 in the world. - -Lilo & Stitch received very positive reviews from critics and movie-goers alike, and it was the most successful Walt Disney Pictures movie after the Disney Renaissance of 1989 to 1999 until Bolt a few years later. The movie's success at the box office and on DVD led to a franchise, with three direct-to-video and televisions sequels and three television series. The movie has received 139 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, 119 positive and 20 negative, giving it a positive total rating of 86%. - -Soundtrack - -The soundtrack of the movie was released by Walt Disney Records on June 21, 2002. -It, along with the movie, has more Elvis Presley songs than any of Elvis' own movies. - -Spin-offs -On August 26, 2003, Disney released a direct-to-video sequel, Stitch! The Movie, which was made as the pilot to a TV series titled Lilo & Stitch: The Series. This series ran for 65 episodes between on September 20, 2003 and July 29, 2006. The series carried on where the movie left off and showed Lilo's efforts to capture and re-home Jumba's remaining experiments. This series ended with TV movie Leroy & Stitch, which was released on June 27, 2006. - -On August 2005, Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch, another direct-to-video sequel to the movie, was released. In this movie, Stitch has a glitch because his molecules were never fully charged (this is different than a deleted opening, ""Stitch's trial"", which was seen on the DVD release of Lilo & Stitch). Lilo wants to win the May Day hula contest like her mother did in the 1970s, but Stitch continues to have problems. Lilo thinks Stitch is not behaving right, until she finds out that Stitch is dying. - -In March 2008, Disney announced that it is to produce a remade version of Lilo & Stitch, called Stitch!, for the Japanese market. The show, which began in October 2008, features a Japanese girl named Yuna (formerly referred to as Hanako) in place of Lilo, and is set on a fictional island in Okinawa prefecture instead of Hawaii. The series is produced by the Japanese animation house Madhouse LTD. - -On October 4, 2018, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Disney would be making a live action remake. - -Release Dates - -References - -Other websites - - Official site - - - - - - -2002 animated movies -2002 science fiction movies -Disney animated movies -English-language movies -Impact of the September 11 attacks -Lilo & Stitch -American family movies -American musical movies -American science fiction movies" -8524,28961,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20McKellen,Ian McKellen,"Sir Ian Murray McKellen (born 25 May 1939) is an English actor. He has had a Tony Award and two Oscar nominations. - -Life -McKellen was born on 25 May 1939 in Burnley, Lancashire. In 1939, he moved to Wigan. In 1951, he moved to Bolton. - -His work has spanned genres from serious Shakespearean and modern theatre to popular fantasy and science fiction movies. - -In a television movie role in 1970 titled Edward II, he and his co-star, James Laurenson kissed in British television's first gay kiss. - -Best known for his roles as Gandalf in the 2001-2003 Lord of the Rings movie trilogy, as Sir Leigh Teabing in The Da Vinci Code, and as Magneto in the X-Men series of movies. - -He is openly gay and is a prominent activist for the rights of LGBT people. He said that the reason why he took the role in the X-Men movies was because of his sexuality. He said: ""Mutants are like gays. They’re cast out by society for no good reason"". - -He was made a CBE in 1979 and knighted in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre. In 2008 he was made a Companion of Honour. - -McKellen said in 2012 that he was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2006. - -McKellen once signed an autograph to a fan stating ""Fuck off, I’m gay."" The person given the autograph was politician Michael Howard. - -Movies -Apt Pupil (1998) -Gods and Monsters (1998) -X-Men (2000) -The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) -The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) -The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) -X2: X-Men United (2003) -Emile, (2005) -Asylum, (2005) -The Magic Roundabout, as Zebedee (2005) (movie known as ""Dougal"" in the United States) -Flushed Away, (2006) -The Da Vinci Code, (as Sir Leigh Teabing) (2006) -X-Men: The Last Stand (2006) -The Good Liar (2019) -Cats (2019) - -References - -Other websites - -The papers of Sir Ian McKellen, actor are held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department. - - - Biography of Sir Ian McKellen, CH, CBE, Debrett's - -1939 births -Living people -Actors from Greater Manchester -Actors from Lancashire -Alumni of the University of Cambridge -Commanders of the Order of the British Empire -Companions of Honour -Drama Desk Award winners -English activists -English LGBT people -English movie actors -English stage actors -English television actors -English voice actors -Gay men -Golden Globe Award winning actors -Knights Bachelor -LGBT actors -LGBT rights activists -People from Bolton -People with cancer -Saturn Award winners -Screen Actors Guild Award winners -Tony Award winning actors -Wigan" -13320,48884,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tension%20%28mechanics%29,Tension (mechanics),"Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, towards the string. - -Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is made up of two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other. The amount of tension in the string determines whether it will break, as well as its vibrational properties, which are used in musical instruments. - -Related pages - - Force (physics) - Pulley - Stress (physics) - -Force -Mechanics" -9589,32753,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran%20Canaria,Gran Canaria,"Gran Canaria is one of the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. -The capital and biggest city is Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in the north of the island. Economical centre (tourism) of the island is in the south. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife. - -Gran Canaria lives - like most of the Canary Islands - mainly on tourism, although Las Palmas does have one of the most important ports in the Atlantic. -The touristic centres Maspalomas and Playa del Ingles in the south are especially popular. -The climate varies very little through the year. Gran Canaria is very popular for its party tourism. - -The international airport is farther north. - -The administration of the Canary Islands is shared between Tenerife and Gran Canaria. - -Biosphere reserves -Islands of the Canary Islands" -1377,4874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease,Disease,"A disease or medical condition is an unhealthy state where something bad happens to the body or mind. Diseases can cause pain, parts of the body to stop working the right way, or death. The word disease is sometimes used to include: - parts of the body being hurt, - not having the usual abilities, - medical problems or syndromes, - infections by microorganisms, - feeling unhealthy, such as having pain or feeling hot (called 'symptoms'), - unusual shapes of body parts. - -Causes -A disease can be caused by many things. Sometimes germs enter our body through food, water or air. A person can be infected by infectious agents like bacteria, viruses or fungus. Disease can also be caused by eating bad or old foods. There are small germs in old foods that can cause diseases. Sometimes the germs produce chemicals or toxins which causes the disease. - -One of the most common causes of disease is poor sanitation and lack of clean water. Some deadly diseases like malaria in tropical parts of the world are spread by a mosquito. Animals that spread disease are called vectors. There are many vectors, including snails, ticks, and fleas. - -Some people are born with 'genetic diseases'. These are diseases because of an error or mutation in a person's DNA. An example of a mutation is cancer. Living or working in an unhealthy environment can also be a cause for diseases. Diseases are more common in older people. - -Treatments -Some diseases can be helped with medicine. Infections can often be cured by antibiotics, though resistance to antibiotics is a problem. Some disease may be helped by surgery. Not every disease can be helped with medicine or surgery, though. Some diseases must be treated during the whole life; they are chronic (long-lasting) diseases. An example of a chronic disease is diabetes mellitus. Diabetes can be treated (made better) but it can not yet be cured (made to totally go away). People who usually treat diseases are called doctors or physicians. - -Prevention -Some diseases that are common or very bad are tested for even in people who do not show any symptoms. If these diseases are found early they can be treated before they cause problems. An example would be checking a woman for cervical cancer with a test called a pap smear. If cervical cancer is found early it can be cured. If it is found later it usually causes death. - -Another example is immunization. The basic idea is to make the body ready for a disease. The body has its own defense against disease called the immune system. One special characteristic of the immune system is its ability to remember some diseases. If a person is sick and recovers, the immune system will produce a substance called antibodies which fight the disease if it comes back to the person. - -The antibody is specific to a particular disease or antigen. An example of this is measles which is a virus. A person usually a child who had never been sick with measles is given a milder form of the virus, this causes the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. If this person is exposed to the same virus in the future, the person's immune system will remember and will fight the virus. - -For general prevention to be useful: -The disease must be found and stopped in early stage. -The disease should be common or be easy to recognize. -The test for the disease should be easy, work all the time, and not hurt people. -The society is well-trained and can recognize most common symptoms on some diseases. -The treatment for the disease should be safe and be easy for people to get. - -Epidemiology - -Epidemiology is the study of the cause of disease. Some diseases are more popular for people with common characteristics, like similar origins, sociological background, food or nationality. Without good epidemiological research some diseases can be hard to track and to name. Some diseases can be taken for something else. This is why epidemiology takes a huge part in understanding how to protect ourselves against viruses, toxins and bacteria. - -Related pages -Health -Healthy lifestyle -Viruses - -References - -Basic English 850 words" -20270,77869,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20Tigers,Flying Tigers,"The Flying Tigers was a group of American fighter pilots from the United States Army Air Force, the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. Claire Lee Chennault commanded it. - -History - -During 1937, Claire Lee Chennault retired from the American military and became the military advisor to China. He to looked at their air force. It was bad, and could not fight their enemy, Japan. In 1938, Chennault was going to make the Flying Tigers. In late 1941, after Pearl Harbor, the Flying Tigers started fighting the Japanese. - -The airplane they used was the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. There were about 100 of the fighter aircraft. They could not turn with the Japanese fighters, such as the A6M Zero, Ki-43 Oscar, and Ki-27 Nate, but the P-40 was tough, had more guns, and was faster in a dive. - -The Flying Tigers stayed in World War II for the whole time. - -Things the Flying Tigers were famous for - -The Flying Tigers are well known for things. One thing was their airplane paint, which had a shark face on the sides. They were also known for fighting hard during the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt had said they were good. - -List of aces - -The following are flying aces from the Flying Tigers, with their air-to-air victory credits: (In alphabetical order). - - Percy Bartelt (5.0) - William Bartling (5.0) - Charles Bond (7.0) - George Burgard (10.0) - Robert Hedman (6.0) - David Lee ""Tex"" Hill (10.25) - Frank Lawlor (7.0) - Robert Little (10.0) - William McGarry (8.0) - Robert Neale (13.0) - John Newkirk (7.0) - Charles Older (10.0) - Edmund Overend (5.0) - Robert Prescott (5.5) - Joseph Camille Rosbert (6.0) - Richard Rossi (6.0) - Robert Sandell (5.0) - Robert H. Smith (5.0) - Robert T. Smith (8.9 kills) - -References - -World War II -United States military aircraft -United States Army -United States Navy -United States Marine Corps" -10557,37585,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romansh%20language,Romansh language,"Romansh (also spelled Rumantsch, Romansch or Romanche) is one of Switzerland's four national languages. (The other three are French, German and Italian.) 50,000 people in the canton of Graubünden use it as their native language. - -References - -Romance languages -Swiss culture -Graubünden -Languages of Europe" -24605,96114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copt,Copt,"A copt is an Egyptian Christian. Today, more than 95% of the Copts belong to the Latin community of the Coptic Catholic Church, and other of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. They used the Coptic calendar and speak the Coptic language. Baptism and male Circumcision is done. There folk saint is Mark the Evangelist. - -References - -Other websites - Copts - -Religion in Egypt" -15526,59189,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasjonal%20Samling,Nasjonal Samling,"Nasjonal Samling (Norwegian for ""National Gathering"" or ""National Unity"") was a fascist party in Norway, active in the period 1933–1945. The party was founded by Vidkun Quisling and a group of sympathisers. The party's paramilitary wing was called Hirden (the Hird). - -Political parties in Norway -1940s in Norway -1933 establishments -1945 disestablishments in Europe -20th-century establishments in Norway -1930s establishments in Europe -World War II" -411,849,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy,Taxonomy,"Taxonomy is a branch of science. It is about the laws and principles of classifying things. From one type of taxonomy, many classifications might be produced. - -Classification -The best-known kind of taxonomy is used for the classification of lifeforms (living and extinct). Each organism has a scientific name. This name is part of the biological classification of that species. The name is the same all over the world, so scientists from different places can understand each other. In addition, a species has a position in the tree of life. Thus the crow is Corvus corone, a member of the Corvidae family, and they are passerine birds. That is well agreed, but the classification of some groups is not agreed at present, and often several classifications are being discussed. - -Living things are classified into three domains: bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. The highest rank in a domain is the kingdom. Each kingdom has many smaller groups in it, called phyla. Each phylum has more smaller groups in it, called classes. This pattern looks like branches on a tree with smaller branches growing from them. Each species is put into a group because of what it does, how and what it eats, special body parts, and so on. At the end of the pattern, the groups (genera) are very small. Then each species in the genus is given its own name. - -Binomial nomenclature -When someone writes about a living thing and its formal scientific name, they write the genus and species name. This is known as binomial nomenclature, because it uses two names for each organism. The first is the genus name, and the second is the species in that genus. The scientific name of the domestic cat is Felis catus. Sometimes it is enough to write F. catus. - -These are the major groups (ranks) used in taxonomy: -Kingdom --> Phylum --> Class --> Order --> Family --> Genus --> Species - -Usage of Latin -When people started naming species, Latin was a language widely used in Europe. All species names are still written in Latin. This has some advantages. Since Latin is no longer spoken, it is unchanging, and is owned by no-one. It gets over the problem of every language having its own names for animals and plants. - -Scientists used to write the official description of each new species in Latin. On 1 January 2012, the International Botanical Congress changed to allow English (as well as Latin) for describing new plant species. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recommends choosing a language that is widely used, and that is used in the places where the species lives. - -Cladism -An important modern approach to taxonomy is cladism. This approach is based on the branching (tree-like) course of evolution. Like traditional Linnaean classification, it uses traits to decide on the branches of the classification. It insists on groups being monophyletic. This has the effect that birds are not a class but a sub-group of dinosaurs. It also means the ranking system described above would be abolished. - -So cladism has different principles of taxonomy, and produces a different kind of taxonomy. Decisions, where possible, are supported by DNA sequence analysis. Present-day biological classification is a mixture of the old Linnaean and the modern cladistic principles of taxonomy. In parts, it is changing rapidly. The classifications presented in Wikipedia at present are often a compromise between the two systems. The details are regularly discussed. - -Turmoil in taxonomy -Today, there are many changes in the classification of living things. This turmoil in taxonomy has led to many alternative classifications. It is caused partly from the move from Linnaean to cladistic principles, and partly by the use of DNA sequence data in taxonomy. An example is: the way derived groups like birds should not be classified at the same level as the group they evolved from. Yet birds have traditionally been a class under the Linnaean system. - -The turmoil sometimes results in differences between related pages. Pages may rely on different references and different authors' opinions as to the present best arrangement. - -The following source is good on the differences between cladistic and taxonomic classification systems: -Grant, Verne 2003. Incongruence between cladistic and taxonomic systems. American Journal of Botany. 90 (9) 1263-1270. - -Related pages - Cladistics - Molecular clock - Molecular evolution - Sequence analysis - Biological classification - Military taxonomy - -References - -Other websites - Taxonomy Citizendium" -14709,55443,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agen,Agen,"Agen is a commune in southwestern France, in the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is the prefecture of the Lot-et-Garonne department and the capital of the arrondissement of Agen. - -The Agenais, the region where is the commune, is a natural region of the old province of Aquitaine, now in Nouvelle-Aquitaine. - -Geography -Agen is in the southeast of the Lot-et-Garonne department, on the right (eastern) side of the Garonne river and close to the Canal de Garonne. The city is at about from Toulouse and from Bordeaux. - -The commune has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is . - -Agen is surrounded by the communes Colayrac-Saint-Cirq, Foulayronnes, Pont-du-Casse, Bon-Encontre, Boé and Le Passage. - -Climate -The climate of Agen is Marine West Coast Climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with mild winters and warm summers. - -Population -The inhabitants of Agen are known, in French, as Agenais (women: Agenaises). - -With a population of 34,126, Agen has a population density of inhabitants/km2. - -Evolution of the population in Agen - -Agen forms, together with other 15 communes, the urban area of Agen with a population of 81,110 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Agen, formed by 64 communes, with a population of 112,801 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . - -Administration -Agen is the prefecture of the Lot-et-Garonne department since 1790. It is also the capital of the arrondissement of Agen and the administrative centre () of 4 cantons: - Agen-1, formed with a part of Agen and the communes Bajamont, Foulayronnes and Pont-du-Casse, with 16,720 inhabitants (2014). - Agen-2, formed with a part of Agen and the communes Boé and Bon-Encontre, with 13,830 inhabitants (2014). - Agen-3, formed with a part of Agen, with 16,606 inhabitants (2014). - Agen-4, formed with a part of Agen and the commune Le Passage, with 18,686 inhabitants (2014). - -It is part of the intercommunality Agen (). - -Twin towns -Agen is twinned with: - Tuapse, Russia - Dinslaken, Germany - Llanelli, Wales, United Kingdom - Toledo, Spain - Corpus Christi, United States - -Miscellaneous -Agen is the ""capital of the prune"", a local produce sold as a sweet (stuffed with prune purée) or as an after-dinner delight (prunes soaked in Armagnac – a type of brandy). Every September, the Prune festival organizes rock concerts, circuses and prune tasting. - -Gallery - -Related pages - Arrondissement of Agen - Communes of the Lot-et-Garonne department - -References - -Other websites - - Ville d'Agen - Official site - Tourist Office of Agen - Departamental Council of Lot-et-Garonne - Prefecture official website - Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine - -Cities in France -Departmental capitals in France -Communes in Lot-et-Garonne" -17950,67584,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshino%2C%20Nara,"Yoshino, Nara","Yoshino (吉野町; -cho) is a town in Yoshino District, Nara Prefecture, Japan. - -As of 2003, the town had an about 10,550 people living there and a density of 110.61 people per km². The total area was 95.65 km². - -Mt. Yoshino is famous for its 500,000 sakura trees. They are planted in three gardens at different altitude so that they bloom at different times of the spring. - -Related pages -Emperor Go-Daigo - -Other websites - Yoshino town Official Site (in Japanese) - -Towns in Japan -Settlements in Nara Prefecture" -21184,81125,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict%20of%20Milan,Edict of Milan,"The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by the Roman emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in February, 313 AD and removed the persecution of Christians. - -With the Edict of Milan there began a period when Constantine granted favors to the Christian Church and its members. The exact words of the edict are no longer known. - -History -The Edict of Milan was issued in 313 AD, in the names of the Roman Emperors Constantine I, who ruled the western parts of the Empire, and Licinius, who ruled the East. The two emperors were in Milan to celebrate the wedding of Constantine's sister with Licinius. - -There had been already an edict of toleration issued by the emperor Galerius in 311. They were granted an indulgence, not favors. - -""Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the commonwealth may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes."" - -But by the Edict of Milan the meeting places and other properties which had been taken from the Christians were to be returned: -""...the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception..."" - -References - -Other websites - Medieval Sourcebook – Galerius and Constantine: Edicts of Toleration 311 and 313 - The Roman Law Library, incl. Constitutiones Principis - -Ancient Christianity - -Ancient Roman law -... -Bible History" -11231,40652,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution,Revolution,"A revolution is a very sharp change made to something. The word comes from Latin, and is related to the word revolutio (which means a turn around). - -Revolutions are usually political in their nature. Some people feel unhappy with their lives, some are not happy with whole systems. They might join together, share their ideas, and make something change. Often, revolutions include fighting, and civil unrest. But there are also revolutions that happen without fighting. - -The Soviet Union was made by the Russian Revolution that killed millions, and later fell apart in a counterrevolution without much fighting. But in the French Revolution (1789), there was much bloodshed. The years right after this Revolution in France are often called the Reign of Terror. - -Other events often called ""revolutions"" include: - American Revolution - Shift from an agrarian society to an industrial one: The Industrial Revolution (1750). - Shift from fossil fuel combustion to clean energy: The Green Industrial Revolution (Boris Johnson, June 2021, at G7 meeting). - The shift from an Industrial Society to a Post-Industrial one: - The Cybernetic Revolution (1960- Present). - The shift from a Communist Society to a Capitalist one: Perestroika in the former U.S.S.R (1990-2000). - Neolithic revolution - -The opposing idea in politics is called 'gradualism'. - -Politics" -8100,26911,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios,Helios,"Helios (, Hēlios; Ἠέλιος in Homeric Greek) is the god of the Sun in Greek mythology. He is often thought to be the personification of the Sun itself. He is the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. He is the brother of Selene, goddess of the Moon, and Eos, goddess of the dawn. During the Hellenistic period, particularly the 3rd Century BCE, he became more and more identified with Apollo, the god of light, music and prophecy. Helios' equivalent in Roman mythology was Sol. - -Titans" -1092,4058,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid,Solid,"Solid is one of the three common states of matter. The molecules in solids are closely bound together, they can only vibrate. This means solids have a definite shape that only changes when a force is applied. This is different to liquids and gases which move randomly, a process called flow. - -When a solid becomes a liquid, this is called melting. Liquids become solid by freezing. Some solids, like dry ice, can turn into gas without turning liquid first. This is called sublimation. - -Kinds of solids -The forces between the atoms in a solid can take many forms. For example, a crystal of sodium chloride (common salt) is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, which are held together by ionic bonds. In diamond or silicon, the atoms share electrons and make covalent bonds. In metals, electrons are shared in metallic bonding. Some solids, like most organic compounds, are held together with ""van der Waals forces"" coming from the polarization of the electronic charge cloud on each molecule. The dissimilarities between the types of solid come from the differences between their bonding. - -Metals - -Most metals are strong, dense, and good conductors of electricity and heat. The mass of the elements in the periodic table, those to the left of a diagonal line drawn from boron to polonium, are metals. Mixtures of two or more elements in which the big component is a metal are known as alloys. - -People have been using metals for many purposes since prehistoric times. -The strength and relialbility of metals has led to their widespread use in making of buildings and other things, as well as in most vehicles, many tools, pipes, road signs and railroad tracks. Iron and aluminium are the two most commonly used metals. They are also the most common metals in the Earth's crust. Iron is most commonly used in the form of an alloy, steel, which has up to 2.1% carbon, making it much harder than pure iron. - -Since metals are good conductors of electricity, they are valuable in electrical tools and for carrying an electric current over long distances with little energy loss. Because of this, electrical power grids rely on metal cables to get electricity. Home electrical systems, for example, are wired with copper for its good conducting uses. The high thermal conductivity of most metals also makes them useful for stovetop cooking utensils. - -Minerals - -Minerals are natural solids formed through many geological processes under high pressures. To be thought as a true mineral, a substance must have a crystal structure with uniform physical things throughout. Minerals differ in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a rock sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and has no specific chemical composition. Most of the rocks of the Earth's crust have quartz (crystalline SiO2), feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only a few places in the world. The largest group of minerals by far is the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are made largely of silicon and oxygen, also with ions of aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium and other metals. - -Related pages -Liquid -Gas -Plasma - -Other websites - -Basic English 850 words -States of matter" -10651,37981,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Cook,Joseph Cook,"Sir Joseph Cook (7 December 1860 – 30 July 1947) was the sixth Prime Minister of Australia from June 1913 until September 1914. He was Prime Minister when World War I started. He moved to London when he retired. - -1860 births -1947 deaths -Cook, Joseph -People from Staffordshire -Leaders of the Opposition (Australia) -Commonwealth Liberal Party politicians -Treasurers of Australia -Politicians from Sydney" -19729,75504,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karo%20Parisyan,Karo Parisyan,"Karapet ""Karo"" Parisyan (; born August 28, 1982 in Yerevan, Armenia) is an Armenian-American mixed martial arts fighter. His fighting style is mainly Judo, but has been modified to fight without the use of a Judogi. - -His current professional MMA record is 17-4-0 with 9 of his wins coming by way of submission. Karo is currently fighting out of North Hollywood, California, and he is ranked as the 5th best welterweight fighter in the world by MMAweekly.com. - -Other websites -Karo Parisyan's Official Web Site -UFC profile -Legends Gym - -1982 births -Living people -Armenian sportspeople -American mixed martial artists" -16056,61644,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercity-Express,Intercity-Express,"The Intercity-Express (abbreviated: ICE; sometimes stylized as InterCityExpress), is a category of high speed trains, which are operated by DB Fernverkehr since 1991. It is the highest service and fare category (Class A) of rail in Germany and the flagship train of the German state railway, Deutsche Bahn. There are currently 259 trainsets in use. - -The trains have an operating speed of up to 300 km/h. They are one of fastest trains in the world. Some of the high-speed lines in Germany are: - Cologne to Frankfurt am Main (up to 300 km/h) - Nuremberg over Ingolstadt to Munich (up to 300 km/h) - Hanover over Kassel to Würzburg (up to 250 km/h) - Mannheim to Stuttgart (up to 250 km/h) - Cologne to Düren (up to 250 km/h) - Hannover to Berlin (up to 250 km/h) - Hamburg to Berlin (up to 230 km/h) - -There are other (upgraded) lines where the trains can reach 200 km/h. Some new high-speed lines are under construction, some are in planning. - -ICE trains are also travelling to Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, The Netherlands and Switzerland. Some of the destinations in other countries are: Aarhus, Brussels, Utrecht, Liege, Arnhem, Basel, Bern, Salzburg, Linz, Metz, Innsbruck, Amsterdam, Paris, Zürich and Vienna. - -References - -Rapid transit systems in Germany" -21427,82001,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycorax%20%28moon%29,Sycorax (moon),"Sycorax is one of Uranus' moons. It is the biggest retrograde non-spherical one of its moons. - -Sycorax was found on September 6, 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars. They found it using the 200-inch Hale telescope. They also found Caliban. Sycorax was given the designation S/1997 U 2. - -Sycorax was confirmed as Uranus XVII. It was named after Sycorax, Caliban's mother in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest. - -Orbit - -Sycorax follows a far orbit, more than 20 times farther from Uranus than the farthest regular moon Oberon. Its orbit is retrograde, moderately inclined and eccentric. - -The orbital parameters suggest that it may belong, together with Setebos and Prospero, to the same dynamic cluster, suggesting common origin. - -The diagram illustrates the orbital parameters of the retrograde non-spherical moons of Uranus (in polar co-ordinates) with the eccentricity of the orbits represented by the segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre. - -Physical characteristics -The diameter of Sycorax is estimated at 150 km (assuming albedo of 0.04) making it the biggest non-spherical moon of Uranus, comparable in size with Himalia, the biggest non-spherical moon of Jupiter. - -The rotation period could not be estimated well (best fit ~4 h). - -Related pages - List of Uranus' moons - -References - -Ephemeris IAU-NSES -Mean orbital parameters NASA JPL - -Other websites - Sycorax Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration - David Jewitt pages - Scott Sheppard pages - -Uranus' moons" -15976,61335,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%20Shelokhonov,Petr Shelokhonov,"Petr (Peter) Shelokhonov (August 15, 1929 in Poland - September 15 1999, St. Petersburg, Russia) was a Russian film and stage actor and director. He played over 90 roles in movies and on television. He also played over 100 roles on stage. Petr Shelokhonov received the title of Honorable Actor of Russia in 1979. - -Biography -Petr Shelokhonov was of Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Polish ancestry. He survived Nazi occupation during World War II. In the war, Petr Shelokhonov was wounded by gunshot in his face, but the scar in the face did not stop him from becoming an actor. - -Petr Shelokhonov joined the partisans resistance. He made his own puppet theater in 1943 and performed parodies of Hitler. In 1945, he became a piano student at the Kiev Conservatory of Music. In the 1950s, he moved to the Siberian city of Irkutsk. There, he graduated from Irkutsk Drama School. Then he worked in Moscow and St. Petersburg, Russia, and also in Odesa and Kyiv, Ukraine. - -Petr Shelokhonov was a member of five theatre companies in Russia. He also played roles in international productions on stage, in movies, and on television. His acting career lasted over 50 years and he played over 180 various characters ranging from Shakespearean prince Hamlet to Soviet dictator Lenin. - -In 1989 - 1992, he played the leading role (Sam) in Photo Finish, written and directed by Peter Ustinov. In 1993-4, he starred as Victor Velasco in Neil Simon's play Barefoot in the Park. - -In 1997, Petr Shelokhonov played a supporting role in Leo Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, starring Sophie Marceau. Sean Bean. Alfred Molina, and James Fox. - -Petr Shelokhonov died on 15 September 1999 from cardiac arrest in St. Petersburg, aged 70. - -Movie works - -Actor - - 1967: ""Steps to the Sun"" () - as Unknown soldier - 1968: ""Three years"" by Anton Chekhov () - as Laptev - 1968: ""Hidden Enemy"" () - as Spy-Police Officer - 1969: Rokirovka v dlinnuyu storonu - as Scientist - 1969: Untagling () - as Spy Sotnikov - 1970: ""Franz Liszt. Dreams of love"" , () - as Glinka, Russian composer - 1970: Liubov Yarovaya () - as Commissar Mazukhin - 1970: Dawns are quiet here () - as Sergeant Vaskov - 1970: “Far from Moscow” (aka.. Daleko ot Moskvy) () – as Director Batmanov - 1971: Night on the 14-th Parallel () - as Newspaper Editor - 1971: ""Dauria"" () - as Cossack Severian Ulybin - 1971: ""Are You Joking?"" ""("" - as Chairman - 1971: ""Hot - Cold"" ""()"" - as Writer Podorozhny - 1972: ""Taming of the fire"" () - as Karelin - 1972: ""Chess Grandmaster"" () - as Stepfather - 1972: Such a long, long road () - as Military Officer - 1973: ""Recognition"" ""("" - as Colonel - 1974: ""Reprisal"" (aka...Otvetnaya Mera"") () - as Manager Sergei Peresada - 1975: ""Obtained in the Battle"" () - as Mayor Sergeev - 1976: ""I Don't Care"" (aka... Menya eto ne kasaetsa) () - as Detective Pankratov - 1976: Trust () - as Petrovsky - 1976: Vitali Bianki () - as Presenter-narrator - 1977: First joy ""("" - as Professor Dorogomilov - 1978: Three rainy days () - as Detective - 1978: A Moment Decides Everything (aka... Vsyo reshayet mgnoveniye) ""("" - as Matveev, Director of Sport - 1979: Extraordinary summer ""("" - as Professor Dorogomilov - 1979: Journey To Another City (aka... Puteshestvie v drugoy gorod) ""("" - as Manager Fedor Ignatevich - 1980: Life And Adventures Of Four Friends 1/2 (aka... Zhizn i priklyucheniya chetyrekh druzei 1/2) () – as Forest ranger - 1981: Late rendez-vous () - as Lena's father - 1981: Life And Adventures Of Four Friends 3/4 (aka... Zhizn i priklyucheniya chetyrekh druzei 3/4 () – as Forest ranger - 1981: The Truth Of Lieutenant Klimov (aka... ""Pravda Lieutenanta Klimova"") ""()"" - as Boatsman Chervonenko - 1981: 20th Of December ""()"" - as Zarudny - 1981: The Girl And The Horse Named Grand"" (aka... Devushka i Grand) ""("" - as Coach - 1981: Sindikat 2. ()– as Agent Fomichev - 1982: Customs ""("" - as Chief Customs Officer - 1982: The Year Of Active Sun (aka... God aktivnogo solntsa) ""()"" - as School Superviser - 1982: Liszt Ferenc () - as Count Vielgorsky - 1982: The Voice (aka... ""Golos"") () - as Producer - 1983: Magistral ""()"" - as Manager Gadalov - 1983: Action Place (aka... Mesto deistviya) () - as Manager Ryabov - 1984: Zaveshchanie professora Douela () - 1984: Two versions of one collision () - as Ambassador Pavlov - 1985: Sofia Kovalevskaya () - as Academician Sechenov - 1985: ""Rivals"" (aka... Sopernitsy) () - as Coach Semenich - 1986: ""Red arrow"" () - as Manager Yusov - 1987 Habitat ""("" - as Detective - 1987: Lucky man ""("" - as Construction Engineer - 1987: Moonzund ""("" - as Captain Andreev - 1988: ""Bread Is A Proper Noun"" (aka... ""Khleb - Imya suschestvitelnoe"") () - as Blacksmith Akimych - 1991: ""My best friend, General Vasili, son of Joseph Stalin"" ""()"" - as Colonel Savinykh - 1992: Richard II ""("" - as Lord Marshal - 1997: The Passenger (aka... Passazhirka) ""("" - as Passenger - 1997: Anna Karenina, 1997, movie by Bernard Rose starring Sophie Marceau. () - as Majordome Kapitonich - -Stage works - -Actor - 1959: Hamlet () - as Prince Hamlet - 1960: Irkutsk story () - as Victor - 1960: Poem of bread - as Senya - 1961: Golden Boy by Clifford Odets - as Joe, the Golden boy - 1962: Dubrovsky () -as Dubrovsky - 1962: The night of Moon eclipse - as Dervish Divana - 1962: Ocean ""("" - as Captain Chasovnikov - 1964: Uncle Vania by Anton Chekhov () - as Uncle Vanya - 1965: Ivanov by Anton Chekhov () - as Ivanov - 1966: ""The Seagull"" by Anton Chekhov ""("" - as Treplev - 1967: Three Sisters by Anton Chekhov () - as Tuzenbach - 1968: Platonov by Anton Chekhov - as Michael Platonov - 1970: Dawns are quiet here ( - as Sergeant Vaskov - 1970: “Far from Moscow” (aka.. Daleko ot Moskvy) () – as Director Batmanov - 1975: Death of Ivan the Terrible () - as Prince Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin Yuriev - 1976: Tsar Fédor Ivanovitch () - as Prince Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin Yuriev - 1977: Tsar Boris () - as Prince Nikita Romanovich Zakharyin Yuriev - 1978: Gnezdo glukharia ( - as Sudakov - 1981: Theme and Variations () - as Dmitri Nikolayevich - 1983: ""The Fifth Decade"" (aka... ""Piaty Desiatok"") - as Vassili Nikitich - 1988: The Land of Promise by W. Somerset Maugham - as Mr. Wikham - 1991: ""Photofinish"" by Peter Ustinov () - as Sam - 1993: ""Antiquariat"" by Anneli Pukema - as Johanson - 1994: Barefoot in the Park by Neil Simon () - as Victor Velasco - -Director - 1964: 104 pages about love () by Eduard Radzinsky - 1966: Lectures of Lenin by M. Shatrov - 1968: Platonov () by Anton Chekhov - 1993: Isabella () by Irving A. Leitner - -Honors and Recognition - 2009: Book ""My friend Petr Shelokhonov"" by actor Ivan I. Krasko. SOLO Publishing, St. Petersburg, Russia - 1979: Honorable Actor of Russia SFSR () - 1952: Honorary Letter from the Government of Latvia - -Sources - Biography of Petr Shelokhonov by film critic Dmitri Ivaneev - Lenfilm Studios personal file on movie actor Peter Shelokhonov - - Petr Shelokhonov at dic.academic.ru - Petr Shelokhonov at www.kinopoisk.ru - -References - -1929 births -1999 deaths -Deaths from cardiac arrest -Actors from Saint Petersburg -Soviet actors -Russian movie actors -Russian television actors -Russian stage actors" -11172,40391,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miri%20Ben-Ari,Miri Ben-Ari,"Miri Ben-Ari is a hip-hop violinist. She was born in Israel in 1978 and was brought up in a small town near Tel Aviv. She was trained as a classical violinist. She was a prodigy and was praised by famous violinists like Yehudi Menuhin and Isaac Stern. - -At the age of 16 she took herself to the United States. She spoke no English at the time. In New York City, she met several musicians such as the trumpeter Wynton Marsalis who supported her. She became interested in contemporary R&B (Rhythm and Blues) and hip-hop. In January 2001 she appeared in the Carnegie Hall with the rapper Wyclef Jean. Later that year her TV performances on Showtime at the Apollo added to her fame. Her second jazz album, entitled Song of The Promised Land features the dance single Peace in the Middle East as well as two tracks together with Wynton Marsalis. She has now sold millions of records, and is known as “the hip-hop violinist”. This was the title of a record released in 2005 by Universal which includes the single “Sunshine to the Rain” featuring Scarface and Anthony Hamilton. In 2004 she toured world-wide with rapper Kanye West. She has a very personal sound which is a mixture of Classical, jazz, hip-hop, R&B and world music. She won her first Grammy award in 2005 for co-writing “Jesus Walks” which received a trophy for the “Best Rap Song” in 2005. - -1978 births -Living people -Jazz musicians -Jewish Israeli musicians -Violinists" -23568,90806,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Claude%20Daquin,Louis-Claude Daquin,"Louis-Claude Daquin (born Paris, 4 July 1694; died Paris 15 June 1772) was a French composer. He was writing in the last part of the Baroque period and the early part of the Classical music period. He was a virtuoso organist and harpsichordist. He wrote a lot of excellent music for organ and for harpsichord. His most popular piece is called Le Coucou (The Cuckoo). - -1694 births -1772 deaths -Baroque composers -French composers -French organists -Harpsichordists" -570,2909,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925,1925," - -Art, music, theatre, literature - Charlie Chaplin's The Gold Rush is released. - -Events -January 21 – Albania becomes a republic. -July 18 – Adolf Hitler publishes his book Mein Kampf. -October 30 – The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird creates the first television transmitter in London. -November 9 – The NSDAP builts the SS (Schutzstaffel). - -Births - January 7 - Gerald Durrell, British naturalist (d. 1995) - January 15 - Ernst Benda, German politician (d. 2009) - January 17 - Robert Cormier, American writer (d. 2000) - January 26 – Paul Newman, American actor (d. 2008) - February 8 – Sir Anthony Berry, British politician - February 8 - Jack Lemmon, American actor (d. 2001) - February 17 - Hal Holbrook, American actor (d. 2021) - February 20 – Robert Altman, American director and movie maker (d. 2006) - February 20 - Girija Prasad Koirala, Nepalese politician (d. 2010) - February 21 - Tom Gehrels, Dutch-born American astronomer (d. 2011) - February 21 - Sam Peckinpah, American movie director (d. 1984) - March 20 - David Warren, Australian inventor (d. 2010) - March 25 – Flannery O'Connor, Irish writer - April 10 - Marshall Warren Nirenberg, American scientist (d. 2010) - April 14 - Rod Steiger, American actor (d. 2002) - April 14 - Abel Muzorewa, Zimbabwean politician (d. 2010) - April 29 - Iwao Takamoto, Japanese-American animator (d. 2007) - May 1 - Scott Carpenter, American astronaut (d. 2013) - May 11 - Max Morlock, German footballer (d. 1994) - May 16 - Robert Pierpoint, American journalist (d. 2011) - May 19 - Malcolm X, American Civil rights leader (d. 1965) - May 23 - Joshua Lederberg, American biologist (d. 2008) - May 27 - Tony Hillerman, American writer (d. 2008) - May 28 - Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, German operatic baritone (d. 2012) - June 3 – Tony Curtis, American actor (d. 2010) - June 8 - Barbara Bush, former First Lady of the United States (d. 2018) - June 21 - Maureen Stapleton, American actress (d. 2006) - June 29 - Giorgio Napolitano, President of Italy - July 1 - Farley Granger, American actor (d. 2011) - July 2 - Patrice Lumumba, Congolese politician (d. 1961) - July 23 - Tajuddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician (d. 1975) - July 23 - Quett Masire, former President of Botswana - July 29 - Mikis Theodorakis, Greek singer and politician - August 1 - Ernst Jandl, Austrian writer (d. 2000) - August 2 - Alan Whicker, British journalist and writer (d. 2013) - August 2 - Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentine military leader (d. 2013) - August 12 - Thor Vilhjalmsson, Icelandic writer (d. 2011) - August 15 - Oscar Peterson, Canadian musician (d. 2007) - August 27 - Nat Lofthouse, English footballer (d. 2011) - September 1 - Roy J. Glauber, American scientist - September 12 - Syed Nazrul Islam, Bangladeshi politician (d. 1975) - September 15 - Carlo Rambaldi, Italian special effects artist (d. 2012) - September 16 - B. B. King, American musician - September 27 - Robert Edwards, British Nobel Prize-winning physiologist (d. 2013) - September 29 - Steve Forrest, American actor (d. 2013) - October 3 – Gore Vidal, American writer (d. 2012) - October 11 - Elmore Leonard, American novelist (d. 2013) - October 12 - Essie Mae Washington-Williams, American educator (d. 2013) - October 13 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian (d. 1967) - October 13 - Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2013) - October 16 - Angela Lansbury, British-born actress - October 17 - Harry Carpenter, German sports commentator (d. 2010) - October 18 - Ramiz Alia, last Communist leader of Albania (d. 2011) - October 21 - Celia Cruz, Cuban salsa singer (d. 2003) - October 29 - Robert Hardy, English actor - November 1 - Fritz Laband, German footballer (d. 1982) - November 10 - Richard Burton, Welsh actor (d. 1984) - November 11 - Jonathan Winters, American actor and comedian (d. 2013) - November 20 - Robert F. Kennedy, American politician (d. 1968) - November 24 - Simon van der Meer, Dutch scientist (d. 2011) - November 29 - Ernst Happel, Austrian footballer and coach (d. 1992) - December 2 - Julie Harris, American actress (d. 2013) - December 13 - Dick Van Dyke, American actor - December 23 - Mohammed Mzali, former Prime Minister of Tunisia (d. 2010) - December 28 – Hildegard Knef, German actress, singer and writer (d. 2002) - -Deaths -February 28 - Friedrich Ebert, President of Germany -March 12 – Sun Yat Sen, Chinese revolutionary -March 20 – George Nathaniel Curzon, British statesman -November 20 – Queen Alexandra of Denmark -December 28 - Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet - -Nobel Prize -Nobel Prize in Physics – James Franck, Gustav Ludwig Hertz -Chemistry – Richard Adolf Zsigmondy -Literature – George Bernard Shaw, Irish playwright -Peace – Austin Chamberlain and Charles Gate Dawes" -17333,65719,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Parker,Tony Parker,"William Anthony ""Tony"" Parker (born ) is a retired French basketball player that played for the San Antonio Spurs of the NBA. He was drafted by them in 2001. - -Parker retired from the French national team after the 2016 Rio Olympics. - -Early Life -Parker was born in Bruges, Belgium, and raised in France. His father, Tony Parker Sr., was also a professional basketball player. - -Other websites -Official website - -1982 births -Living people -Basketball players -French sportspeople -People from Bruges -San Antonio Spurs players" -8515,28917,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Cyprus,Northern Cyprus,"Northern Cyprus (), officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC; , KKTC), is a de facto state in the northern half of the island of Cyprus. It is internationally recognised as part of the Republic of Cyprus and only Turkey recognises it as a separate state. Three hundred thousand Muslim Turkish Cypriots live in its 3,335 km². Turkey is the only country which recognizes the territory as an independent republic despite the international sanctions and embargos in place. - -Cyprus was conquered and became part of the Ottoman Empire from 1570–1914. Many Ottoman Turks became settlers. As the Ottoman Empire sided against the British empire in World War I, the British annexed Cyprus. In 1923, by the Treaty of Lausanne Turkey gave up the island to the British Empire which in 1925 converted it to a crown colony. The British administered it from 1878 until 1960. Cypriot Turk males are circumcised, because Sunni Islam is the main religion. - -In 1974, in response to a growing conflict with Greece, the Turkish army invaded and occupied Cyprus. Many settlers from mainland Turkey came from Turkey into the northern part of the island. The move drew international condemnation and Northern Cyprus remains unrecognized by the United Nations. - -Since 1974, the United Nations has established a ceasefire line between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots. The ''Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus'' was formed in 1983 and Rauf Denktash became the first president. Negotiations for a unified island have been held several times without success. - -Northern Cyprus, despite its international pariah status, stands out amongst other ""frozen conflict"" zones as having a relatively stable and democratic form of government with high levels of political freedom and civic engagement in the political process. - -References - -Other websites - Zypern Times - Nordzypern Almanac - North Cyprus Information Map - A directory and information source for Northern Cyprus. Company information including location maps. General and specific questions for residences and tourists - - Government of the TRNC" -5083,16166,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Bureau%20of%20Investigation,Federal Bureau of Investigation,"The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is an agency of the US government that investigates crime across the country. It is dedicated to national security and to law enforcement. - -The Bureau of Investigation was founded in 1908 and was renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935. J. Edgar Hoover was the Director of the Bureau from 1924 to his death, in 1972. Although the FBI works worldwide, its headquarters are in Washington DC. It has 56 main offices in cities throughout the United States. - -Mission and priorities -The FBI's mission is to protect the USA and maintain justice. They do this in many ways: - They protect the United States from terrorist attacks. - They protect the United States against foreign intelligence operations and espionage. - They protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes like hacking. - They protect civil rights. - They combat all national and international criminal organizations. - They combat major white-collar crime and fraud. - They combat important violent crime. - They also support international partners. - -Organization - -Organizational structure - -The FBI is organized into branches and the Office of the Director. This office contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions. Each division is headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches. Each sub-branch is led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge. - -Four of the branches report to the deputy director while two report to the associate director. The functions branches of the FBI are: - FBI Intelligence Branch - FBI National Security Branch - FBI Criminal, Cyber, Response, and Services Branch - FBI Science and Technology Branch - FBI Information and Technology Branch - FBI Human Resources Branch - -FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit -The FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit (FCNU) is a 24/7 operational response to crisis and to negotiate person(s) who are threatening to commit suicide or other harmful situations after a crime has been committed. The FBI's lead negotiator contacts the person(s) involved, with a hard-wire phone line to communicate with the person(s) to try convincing them to give themselves up to local police who are on stand-by. - -References - -Other websites - - - -1908 establishments in the United States" -23542,90745,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel%20Dupr%C3%A9,Marcel Dupré,"Marcel Dupré (born Rouen, Normandy, 3 May 1886; died Meudon, near Paris, 30 May 1971), was a leading French organist, composer, and teacher. - -Biography -Marcel Dupré was born to a musical family in Rouen (Normandy, France). His father Albert Dupré was organist at the gothic abbey of St Ouen in Rouen. The young Marcel was a child prodigy. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1904, where he studied the piano and organ. He studied organ with Alexandre Guilmant and Louis Vierne, and Charles-Marie Widor. His studies with Widor also included composition. In 1914, Dupré won the Grand Prix de Rome for his cantata, Psyché. Twelve years later, he became professor of organ at the Paris Conservatoire, serving until 1954. - -Among his best-known work were more than 2,000 organ recitals in Europe, the United States, Canada and Australia. In 1920 he played in a series of concerts at the Paris Conservatoire in which he played the complete organ works of Johann Sebastian Bach from memory. - -In 1934 he succeeded Widor as organist at St. Sulpice in Paris, serving until his death. - -From 1947 to 1954, he was director of the American Conservatory, which was in the Château de Fontainebleau near Paris. In 1954, Dupré succeeded Claude Delvincourt (who had been killed in a car crash) as director of the Paris Conservatoire, serving until 1956. He died at the age of 85. - -His playing - -Dupré's organ recitals often included his own work, as well as those of other composers, especially Bach. In the tradition of Widor and Vierne, his compositions included long works in several movements which he called “symphonies”. When he played in church services he would start by playing composed music which was suitable for the time of year. Then he would improvise, playing complicated fugues, trio sonatas and chorale improvisations. He was so good at improvising that many people thought he had composed the music beforehand. - -When playing in concerts he was often given a tune, and then he would immediately make up a large work from that tune. In 1906, when he was still a student, he played for a wedding and two services when the famous Widor was going to be absent. Dupré asked Widor what music he should play. Widor told him to improvise something. Dupré waited for Widor to go out of the church before he started practising, but Widor crept back in and listened to him. He realized that Dupré would manage very well. - -His teaching - -Dupré was famous as an organ teacher. He taught two generations of well-known organists including Jehan Alain, Marie-Claire Alain, Pierre Cochereau, Jeanne Demessieux,Jean Guillou, Jean Langlais, and Olivier Messiaen. - -His compositions - -Dupré composed a great deal of organ music. As a young child he got to know Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, the most famous organ builder in France. Cavaillé-Coll had built the organ that Dupré’s father played, so he was used to the sound of modern French organs. Most of Dupré's music for the organ is very difficult to play. It includes the Three Preludes and Fugues, Op. 7 (1914). Even Widor thought that the Prelude of the third piece was simply impossible to perform. However, Dupré could play it, and many organists after him learned to play it, too. Other notable works of Dupré's include the Symphonie-Passion, the Esquisses and Évocation, and the Cortège et Litanie. - -As well as composing lots of music, Dupré prepared study editions of the organ works of Bach, Handel, Mozart, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Schumann, César Franck, and Alexander Glazunov. He also wrote music for people who were learning to play the organ, and books on how to improvise on the organ. - -References -Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed Stanley Sadie (5th edition, 1980) -“Marcel Dupré at Saint-Sulpice” – Gerard Brooks: Organist’s Review Aug 1986 p. 161-166 - -1886 births -1971 deaths -French organists -20th-century French composers -People from Rouen" -23574,90828,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aswan%20Low%20Dam,Aswan Low Dam,"The Aswan Low Dam or Old Aswan Dam is a dam across the Nile River in Aswan, Egypt. It is built of masonry and held in place just by gravity. It was the first dam across the Nile, and was built by the British between 1899 and 1902. When it was done, it was the largest masonry dam in the world. This type of dam is called a buttress dam. - -The dam was built at the former first cataract of the Nile, and is about 1000 km up-river and 690 km (direct distance) south-southeast of Cairo. When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever been attempted. - -The dam was designed to provide storage of annual floodwater. The water was used to help dry season flow and support more irrigation. Its height was originally limited because of concern for the Temple of Isis at Phillae (Philae Temple). That temple was later moved to Agilkia Island in Lake Nasser. - -The dam provided inadequate storage capacity for planned development and was raised twice, between 1907–1912 and again 1929–1933. These heightenings still did not meet irrigation demands and in 1946 it was nearly over-topped by water in an effort to maximize pool elevation. - -This eventually led to the construction of the Aswan High Dam upstream. - -The second function of the dam is to provide electricity. The dammed water drives a water turbine and generator. It still works today. This technology (hydroelectricity) had been invented in the 19th century in England and Germany, and was by 1900 used in the USA and most European countries. -Egypt got access to the technology because she was, at that time, under British control. The Khedive was Abbas II, who usually had to do what the British wanted. - -References - -Buildings and structures in Egypt -Dams in Africa -Nile -1902 establishments -1900s establishments in Egypt" -18085,67998,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiran,Oiran,"were courtesans in Japan. Oiran were part of Japanese society during the Edo Period, (1600–1868). Prostitution was legal then, but only in special neighborhoods that were closed to outsiders. There were different kinds of oiran, depending on their beauty, skills in art, education, and more. High-ranking oiran were called . Only nobles could be with one. Tayū had many servants, and when they went outside, their servants carried them and followed them, making a procession. They wore very expensive clothes and jewelry. Any man who wished to be with an oiran had to follow difficult rituals and etiquette. - -Geisha replaced oiran. Geisha practiced common types of entertainment enjoyed by the people of that time. They became more popular than oiran. The last known oiran was in 1761. A few women still practice the arts of the oiran today (without sex) to continue the cultural heritage. - -Other websites -Tayu no Dochu -Niigata Prefecture Bunsui Sakura Festival Oiran Parade - -Personal service occupations -Japanese culture -Prostitution" -21010,80681,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberdorf%2C%20Nidwalden,"Oberdorf, Nidwalden","Oberdorf is a municipality of the canton of Nidwalden in Switzerland. - -The economy of Oberdorf is mainly based in agriculture. The main sight of Oberdorf is the Benedictine convent Maria-Rickenbach. The convent can only be reached by cable car. - -References - -Other websites - -Official Website of Oberdorf - -Municipalities of Nidwalden" -18148,68212,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics%20at%20the%20Summer%20Olympics,Gymnastics at the Summer Olympics,"Gymnastics has been contested at every Summer Olympic Games since the birth of the modern Olympic movement at the 1896 Summer Olympics. For thirty years, only men were allowed to compete. Women's events were introduced at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. The competition was held in artistic gymnastics discipline until 1984, when rhythmic gymnastics discipline was added to the program of the Olympics. Since 2000, trampolining discipline has also been competed. - -References - - -Summer Olympic Games -Gymnastics" -8991,30692,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment,Accompaniment,"An accompaniment in music is music that accompanies (goes with) something else. - -A piece of music may have a melody (tune) and an accompaniment underneath. The music may be played on the piano with the right hand playing the tune and the left hand playing the accompaniment. The accompaniment might also be played on a different instrument. - -Music does not have to be a tune with accompaniment, although it often is. The accompaniment does not always have to be lower than the tune. To play the piano, the pianist has to learn to play a tune in the right hand and accompaniment in the left hand, or the tune might be passed from one hand to the other. The tune should usually be played a little louder than the accompaniment. The accompaniment must not ‘drown’ the tune. - -An accompaniment might be single notes, or chords, or any other pattern. The accompaniments help us to feel the harmony. An accompaniment might be another tune (this is called counterpoint). Tunes can be played or sung without accompaniment. Folk songs are traditionally sung unaccompanied. - -If one instrument accompanies another, the person who plays the accompaniment is an accompanist. The piano is the most popular instrument for accompanying in Western music. A good pianist can accompany a violin, cello, oboe, trumpet, singer or choir. They have to listen carefully to the instrument(s) they are accompanying, and play with the same kind of feeling. - -When a soloist plays a concerto the orchestra are accompanying the soloist. An organist playing a hymn is accompanying the congregation. A percussion player in a rock band is accompanying the lead instrument. - -Guitars and electric keyboards are often used for accompaniment. In Elizabethan times the lute was popular. People sang songs and often accompanied themselves on the lute or harp. In the Baroque period the accompaniment was often played by the basso continuo (harpsichord or organ with cello or bassoon on the bass line). - -The pianist Gerald Moore was a famous accompanist. When he started his career in the 1920s people did not think that the accompanist was very important. Sometimes their name would not even be printed in the programme. A singer would expect the audience to start to clap as soon as they had sung their last note, even if the piano had several more bars to play. This might not matter too much with some music, but in songs by Schubert, Wolf and other composers of Lieder the piano parts are very important. Gerald Moore made people realize how important the accompanist is. A good performance can be ruined by a bad accompaniment. -Musical terminology" -3354,10061,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%2024,September 24," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 622 – The Prophet Muhammad completes his Hijra (pilgrimage) from Mecca to Medina. - 1180 - Manuel I Komnenos, the last Emperor of the Komnenian restoration, dies. This leads to an irreversible decline of the Byzantine Empire. - 1645 - English Civil War: Battle of Rowton Heath - Parliamentarian victory over a Royalist army commanded in person by King Charles I of England. - 1664 – The Dutch Republic surrenders New Amsterdam (New York) to England. - 1780 - Benedict Arnold flees to British Army lines when the arrest of British major John Andre exposes Arnold's plan to surrender West Point. - 1789 - United States Congress passes the Judiciary Act which creates the office of United States Attorney General and the Federal Judiciary System, also ordering the composition of the United States Supreme Court. - 1830 - Belgian Revolution: A revolutionary committee of notables from the Provisional Government of Belgium. - 1841 - The Sultan of Brunei cedes Sarawak to the United Kingdom. - 1846 - Mexican-American War: General Zachary Taylor captures Monterrey, Mexico. - 1852 - The first airship powered by a steam engine, created by Henri Giffard, travels 17 miles (27 kilometres) from Paris to Trappes. - 1853 - France takes control of New Caledonia. - 1856 - The paddle steamer Niagara sinks on Lake Michigan, near Port Washington, Wisconsin, killing over 60 people. - 1869 – The Black Friday crisis occurs in the United States, in relation to gold prices. - 1877 - Battle of Shiroyama: Decisive victory of the Imperial Japanese over the Satsuma Rebellion. - -1901 2000 - 1906 – Devils Tower in Wyoming becomes the first National Monument in the United States. - 1932 - Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar agree to the Poona Pact, which reserved seats in the Indian provincial legislatures for the ""Depressed Classes"" (Untouchables). - 1946 - Cathay Pacific Airways is founded in Hong Kong. - 1948 – The Honda Motor Company is founded. - 1950 - Forest fires black out the Sun over parts of Canada and New England. - 1957 – The Camp Nou football (soccer) stadium opens in Barcelona, Spain. - 1957 - US President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends the 101st Airborne Division troops to Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce desegregation. - 1962 - The United States Court of Appeals orders the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith. - 1968 – Swaziland joins the UN. - 1968 - The TV program 60 Minutes is first broadcast on CBS. - 1973 – Guinea-Bissau declares independence from Portugal. - 1979 - Compu-Serve launches the first consumer internet service, which features the first electronic mail service. - 1988 – The National League for Democracy is founded by Aung San Suu Kyi in Burma. - 1988 - 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul: Canada's Ben Johnson wins the Men's 100 metres race over Carl Lewis, smashing the world record. However, Johnson fails a drug test shortly after, leading to a major scandal. - 1990 - The Periodic Great White Spot is observed on Saturn. - 1991 - Nirvana's Nevermind album is released in the US. - 1993 – The Cambodian monarchy is restored, with Norodom Sihanouk as King. - 1996 – Bill Clinton signs the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty at the UN. - -From 2001 - 2005 – Hurricane Rita strikes land near the Texas–Louisiana border. - 2007 - 30,000 to 100,000 people protest in Rangoon against Burma's ruling military junta. - 2007 - The sitcom The Big Bang Theory is first broadcast. - 2009 - The G20 summit begins in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US, with over 30 global leaders attending. - 2013 - A magnitude 7.7 earthquake strikes southern Pakistan, killing over 300 people. It also creates a small island off the south coast. - 2014 - The Mars Orbiter Mission, a Mars orbiter launched into Earth orbit by the Indian Space Research Organisation, successfully enters into orbit around the planet Mars. - 2015 - At least 717 people are crushed to death and 863 wounded in a stampede at the Hajj pilgrimage near Mecca, Saudi Arabia. - 2015 - Pope Francis becomes the first Pope to speak in front of the United States Congress. - 2016 - Jeremy Corbyn defeats a challenge from Owen Smith to his leadership of the British Labour Party. - 2016 - The National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, DC is officially opened by Barack Obama. - 2017 - German federal election, 2017: Angela Merkel's alliance of the CDU and CSU remains the strongest faction in the Bundestag but with a much-reduced vote share at 33%. The Social Democrats return their worst result ever at 21%; the Free Democrats return to the Bundestag, while the far-right Alternative for Germany party, at 13%, is represented there for the first time. - 2019 - The United Kingdom's supreme court rules that Prime Minister Boris Johnson's suspension of parliament was unlawful, thereby declaring the suspension to be null and void. - 2019 - Spain's supreme court rules that the remains of General Francisco Franco should be removed from the Valley of the Fallen in the central area of the country. - 2019 - An impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump is launched by the US Democrats over a phone call in which he is said to have pressured Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky to launch an investigation on Presidential candidate Joe Biden's son. - -Births - -Up to 1800 - 15 – Vitellius, Roman Emperor (died 69) - 1301 – Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, English soldier (died 1372) - 1473 - Georg von Frundsberg, German soldier (died 1528) - 1501 – Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician (died 1576) - 1534 – Guru Ram Das, fourth Sikh Guru (died 1581) - 1564 – William Adams, English navigator and samurai (died 1620) - 1583 – Albrecht von Wallenstein, Austrian general (died 1634) - 1599 - Adam Olearius, German writer and diplomat (died 1671) - 1625 – Johan de Witt, Dutch politician (died 1672) - 1667 - Jean-Louis Lully, French musician and composer (died 1688) - 1705 – Count Leopold Josef von Daun, Austrian field marshal (died 1766) - 1714 - Alaungpaya, King of Burma (died 1760) - 1717 – Horace Walpole, British novelist and politician (died 1797) - 1724 – Sir Arthur Guinness, Irish brewer (died 1803) - 1739 – Grigory Potyomkin, Russian field marshal (died 1791) - 1755 – John Marshall, Chief Justice of the United States (died 1835) - 1763 - Ezra Butler, 11th Governor of Vermont (died 1838) - 1796 - Antoine-Louis Barye, French sculptor (died 1875) - -1801 1900 - 1801 – Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky, Ukrainian scientist (died 1862) - 1802 – Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (died 1868) - 1817 – Ramon de Campoamor y Campoosorio, Spanish poet and philosopher (died 1901) - 1836 - Pablo Arosemena Alba, 5th President of Panama (died 1920) - 1851 - Federico Boyd, 4th President of Panama (died 1924) - 1852 - Elizabeth Maria Molteno, South African women's rights activist (died 1927) - 1857 – Richard Mansfield, German-born actor (died 1907) - 1858 - Eugene Foss, 45th Governor of Massachusetts (died 1939) - 1859 - S. R. Crockett, Scottish novelist (died 1914) - 1861 - Walter Simons, German politician and jurist (died 1937) - 1870 - Georges Claude, French chemist and engineer (died 1960) - 1871 – Lottie Dod, English tennis player (died 1960) - 1872 - Jaan Teemant, Estonian lawyer and politician (died 1941) - 1878 – C. F. Ramuz, Swiss writer (died 1947) - 1880 – Sarah Knauss, American supercentenarian (died 1999) - 1882 - Max Decugis, French tennis player (died 1978) - 1883 - Franklin Clarence Mars, American businessman (died 1934) - 1883 - Lawson Robertson, Scottish-American high jumper (died 1951) - 1884 – Ismet Inönü, second President of Turkey (died 1973) - 1884 – Hugo Schmeisser, German weapons designer (died 1953) - 1885 - Artur Lemba, Estonian pianist, composer and educator (died 1963) - 1886 - Roberto Maria Ortiz, President of Argentine (died 1942) - 1887 - Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow, Scottish politician and colonial administrator (died 1952) - 1890 – A. P. Herbert, British humorist, barrister, novelist (died 1971) - 1890 - Mike Gonzalez, Cuban baseball player, coach and manager (died 1977) - 1892 - Adélard Godbout, 15th Premier of Quebec (died 1956) - 1894 – Tommy Armour, Scottish-American golfer (died 1968) - 1894 - Billy Bletcher, American actor, singer and screenwriter (died 1979) - 1895 – André Frédéric Cournand, French born physician, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1988) - 1896 – F. Scott Fitzgerald, American novelist (d. 1940) - 1898 – Howard Walter Florey, Australian-born pharmacologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1945 (died 1968) - 1898 - Charlotte Moore Sitterly, American astronomer (died 1990) - 1899 – Sir William Dobell, Australian portrait artist (died 1970) - -1901 1950 - 1902 - Ruhollah Khomeini, Supreme Leader of Iran (died 1989) - 1905 – Severo Ochoa, Spanish–born biochemist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993) - 1908 - Saizo Saito, Japanese footballer (died 2004) - 1909 – Gerard Ciołek, Polish architect and historian of gardens (died 1966) - 1910 - Jean Servais, Belgian actor (died 1976) - 1911 – Konstantin Chernenko, Soviet premier (died 1985) - 1911 - Jimmy Smith, Scottish footballer (died 2005) - 1912 – Don Porter, American actor (died 1997) - 1913 - Herb Jeffries, American singer and actor (died 2014) - 1914 – John Kerr, Governor-General of Australia (died 1991) - 1914 - Andrzej Panufnik, Polish composer, pianist and conductor (died 1991) - 1917 - Otto Günsche, German SS officer (died 2003) - 1918 – Audra Lindley, American actress (died 1997) - 1919 – Dayton Allen, American actor and comedian (died 2004) - 1921 - Sheila MacRae, English-American actress, singer and dancer (died 2004) - 1922 - Bert I. Gordon, American director, producer and screenwriter - 1923 – Louis Edmonds, American actor (died 2001) - 1924 - Hidemaro Watanabe, Japanese footballer (died 2011) - 1924 - Nina Bocharova, Ukrainian gymnast - 1924 – Theresa Merritt, American actress (died 1998) - 1925 - Geoffrey Burbidge, English astronomer (died 2010) - 1925 – Autar Singh Paintal, Indian medical scientist (died 2004) - 1928 - René Lavand, Argentine illusionist (died 2015) - 1930 – John Young, American astronaut (died 2018) - 1931 - Gilberto Aceves Navarro, Mexican artist (died 2019) - 1931 – Anthony Newley, British actor and singer (died 1999) - 1931 - Tom Adams, Prime Minister of Barbados (d. 1985) - 1931 - Elizabeth Blackadder, Scottish painter - 1931 - Brian Glanville, English author - 1931 - Leopoldo Verona, Argentine actor (died 2014) - 1932 - Miguel Montuori, Italian-Argentine footballer (died 1998) - 1933 - Raffaele Farina, Italian cardinal - 1934 – Manfred Wörner, German politician and diplomat (died 1994) - 1934 - John-Roger Hinkins, American author, public speaker and religious leader (died 2014) - 1934 - Donald Wrye, American director, actor and screenwriter (died 2015) - 1936 – Jim Henson, American puppeteer (died 1990) - 1939 - Wayne Henderson, American musician (died 2014) - 1939 - Moti Kirschenbaum, Israeli television personality (died 2015) - 1941 – Linda McCartney, American singer and activist (died 1998) - 1942 – Ilkka ""Danny"" Lipsanen, Finnish singer - 1942 – Gerry Marsden, English singer (Gerry and the Pacemakers) - 1943 - Antonio Tabucchi, Italian writer (died 2012) - 1945 - John Rutter, English composer - 1945 – Lou Dobbs, American journalist - 1946 – ""Mean"" Joe Greene, American football player - 1946 – Lars Emil Johansen, former Prime Minister of Greenland - 1948 – Gordon Clapp, American actor - 1948 – Phil Hartman, Canadian actor (died 1998) - 1949 – Pedro Almodóvar, Spanish movie director - 1950 - Alan Colmes, American talk show host - 1950 - Mohinder Amarnath, Indian cricketer, coach and sportscaster - 1950 - Harriet Walter, English actress - -1951 1975 - 1952 – Mark Sandman, American musician (died 1999) - 1954 – Patrick Kelly, American fashion designer (died 1990) - 1954 - Helen Lederer, English comedienne, writer and actress - 1954 – Marco Tardelli, Italian footballer - 1955 – Riccardo Illy, Italian politician - 1955 - Sophie Dessus, French politician (died 2016) - 1956 – Hubie Brooks, American baseball player - 1956 - Ilona Slupianek, German athlete - 1957 - Wolfgang Wolf, German footballer and manager - 1957 - Brad Bird, American director, screenwriter, animator, producer and writer - 1958 - Murdo MacLeod, Scottish footballer - 1958 – Kevin Sorbo, American actor - 1959 - Theo Paphitis, Cypriot-British businessman - 1959 – Steve Whitmire, American voice actor - 1961 - Fiona Corke, Australian actress - 1961 - Jack Dee, English comedian - 1961 - Luc Picard, Canadian actor, director and screenwriter - 1962 – Nia Vardalos, Canadian actress, writer, and comedienne - 1962 – Mike Phelan, English footballer - 1962 – Ally McCoist, Scottish footballer - 1964 - J. Michael Mendel, American television producer (died 2019) - 1964 - Osamu Taninaka, Japanese footballer - 1964 – Rafael Palmeiro, Cuban-born baseball player - 1966 – Michael J. Varhola, American writer, editor, publisher, and game designer. - 1966 - Stefan Molyneux, Irish-Canadian blogger and author - 1968 - Michael Obiku, Nigerian footballer - 1969 – Shawn Crahan, American musician (Slipknot) - 1969 – Donald DeGrate, Jr., American music producer - 1969 - Goya Toledo, Spanish actress - 1970 – Karen Forkel, German athlete - 1970 - Gary McSwegan, Scottish footballer - 1971 - Craig Burley, Scottish footballer - 1972 - Pierre Amine Gemayel, Lebanese politician - 1972 - Kate Fleetwood, English actress - 1974 - Kati Wolf, Hungarian singer - -From 1976 - 1976 – Stephanie McMahon, American business person and writer (World Wrestling Entertainment) - 1978 – Wietse van Alten, Dutch archer - 1979 – Casey Johnson, American socialite and heiress (died 2010) - 1980 – Petri Pasanen, Finnish footballer - 1980 – John Arne Riise, Norwegian footballer - 1980 - Victoria Pendleton, British cyclist - 1981 - Drew Gooden, American basketball player - 1982 – Morgan Hamm, American gymnast - 1982 – Paul Hamm, American gymnast - 1982 - Cristian Daniel Ledesma, Argentine-Italian footballer - 1985 - Eleanor Catton, Canadian-New Zealand writer - 1985 – Jessica Lucas, Canadian actress - 1986 - Leah Dizon, American-Japanese singer and model - 1987 - Spencer Treat Clark, American actor - 1987 - Gürhan Gürsoy, Turkish footballer - 1988 - Birgit Oigemeel, Estonian singer - 1988 – Kyle Sullivan, American actor - 1989 - Pia Wurtzbach, German-Filipina actress and model - 1991 - Oriol Romeu, Spanish footballer - 1992 - Jack Sock, American tennis player - 1997 - Tosin Adarabioyo, English footballer - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 366 - Pope Liberius (b. 352) - 768 – Pippin the Younger, King of the Franks (b. 714) - 1054 - Hermann von Reichenau, German scholar, mathematician and astronomer (b. 1013) - 1120 - Welf II, Duke of Bavaria (b. 1072) - 1143 - Agnes of Germany (b. 1072) - 1143 - Pope Innocent I - 1180 – Manuel I Komnenos, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1118) - 1435 - Isabeau of Bavaria (b. 1370) - 1494 – Poliziano, Italian humanist (b. 1454) - 1522 - Tupac Amaru I, Incan ruler - 1541 – Paracelsus, Swiss physician, botanist, alchemist, astrologer and general occultist (b. 1493) - 1732 – Emperor Reigen of Japan (b. 1654) - 1742 - Johann Matthias Hase, German mathematician, astronomer and cartographer (b. 1684) - 1802 – Alexander Radishchev, Russian philosopher and writer (b. 1749) - 1834 – Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (b. 1798) - 1877 – Saigo Takamori, Japanese samurai (b. 1828) - 1889 - Daniel Harvey Hill, American Confederate general (b. 1821) - 1889 - Charles Leroux, American balloonist (b. 1896) - 1896 – Louis Gerard De Geer, first Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1818) - -1901 2000 - 1904 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Danish doctor, won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1860) - 1920 - Peter Carl Faberge, Russian jeweler (b. 1846) - 1929 – Mahidol Adulyadej, Prince of Thailand (b. 1892) - 1930 - William A. MacCorkle, 9th Governor of West Virginia (b. 1857) - 1939 - Carl Laemmle, German-American film producer (b. 1867) - 1945 - Hans Geiger, German physicist (b. 1882) - 1950 - Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine (b. 1863) - 1969 – Warren McCulloch, American neuropsychologist (b. 1898) - 1973 - Josue de Castro, Brazilian physician, geographer and activist (b. 1908) - 1978 - Hasso von Manteuffel, German general and politician (b. 1897) - 1980 - Theodor Luts, Estonian-Brazilian director, producer and cinematographer (b. 1896) - 1981 - Patsy Kelly, American actress and singer (b. 1910) - 1982 - Sarah Churchill, English actress (b. 1914) - 1991 – Dr. Seuss, American writer (b. 1904) - 1991 - Peter Bellamy, English singer-songwriter (b. 1944) - 1993 - Ian Stuart Donaldson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1957) - 1993 - Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist (b. 1913) - 1994 - Cheb Hasni, Algerian singer (b. 1968) - -From 2001 - 2002 - Tim Rose, American-born English musician (b. 1940) - 2004 - Françoise Sagan, French writer (b. 1935) - 2005 - Tommy Bond, American actor (b. 1926) - 2008 - Mickey Vernon, American baseball player (b. 1918) - 2009 – Nelly Arcan, Canadian novelist (b. 1975) - 2009 – Susan Atkins, American murderer (b. 1948) - 2010 – Gennady Yanayev, Soviet politician (b. 1937) - 2014 - Greg Mackey, Australian rugby league player (b. 1961) - 2014 - Deborah Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, English Duchess and last-surviving of the Mitford sisters (b. 1920) - 2014 - Christopher Hogwood, English conductor (b. 1941) - 2014 - Karl Miller, British literary editor (b. 1931) - 2014 - Carlotta Ikeda, Japanese dancer (b. 1941) - 2014 - Stephen Sykes, English bishop (b. 1939) - 2015 - Ellis Kaut, German author (b. 1920) - 2016 - Vladimir Kuzmichyov, Russian footballer (b. 1979) - 2016 - Bill Nunn, American actor (b. 1953) - 2016 - Bill Mollison, Australian author, physicist and biologist (b. 1928) - 2016 - Buckwheat Zydeco, American musician (b. 1947) - 2017 - Valery Asapov, Russian army general (b. 1966) - 2017 - Washington Benavides, Uruguayan poet, professor and musician (b. 1930) - 2017 - Gisèle Casadesus, French actress (b. 1914) - 2017 - Joseph M. McDade, American politician (b. 1931) - 2017 - Kito Lorenc, German writer and poet (b. 1938) - 2017 - Carlos Vidal Layseca, Peruvian physician and politician (b. 1931) - 2018 - Norm Breyfogle, American comic book artist (b. 1960) - 2018 - Jim Brogan, Scottish footballer (b. 1944) - 2018 - José María Hurtado Ruiz-Tagle, Chilean politician (b. 1945) - 2018 - Ivar Martinsen, Norwegian speed skater (b. 1920) - 2018 - Tommy McDonald, American football player (b. 1934) - 2019 - Donald L. Tucker, American politician (b. 1935) - -Observances - Independence Day in Guinea-Bissau - Heritage Day in South Africa - Mahidol Day in Thailand - New Caledonia Day - Republic Day in Trinidad and Tobago - Armed Forces Day (Peru) - -Days of the year" -75,144,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/City,City,"A city is a heavily inhabited community that may include structures, buildings, bridges, rivers or lakes, and landmarks. - -A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a ""city center"" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center. - -Definition - -No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called ""city,"" and other places are called ""town."" - -Some things that make a city are : - A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC. - A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba. - In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 persons. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs. - A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital. - Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges. - Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest ""cathedral cities"" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England. - -In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities ) - -Size of cities - -The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city. - -Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years. - -Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines. - -In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named "" city "" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). - -Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city. - -In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a ""metropolis"" and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the "" City of London "" only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as ""Greater London. "" Many other cities have grown in the same way. - -These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick. - -Urban history - -Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization . Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro. - -Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England. - -In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England. - -Features - -Infrastructure - -People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste. Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it. - -Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting. - -Buildings and design -Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers. - -City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a ""wheel and spokes"": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares. - -United States politics - -Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them : - - Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta. - New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district. - Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City. - Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas. - Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district. - Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana. - Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district. - -World's largest cities - -These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities: - Tokyo, Japan - 37+ million - Mexico City, Mexico - 21 million - Mumbai, India - 20 million - São Paulo, Brazil - 18 million - Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million - Calcutta, India - 13 million - Buenos Aires, Argentina - 12 million - Seoul, South Korea - 12 million - Beijing, China - 12 million - Karachi, Pakistan - 12 million - Dhaka, Bangladesh - 11 million - Manila, Philippines - 11 million - Cairo, Egypt - 11 million - Osaka, Japan - 11 million - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 11 million - Tianjin, China - 10 million - Moscow, Russia - 10 million - Lahore, Pakistan - 10 million - -Gallery of cities - -References" -4695,14805,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bench,Bench,"A bench is a kind of chair, a place where people can sit. Benches are long and often found outside, and more than one person can sit on them. Benches are usually made of wood, metal, stone, and other synthetic things. Many benches have no back. - -Furniture -Street furniture" -4527,14171,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan,Tajikistan,"Tajikistan is a country in Central Asia. It was previously part of the Soviet Union. Tajikistan is a republic. The capital city is Dushanbe. The official language is Tajik,which is a dialect of Farsi (Persian). - -Tajikistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the CIS. Tajikistan is eighth in size of CIS countries. - -Geography -Tajikistan is one of the new countries in South-central Asia. It is west of China, north of Afghanistan and Pakistan, that is separated by a narrow 14 km strip of Tajik claimed land known as the Wakhan Corridor in the Pamirs, east of Uzbekistan and south of Kyrgyzstan. - -Tajikistan is landlocked in the middle of the continent of Asia. - -Its total area is only about . It is slightly smaller than Wisconsin, USA. Tajikistan’s borders total to long. - -The climate has hot summers and mild winters. - -Almost all of the country (85 percent) is mountainous with river valleys running across, however high altitude mountains of Pomir are in the eastern part of the country, (which is the west end of the Himalayas). The climate there is semiarid to polar. The mountains cover an area of about . There are other countries within the mountain range. The mountains are between high. - -Karakul lake is located within a meteorite crater, which would have formed about 25 million years ago, or less than 5 million years ago. - -History -The land that is now Tajikistan has been lived in since 4,000 BC. It has been under the rule of various empires throughout history, mostly the Persian Empires. - -In the year 800, Islam came to north-east of Iran, (Nowadays called a part of this Land Tajikistan) - -In 1868, Tajikistan became a Russian Colony. It later became a part of the Soviet Union. - -On 9 September 1991, after long periods of mass protests against the Soviet Government, the Parliament of Tajikistan declared independence from Soviet Union, and held the first presidential elections. - -Rahmon Nabiev, who ran the country during Soviet Union in the late 1970s and early 1980s, become its president. He was unable to bring any much-needed reforms to the country, and so there were protests in the capital city, Dushanbe. -The government responded by organizing a pro-government demonstration, mainly made of old Communist Party members and people from the southeast of the country brought to the city. Anti-government protests did not stop, so the government gave weapons to the pro-government demonstrator. Then the Opposition armed themselves. - -After this bloody civil war broke out. In which all of the new democratic parties, political organizations, and movements together with the political Islamic movements created an alliance, opposing the old communist government and southerners. - -After the September 11, 2001 attacks, many American and French Soldiers came into the country. - -Political structure -In 2010 a leaked US Embassy cable described Tajikistan as - -""... The greatest obstacle to improving the economy is resistance to reform. From the President down to the policeman on the street, the government is characterized by cronyism and corruption. Emomali Rahmon and his family control the country's major businesses, including the largest bank, and they play hardball to protect their business interests, no matter the cost to the economy writ large... The government has limited opposition party operations and rejected electoral law reforms for the February 28, 2010, parliamentary elections. The Embassy does not expect the elections to be free and fair. There has been almost no coverage of opposition political parties by state media, and most of the population is unaware of the purpose of the elections..."" - -Provinces -Tajikistan is divided into 4 provinces. - -References - - Poopak NikTalab. Sarve Samarghand (Cedar of Samarkand), continuous interpretation of Rudaki's poems ,Tehran 2020, Faradid Publications {Introduction} - - -Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation -1991 establishments in Asia" -9252,31768,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Marine%20Corps,United States Marine Corps,"The United States Marine Corps (also known as USMC) is one of the six branches of the military of the United States in the United States Department of Defense. It was created in 1775 as a special maritime service. Samuel Nicholas founded it. He was the first commissioned officer in the Corps. The birthplace of the Marines is in Philadelphia at the Tun Taven. - -Although it is part of the U.S. Naval Service, it is a separate military branch with its own special ranking structure. It also has its own Naval Aviation. - -The Marines have been involved in many conflicts, and had important roles in key battles such as Tripoli, Iwo Jima, Guadalcanal, and Inchon Bay. Every Marine receives infantry training to be ready for battle at all times. Marine Corps training is also known for being especially challenging; at 13 weeks long, Marine Recruit Training is the longest basic training of the six military branches. United States Marines place a large emphasis on morale. This is reflected in their motto, semper fidelis (meaning ""always faithful""), often shortened to semper fi. - -Other websites - United States Marine Corps -Citizendium - - -1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies" -15608,59564,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wittingen,Wittingen,"Wittingen is a small town in the north of the district of Gifhorn, Lower Saxony, Germany. It has 12.268 inhabitants (2005). Wittingen is located at 52° 43′ N, 10° 44′ E and its postal codes are 29378 and 29379. - -Around Wittingen, there are 26 villages: - -History -Wittingen was first mentioned in a document of 781 - -References - -Other websites - - www.wittingen.de" -2406,7764,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki,Helsinki,"Helsinki () is the capital city of Finland. Helsinki is the largest city in Finland. 604,380 (31.12.2012) people live in Helsinki, and 1,360,000 live in the Helsinki metropolitan area. - -Helsinki is in the south of Finland, on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. The city is in the Uusimaa region. When one looks from Helsinki, Tallinn is on the opposite side of the sea, but it is too far away to see. A poetic name for Helsinki is ""the daughter of the Baltic Sea"". - -History -In 1550, Swedish king Gustav Vasa commanded people to build a new city and move there. His idea was to build a new place to trade, which would be more popular than Tallinn. The idea did not work well, and many people returned from Helsinki to their homes. Later Sweden built the fortress Suomenlinna in Helsinki. After Russia had taken Finland from Sweden in several wars, they started developing Helsinki. Helsinki became the capital of autonomous province of Finland. When Finland became independent in 1917, Helsinki stayed as the capital city. - -Geography -Helsinki spreads around several bays and over several islands. Some famous islands include Seurasaari, Lauttasaari and Korkeasaari - which is also the country's biggest zoo - as well as the fortress island of Suomenlinna (Sveaborg). - -The metropolitan area of Greater Helsinki also includes two of Finland's biggest cities, Espoo to the west of Helsinki, and Vantaa to the north. These two cities, along with Helsinki itself and the small town of Kauniainen (which is in fact surrounded by Espoo), make up the Capital Region (Pääkaupunkiseutu in Finnish or Huvudstadsregionen in Swedish). There are other towns nearby that are part of Greater Helsinki, including Järvenpää, Kerava, Tuusula, Nurmijärvi, Sipoo, Kirkkonummi, Mäntsälä and Vihti. They have become popular places for Helsinki commuters to live. - -Transport -The public transportation network in Helsinki and its area consists of -many bus routes serving most of the region. They are operated by different companies under contract to HSL. -one metro line (with two branches) between Helsinki and its eastern suburbs. The line first opened in 1982 and was extended to Espoo in 2017. -eleven tram lines, located mostly in the city centre. A light rail line serving the northern suburbs has been planned and construction will begin in 2019. -several commuter trains between Helsinki and nearby cities. Some lines go as far as Lahti, Riihimäki and Karis. - -Helsinki Airport is located in Vantaa about 20 kilometers north of Helsinki city center. The airport offers both domestic flights within Finland and international flights to Europe, Asia and North America. - -Helsinki offers several boat services to Tallinn and Stockholm every day, along with ferries to places including the island of Suomenlinna. - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites - - City of Helsinki web site - English version - City portal of Helsinki - English version - Finland Travel Community - WorldFlicks in Helsinki: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps - - -Olympic cities -1550s establishments in Europe -16th-century establishments in Finland -1550 establishments" -14579,54993,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient,Gradient,"In vector calculus, the gradient of a multivariate function measures how steep a curve is. On a graph of the function, it is the slope of the tangent of that curve. More generally, it is a vector that points in the direction in which the function grows the fastest. Its coordinates are partial derivatives of that function. The gradient of a function f is often written as or . - -Related pages - - Laplace operator - -References - -Mathematics -Calculus" -4471,13996,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ass,Ass,"Ass can mean different things: - -Another name for a donkey -A person's buttocks (rear end) -Calling someone an ass means that they are being rude. It is considered an insult to call someone an ass. - -Related pages -Jackass - -Pejoratives -English profanity" -14455,54444,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlad%20III%20the%20Impaler,Vlad III the Impaler,"Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia, is more commonly known as Vlad ""Țepeș"" (the Impaler) . He was born in Segesvár, Transylvania, - then under the control of the Kingdom of Hungary - in 1431. He was the Prince of Wallachia and ruled there three times, in 1448, 1456–1462 and 1476. - -In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of his cruelty. These legends gave Bram Stoker the idea for his main character in the popular Dracula novel. - -Historical background - -Wallachia was placed between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were fighting against the Kingdom of Hungary and this made Wallachia a battle ground between Turks and Hungarians. The rulers of Wallachia were chosen by the Romanian aristocrats, called boyars. The ruler was often from a noble house, sometimes an illegitimate prince born outside of marriage. The country rulers were struggling with each other, and this was resulting in instability, family disputes and murders. - -Biography - -Family background - -Vlad the Impaler was born in 1431. His father was Vlad II Dracul. His mother is unknown. Vlad II was married to princess Cneajna of Moldavia. He had several mistresses. Vlad III was raised by Cneajna with the help of her household. He had two brothers, Mircea born c. 1430 and Radu born 1435. He also had a half-brother, Vlad the Monk born around 1425-1430. - -Vlad II went to the court of Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund of Luxemburg as a young man. Sigismund was supporting Vlad II for the throne of Wallachia, and made Vlad II knight 1431 of the Order of the Dragon (Societas Draconis in Latin). - -The oldest brother, probably named Mircea, was sent by Vlad II to fight the war against the Turks in 1444. This war called the Battle of Varna was lost. Mircea and his father died in 1447. - -Vlad's half-brother. Vlad the Monk was waiting in Transylvania for a chance to rule Wallachia. Vlad the Monk was a monk until he became prince of Wallachia in 1482. - -Radu, known as Radu III the Fair or Radu the Handsome, the youngest brother, was also Vlad’s most important rival as he continuously tried to replace Vlad on the throne. - -Marriage -From his first marriage, Vlad the Impaler (or Vlad III) had a son, later prince of Wallachia, as Mihnea the Evil. His first wife, whose name we do not know, died during the war 1462. Vlad III the Impaler was fighting against the Turks. The legend says that the Turkish army surrounded Vlad's castle, the Poienari Castle, led by his brother Radu the Handsome. Vlad's wife threw herself off the tower into the Argeş River below the castle. According to legend she remarked that she ""would rather have her body be eaten by the fish of the Argeş than be captured by the Turks."" -Vlad had another two sons with his second wife Ilona Szilágyi a fraternal cousin of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. Some historians strongly believe they may have also had a daughter named Maria Zaleska (Princess Zaleska). - -Early years -Vlad was very likely born in the city of Sighişoara in Transylvania, then a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, during the winter of 1431. Sighişoara was a military fortress at that time. He was born as the second son to his father Vlad Dracul. He had an older brother, Mircea, and a younger brother, Radu the Handsome. Although his native country was Wallachia, the family lived in exile in Transylvania because his father had been chased away by pro-Ottoman boyars. - -A hostage of the Ottoman Empire -Vlad's father was pressured by the (Turkish) Ottoman sultan. He gave a promise to be the vassal of the Sultan and gave up his two younger sons as hostages so that he would keep his promise. - -Vlad suffered much at the hands of the Ottomans, and was locked up in an underground prison; however, his younger brother, Radu, caught the eye of the sultan's son. Radu was released and converted to Islam, and he was allowed into the Ottoman royal court. - -These years had a great influence on Vlad. They shaped Vlad's character. He was often whipped and beaten by the Turks for being stubborn and rude. He developed a well-known hatred for Radu and for Mehmed, who would later become the sultan. - -Short reign and exile -Vlad's father and Vlad's older brother, Mircea, were dead at this point. The Turks invaded Wallachia and the Sultan put Vlad III on the throne as his puppet ruler. His rule at this time was short; Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and chased him away the same year. Vlad fled to Moldavia and was put under the protection of his uncle, Bogdan II. - -War -Bogdan was assassinated. Vlad took a chance and fled to Hungary. Impressed by Vlad's knowledge of the Ottoman Empire, Hunyadi pardoned him and took him in as an adviser. Later, Hunyadi made him the Kingdom of Hungary's candidate for the throne of Wallachia. - -In 1456, Hungary invaded Serbia to chase away the Turks, and at the same time Vlad III invaded Wallachia. Both invasions were successful. Hunyadi suddenly died of the plague. Vlad became prince of Wallachia. - -Main reign (1456–62) -Vlad was spending most of his time at the court of the city of Târgovişte. He made laws, met foreign ambassadors, judged in trials. He reinforced some castles and probably enjoyed hunting with his friends. -The constant state of war since the death of his grandfather, Mircea the Elder, in 1418, led to increased crime levels and less agricultural production. Trade had almost disappeared in Wallachia. - -Vlad tried to solve these problems with severe methods. He needed an economically stable country. - -Vlad wanted to eliminate all threats to his power, mainly the rival nobility groups, such as the boyars. This was done mainly by killing them and reducing the their economic role. The Wallachian nobility had connections with the Saxon merchants. The Saxons lived in the free towns of Transylvania, making trade flourish. Vlad cut their towns trade privileges with Wallachia, and started war against them. - -Vlad gave key positions in the Prince’s Council to people of lower rank who were loyal to him. Vlad preferred to knight men from the free peasants. -Vlad III was always on guard against the Dăneşti clan. Some of his attacks into Transylvania may have been efforts to kill or capture Dăneşti princes. Several members of the Dăneşti clan died at Vlad's hands. Rumors say that thousands of citizens of the free towns that sheltered his rivals were impaled by Vlad. One captured Dăneşti prince was forced to read his own funeral speech while he kneeled at an open grave before his execution. - -Personal crusade - -There was a war between the Ottoman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. Following family traditions, Vlad decided to side with the Hungarians. To the end of the 1450s there was once again talk about a war against the Turks, in which the king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus would play the main role. Knowing this, Vlad stopped paying money to the Ottomans in 1459, and at around 1460, he made a new alliance with Corvinus. The Turks did not like this and tried to remove him from power but they failed. In the winter of 1461 Vlad attacked and devastated the area between Serbia and the Black Sea, leaving over 20,000 people dead. - -In response to this, the Sultan Mehmed II headed towards Wallachia with an army of 60,000 men in the spring of 1462. With his army of 20,000-30,000 men Vlad was not able to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia. The Turks occupied the capital Târgovişte (June 4, 1462) and chased Vlad away. Vlad was hiding and made small attacks on the Turks. On the night of June 16 Vlad and some of his men entered the main Turkish camp, wearing Turkish clothing, and attempted to kill Mehmed. Later the Turkish army retired and left Vlad’s brother, Radu the Handsome, as the new ruler prince. -Radu the Handsome gathered support from the nobility and Vlad fled to Hungary. -In August 1462 Radu made a deal with the Hungarian Crown. - -In captivity -Vlad was living in exile because he was afraid of the boyars of Wallachia. Vlad escaped to Hungary but he was put in prison there. The exact time of Vlad's captivity is not known for sure. Apparently his imprisonment was not too dangerous. He was able to gradually win his way back into the favor of King Matthias. He was able to meet and marry a member of the royal family (the cousin of King Matthias). However, some do not believe that it was likely to happen that a prisoner was permitted to marry into the royal family. - -He had two sons with his new wife. Vlad also became a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Diplomatic letters and writings from Buda during this time show that Vlad's actual period of imprisonment was short. - -The openly pro-Turkish policy of Vlad's brother, Radu was probably a cause in Vlad's good treatment while in prison. It is interesting to note that the Russian texts, normally very favorable to Vlad Ţepeş, tells that even in captivity he could not give up his favorite games; he often captured birds and mice which he tortured and mutilated, and some were impaled on tiny spears. - -The years before his final release in 1474 (when he began making plans for the reconquest of Wallachia), Vlad lived with his new wife in a house in the Hungarian capital. His sons were about ten years old when he reconquered Wallachia in 1476. - -Return to Wallachia and death - -Around 1475 Vlad and Stefan Báthory of Transylvania invaded Wallachia with a mixed force of Transylvanians, some dissatisfied Wallachian boyars, and Moldavians sent by Prince Stephen III of Moldavia, Vlad's cousin. Vlad's brother, Radu the Handsome, died a couple of years earlier and had been replaced on the Wallachian throne by another Turkish candidate, Prince Basarab the Elder, a member of the Dăneşti clan. When Vlad's army arrived, Prince Basarabs army fled, some to the Turks, others in the mountains. After placing Vlad Ţepeş on the throne, Stephen Báthory and his forces returned to Transylvania, leaving Vlad in a very weak position. Vlad had little time to get support before a large Turkish army entered Wallachia to put back Prince Basarab on the throne. Vlad's cruelties over the years made the boyars to believe that they had a better chance to survive under Prince Basarab. Even the peasants, tired of the cruelty of Vlad, abandoned him. Vlad had to meet the Turks with the small forces at his disposal, which were made up of less than four thousand men. - -There are several variants of Vlad III the Impaler's death. Some sources say he was killed in battle against the Turks near Bucharest in December of 1476. Others say he was killed by disloyal Wallachian boyars in the war against the Turks, or during a hunt. Others believe Vlad was killed in the war, surrounded by the bodies of his loyal Moldavian bodyguards. Still other reports claim that Vlad was accidentally killed by one of his own men. Vlad's body was decapitated by the Turks and his head was sent to Istanbul preserved in honey. The sultan had it displayed on a stake as proof that Kazıklı Bey was dead. The exact place of his grave is unknown. - -Legacy - -Tales and legends about Vlad stayed a part of folklore among the Romanian peasants. By constant retelling they have become confused and created an ideal picture of a big national hero. Among the Romanian peasants, Vlad Ţepeş was sometimes remembered as a prince who defended his country. - -But sometimes he is remembered as a very cruel and often capricious ruler. There are several events that are common to all tales. -One tale is about foreign ambassadors whom Vlad Ţepeş was meeting at Târgovişte. All versions agree that Vlad, in response to some real or imagined insult, (perhaps because they refused to remove the hats in Vlad's presence), had their hats nailed to their heads. - -A good description of Vlad Dracula survives, courtesy of Nicholas of Modrussa, who wrote: -He was not very tall, but very stocky and strong, with a cruel and terrible appearance, a long straight nose, distended nostrils, a thin and reddish face in which the large wide-open green eyes were enframed by bushy black eyebrows, which made them appear threatening. His face and chin were shaven but for a moustache. The swollen temples increased the bulk of his head. A bull's neck supported the head, from which black curly locks were falling to his wide-shouldered person. - -His famous portrait was rediscovered in the late 1800s, in the gallery of horrors at Innsbruck's Ambras Castle. - -Cruelty - -Vlad III Ţepeş has been described as very cruel. The old Romanian word for dragon is Dracul, which in modern Romanian means ""devil"". In Old Romanian, it means ""dragon"". Dracul was the name given to his father, Vlad II, by other members of the Order of the Dragon. Impalement was Ţepeş's preferred method of torture and execution. His method of torture was a horse attached to each of the victim's legs while sharpened stake was forced into the body. Vlad often had the stakes arranged in patterns. The most common pattern was a ring outside of a city that was his target. The height of the spear indicated the rank of the victim. The corpses were often left there for months. - -One tale says 10,000 were impaled in the Transylvanian city of Sibiu (where Vlad the Impaler had once lived) in 1460. Another tale says that on Saint Bartholomew's Day (in August), Vlad the Impaler had 30,000 people of the free Transylvanian city of Braşov impaled. One of the most famous woodcuts of the period shows Vlad the Impaler feasting amongst a forest of stakes outside Braşov, while a nearby executioner cuts apart other victims. Impalement was not his only method of torture. Other methods include nails in heads, cutting off limbs, strangulation, burning, cutting off noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs (especially in the case of women), scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or to animals, and boiling alive. - -His victims included women, children, peasants, great lords, ambassadors from foreign powers and merchants. However, the vast majority of his European victims came from the merchants and boyars of Transylvania and Wallachia. Most of the merchants there were German-speaking Saxons who were seen as bad people because they were not Romanian. He saw the boyars as people who were not loyal (Vlad's own father and older brother were murdered by boyars). - -Almost as soon as he came to power, he gave a party for his boyars and their families to celebrate Easter. These nobles were part of the conspiracy around his father's death. Vlad, to avenge his father's death, had all the assembled nobles arrested. The older boyars were impaled on the spot. The younger nobles and their families were marched north from Târgovişte to the ruins of the Poienari Castle in the mountains above the Argeş River. The boyars and their families were forced to work for months rebuilding the old castle. According to the reports, they worked until the clothes fell off their bodies, and then were forced to continue working naked. Very few survived the building of Vlad's castle. - -Vlad Ţepeş is also believed to have tortured and impaled some of the Turkish forces. It was reported that an invading Ottoman army turned back when they saw thousands of rotting corpses impaled on the banks of the river Danube. In 1462, Mehmed II returned to Constantinople after being sickened by the sight of 20,000 impaled corpses outside of Vlad's capital of Târgovişte. Many of the victims were Turkish prisoners of war. - -Anecdotal evidence - -Much of the information we have about Vlad III Ţepeş comes from texts published in the Holy Roman Empire in German texts from 1488 and books written in Russian. These were entertainment in a society where the printing press was new. The texts were reprinted over the thirty years following Vlad's death. The German texts said Vlad Ţepeş was a person who terrorized the land and killed innocents. The Russian texts said his actions were justified, because Vlad helped them. The texts agree on some details. - -According to the texts, he was particularly cruel against women and wanted his people to work hard. Merchants who cheated their customers were likely to be killed because of that. - -The vampire legend -The fictional vampire in the novel Dracula by Bram Stoker was inspired by the legends of this Wallachian prince. The cruel person of the Impaler was a suitable character for Stoker's purposes possibly combined with Oscar Wilde, a poet whom dated Stoker's wife and was outed as homosexual near the making of Stoker's famous novel. The events of Vlad's life happened in a region of the world that was still medieval in Stoker's time. - -Although there were vampire tales originating elsewhere, the vampire, as he became known in Europe, largely originated in Southern Slavic and Greek folklore. The vampire tale is virtually absent in Romanian culture. Vampirism became part of the popular culture in Europe beginning in the late 17th century. Philosophers in the West began to study the phenomenon. It was during this period that Dom Augustine Calmet wrote a famous text on vampirism in Hungary. It was also during this period that authors and playwrights first began to explore the vampire legend. Stoker's novel was a work in a long series of works that were inspired by the reports coming from the Balkans. - -Further reading - Florescu, Radu R.; McNally, Raymond T. (1989). Dracula: Prince of Many Faces. Little Brown and Company. - Radu R., Florescu; McNally, Raymond T. (1994). In Search of Dracula. Houghton Mifflin. - Treptow, Kurt W. (2000). Vlad III Dracula: The Life and Times of the Historical Dracula. Center for Romanian Studies. - Babinger, Franz (1992). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. - Dracula: Essays on the Life and Times of Vlad the Impaler by Kurt W Treptow, Center for Romanian Studies, 2018, amzn.to/2rYx93U via @amazon - -References - -Other websites - - Vlad Tepes - Dracula Between Hero and Vampire - Vlad III Dracula - Vlad's History - Vlad's Biography - Vlad III Dracula - The Tale of Dracula Russian manuscript circa 1490, with English translation (MS Word format) - The Real Life of Dracula - Dark Prince: The True Story of Dracula (2000) (TV) - Coins attributed to Vlad III Tepes - -1431 births -1476 deaths -Romanian leaders -Princes and princesses" -12401,45779,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ%20%28music%29,Organ (music),"In music, organ is a word that can mean several kinds of musical instruments. The word comes from the Greek ὄργανον organon, which means ""organ"", ""instrument"", or ""tool"". - -Most organs are played using keyboards, one or more of which may be played using the feet. They are found and used in churches, concert halls, and even in theatres, especially older movie theatres or cinemas. A person who plays the organ is called an organist. - -Here are some different types of organs: - -Pipe organ - -Pipe organs are the most common kind of organ, and many people mean this kind of organ when they use the word ""organ"". They sound different notes when air flows through pipes of different lengths and types. They take up a lot of room, and the noise they make are meant to fill large spaces. - -The earliest pipe organs were water organs, which were powered by the flow of water, sometimes from a natural resource or using a pump. Later ones used foot pedals or hand cranks to pump a bellows, which in turn produces the air that goes through the pipes. These kinds of organs are still made today, and are called harmoniums. Today's pipe organs ones use an electric motor to move air, and some, like those in theaters, play different instruments as well. The Wurlitzer company was well known for making instruments that make different sounds. - -Mechanical organ - -Mechanical organs have a mechanism that controls which notes are played and when they are played. One type of mechanical organ is the barrel organ, which usually get their music printed on cardboard sheets, although some use piano rolls or a barrel similar to that of a carillon or music box. - -Mechanical organs can be all shapes and sizes. The smaller barrel organs are often heard on streets in Europe and is a common way of getting money from people who pass by. These types are sometimes called hurdy gurdies, but this is not true. Larger barrel organs can be found on fairgrounds and are loud so that they can be heard above all the other noise at a fair. Meanwhile, smaller barrel organs can be found indoors, and play songs when someone puts in a coin, similar to a slot machine. Some clocks have barrel organ mechanisms that play music at certain times, such as every hour. - -Electronic organ - -The electronic organ is one of the newest types of organ. They use electronics to simulate the sound of a pipe organ and many other instruments. Because of this, they do not need to be very big and many are no bigger than a piano so that they can fit in homes, schools, or can be moved around as needed. They also do not go out of tune because it holds all its sounds on computerized chips. Many organists think they do not feel as good to play as a traditional, mechanical pipe-organ. - -There are electronic organs that look and sound like those played in churches, and even many churches use electronic organs when they do not have the money or space for a full pipe organ. The best-known electronic organs include the Hammond organ heard in jazz, and other organs, like those made by the Japanese company Yamaha, are in fact synthesizers that can sound like a whole orchestra playing together. These types of organs are often used for music education, especially in Asia. - -Keyboard instruments" -7755,25372,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/525,525," - -Events -Bernicia settled by the Angles -Ethiopia conquers Yemen -The Daisan river, a tributary of the Euphrates, floods Edessa and within a couple of hours fills the entire city except for the highest parts. Eventually the pent-up waters break through the city walls. The Shroud of Turin was discovered during the rebuilding of the city. -Byzantine emperor Justin I rebuilds Anazarbus and renames it Justinopolis. -Dionysius Exiguus produces his tables for computing the date of Easter." -15077,56858,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLaren,McLaren,"McLaren Racing Limited is a Formula 1 racing team. McLaren was started by Bruce McLaren in 1963. McLaren's current drivers are Carlos Sainz Jr. and Lando Norris. - -McLaren also makes road cars at its Woking factory. - -Formula One World Championship results - -References - -Formula One constructors -Formula One current" -16823,64125,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kick%20the%20Can%20Crew,Kick the Can Crew,"Kick the Can Crew is a Japanese hip-hop group. The style is 3MC and 1DJ. The group was started by 1996, but it broke up in 2004. - -Japanese musical groups -Hip hop bands -Musical groups established in 1996 -2004 disestablishments -1996 establishments in Japan -21st-century disestablishments in Japan -2000s disestablishments in Asia" -16346,62880,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartley,Hartley,"Hartley could mean - -Places - -In England -In Cumbria -Hartley, Cumbria (village) -Hartley Castle -In Devon -Hartley, Plymouth (see Places in Plymouth) -In Kent -Hartley, Kent -Hartley, Cranbrook -In Northumberland -New Hartley -Old Hartley, part of Seaton Sluice - -Worldwide -Hartley, South Australia Australia -Electoral district of Hartley is a state electoral district in South Australia. -Hartley, New South Wales Australia -Hartley's Creek, Queensland Australia -Hartley Bay, British Columbia Canada -Hartley, Texas, United States -Hartley County, Texas, United States -Hartley, Iowa, United States -Hartley, Zimbabwe (formerly called Rhodesia) - -People - Adele Hartley - Aidan Hartley - Al Hartley - A. N. Hartley - Alex Hartley - Alfred Hartley - Ann Hartley - Anne Jane Hartley - Anthony Hartley (1925-2000), British writer and critic - Bill Hartley - Bill Hartley (athlete) - Blythe Hartley - Bob Hartley - David Hartley (philosopher) (1705-1757), English philosopher and psychologist - David Hartley (the Younger) (1731-1813), Member of Parliament and son of the English philosopher - Edmund Barron Hartley - Fergal Hartley - Fred Hartley - Fred A. Hartley, Jr., U.S. politician, known for sponsoring the Taft-Hartley Act - Gene Hartley - Grover Hartley - Hal Hartley - J. R. Hartley, fictional character - Jesse Hartley - Joe Hartley K-O Joe, renowned boxer, cricket player and professor of English literature (born late 1970s) - John Hartley: -John Hartley (poet) (1839–1915), Yorkshireman -John Anderson Hartley (1844–1896), Australian educationalist -John Hartley (tennis player) (1849–1935), English clergyman who won Wimbledon -John Hartley (cricketer) (1874–1963), played for Oxford and Sussex - Jonathan Scott Hartley - Julia Hartley-Brewer - Justin Hartley (born 1977), American actor - L. P. Hartley (1895-1972), British author - Lauren Hartley - Linda Hartley - Lindsay Hartley - Mariette Hartley - Marsden Hartley (1877-1943), American artist - Matthieu Hartley - Mike Hartley - Nina Hartley (born 1959), adult-film actress - Oliver C. Hartley - Paul Hartley - Peter Hartley - Phil ""Otis"" Hartley - Ralph Hartley (1888-1970), electronics researcher - Richard Hartley - Steven Hartley - Thomas Hartley - Wallace Hartley (1878-1912), violinist and band leader who died on the Titanic - Walter Hartley - - Hartley William Shawcross (1902-2003), British barrister and politician - -Other -hartley (ban) unit of information -Hartley Brewery, in Ulverston, Cumbria from c.1754 until about 1989. -Hartley College, Point Pedro, Sri Lanka -Hartley's Potato Chips, makers of kettle cooked potato chips since 1935, Lewistown, Pennsylvania -Hartley oscillator -USS Hartley, a Dealey class Destroyer Escort in the US Navy from 1957 to 1972 - -Other websites -Hartley Family Surname Research" -2363,7692,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality,Homosexuality,"Homosexuality is a sexual orientation. A homosexual person is romantically or sexually attracted to people of their own gender. Men who are romantically or sexually attracted to other men are called gay. Women who are romantically or sexually attracted to other women can be called gay as well, but are usually called lesbians. People who are romantically or sexually attracted to men and women are called bisexual. - -Together homosexual, bisexual, and transgender people make up the LGBT community, which stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. It is difficult to say how many people are homosexual. Homosexuality is known to exist in all cultures and countries. - -Other titles for homosexuality - -Definition -One may say that homosexuality is the term used for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, but other definitions also exist. When one views homosexuality as the term for people that feel romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, more people are gay than when one might view homosexuality as only a term for people who do have sexual relationships with their own sex. Usually, the term is used to view all the people who are romantically or sexually attracted to their own sex, as well as those with such attractions who have not had a sexual relationship with their own sex yet. Nonetheless, the most visible form of homosexuality is the actual relationship. Most 'evidence' of homosexuality in ancient cultures comes from drawings of the men in an intimate relationship or sex, because it's the most obvious. - -The word homosexual comes from the Ancient Greek word homo, meaning ""same"", and the Latin word for ""gender"". People in the LGBT community usually say ""gay"" instead of ""homosexual."" Some people also use the term homophile (from Greek (""homos"", meaning the same) and (""philein""; meaning to love). This term emphasizes romantic interest in the same sex, rather than sexual attraction. - -Other names -There are many different words to describe homosexual people. Some of these are used to insult homosexual people. However, the LGBT community sometimes uses these words to describe themselves because the word ""homosexual"" can sound too clinical. This is done to make the words less hurtful. Some words to describe homosexual men are gay and queer. Words to describe homosexual women are lesbian and dyke. Lesbian is used most often. Dyke is used less often and is sometimes used to describe lesbians who are more masculine (act or dress more like men). However, ""queer"" and ""dyke"" are sometimes used against gay people as insults, so they can sometimes be offensive. - -Homosexual pride - -When homosexual people keep their sexual orientation a secret, they are said to be ""in the closet"". ""Out"" or ""out of the closet"" is a slang term that means a homosexual person is open about their sexual orientation. This means they do not hide the fact that they are homosexual. Some gay and lesbian people stay in the closet because of fear of what would happen or because they live in a place that is not safe for homosexual people. - -Sometimes people who are 'out' also say they are 'proud'. ""Out"" means they are not hiding their sexual orientation. ""Proud"" means that they are pleased about it. ""Proud"" or ""Pride"" has a special meaning in the LGBT community. It means they are celebrating and being happy that they are homosexual. It is not 'pride' meaning that they have done something to be proud of, but 'pride' meaning the opposite of shame. Many cities have ""Pride Parades"". These used to be protest marches. Today, they are usually celebrations of the LGBT community. They usually occur in June, in memory of the 'Stonewall Riots' that happened in New York City in 1969. These riots happened because police harassed and arrested people for being homosexual. 'Stonewall' or the 'Stonewall Riots' are sometimes called the start of the LGBT rights movement. - -Causes -The causes of homosexuality and bisexuality are controversial (people do not agree on them). The causes of homosexuality are not all understood, but genetics and the effects of the prenatal environment and hormones (when a baby is growing in its mother) are thought to be causes. There is not much evidence that the social environment is a cause of homosexuality. Scientists also show that homosexuality happens not only in humans. Some animals (like penguins, chimpanzees, and dolphins) often show homosexuality, and some (rams) even for lifelong periods as is the case with humans. - -Doctors used to treat gay people as if they had mental illnesses. However, homosexuality is no longer called a disease by doctors in many countries. There are some religious and non-religious groups who still try to 'cure' homosexuality. This is sometimes called 'conversion therapy'. In therapies like this one, homosexual individuals have tried to become heterosexual and have even claimed they were changed, but most people do not believe it is possible. - -Conversion therapy or reparative therapy aims to change people's sexual orientation from homosexual to heterosexual. It is condemned by medical and psychiatry groups such as the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, Royal College of Psychiatrists, National Association of Social Workers, Royal College of Nursing, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. These scientific and educated groups are concerned that such therapy is a violation of the ethical principles of health care, and violates human rights. - -Many people believe that it is unfortunate to discuss causes of homosexuality and bisexuality without discussing causes of heterosexuality, too. Although it is easy to understand why heterosexuality exists (heterosexual sex produces babies), that does not explain how the brain develops to produce heterosexual people. Heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality all have causes, and some people believe that to discuss only the causes of homosexuality and bisexuality suggests that there is something wrong with people who have those orientations. - -Relationships - -Gay people can fall in love and have lifelong relationships. In most countries, they cannot legally marry their partners. However, they still have relationships in the same way as heterosexual people. - -Some homosexual people have wedding ceremonies even though governments do not recognize or accept them. They may call their partner a spouse, wife, or husband despite the law. - -But to them, the important part about marriage is not just the name. Married people get many benefits from being married. Depending on the country, these benefits can include paying less taxes, getting their spouse's insurance, inheriting property, social security benefits, having or adopting children together, emigrating to a spouse's country, being able to make choices for a sick spouse, or even being allowed to visit a sick spouse who is in a hospital. - -Today there are numerous countries that allow homosexual people to marry, including: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Scotland, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Uruguay, the United States and Wales. The Netherlands was first in 2001. It is also legal in six Native American tribes. - -Instead of marriage, some countries or states offer homosexuals civil unions or domestic partnerships. This gives them some of the protections and benefits of marriage, but not all. Civil unions and domestic partnerships are sometimes seen by the LGBT community as being 'second class' (not as good as 'first class'). They do offer some benefits for gay and lesbian couples, but they also suggest that these couples are not as important or valid as heterosexual couples. Some people even say this is like the ""separate but equal"" rules that were used to segregate people by race in the United States. They believe that separate is never equal and homosexuals should not accept being second class citizens. - -Religion -Many religions teach that homosexual sex is a sin. Such religions traditionally include Islam, Christianity and Judaism. Usually, it is only the act of sexual intercourse that is considered sinful and not natural. Not all believe the attraction, is sinful, just the actions in response to the desire. - -However, some denominations (different parts) of these religions and some eastern religions now accept homosexuality. There are several other religions that are accepting of homosexuality, particularly new religions. There are also some religions which are indifferent to homosexuality, such as Zoroastrianism and Jainism. - -Problems homosexuals face - -In many countries, homosexual people are discriminated against. A homosexual person can be fired from a job because they are gay, even if they are a good worker. Homosexual people can be denied renting a home or being able to eat in a restaurant because of their sexual orientation. - -In some countries, homosexual people can experience violence. For example, Islamic law is used in some places to kill homosexuals or place them in jail. Some groups believe over 4,000 homosexual people have been killed in Iran since 1979 because of their sexual orientation. In 2005, after fourteen months of prison and torture, two teenage boys were hanged in Iran for homosexuality. - -In modern times, homosexuality has become more accepted in Western countries. Most western countries have laws that protect homosexuals from violence and discrimination. - -In the United Kingdom, homosexuality used to be a crime. Oscar Wilde, the famous Irish writer was imprisoned for it, and as a result, it destroyed his reputation and career as a wit and playwright. Alan Turing, the man who helped the Allies in World War II by breaking the Enigma Code used by the Germans, was convicted of this crime and according to some speculations he ultimately killed himself over the effects of the attempt to cure his homosexuality. - -Today in the United Kingdom, homosexual people are safer. Homosexual sex between adults is not a crime. Gay and lesbian couples can marry. Gay people can be in the military. - -In most of the world, homosexual people still do not have the same rights and freedoms that heterosexuals have. - -Homosexual behaviour in animals - -Homosexual behaviour has also been seen in animals. Homosexual, transgender and bisexual behaviour includes sex, courtship, affection, pair bonding, and parenting. Homosexual behaviour is widespread among animals. Bruce Bagemihl did research in 1999. It shows that homosexual behaviour has been observed in close to 1500 species, from primates to gut worms, and is well documented for 500 of them. The sexual behaviour of animals takes many different forms, even within the same species. The motivations for these behaviours are only partly known, mainly because the respecive species has not been fully studied yet. According to Bagemihl, ""the animal kingdom [does] it with much greater sexual diversity—including homosexual, bisexual and nonreproductive sex—than the scientific community and society at large have previously been willing to accept."" - -Related pages - Heterosexuality - Bisexuality - Pansexuality - Asexuality - Antisexuality - -References - -Other websites - -There are national and international groups or organizations for the LGBT community. These organizations are often political. They fight for the rights and safety of homosexuals. - -Some of the more important political organizations are: - The International Lesbian and Gay Association - The Human Rights Campaign - GLAAD, The Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation - Stonewall UK - The International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission - Egale Canada - -LGBT variations" -24209,93385,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Gong%20Show,The Gong Show,"The Gong Show is an American television game show, that was produced in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was created and hosted by Chuck Barris. The show's name came from a gong used to shorten performances that were not liked. The gong was sounded by celebrity judges, who rated the performers. - -Beginning -In the mid-1970s, Barris hoped to make a new kind of game show, based on the old ""amateur hour"" contest shows. He held auditions to find talented acts to appear. Nearly all the performers who came to the auditions were ordinary people, who had one or two skills, or thought they had special talent. Many of the performances were ""party pieces"", that people did to amuse others. Others were more serious, and tried hard to perform well. - -Most of the acts made Barris and his staff laugh. They thought their idea for a show would not work, because of the strange and funny performances. Barris then realized that audiences might want to watch them for amusement. He and his staff began to look for funny and unusual acts. The show debuted in 1976, and became a hit. - -Two hit shows -Two versions of The Gong Show aired at first: A nighttime version, hosted by radio announcer Gary Owens, and a daytime version, hosted by Barris himself. Barris later took over the nighttime version also. Each version worked the same, but featured different judges and performers. A live band played music for the performances. Live audiences attended each show, and cheered on the acts they liked. When they did not like an act, they would call on the judges to ""Gong 'em!"" If a judge sounded the gong, the act had to stop, and lost their chance for a prize. The performer who rated highest with the judges won a cash prize. (The ""prize"" was mostly for show; all the performers were paid the same, whether they won or not.) - -Celebrities -Many celebrities served as judges on the show, including Jaye P. Morgan and Jamie Farr. One well-known comedian, Murray Langston, performed on the show with a paper bag over his head. He called himself the ""Unknown Comic"", and told simple jokes when he appeared onstage. Langston won his round, and was invited back to appear other times. Many people wondered who the Unknown Comic really was. Langston later admitted he had appeared on the show just for some quick cash, because he needed money. He hid his identity so his performance would not hurt his comedy career, since he was already well-known. - -No real stars were made by Gong Show appearances, but thousands of people got a chance to perform on national television, and others got the chance to watch. One popular member of the show's cast was ""Gene, Gene, the Dancing Machine"", who would dance in front of the show's band between acts. Barris himself was also well-liked by the audience. He treated all the performers on the show kindly and seriously, and hosted the show like it was a party. - -Many of the acts who auditioned for The Gong Show were not suitable for television, or for times when children or families might watch. Some of these acts appeared in a movie, which was released in 1980. - -The end -In time, new and unusual acts became hard to find, as more people performed on The Gong Show. The television audience also lost interest. Barris was tired from working on the show. The Gong Show was cancelled by 1982. Reruns came later, but they also stopped with time. - -Today, The Gong Show is remembered fondly by the people who watched it. Amateur talent contests still sometimes feature a gong, for when an act does not go over well. (They are rarely used.) - -Barris wrote a memoir, titled Confessions of a Dangerous Mind, that talked about his time on the show. - -Comedy -Television game shows -NBC network shows -First run syndicated television programs -English-language television programs" -8003,26640,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20plaice,American plaice,"American plaice (Hippoglossoides platessoides) are salt water fish that live in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. Like most flatfish, they live on the bottom of the continental shelf, up to 700 metres deep, but spend most of the time at 90 to 200 meters. Their geographical range is from the coast of Labrador, south to the coast of the U.S. state of Rhode Island. The most are found off the eastern tip of Newfoundland. American plaice feed on sand dollars, brittle stars, crustaceans, polychaetes, and fish such as capelin and launce. - -Like many flatfish, American plaice are sometimes said to be a flounder or dab, even though both are names for other fish species. - -The U.K.-based Marine Conservation Society rates American plaice as 5, the most threatened category of over-harvested animals. - -Related pages -Alaska plaice -European Plaice - -References -American plaice information (Northeast Fisheries Science Center (U.S.)) -American plaice information (National Marine Fisheries Service (Canada)) -FishBase article -Ecological status of American plaice (Marine Conservation Society) - -Flatfish" -4149,12843,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20Model%20T,Ford Model T,"The Ford Model T was an American car built between 1908 and 1928 by the Ford Motor Company of Detroit, Michigan. It is one of the most important cars in history because it was one of the first cars to be sold for very little money, making it easy for people to travel from place to place. - -Importance - -The Model T, also known as the ""Tin Lizzie"", changed the way Americans live, work and travel. Henry Ford’s revolutionary advancements in assembly-line automobile manufacturing made the Model T the first car to be affordable for a majority of Americans. For the first time car ownership became a reality for average American workers, not just the wealthy. More than fifteen million Model Ts were built in Detroit and Highland Park, Michigan, and the automobile was also assembled at a Ford plant in Manchester, England, and at plants in continental Europe. - -Before the Model T, most cars cost lots of money. Only rich people could afford them. Even Ford's cars before the Model T cost a lot. The Model T went for around $980. A car built in 1903 called the Oldsmobile Curved Dash was very easy to buy, but was a very simple and slow car that was more like a carriage than a car. - -Even before it lost favor to larger, more powerful, and more luxurious cars, the Model T, known popularly as the ""Tin Lizzie"" or the ""flivver"", had become an American folkloric symbol, essentially realizing Ford’s goal to ""democratize the automobile"". - -The man who owned the company, Henry Ford, heard about meat being cut on a disassembly line, which moved meat from worker to worker so that the meat could be cut up. Assembly lines were not much used at the time. Ford knew that if he built his cars on an assembly line instead of one at a time like other cars, he could make a car that anyone could afford and would be built like cars that cost more money. He also knew that he could pay his workers more money. - -The Model T was offered in several body styles, including a five-seat touring car, a two-seat runabout, and a seven-seat town car. All bodies were mounted on a uniform 100-inch (2.5m)-wheelbase chassis. A choice of colors was originally available, but from 1913 to 1925 the car was mass-produced in only one color—black. The engine was simple and efficient, with all four cylinders cast in a single block and the cylinder head detachable for easy access and repair. The engine generated 20 horsepower and propelled the car to modest top speeds of 40–45 miles per hour (65–70 km/h). In most models the engine was started by a hand crank, which activated a magneto connected to the flywheel, but after 1920 some models were equipped with battery-powered starters. - -The transmission, having two forward gears and one reverse, was of the planetary type, controlled by foot pedals rather than the more common hand lever used in sliding-gear transmissions. Spark and throttle were controlled by a hand lever on the steering column. The ten gallon fuel tank was located under the front seat. Because gasoline was fed to the engine only by gravity, and also because the reverse gear offered more power than the forward gears, the Model T frequently had to be driven up a steep hill backward. Such deficiencies, along with its homely appearance, less-than-comfortable ride at top speeds, and incessant rattling, made the Model T the butt of much affectionate humor in innumerable jokes, songs, poems, and stories. - -History - -The Ford Model T car was designed by Henry Ford, Childe Harolde Wills, and two Hungarian men named József Galamb and Eugene Farkas. The Model T had a 177-cubic-inch (2.9-litre) four-cylinder engine producing 20 horsepower (15 kW) for a top speed of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h). The engine had side valves and three main bearings. Fuel economy was 14 to 21 miles per gallon (11 to 17 l/100km). - -Ford began building the Model T in his Piquette factory on October 6, 1908 as a 1909 model. Workers from all over the world wanted to work for Ford because of the good pay. Workers could even save their money for a Model T of their own. The price of the Model T dropped over the years, making it even easier to buy. - -Work began at one end of the assembly line, starting with an empty chassis. From there, the chassis moved slowly down the assembly line. Workers on the assembly line added parts to the chassis. Before long, a new Model T rolled off the other end of the line. Different body styles were available, even a truck, or Model TT. At first, the only color available was black. Black paint was used because it was cheaper and lasted longer than other paints and Ford was obsessed with increasing profit. As car paint got better over the years, Ford began offering other colors. The time it took a chassis to become a finished car was over 12 hours when the first Model Ts were built. By the time the last Model T came off of the line, Ford had so many plants, it was making one car every twenty-seven seconds! - -Even though the Model T sold for little money, Ford used the best materials he could buy to make his car. Most roads in the Model T's day were dirt, gravel, or even mud. That meant the Model T had to be very strong, and it was. The wheels and tyres were very tall and skinny so that they could sink into mud roads and not get stuck. It was also very simple. - -Operation - -Ford made the Model T easy to drive compared to today's cars since the people to whom he sold his cars did not know how to drive anything other than a horse. It is not like driving a modern car, though three pedals are on the floor like a modern manual transmission car. A Model T has a steering wheel that works the same way as in cars of today, but almost everything else is different. - -The first Model Ts did not even have a starter like a modern car. This is the powerful electric motor in a car that turns the engine to make it run when it is turned off. The engine on the Model T was started with a hand crank on the front of the car. A wire loop near the radiator worked the choke on the carburetor to give the engine extra fuel to help start it when it was cold. This could be dangerous if the operator was not careful. If the levers that controlled the engine were not set the right way, especially the spark control, the engine could backfire, or spin the wrong way. Many people got broken arms this way. Doctors even had a name for this kind of break: the ""Ford fracture"". Many Model T owners added electric starters to their cars and it was not long before Ford started doing the same. A Model T is in high gear by default, so if the parking/clutch lever was not engaged, the car had a tendency to run over the operator when started. - -To make a modern car go or accelerate once the engine is running, a person steps on a pedal on the floor to engage the transmission into low gear. To make a Model T accelerate, move two levers near the steering wheel. The lever on the right was the throttle (or engine speed), and the lever on the left adjusted the time that the spark plugs fired. These levers needed to be set properly before the engine could be started. - -The three pedals on the floor of the Model T were for the brake on the right, reverse in the middle to make the Model T go backwards, and a pedal on the left to shift the gears from low to high speed. A lever on the floor worked the brakes as well as the clutch. Pulling the lever toward the driver would set the parking brake and help keep the car from moving while parked. When the lever was placed in the middle, the transmission would be in neutral. - -Once the engine is running, the driver now has to make the Model T move on its own. Step on the pedal all the way to the left, move the throttle lever to ""give it the gas"" and gently move the floor lever forward. This is low gear, the powerful gear used to get the Model T moving. Once it is moving, move the right lever up, let the left pedal come all the way up, and give it more gas to shift into high. To make the car go faster still, move the throttle lever as well as the spark advance lever. Stepping on the left pedal only halfway puts the car in neutral, the same as the lever. This helps the Model T come to a stop without causing the engine to stop as well. - -The brakes on a Model T work the rear wheels by the use of brake bands inside the transmission. Modern cars have brakes on all four wheels. No brakes are on the front wheels of a Model T. - -More than fifteen million Model Ts were built. That record was not broken until 1971 by the Volkswagen Golf. Today, the record for the most cars built is held by the Toyota Corolla. - -The Model T was nicknamed the ""Tin Lizzie"" and ""Flivver"" by the people who drove it. A new car took the place of the Model T in 1928, named the Ford Model A. - -Model T -1920s automobiles" -2259,7501,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk%20hero,Folk hero,"A folk hero is a person, who may or may not have existed, and is famous and well liked by people, or people of a certain country. Usually it is someone who helped the common people or fought against the authorities, such as a bad king. People tells stories about folk heroes, most of their stories have been passed down orally, and changed to fit the situations. They usually have a special skill or trait of some sort (Paul Bunyan is very tall). - -Some famous folk heroes are: - -Robin Hood (England), who stole from the rich and gave it to the poor people -William Tell (Switzerland), who killed a tyrant (a lord terrorizing the people) -Carmine Crocco (Italy), controversial figure of the Italian unification but considered by many a folk hero -Johnny Appleseed -George Washington, First President of the United States -Natty Bumppo -Paul Bunyan -Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, First President of Turkey -Gandhi -Nelson Mandela, First President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist -Simón Bolívar -John Henry -Pecos Bill -Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States during the American Civil War -Davy Crockett, famous American folk hero who died at the Battle of the Alamo. -Jim Bowie, famous for his Bowie knife, died at the Battle of the Alamo. -Paul Revere -Qutb Shah, supposed Arab-Afghan who conquered large parts of Northern India and sired many tribes. -Dulla Bhatti who was a popular resistance hero against the Mughal Empire. -Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal who was a Punjabi freedom-fighter in 1857. - -Folklore" -16135,61963,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need%20for%20Speed,Need for Speed,"Need for Speed, also known by its initials NFS, is a racing video game franchise, made by Electronic Arts and developed by several studios including EA Black Box, Criterion Games and Ghost Games. - -These are the games of the series: -The Need for Speed -Need for Speed 2 -Need for Speed: V-Rally -Need for Speed: V-Rally 2 -Need for Speed 3: Hot Pursuit -Need for Speed: High Stakes -Need for Speed: Porsche Unleashed -Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 -Need for Speed: Underground -Need for Speed: Underground 2 -Need for Speed: Most Wanted -Need for Speed: Carbon -Need for Speed: ProStreet -Need for Speed: Undercover -Need for Speed: Shift -Need for Speed: Nitro -Need for Speed: World -Need for Speed: Shift 2 Unleashed -Need for Speed: The Run -Need for Speed: Most Wanted (2012) -Need for Speed: Rivals -Need for Speed (2015) -Need for Speed: Payback -Need For Speed: Heat - -Need for Speed games -Video game series" -22527,85198,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp%20collector,Stamp collector,"A stamp collector or philatelist collects postage stamps as a hobby. Stamp collectors normally keep the stamps in books called stamp albums. A philatelist can study various aspects of definitive stamps and other types of stamps, cancellations, and other philatelic materials. - -Some philatelic terms - Backstamp - Bisects and splits - Cancellation - Gutter - Kiloware - Label - Philatelic expertisation - Postage stamp block - Revenue stamp - Semi-postal - War tax due stamp - -Stamp collecting clubs -There are many stamp collecting clubs around the world. Belonging to a stamp club or philatelic society has many advantages. For example, Royal Philatelic Society of Canada members receive magazines, can get help with questions through phone support, and purchase insurance for their collections at a discounted group rate. - -Related pages - Philatelic materials - Stamp album - Soviet Philatelist - -References - -Philately" -5034,15908,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestine,Intestine,"The intestines, divided into the small intestine and the large intestine, of an animal are like a tube through which food and bile from the stomach move. - -The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum, where most food is broken down by enzymes. Later, the small intestine absorbs useful compounds from the digested food, which is done using small villi or tiny microvilli - hair-like structures in the walls of the intestine. - -The large intestine, also called the bowel, absorbs water and any other nutrients, as well as vitamins made by the gut flora in the colon. Finally, waste is expelled through the anus. - -References - -Anatomy of the digestive system" -18636,69936,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity,Femininity,"Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with females. Femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors. This makes it distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex, as women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits. - -The colour pink is associated with femininity. - -Femininity is also exhibited through certain natural instincts and biological traits like the broadening of the hips in females to support the baby in the womb during pregnancy and while reproduction, development of breasts and high pitched voice are the most common and evident in human beings. - -Women -Gender" -22721,86034,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchpad,Touchpad,"A touchpad (also called a trackpad) is a type of input device for computers that does the same things as a computer mouse. It is made up of a flat, touch-sensitive surface which the user slides one or more fingers on to move the cursor on the screen. Next to the touchpad are push-buttons that work just like mouse buttons, including left-clicking and right-clicking. In some newer touchpads, there are no actual buttons, and clicking is done by pushing near the button of the touchpad itself. - -Unlike computer mice, touchpads stay in one place when they are being used. This makes it easy to build them into hardware. They are mostly found on laptop computers because, when the user is travelling, sometimes he or she cannot use a mouse. But most laptops do allow the user is able to attach (connect) a separate mouse. Besides laptops, touchpads are also more and more used on mobile devices with a GUI, including MP3 players (a well-known one being the iPod) and mobile phones (such as the BlackBerry). However, touchpads on today's mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers have been replaced with the touchscreen, which is used much like a touchpad except the screen is built into the touch-sensitive surface itself so that no mouse cursor is needed. One can just touch anywhere on the surface to choose what is on the screen at that part. - -Most touchpads have the function of tapping, which imitates the left-click button on a mouse. New models of touchpads often do more things because they can respond to the pressure of more than one finger. This is called multi-touch and makes it possible to do things like scroll though, zoom in and out, and rotate a page or part of the screen. The user can choose and change which functions happen if the user does certain moves. For example, the normal function for tapping on the pad is the left-click on the mouse. The user can change it in the settings section to the right-click of the mouse, if the user likes it better. - -Related pages - Computer mouse - Touchscreen - Input device - -Computer hardware -Data input" -7874,25843,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiram%20E.%20McCallum,Hiram E. McCallum,"Hiram Emerson McCallum (August 14, 1899 – January 13, 1989) was a mayor of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, from 1948-1951. - -1899 births -1989 deaths - -Mayors of Toronto" -17569,66433,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1434,1434," - -Events of 1434 - April 14, The foundation stone of Cathedral St. Peter and St. Paul in Nantes, France was laid. - May 30, Battle of Lipany in the Hussite Wars - Jan van Eyck paints the wedding of Giovanni Arnolfini - Explorer Gil Eanes reaches Cape Bojador in Western Sahara. In the same year, Portuguese traders deliver their first cargo of African slaves to Lisbon. - Zara Yaqob becomes Emperor of Ethiopia - -Births - March 19 – Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shogun (died 1443) - September 23 – Yolande of Valois, Duchess of Savoy (died 1478) - probable - Matteo Maria Boiardo, Italian poet (approximate date; died 1494) - Kano Masanobu, Japanese painter (died 1530) - -Deaths - 30 May - Prokop the Great, Hussite general (b. 1380) - Yuri IV, Russian grand prince (b. 1374) - June 11 – King Wladislaus II of Poland - June 19 – Alexandra of Lithuania, Duchess of Masovia - November 12 – King Louis III of Naples (b. 1403) - date unknown - John I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1381) - Amda Iyasus, Emperor of Ethiopia" -20129,77105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel%20Creek,Nickel Creek,"Nickel Creek was an American acoustic musical group. Although the group's music has roots in bluegrass, Nickel Creek now calls itself ""progressive acoustic"". The band has three people: Chris Thile (mandolin), Sean Watkins (guitar), and Sara Watkins (violin). A fourth member also plays bass with the band. Chris Thile's father Scott Thile, Byron House, and Derek Jones have played bass with the group. Mark Schatz has played bass with Nickel Creek since 2003. The band has played songs by Radiohead, Elliott Smith, Bob Dylan, and even ""Toxic"" by Britney Spears. However, most of the songs the band play are originals. - -History -The band started in California in 1989 with Scott Thile, Chris' father, playing the double bass. The oldest of the children, Sean Watkins, was only twelve years old at the time. In the early days, Nickel Creek made two albums: Little Cowpoke in 1993, and Here to There in 1997. - -Nickel Creek: 2000–2001 -Alison Krauss produced the album Nickel Creek, which came out in 2000 on Sugar Hill Records. It was awarded a gold certification in 2002 by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Nickel Creek got two Grammy Award nominations for the album: Best Bluegrass Album and Best Country Instrumental for ""Ode to a Butterfly"". Three singles, ""When You Come Back Down"", ""The Lighthouse's Tale"", and ""Reasons Why"" were released with music videos, and the first two were on the US Country chart. The album itself topped the Billboard Heatseekers chart, and reached number 125 on the Billboard 200. - -To help sell the album, Nickel Creek toured with artists like Lyle Lovett, Dolly Parton, Vince Gill, and Amy Grant. - -This Side: 2002–2004 - -In 2002, This Side came out and it was also produced by Alison Krauss. It reached number 18 on the Billboard 200, and was also made gold by the RIAA. This Side was different from the first album by adding more pop and rock. Chris Thile described the album in 2002: - -On the This Side tour of 2002 and 2003, Nickel Creek played shows as the main act for the most part, but also opened five shows for John Mayer in November 2002 in Upstate New York and New England, and played with Gillian Welch and David Rawlings earlier in the year. In 2003, Nickel Creek was on Béla Fleck's album Little Worlds. - -Nickel Creek also released three singles from This Side: ""This Side"", ""Speak"", and ""Smoothie Song"". ""This Side"" appeared on the US Country chart, but the others did not chart with Billboard. However, ""Smoothie Song"" topped the AAA Contemporary chart for three weeks. - -Why Should the Fire Die?: 2005 -Nickel Creek released Why Should the Fire Die? in August 2005. The album brought even more rock and pop to Nickel Creek's sound, just as This Side did. Chris Thile talked about the band's genre and style in a 2005 interview from JamBase: ""We actually feel like more than a bluegrass band that stretched out. We are a band that incorporates bluegrass into our music. There's been a problem in perception. 'Bluegrass band leaves the fold' (uses a news announcer voice). No, no, no, no, no. Actually, it's a band that incorporates a little bluegrass into whatever the hell kind of music they play."" Sean Watkins also said: - -Farewell (For Now): 2006–2007 - -On August 28, 2006, Nickel Creek announced on their website that they would not be together as a band anymore. The message was: - -After the break was announced, a tour was scheduled. To say goodbye to their fans, the tour was named the Farewell (For Now) Tour, because the band does not know if they will get together again. The tour started in April 2007 and ended in November 2007 in Nashville, Tennessee. The tour had many guest appearances by musicians like Fiona Apple, Glen Phillips, Jon Brion, Bruce Molsky, Béla Fleck, and Tift Merritt. - -When talking about Nickel Creek's last tour before the break, Sara Watkins said ""A lot of the other stuff will be special in the way that anything is special when you realize that it’s not going to be around forever... Nothing is going be Nickel Creek except Nickel Creek. I’m not looking for anything to top this. It can’t be duplicated in my life."" - -Awards and nominations - -Wins -2000: International Bluegrass Music Association (IBMA) Emerging Artist of the Year -2001: IBMA Instrumental Group of the Year -2003: Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album (This Side) -2006: Country Music Television (CMT) Top 10 Country Compilations of 2006 (Reasons Why: The Very Best) - -Nominations -2001: Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album (Nickel Creek) -2001: Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance (""Ode to a Butterfly"") -2001: Country Music Association (CMA) Award for Best Vocal Group -2001: CMA Horizon Award -2005: Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album (Why Should the Fire Die?) -2005: Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance (""Scotch & Chocolate"") - -Discography - -Albums - -Singles - -References - -Other websites - -Official Website -VH1 biography - -Bluegrass bands -Musical groups from California -Grammy Award winners" -1337,4761,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20%28word%29,American (word),"The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States. - -Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word ""American"" for people or things from these islands. - -Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to a inhabitant of New England). - -A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians. - -There is no language ""American."" Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest. - -North America -South America" -9487,32493,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chupacabra,Chupacabra,"El Chupacabra (or El Chupacabras) is a cryptid said to live in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Anaheim California. Gilbert Arizona. Texas to Florida, Michigan, Maine and even Oregon. Its name comes from the Spanish translation of ""goat sucker"", because of its habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, including goats. The legend was started in 1987 when there was a huge, gruesome massacre of livestock all over. All the animals had two puncture wounds on their neck in which the blood had been drained. - -Other websites - Chupacabra supposedly ate two humans and drained them of their blood. - -Cryptozoology" -8000,26596,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullseye,Bullseye,"Bullseye might mean: - - Bullseye (sports), the centre of a target and the name given to any shot that hits the bullseye - Any design or pattern featuring concentric circles, like an archery target, may be referred to as a ""bullseye"" - Bullseye (American game show) - Bullseye (CNBC), U.S. TV program - Bullseye (UK game show) - Bullseye (comics), a fictional character in the Marvel Comics universe (comics and film), primarily an enemy of Daredevil. - Bullseye!, a 1990 comedy motion picture starring Michael Caine and Roger Moore - Bullseye (shooting competition), also known as Conventional Pistol - Bullseye (mascot), mascot of Target Corporation" -6688,21130,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranoia,Paranoia,"Paranoia is a mental health condition that affects a person's thoughts. A person with paranoia is called paranoid. Paranoia is a thought process heavily influenced by anxiety or fear, often to the point of irrationality and delusion. - -A paranoid person's thinking is shaped by fear and anxiety. For example, the person may fear that other people are ""out to get them"" or are planning to hurt them. They may believe that video cameras are watching them, or that a certain group (like the police or CIA) is following them. They may also believe that other people can control their thoughts or use magic to hurt them. Even if these fears seem strange or absurd to others, they feel very real to the person with paranoia. They truly believe that they are in danger. - -Paranoia is different from phobias. In a phobia, someone has an irrational fear, but does not blame anyone for this fear. A paranoid person will often make false accusations and say that something was intentional, when it was just coincidence or an accident. - -If a person is truly paranoid, their fears must not be explained by common beliefs, like their religion. For example, some religions say that people can use magic to hurt others. So a person from one of those religions should not be diagnosed as paranoid just because he/she has this belief. They would also have to have other paranoid beliefs - which could not be explained by religious beliefs - to be diagnosed with paranoia. - -Very often, people with paranoia also have other thought disorders, or mood disorders. Paranoia can be a symptom of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other mental illnesses. - -In everyday talk, people may use ""paranoid"" to mean more normal worries. For example, someone may call a friend paranoid for thinking that his teacher hates him. - -References -For example Nimra -Psychosis" -3610,10966,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20of%20York,Elizabeth of York,"Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466-11 February 1503) married King Henry VII of England in 1486. This marriage united the House of Plantagenet and the House of Lancaster, the two sides of the Wars of the Roses. She was the mother of King Henry VIII. When she was only 17, her father died of pneumonia. - -1466 births -1503 deaths -House of Tudor -Kings and Queens consort of England -House of York" -13587,50090,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key%20%28cryptography%29,Key (cryptography),"In cryptography, a key (or cryptographic key) is a piece of information that allows control over the encryption or decryption process. - -There are two basic types of cryptographic algorithms. -Symmetric algorithm: If there is just one key for encrypting and decrypting, the algorithm is called symmetric. -Asymmetric algorithm: If there are two different keys, each of which can be used only to encrypt data or only to decrypt it, the algorithm is called asymmetric. If an algorithm is asymmetric, one person publishes a key and accepts messages encrypted with that key. Anyone can encrypt a message, but only the person who owns the other key can decrypt it. This is how online stores, banks, etc., work. - -Key sizes -For symmetric algorithms, a minimum key size of 128 bits is recommended. For applications that need extreme security, such as top secret documents, 256 bits is recommended. Many older ciphers used 40, 56, or 64-bit keys—these have all been cracked by brute force attack because the key was too short. - -Asymmetric (public key) algorithms need much longer keys to be secure. For RSA, at least 2048 bits is recommended. The largest publicly-known key that has been cracked was a 768-bit key. - -Related pages - Key exchange - -Cryptography" -2371,7709,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20McCartney,Paul McCartney,"Sir James Paul McCartney (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer, songwriter and composer. He is internationally known as a singer and bassist of the Beatles. With singer and guitarist John Lennon, he contributed music and lyrics to a lot of the band's songs. - -Early Life -Paul was born at Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery (Past is Walton Hospital) in Walton, Liverpool, England, He was son of Jim and Mary McCartney, He had one brother is Michael McCartney and stepsister is called Ruth. - -The Beatles (1962–1970) - -McCartney began writing songs before he was sixteen, and has written well over two hundred. His most famous song is ""Yesterday"", recorded by the Beatles in 1965. Since then around 2000 artists have recorded the song. Other songs written by McCartney for The Beatles include ""Can't Buy Me Love"", ""Hey Jude"", ""Penny Lane"", ""Eleanor Rigby"" and ""Let It Be"". - -Often, Beatles songs would have ""Lennon/McCartney"" written on the record, and it would look like that they had written it together. In fact, most Lennon/McCartney songs were written by only one of them, or with one adding only small parts to the other's work. Each counted on the other to help make their songs better, so they agreed to share the credit equally. - -Solo music -Since the Beatles had stopped working together in 1971, McCartney started a new band called Wings with his wife Linda. Wings also had many hit records, including ""Band On The Run"" and ""Mull Of Kintyre"". McCartney wrote ""Live and Let Die"", which became the theme song to a James Bond film with the same title. Wings disbanded in 1981. - -Later McCartney recorded a single called ""Ebony and Ivory"" with Stevie Wonder, then ""The Girl is Mine"" and ""Say, Say, Say"" with Michael Jackson. A song with Jackson called ""The Man"" was released on McCartney's fifth solo album Pipes of Peace. He and Jackson became friends, but this ended after Jackson outbid McCartney for ownership of the publishing company which owned most of the Beatles's music. - -McCartney had other hit songs, and also wrote and starred in the movie, Give My Regards to Broad Street, with Linda. The theme song from the movie, ""No More Lonely Nights"", was also a hit, but the movie did poorly, and McCartney's popularity suffered. He had to work hard to prove his talent was still strong. He co-wrote new songs with Elvis Costello, and began touring more often than he had in years. - -Along with popular music, McCartney also began composing classical music, including an oratorio about Liverpool. McCartney was knighted for his contributions to music and to British culture, and for his charity work. He bought John Lennon's former school, Quarry Bank, which he then turned into a performing arts school. - -In 1990, the minor planet 4148 was named ""McCartney"" in his honour. In 2010, he was honoured by President Barack Obama with the Gershwin Prize for his contributions to popular music. He returned to the White House later that year as a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors. In 2012, he became the last Beatle to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. - -Personal life -McCartney married Linda Eastman, a photographer, in 1969. She had a daughter, Heather, whom he adopted. McCartney and Linda had three more children together, named Mary, Stella and James. Stella became a popular fashion designer after she grew up. - -Linda died in 1998 of breast cancer (McCartney's mother also died from the same disease in 1956). He married model Heather Mills in 2002; the couple's child Beatrice was born in 2003. McCartney and Mills separated in 2006, and, after a long battle over a settlement, McCartney and Mills divorced in March 2008. - -McCartney married New Yorker Nancy Shevell, 51, in a civil ceremony at Old Marylebone Town Hall, London, on 9 October 2011. The couple had been dating since November 2007. - -Paul is dead - -There was an urban legend that said that McCartney died in a car crash in 1966 and was replaced by a look-alike. - -Discography -Solo - McCartney (1970) - Ram (1971) - McCartney II (1980) - Tug of War (1982) - Pipes of Peace (1983) - Press to Play (1986) - Снова в СССР (1988) - Flowers in the Dirt (1989) - Off the Ground (1993) - Flaming Pie (1997) - Run Devil Run (1999) - Driving Rain (2001) - Chaos and Creation in the Backyard (2005) - Memory Almost Full (2007) - Kisses on the Bottom (2012) - New (2013) - Egypt Station (2018) - McCartney III (2020) - -References - -Paul McCartney -1942 births -Living people -British bass guitarists -English guitarists -English pianists -English singer-songwriters -English composers -Grammy Award winners -Kennedy Center honorees -Musicians from Liverpool -The Beatles members -Knights Bachelor -Companions of Honour -Members of the Order of the British Empire" -7067,22371,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1218,1218," - -Events - Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade. - Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia. - Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Minister of the Right (udaijin) of Japan. - Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca." -4705,14829,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism,Confucianism,"Confucianism is the philosophy based on the teachings of Confucius (551 BC - 479 BC), who was an important Chinese philosopher. Confucianism has a complete system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, and has had a large influence on the history of Chinese civilization. Some people think Confucianism should be called a religion but others do not agree. - -Confucianism was made to stop the fall of Chinese society. After the Zhou Dynasty fell, people cared only for themselves and did not have any respect for others. Confucianism became a social order for China, teaching that social relationships are the most important. People slowly started to believe in it, because they wanted to have peace, but they had to care for themselves too. As a result, Confucianism brought the people love, harmony, and respect for one another. - -Confucianism was started in Ch'u-fu, Confucius's birthplace. Today, Confucianism has spread around the world, but it is still more important in China. - -The teachings of Confucius focus largely on the respect of one's parents, elders, and ancestors. He also taught that humans 'can never stop learning'; meaning that knowledge is infinite, therefore we will always learn, never stopping. For example, he once asked a seven-year-old child to be his teacher, because the child knew something that he did not. - -Confucianism Beliefs and Teachings -Confucianism teaches 5 virtues. - - Ren (Jen), that refers to altruism and humanity. - Yi, that refers to righteousness. - Li, that refers to good conduct. - Zhi, that refers to knowledge. - Xin, which means loyalty. - -Chinese culture that exists today has its roots in Confucianism. Confucius believed that families are the building blocks of a society, which is why he laid emphasis on Filial Piety, which is known as xiào (孝) in Chinese. Filial Piety means loyalty towards ones family. A Filial son is expected to take care of his parents and go to any extent to make their wishes come true. - -The book, Analects, describes the teachings of Confucius and was written by his disciples. - -Related pages - Ogyū Sorai - -References - - -History of China -Religion in China" -13536,49808,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway%20Brain,Runaway Brain,"Runaway Brain is an animated short movie released on September 22, 1934 by MGM/United Artists. It was produced by Walt Disney and directed by Burton Gillett. The movie is 7 minutes long. It has Peter Penguin, Polly Penguin, Gosalyn Mallard, Honker Muddlefoot, Bubba the Caveduck, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Magica De Spell, and Poe De Spell. - -Other websites - -Runaway Brain at The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts - -1934 movies -Disney animated movies -English-language movies" -5358,17496,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20John%27s%2C%20Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador,"St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador","St. John's is the capital of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is also the largest city in the province, with 108,860 people living there and 205,955 people in the St. John's Metropolitan Area. - -Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) has two campuses in St. John's and College of the North Atlantic (CNA) also has two (and a third in Seal Cove, within the St. John's Metropolitan Area). MUN and CNA are the only two public higher education institutions in Newfoundland. Given this, there are many students living in St. John's to pursue studies. - -Close to St. John's is Cape Spear, the easternmost point in North America. - -St. John's is home to the Newfoundland Growlers who play in the ECHL. St. John's is also home to the St. John's Edge who play in the NBL - -Media - St. John's Stations - CBNT-DT CBC - CJON-DT NTV - -References" -8211,27366,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chubby%20Checker,Chubby Checker,"Ernest Evans (born October 3, 1941) better known as Chubby Checker, is a pop singer from the United States. He is most famous for his dance songs. After his famous appearance on American Bandstand, his cover version of Hank Ballard's ""The Twist"" hit #1 became a popular dance. - -References - -Singers from South Carolina -1941 births -Living people" -9152,31380,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliza%20McCardle%20Johnson,Eliza McCardle Johnson,"Eliza McCardle Johnson (October 4, 1810 – January 15, 1876) was the First Lady of the United States and the wife of Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States. She previously served as Second Lady in 1865. - -Early life -She was born in Telford, Tennessee. She was the only child of John McCardle, a shoemaker, and Sarah Phillips-McCardle. Eliza lost her father when she was still a small child. She was raised by her widowed mother in Greeneville, Tennessee]. One day in September 1826, Eliza was chatting with classmates from Rhea Academy when she spotted Andrew Johnson and his family pull into town with all their belongings. - -Marriage -Andrew Johnson, aged 18, married Eliza McCardle, aged 16, on May 17, 1827, at the home of the bride's mother in Greeneville. Mordecai Lincoln, a distant relative of Abraham Lincoln, presided over the nuptials. - -Children -The Johnsons had three sons and two daughters, all born in Greeneville: -Martha Johnson (1828–1901) -Charles Johnson (1830–1863) -Mary Johnson (1832–1883) -Robert Johnson (1834–1869) -Andrew Johnson, Jr. (1852–1879) - -First Lady -She supported her husband in his political career, but had tried to avoid public appearances. During the American Civil War, Confederate authorities ordered her to evacuate her home in Greeneville; she took refuge in Nashville, Tennessee. - -A few months later after her husband became president, she joined him in the White House, but she was not able to serve as First Lady due to her poor health. She remained confined to a room on the second floor, leaving the social chores to her daughter (Martha Johnson Patterson). Mrs. Johnson appeared publicly as First Lady on only two occasions - at a reception for Queen Emma of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1866 and at the president's birthday party in 1867. - -Death -After episodes of ""consumption"" (tuberculosis), Eliza died on January 15, 1876, at the of age 65 in Greeneville, Tennessee. She survived her husband by five and a half months. - -Other websites -Eliza Johnson on Find-A-Grave -The White House Web Site -National First Ladies' Library - -1810 births -1876 deaths -Andrew Johnson -Deaths from tuberculosis -First Ladies of the United States -Infectious disease deaths in Tennessee -Second Ladies of the United States -Tri-Cities, Tennessee" -16916,64338,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny%27s%20Child,Destiny's Child,"Destiny's Child was a three-time Grammy Award-winning American R&B girl group. They were founded in Houston, Texas. They formed in 1997. Originally a quartet called Girl's Tyme, the group eventually became a trio whose members were Beyoncé Knowles, Kelly Rowland, and Michelle Williams. According to the World Music Awards, Destiny's Child is the best selling female group of all time. On June 12, 2005, they announced on tour in Barcelona that they would no longer be performing together, but pursuing individual careers in music, theatre, television and film. - -They disbanded in 2006. Destiny's Child has sold in total 75 million worldwide including albums, video albums and singles; its leader Beyoncé as a solo and featured artist has sold the same million of copies; Kelly Rowland has sold as a solo and featured artist 20 albums and singles million worldwide. -With Michelle Williams as the lineup destiny's child sold about 35 million copies. By herself Michelle has had several albums amongst them are: heart to you and unexpected. -Destiny's Child has sold 170 million worldwide. - -History - -1998-2000 -Destiny's Child released their first album, Destiny's Child, in 1998. Their second album The Writing's on the Wall was released in 1999. It was the band's last album with four members. - -2001-2003 -In 2001 Survivor was released. All of the album's four singles reached number one. - -2004-2005 -The band released their last album Destiny Fulfilled in 2004. Four singles were released from the album. - -Discography - -References - -1997 establishments in the United States -2006 disestablishments in the United States -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -African-American musical groups -American girl groups -Beyoncé - -Grammy Award winners -Musical groups disestablished in 2006 -Musical groups established in 1997 -Musical groups from Texas -Musical trios -American R&B bands -American pop music groups -American hip hop bands -American soul bands" -10384,36635,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Barrett,Syd Barrett,"Roger Keith ""Syd"" Barrett (6 January 1946 – 7 July 2006) was an English musician. Barrett is most famous for founding the rock band Pink Floyd. He started the band in 1965 under several different names and wrote the band's first album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn. During this time he experimented with psychedelic (mind-altering) drugs and eventually exited the band in 1968. Following his departure from Pink Floyd, he released two records, The Madcap Laughs and Barrett, to little commercial success, due to the unusual lyrics and unsteady beats. He later suffered from mental health issues, possibly related to his history of drug use. Some of his most successful solo songs are ""Dark Globe"" and ""Octopus"". - -Barrett was born in Cambridge and died there, of pancreatic cancer and type 1 diabetes - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -Cancer deaths in England -Deaths from pancreatic cancer -English guitarists -English rock musicians -English singer-songwriters -Musicians from Cambridge -Pink Floyd -1946 births -2006 deaths" -19765,75589,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Got%20That,I Got That,"""I Got That"" is a single by rapper Amil featuring Beyoncé Knowles of Destiny's Child. It was the first single by Beyoncé and also it is currently the last solo single by Amil. Eve makes a cameo appearance in the video. - -CD single - ""I Got That (Radio Edit)"" (Whitehead, A./Barnes, Samuel/Lewis, LeShan/Smith, Tamy/Carter, Shawn/Olivier, Jean Claude ""Poke""/Davis, Makeda) – 3:21 - ""I Got That (Instrumental)"" – 3:19 - -Beyoncé songs -2000 songs" -19182,72611,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittites,Hittites,"The Hittites were an ancient people from Anatolia who spoke an Indo-European language. They established a kingdom centered at Hattusha in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC. - -At its peak, the Hittite Empire covered most of modern Turkey and Syria. This was under the reigns of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322) and Mursili II (~1321–1295 BC). They had up-and-down relationships with Ancient Egypt to the south, and the Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia. They were a party to the first known peace treaty, which was made with Ramesses II of Egypt by Hattusili III in 1258 BC. - -After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent ""Neo-Hittite"" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC. - -Empire of Suppiluliuma and Mursili II -The Hittite Kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322). The kingdom of Mitanni, wracked by civil war, was unable to withstand the Hittite onslaught. Suppiluliuma swiftly attacked the Mitanni heartland, capturing and plundering the Mitanni capital of Washshuganni. He then turned west, recrossed the Euphrates and captured all the Syrian kingdoms which were vassals to the Mitanni, including Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Qatna, Upi (Upina), and Kadesh. Other kingdoms such as Ugarit and Amurru (an Egyptian vassal) voluntarily became vassal states of the Hittites. - -When hostilities flared up once more with Mitanni, Tulipinu, Suppiluliuma's son and viceroy at Aleppo invaded Carchemish but was unable to take the city. Suppiluliuma met with his son and then invaded Syria himself, laying siege to the city of Carchemish. Suppiluliuma broke the siege on the eighth day, installing his son Piyassili as viceroy of the kingdom. With his sons as viceroys of Aleppo and Carchemish, Suppiluliuma had cemented his rule over Syria and brought the empire of Mitanni to an end. The Mitanni King was assassinated soon after. - -The murdered prince -When Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Pharaoh died,his widow asked to marry one of Suppiluliuma's sons. He agreed, and sent his son Zannanza to Egypt to marry the queen. However, Zannanza was assassinated en route to Egypt. Suppiluliuma was furious and blamed the new Egyptian Pharaoh Ay for his son's death. A Hittite army under crown prince Arnuwanda invaded Egyptian territory from Syria, pillaging and taking many prisoners. These prisoners brought with them a plague which ravaged the Hittite Kingdom continuing well into Mursili's reign and may have killed Suppiluliuma himself. - -Mursili II -Mursili II was young and inexperienced, but he proved to be a strong king. In the first years of his reign he carried out punitive campaigns against several kingdoms. In Syria the Nuhashshi king Tette rebelled and was joined by Egyptian troops. Troubles in Syria continued when Mursili's brothers Tulipinu and Piyassili both died. The loss of his Syrian viceroys led to rebellion and even the invasion of Carchemish by Assyria. Leaving his generals to deal with Syria and Haysa, Mursili invaded Carchemish and drove out the Assyrians. Later in his reign Mursili II campaigned against the Kaska once again retaking the Hittite holy city of Niniveh. He also decisively defeating the King of Tummanna. - -Other websites - -Hattusas/Bogazköy -The Hittite Home Page -Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites - Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites - Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites - Pictures of Alacahöyük, one of a group of important sites -Der Anitta Text (at TITUS) -Encyclopaedia of Turkey : Hittite relief at Karabel -Tahsin Ozguc -Hittites.info -Hittite Period in Anatolia -pictures -Hethitologieportal Mainz, by the Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mainz, corpus of texts and extensive bibliographies on all things Hittite - -References - - -Mesopotamia" -11479,41747,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist,Journalist,"A journalist is a person who works in journalism to report the news. They may work on their own (""freelance"") or for a newspaper, a radio or television programme. There are different kinds of journalists. - -A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports information. Newspaper reporters write news articles and stories for newspapers. They write these articles and stories by interviewing people, asking questions, and doing research. - -Reporters must tell the truth in their reports. Telling the truth is a very important part of all journalism jobs. Those who do not tell the truth may be punished like other workers who do not do their work. They can be suspended (do not work for a short time) or fired (losing their jobs). - -However, frequently news reporting does show bias instead of objectivity. - -Dangers -Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger, especially when reporting in areas of armed conflict or in places that do not respect the freedom of the press. Organizations such as Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom and advocate for press freedom. The Committee to Protect Journalists has reported that as of 1 December 2010, 145 journalists were imprisoned around the world for reporting the news. Current numbers are even higher. The ten countries with the most journalists currently imprisoned are Turkey (95), China (34), Iran (34), Eritrea (17), Burma (13), Uzbekistan (6), Vietnam (5), Cuba (4), Ethiopia (4), and Sudan (3). - -Terms - -There are many different types of jobs in journalism. - - A columnist is someone who writes their opinions and point of view for a newspaper or magazine. - A correspondent is a journalist who reports from a distant location. They report for a newspaper, or radio or television station, whose staff is based in another location. A foreign correspondent is a correspondent who reports news from another country. - A fact checker checks that the facts written in news reports are indeed correct. - A copy editor checks for errors in spelling and grammar. - A news presenter, or anchor, is someone who presents news during a news program - A penny-a-liner is a derogative term for a journalist who is paid for a certain amount of text. It is an old expression which goes back to the days when writers were paid one penny for each line they wrote. An Australian newspaper, The Queenslander, printed a story in 1871 that the ""...penny a-liner no longer exists, for there are but few papers who pay at so small a rate at the present day. The increased value of literary labor and the demand for news has affected the lowest as well as the highest of literary laborers, and the flimsy writer can now obtain three-halfpence, and in some cases, twopence, for every printed line that appears in the newspaper..."" - A photojournalist is a journalist who takes photographs in order to tell a news story. - A political commentator is a journalist who takes a non-objective viewpoint in a discussion. - -Related pages - Critic - -References - -More reading - - Nathaniel C. Fowler (1913) The Handbook of Journalism: All about Newspaper Work New York: Sully and Kleinteich. - James L. Huffman (2003) A Yankee in Meiji Japan: The Crusading Journalist Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. - David Randall (2000) The Universal Journalist Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press. ; OCLC 43481682 - Ejijah M. Stone (1921) Fifty Years a Journalist New York: Doubleday, Page and Company. OCLC 1520155 - Donald Woods (1981) Asking for Trouble: Autobiography of a Banned Journalist New York: Atheneum. ; OCLC 6864121" -6249,19988,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1164,1164," - -Events - Count Henry I of Champagne marries Marie de Champagne. - Uppsala is recognized as the seat of the Swedish metropolitan. - Antipope Paschal III elected by cardinals supporting Frederick Barbarossa. - Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf. - Archbishop Rainald of Dassel brings relics of the Magi from Milan to Cologne. - Thomas Becket contends with Henry II, leaves England to solicit support from the Pope and the King of France. - The first written record of Tver - -1164" -19110,72295,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritchies,Ritchies,"Ritchies is the largest independent supermarket group in the IGA network of Australia. It was started in 1870 by Thomas Ritchie who opened a food store in the tiny country village of Frankston, Victoria. - -References - -Other websites -Official Ritchies Web Site - -Supermarkets of Australia" -14783,55706,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatami,Tatami,"mats are a traditional Japanese flooring. The top surface is made of woven straw. Traditional tatami are packed with straw. Nowadays some of them are packed with styrofoam. Tatami are individual mats. They have a uniform size and shape. They have borders of brocade or plain green cloth. - -Tatami were originally a luxury item for the rich at a time when lower classes had mat-covered dirt floors. Tatami were gradually popularized. They finally reached the homes of commoners towards the end of the 17th century. - -History -Japanese people have used tatami since the Nara Era (710-794). They were knitted and became thicker like modern tatami. People who lived in the Heian Era stepped onto tatami to show their power and they spread the tatami only in a necessary part of the room. - -The use of tatami was a little different from now. The shoin style of traditional Japanese residential architecture began in the Kamakura Era. During this time, people stopped spreading tatami around the room and placing them in the middle. They started to spread tatami through the room. People decided to spread tatami by the hearth and sit erect with their legs folded under. - -Tatami has been changing together with people's life style. Tatami became common for people in the middle of the Edo Era. Farmers started to use them in the Meiji Era. The removal of tatami regulation made them more common in the Meiji Era. Japanese people often dry the tatami. If the tatami'''s surface was discolored, people often turned them over. With the economic growth after World War Two people started to use chairs and carpets. Japanese people think flooring is not relaxing or soundproof enough, so people still use tatami now. - -Making Tatami Tatami is made with a rush plant, igusa. Rush is planted in the rice fields in August. The seedlings are dug out in November, and a good seedling is chosen. The chosen seedlings are planted in the rice fields again in December. By the end of June to the middle of July, the high-quality rush grows up to about one meter tall and it will be harvested the next year. - -The rush should be dry after harvesting, and keep the peculiar smell and the color of the rush. The rush is selected according to length and the thickness, and it is checked for bruising. - -After the harvest ends, tatami is made. Because Japanese rooms are different sizes, tatami are made in different sizes. The base of the tatami is made first. Tatami is woven with a special machine. It similar to the weaving on a kimono. The next part is the wick of tatami, called toko. When the toko is 40 centimeters or more thick, and the shape is straightened. The mat is complete, and that is called mushiro. The tatami is complete when it is joined to the toko and the decoration on the mat edges are sewn. - - Igusa Igusa is a perennial plant of the family of igusa. Igusa smells good. It has a fresh, grassy smell. In English, they are called rushes. Igusa blooms from May through June. The plant grows up to a length of 100 centimeters or less. They grow in marshes where sunshine is good. In Japan, there are 30 kinds of igusa growing in many different areas.Tatami is made from natural igusa that must be flexible from the root to the tip, and the thickness and the color varies slightly. About 4000 to 7000 igusa are used for the tatami. Generally the best tatami uses more and longer igusa rushes. - -There are many benefits in using igusa such as air purification, heat insulation, elasticity, cooling (especially in hot summer seasons), eco-friendly and sound absorbing qualities. Igusa tatami is also smooth to the touch, so it is comfortable for babies and young children. Most Japanese like tatami. Many homes have at least one tatami room. - -TatamiTatamiberi is the cloth that covers the edge and also decorates the tatami. Some tatami don’t have it. In English, it is called the mat edge. The width of tatamiberi is about three centimeters. The material on the tatamiberi is cotton yarn, a synthetic material string, and a gold thread. The features change according to what strings are combining with tatamiberi. The woven beautiful color handle sets off the room. There are two types, and the atmosphere of the room changes by the tatamiberi. - -There are many kinds of tatamiberi. But tatamiberi was used to show status. For example, the emperor, ministers, priests, and scholars had different styles. It was recorded in ""Amanomokuzu"" in 1420. - -Japan has etiquette about tatamiberi. Japanese are taught not to step on the tatamiberi. It is easy to tear tatamiberi when stepping in the weakest part. Stepping on tatamiberi fades the color on the edge of cotton and hemp in the tatami. Therefore etiquette means ""not to hurt the mat carelessy stepping when you visit another house, pay it attention"". Also, family crests were embroidered on the tatamiberi'' in old times, too. Stepping on the family crest was taboo. - -References - - Okitatami.com. Iguchi tatami fusuma. Retrieved on 3 Jun 2009. - Tatamilife. com. DAIKEN. Retried on 2 July 2009. - 知って得する豆知識.OCN. Retrieved on 15 May 2009. - My Flower Pictorial Book. Retrieved on 15 May 2009. - Ohmiya blog.高田織物株式会社.Retrieved on 15 May 2009. - Ohno-naiso. Ohnonaiso.Retrieved on 14 May 2009. - Tatami no dekirumade no koutei.Ishiiseitatmi. Retrieved on 14 May 2009. - -Japanese culture -Furniture" -20154,77213,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterostome,Deuterostome,"Deuterostomes are a nephrozoan superphylum of bilaterian animals, a taxon above the level of phylum. It is not part of the usual system of classification. - -They are bilateral animals, and are contrasted with the protostomes. Deuterostomes are distingued by their embryo: in deuterostomes, the first opening (the blastopore) becomes the anus, while in protostomes it becomes the mouth. - -Classification -These are the living phyla of deuterostomes: -Chordata (vertebrates and their kin) -Echinodermata (starfishes, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.) -Hemichordata (acorn worms and possibly graptolites) -This is an extinct deuterostome clade: -Saccorhytida - -Groups of phyla" -19310,73355,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Kingdom%20of%20Great%20Britain%20and%20Ireland,United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,"The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927. The United Kingdom was formed by the merger of the Kingdom of Great Britain (itself a merger of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland) and the Kingdom of Ireland. Its name was changed in 1927 after the majority of Ireland left the UK in 1922 and became the sovereign Irish Free State, thus leaving only six counties in the north within the UK. - -List of monarchs -The monarch continued to use the title of King or Queen of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until 1927. - - George III (1801–1820) (monarch from 1760) - George IV (1820–1830) - William IV (1830–1837) - Victoria (1837–1901) - Edward VII (1901–1910) - George V (1910–1922) (title used until 1927) - -Related pages - History of the United Kingdom - -Other websites - British History Online - Act of Union 1800 - -1922 disestablishments in Europe -1801 establishments -1800s establishments in Europe" -16206,62210,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atenism,Atenism,"Atenism was one of the earliest monotheistic religions. It was the worship of the light emanating from the sun god (or rather sun disk), Aten. It was started by the 18 dynasty pharaoh Amenhotep IV, better known as Akhenaten. It lasted 20 years, until Akhenaten's death. Tutankhamun, Akhenaten's son, restored the traditional Egyptian religion. Today modern day groups have attempted to revive Atenism as a worldwide religion, most notably Akhetaten Fellowship. - -Other websites - -Akhetaten Fellowship Homepage @ www.atenism.org -Akhetaten Fellowship Forums @ www.atenism.net - -Egyptian mythology" -8268,27722,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse,Solar eclipse,"As seen from Earth, a solar eclipse /ee-klips/ happens when the Moon is directly between the Earth and the Sun. This makes the Moon fully or partially (partly) cover the sun. Solar eclipses can only happen during a new moon. Every year there are about two solar eclipses. Sometimes there are even five solar eclipses in a year. However, only two of these can be total solar eclipses, and often a year will pass without a total eclipse. - -The area in which an eclipse is total is only a narrow track along the Earth. Totality lasts only a few minutes. Outside this path, all eclipses are partial, and places far from the track get no eclipse at all. The track can be predicted many years before it happens. - -A total solar eclipse is a natural phenomenon (event). Long ago, solar eclipses were thought to happen because of something supernatural or as a sign that something bad was going to happen. This is still believed in some cultures today. A total solar eclipse can frighten people who do not know what it means, because the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky turns dark in just a few minutes. Other people like to go to the eclipse path for a good view. - -Solar eclipses happen somewhere on Earth almost every year, and very similar solar eclipses happen every 18 years, 11.3 days. This period is called the Saros cycle. - -Types - -There are four different types of solar eclipses: - - A total eclipse is when the Sun is completely hidden behind the Moon. The dark shadow of the Moon covers the very bright surface of the Sun. This makes the corona easier to see. - An annular eclipse is when the Sun is directly behind the moon, but it looks like the Moon is smaller. This makes the Sun appear as a very bright ring or annulus around the shape of the Moon. - A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) is when it looks like a total eclipse in some parts of the Earth, and an annular eclipse in other parts. Hybrid eclipses do not happen as often as other eclipses. - A partial eclipse is when the moon is not exactly between the Sun and Earth, so it does not hide the Sun completely. This can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth. - -The Sun's distance from the Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as big as the Moon's. This is why the Sun and Moon seem to be about the same size from Earth. - -Looking at a solar eclipse - -Looking directly at the bright surface of the Sun itself can hurt the retina of the eye greatly because of the radiation that comes from the Sun. It can even blind people. The retina does not feel pain, so damage may not be felt for hours. - -The Sun is usually so bright that it is hard to look at it directly. However, when the Sun is covered in an eclipse, it is easier to look at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is equally dangerous, except in the very short time when the Sun's surface is completely covered. Looking at the Sun's surface through binoculars, a telescope, or even a camera is extremely dangerous and can damage the eye in less than a second. - -Looking at the Sun without an eclipse does not usually hurt the eye very greatly, because the pupil of the eye closes down and makes everything darker. If the Sun is almost completely covered, the pupil opens because there is not as much light. However, the parts of the Sun that can be seen are still equally bright, and can hurt the eye very much. - -Related pages - Eclipse - Lunar eclipse - -References - -Other websites - -Solar eclipse of January 15, 2010, Fred Espenak, NASA -Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions, Hermit Eclipse -Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site - World Atlas of Solar Eclipse Paths , Fred Espenak - Solar eclipse time sequence - NASA's Eclipse Home Page , Fred Espenak - Animated maps of past and future solar eclipses - Search among the 11,898 solar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps -Looking Back at an Eclipsed Earth 1999 August 11 from Mir EO-27 - Astronomy Picture of the Day 10 June 2007 - Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar eclipse , University of Glamorgan - - Eclipse Image Gallery at The World at Night - -Eye safety -Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses , F. Espenak (NASA Goddard Space Flight Center) -How to Watch a Partial Solar Eclipse Safely , A. M. MacRobert (Sky & Telescope magazine) -UK hospitals assess eye damage after solar eclipse, British Medical Journal, August 21, 1999, p. 319–469 - -Astronomical phenomena -Eclipses" -20024,76674,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfall,Landfall,"Landfall can mean: - - Landfall, an arrival at land on a sea or air journey - Landfall (meteorology), the time at which a storm passes over shore - Landfall, Minnesota - Landfall (journal), a New Zealand literary journal - Landfall (movie), a 1977 New Zealand movie - ""Landfall"", a track from Mike Oldfield's Tres Lunas album" -16142,61989,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosher,Kosher,"Kosher is the name that Jews give to the laws about the kind of food that they may eat. Their holy books specify certain kinds of food that are all right to eat, and that other kinds should not be eaten. - -The Kosher laws say that products classified as meat must not be eaten in the same meal with dairy products. Fish, fruit, and vegetables are considered neutral, called pareve (pronounced ""PAR-veh""), and may be eaten with either meat or dairy meals. Jews who ""keep kosher"" have separate utensils for meat and dairy foods, and wait a number of hours after eating one type of food before eating the other type. - -The meat of some animals may not be eaten at all. Animals whose meat may be eaten must be killed in a special, careful way by a religiously trained slaughterer. Meat that is not fit to eat is called treif (pronounced TRAYf). - -Basic rules of Kashrut - -Types of meat and drink - Land animals that chew their cud and have a completely split (cloven) hoof may be eaten . This includes livestock like cattle and sheep, but not pigs (which do not chew their cud) or camels (which do not have completely split hooves). - Animals that eat meat (carnivores and omnivores) may not be eaten. This also means that birds of prey may not be eaten. - Specific birds (from a list) may not be eaten. This includes ostrich for example. - Fish must have fins and scales. Fish without scales (like eels), invertebrates like lobster and shrimp, and shellfish (like mussels) are forbidden. - No amphibians or reptiles may be eaten. Examples of these are frogs. - Most insects may not be eaten, with some exceptions like locusts. - Wine must be specially made by Jews in order to be Kosher. - -Preparing food - The animals need to be killed in a special way. The kosher slaughterer has religious training for this work. - An animal that dies by natural means, or is killed by another animal or a hunter, may not be eaten. - Meat from a sick animal may not be eaten. - No blood may be eaten. All blood needs to be drained from the meat (by soaking and salting it). In eggs, not even eggs with just a spot of blood can be eaten. - Foods made in a factory: manufacturers sometimes label products that have got certification by adding graphical symbols to the label. These symbols are known as hechsherim. - A kosher kitchen has separate sets of dishes: one for meat foods, another for dairy foods. - Food may not be cooked during the Sabbath, which in Judaism is called Shabbat. - -Related pages - Halal, similar rules in Islam - -Food and drink -Judaism" -3638,11038,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Eleanor%20Brandon,Lady Eleanor Brandon,"Lady Eleanor Brandon (1519-27 September 1547) was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Her maternal grandparents were King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was the sister of Lady Frances Brandon therefore she was the aunt of Lady Jane Grey. - -Biography -Eleanor was married to Henry Clifford in 1537. She then became the Countess of Cumberland. -Henry and Eleanor had three children: -Lady Margaret Clifford (1540-1596) -Henry Clifford. Died as an infant. -Charles Clifford. Died as an infant. - -1519 births -1547 deaths -English nobility" -21963,83620,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Como,Lake Como,"Lake Como () is a glacial lake in Lombardy, Italy. It has an area of . It is the third largest lake in Italy (after Lake Garda and Lake Maggiore). - -Some of the towns and villages on the shores of Lake Como are Como, Lierna, Lecco, Bellagio, Mandello del Lario, and Lenno. - -History -For many centuries Lierna has been the most exclusive place in the whole of Lake Como, frequented by kings, empresses, princely families, and where the most important managers and billions in the world buy a home, including the world president of Mercedes. The chivalric order was founded in the Church of Lierna which allowed the birth of the royal house of the Kings of Italy, the Savoy. Lierna is the place on Lake Como with the most beautiful life of all Lake Como and the place most represented by painters from all over Europe for many centuries, having a magical atmosphere. The place is very private, the villas are hidden and not even George Clooney has managed to buy a villa offering over 100 million euros for years. It is often said that the inhabitants of Lierna paid for not having Lierna appear on the geographical maps of Lake Como for centuries. It is very difficult to stop in Lierna because there are deliberately no parking spaces and you can only arrive by boat by selecting who comes. Luxury villas in Lierna are priceless and are one of the greatest status symbols in the world. - -References - -Other websites - -Como -Lombardy" -13506,49643,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball%20%28ball%29,Baseball (ball),"A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name, baseball. It is between 9 inches (22.9 cm) and 9¼ inches (23.5 cm) in circumference (around). The ball weighs 8 ounces. Different size balls may be used in children's leagues. - -The balls can be made in many different, but similar ways. The center of most balls is cork, rubber, or a mixture of the two. It is sometimes layered. Yarn and twine and sometimes wool are wrapped around the center core. A leather cover is put on, in two pieces, and stitched together using 108 stitches of waxed red cotton thread. Official Major League balls sold by Rawlings are made to the exact MLB specifications (5 ounces, 108 stitches). - -Baseball equipment" -5699,18520,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon,Cartoon,"A cartoon is a kind of vector which is a few short lines followed by a series of drawns, sometime animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The word ""cartoon"" has been used in several different ways in the world. - -Types of cartoons - -Cartoon for an artwork -The oldest meaning is a drawing that is a full-sized design for a finished artwork. The cartoon might be a drawing for a painting that was going to be put onto a wall or ceiling in fresco. The cartoon would be pinned against the wall and its design marked onto the plastered of the wall. Cartoons were also made to design tapestry. The most famous cartoons are a set by Raphael which show the ""Life of St Peter"". The cartoons are in the Victoria & Albert Museum. The finished tapestries belong to the Vatican and were made for the Sistine Chapel. - -Political cartoon - -In the 1700s, artists such as William Hogarth often made sets of humorous (funny) drawings that were about political subjects, such as poverty, elections, war and riots. The drawings were made into prints and were sold cheaply. These prints were not called cartoons at that time, but they led to the idea of modern political cartoons in newspapers. - -Nowadays many newspapers publish a different political cartoon in the paper, every day. The word ""cartoon"" was first used in this way in 1843 in an English magazine called Punch. - -A political cartoon does not always show real people. Sometimes it may use a personification of a country or organization as a person, an animal, or a monster. For example, Britain might be shown as a woman holding a baby Australia in her arms. Russia might be shown as a baby bear or a dolphin. The United States might be shown as a Bald Eagle. - -Comic strips - -Political cartoons were often drawn to show several different stages of the same story. Many of Hogarth's famous political cartoons do this. From this came the idea of telling funny stories in a series of pictures. Comic strips are a type of ""cartoon"" that is published in newspapers, but they are usually just called ""comic strips"". Some of the earliest comic strips are The Katzenjammer Kids (1897) and Ginger Meggs (1921). Sometimes they represent like The Beano, Cathy, Baby Blues, Dennis the Menace, Asterix, Peanuts, Cubitus, The Smurfs, Heathcliff and Garfield. Later comic strips from the 1950s onwards show superheros such as Superman and The Phantom. Comic strips well known introduced Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Hulk, Spider-Man, X-Men, Fantastic Four and others. - -Comic books assemble many strips in a book. The book may tell a long story, longer than a newspaper would want to print, or several stories. Big Seven cartoon major studio mascots creator company owner creating studios of Disney's Mickey Mouse, Disney's Snow White, Disney's Tinker Bell, Warner Bros' Bugs Bunny, 20th Century Fox's Lucy the Mouse, Paramount's Popeye and Universal's Woody Woodpecker. - -Comic strips posted on the internet are web comics. Some use animation and sound for special effects. Like comic books they may be large, and most offer a large collection of earlier strips for new readers, so longer stories can be told. Many webcomics are published (shown to people) by independent artists. - -Movie Cartoons - Main article: Animated cartoon - -From the beginning of the movie industry, some artists began experimenting with making drawings that seemed to move. These moving drawings also became known as ""cartoons"". They often depict animals rather than humans. They were often just for fun, but sometimes, particularly during World War II, were used for political reasons, just like the cartoons in newspapers. Walt Disney, Warner Bros and 20th Century Fox both made classic stars famous cartoons including Mickey Mouse universe, Donald Duck universe, Looney Tunes, Merrie Melodies and Lucy the Mouse. Famous classic stars animated movies and cartoon characters are Felix the Cat (1919), Mickey Mouse (1928), Donald Duck (1934), Goofy (1932), Pluto (1930), Lucy the Mouse (1921), Betty Boop (1930), Bugs Bunny (1938), Daffy Duck (1937), Porky Pig (1935), Elmer Fudd (1937), Tom and Jerry (1940), Woody Woodpecker (1940), Popeye (1919), Mighty Mouse (1942), Heckle and Jeckle (1946), Deputy Dawg (1959), Rocky and Bullwinkle (1959), Bettgum (1968), Winnie the Pooh (1929), Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Cinderella (1950), The Little Mermaid (1989), The Lion King (1994), The Flintstones (1960), Scooby-Doo (1969), The Jetsons (1962), The Simpsons (1987), South Park (1992), Rapeye (1984), SpongeBob SquarePants (1997), Little Lulu (1935), Casper the Friendly Ghost (1939), Oggy and the Cockroaches (1998) and much, much more. - -At first, movie cartoons were quite short. When a person bought a movie ticket, they would see a news program, two or three cartoons in black and white and a movie. Walt Disney then got the idea to tell a long story as a ""cartoon"". The first example made was Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Movie cartoons soon became a popular type of entertainment. Modern movie cartoons are sometimes created using computer graphics, rather than hand-drawn cartoons. They include Toy Story (1995) and Shrek (2001). - -References - -Politics -Comics" -10578,37668,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic%20Rivals,Sonic Rivals,"Sonic Rivals is a video game for the PlayStation Portable that came out on November 24, 2006. The game is made by Backbone Entertainment and Sega. People can play as Sonic the Hedgehog, Shadow the Hedgehog, Knuckles the Echidna, or Silver the Hedgehog. - -2006 video games -PlayStation Portable-only games -Sonic the Hedgehog games" -15409,58564,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLS,HLS,"HLS has a number of meanings: -Harvard Law School -Homeland Security -Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz, a Swiss encyclopedia -Hue, Saturation, Lightness color space (can be referred to as either HLS or HSL) -Huntingdon Life Sciences, a contract animal-testing company based in Huntingdon, England, and New Jersey." -4169,13027,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apron,Apron,"An apron is a protective piece of clothing made from fabric (or other materials) that covers the front of the body. Some workers wear aprons for hygienic reasons (for example restaurant workers). Other workers wear aprons to protect clothes, or to protect their bodies from injury. - -The apron is commonly part of the uniform of several jobs, including waitresses, nurses, homemakers, domestic workers and other jobs. It is also worn as decoration by women. - -There are many different types of aprons depending on what the apron is used for. Aprons can be made from many materials and fabrics. Rubber aprons are used by people who work with dangerous chemicals. Lead aprons are worn by people who work around radiation (like X-rays). Butchers (people who cut meat) wear chain aprons, to protect them from being cut by knives. Carpenters wear aprons made of heavy leather that have many pockets to hold tools. Many servants and domestic workers are required to wear an apron as a part of their work uniform. - -Other websites - -Protective clothing" -16884,64260,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor%20Flav,Flavor Flav,"William Jonathan Drayton Jr. (born March 16, 1959), known by the stage name Flavor Flav, is an American rapper and television personality. He is a member of the hip hop group Public Enemy. He raps about politics. After several years of quiet, he has been seen again lately as a star of American reality television. He has starred in some VH1 programs, most recently the Flavor of Love series. - -Flav was born in Roosevelt, New York and grew up in Freeport, New York. - -References - -African-American rappers -Rap musicians from New York -American robbers -Singers from New York -1959 births -Living people" -18680,70098,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mescaline,Mescaline,"Mescaline' (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a chemical substance. It occurs naturally in some cactuses, like the Peyote cactus,the Peruvian Torch cactus or the San Pedro cactus. Small amounts of it can also be found in certain members of the Fabaceae (bean) family, like Acacia berlandieri. - -The chemical can cause hallucinations. In has been used as a drug in Native American religious ceremonies. It is illegal in many countries. Some people use it as an illegal drug. - -Mescaline is used primarily as a recreational drug and is also used to supplement various types of meditation and psychedelic therapy. It is classified as a schedule I drug in the U.S., making it illegal in all forms; however, it remains legal in certain religious ceremonies registered by the Native American Church Schedule I drugs have a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. - -Use and effects - - visual hallucinations and radically altered states of consciousness (psychedelic experience) - open and closed eye visualizations - euphoria - dream-like state - slowed passage of time - laughter - a mixing of senses (synesthesia, such as ""seeing a sound"" or ""hearing colors"") - pupil dilation - -Side effects or risks - - anxiety, fear - racing heart beat (tachycardia) - dizziness - weakness - diarrhea - excessive sweating - tremors - nausea, vomiting - headache - accidental injury - psychosis, panic or paranoia - seizures - amnesia (loss of memory) - post hallucinogen perceptual disorder (flashbacks) - rarely, suicidal thoughts or actions - -Use in Pregnancy -According to the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), researchers have found that mescaline found in peyote may affect the fetus of a pregnant woman using the drug. - -References - -Illegal drugs" -8420,28404,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirby%20%28character%29,Kirby (character),"For the game series see, Kirby (series) - -Kirby, Now sold over 42 million copies Is one of Nintendo’s Best sellers and even though he’s cute, he’s really Dangerous (To the bad guys.) from King Dedede (Who wants to be king of dreamland) to Void termina (Destroyer of Worlds) He’s defeated them all. He can swim, fly, inhale and take abilities from bad guys. But, we will talk about who Kirby is and how he came to be. - -About -Kirby (originally named Popopo) has been the main character of some of games made by HAL Laboratory (or HALKEN, as it was called in the 90's). He appeared in over twenty games since 1992 and in the anime television series. The series has sold over 33 million copies worldwide. The original games of the series are platformers. They typically begin with an evil villain threatening his home of Dream Land (Pupupuland プププランド) on the planet Pop Star, usually the greedy King Dedede and Dark Matter other enemies are Magolor, Metaknight, and Landia. - -Kirby can walk, run, jump, swim underwater, float, and inhale, and spit out or swallow enemies. After Kirby's Dream Land, Kirby can copy abilities from enemies he swallowed, such as Fire, Sword, Fighter, Tornado, and Cutter. The character is named after lawyer John Kirby. - -Games - -Kirby’s Dreamland. 1992 Sold on gameboy - -Kirby’s Adventure. 1993 Sold on NES - -Kirby’s pinball land. 1993 Sold on Gameboy - -Kirby’s Dream Course. 1994 Sold on Super NES - -Kirby’s avalanche. 1995 Sold on Super NES - -Kirby’s Dreamland 2. 1995 Sold on gameboy - -Kirby’s Block ball. 1995 Sold on Gameboy - -Kirby Super Star. 1996 Sold on Super - -Kirby’s Star Stacker. 1997 Sold On Gameboy - -Kirby’s Dreamland 3. 1997 Sold on Super NES - -Kirby 64 The crystal shards. 2000 Sold on Nintendo 64 - -Kirby Tilt’n’Tumble. 2000 Sold on Gameboy color - -Kirby Nightmare in dreamland. 2002 Sold on Gameboy Advance - -Kirby Airride. 2003 Sold on Gamecube - -Kirby & the amazing mirror. 2004 Sold on Gameboy Advance - -Kirby Canvas curse. 2005 Sold on Nintendo DS - -Kirby Squeak Squad. 2006 Sold on Nintendo DS - -Kirby Super Star Ultra. 2008 Sold on Nintendo DS - -Kirby’s Epic Yarn. 2010 Sold on Nintendo DS - -Kirby Mass attack. 2011 Sold on Nintendo DS - -Kirby’s return to Dreamland 2011 Sold on Wii - -Kirby’s Dream collection. 2012 Sold on Wii - -Dedede’s Drum Dash Deluxe. 2014 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby Fighters Deluxe. 2014 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby Triple Deluxe. 2014 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby and the rainbow curse. 2015 Sold on WiiU - -Kirby Planet Robobot. 2016 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Team Kirby Clash Deluxe. 2017 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby’s Blowout Blast. 2017 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby Battle Royale. 2018 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Kirby Star Allies. 2018 Sold on Nintendo Switch - -Kirby’s Extra Epic Yarn. 2018 Sold on Nintendo 3DS - -Super Kirby Clash. 2019 Sold on Nintendo Switch - -Kirby Fighters 2. 2020 Sold on Nintendo Switch - -Development process - -At first, Kirby was named Twinkle Popo but Masahiro Sakurai (The creator of Kirby) wanted American kids to enjoy it too so He and his team asked Nintendo of America for some names and the name “Kirby,” caught Sakurai’s eye out of maybe hundreds, But Kirby, just happened to be the name of Nintendo of America’s lawyer, John Kirby. - -The backgrounds for the Kirby series are pretty but they made them in a different than usual way. Normally they would give the person who makes the maps to make the backgrounds too but instead they had a designer draw it then gave it to the mapper to make the maps and levels. - -How Kirby got his shape is that Sakurai wanted a cute character that everyone can enjoy. People also draw characters they like in their notebook so he and his crew decided with a circular shape that’s easy to draw. - -Publishing - -When they first made Kirby’s dreamland, people started saying That it was too easy or too short, so they decided to make something fun and easy, even for the skilled players, So they made Kirby’s adventure. With swallowing to get power-ups instead of just inhaling and spitting the enemy out to hit the other one. - -When they published him they started seeing drawings of Kirby in parks and open spaces so that was a little surprise for the crew. - -People were also thinking that Kirby was white, or yellow because think Pac-man he’s round and yellow people also thought he was white because the illustration of Kirby was white on Kirby's dreamland but Sakurai was the only person who said he was pink. - -Related pages -Mario -The Legend of Zelda -Sonic the Hedgehog -Nintendo - -References - -Other websites -Kirby's ""official"" U.S. homepage -Kirby's ""official"" Japanese homepage - -Anime characters -Animated television series -Fictional characters introduced in 1992 - -Nintendo video game characters" -9047,30973,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Bradbury,Ray Bradbury,"Ray Douglas Bradbury (August 22, 1920 - June 5, 2012) was an American writer. His most famous works are The Martian Chronicles and Fahrenheit 451. He also wrote big collections of short stories such as ""Driving Blind."" - -He was born in Waukegan, Illinois to a Swedish mother. He graduated from a high school in Los Angeles, California. Many of his works are based on real life, such as ""Dandelion Wine,"" a book about growing up in small-town Illinois. His other work includes movies, and screenplays. He won many awards. He died in his Los Angeles home. -He also wrote the short stories ""Dark They Were and Golden Eyed"" and ""A Sound of Thunder."" - -References - -Other websites - -1920 births -2012 deaths -Actors from Illinois -American novelists -Screenwriters from Illinois -American television actors -American television writers -Writers from Illinois -Writers from Los Angeles -People from Waukegan, Illinois" -6824,21565,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gujarat,Gujarat,"Gujarat (, ) is a state within the Republic of India. Gandhinagar is the capital of Gujarat. This city is named after Mahatma Gandhi. Its area is 75,686 mi² (196,077 km²), excluding the Kori Creek of the Rann of Kachchh: which is disputed by Pakistan , but it includes the Kutch District, in terms of area it is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal. - -In traditional Indian geography it falls under the West Indian zone. Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat, Bharuch, Porbandar, Rajkot, Jamnagar are some important cities in Gujarat. Champaner, Gondal, Bhavnagar, Utelia, Zainabad, Bhuj, Sasangir are some tourist places. People in Gujarat are mainly engaged in Agriculture and business. - -The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and the Pakistani province of Sindh to the west. Its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is native place to the Gujarati-speaking people of India. - -Etymology -Gujarat is derived from the Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, meaning ""The Land of the Gurjaras"", who ruled Gujarat in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. Parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi (land of the Gurjars) for centuries before the Mughal period. - -Provincial symbols of Gujarat - -References" -20674,79505,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguyen%20Hue,Nguyen Hue,"Nguyen Hue (1753–1792) was a general, an emperor of the Tay Son Dynasty in the history of Vietnam. He was born in Tay Son, Binh Dinh Province. His notable victories included: Victory over a Siamese army in Rach Gam and over Qing's army invasion in Dong Da, Thang Long. - -1753 births -1792 deaths - -Vietnamese people -Emperors and empresses" -22535,85252,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20right,Christian right,"The Christian right (known as the religious right in the United States) is the name for right-wing Christian political and social movements. They also exist in other countries, such as Canada. However, the term is most often used in the United States. These groups have a strong support of conservative social and political ideas. Usually, this comes from a belief that the United States was founded on a strong belief in God. It also come from a belief that American laws and policies should be based on what is in the Bible. Members of the Christian right can be from any branch of Christianity, including Catholicism. However, the religious right is most often used with Evangelical Christians, Fundamentalists (such as Born-agains) and Mormons. About 15% of Americans say they are part of the Christian or religious right. - -People who have been conservative due to their religion have been in the United States for hundreds of years. For example, the people who put John Scopes on trial would later be called members of the religious right. However, the term first came into use in the 1970s. Jerry Falwell was one of the first people to use it. He and others felt that the country and its institutions (such as schools and colleges) were run by left-wing intellectuals who did not believe in God. They thought that in reality most people believed in God and did not care for left-wing intellectuals. The fight between left-wing intellectuals and the religious right is often called the ""culture wars"". - -Presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and Donald Trump were elected in part due to support from the religious right. - -As well as the Christian right, there is something called the Christian left. However, it is not as well-known or powerful. - -Issues - -Here are some issues that the Christian right feels strongly about: - -Abortion -The Christian right became more popular again in the 1970s under Falwell due to abortion. This was in response to the Roe v. Wade decision made by the U.S. Supreme Court. Most members of the Christian right feel that life begins at conception. They think that killing a fetus is murder. Therefore, they think abortion should be illegal in most or all cases. This is called being ""pro-life"". Though the right has not been able to get rid of Roe (and it is now considered to be a precedent by most judges), they have been successful in making it harder to get abortions in some states. - -Sexuality -Many members of the Christian right believe that the Bible says it is bad to be homosexual (gay or lesbian). They used to support sodomy laws. Today, they are mostly against allowing gay marriage. They have had many laws and initiatives passed to stop gay people from marrying (such as California's Proposition 8). Some of these were found to be unconstitutional in the courts. To make stopping gay marriage constitutional, many have pushed for an amendment to the United States constitution to ban gay marriage. - -Evolution -Many members of the Christian right do not believe in evolution, because it goes against the creation story of the Bible. They instead favor creationism or intelligent design. Most biologists believe that evolution is true and that arguments against evolution are weak. In a few places, they have been successful in teaching intelligent design alongside evolution in public schools. - -Prayer in schools -Many members of the Christian right want to allow prayer in public schools and display of things related to Christ in public or government places. As with gay marriage, this has been questioned in the courts, usually due to the freedom of religion clause in the First Amendment. - -References - -Conservatism -Christianity in the United States" -20265,77832,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kollikodon,Kollikodon,"Kollikodon ritchiei is a fossil monotreme species. It is known from an opalised teeth frgament, with one premolar and two molars in situ. The fossil was found al Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia. - -References - - Flannery, T.F., Archer, M., Rich, T.H., Jones, R. (1995) ""A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia"". Nature 377: 418-420. - -Monotremes" -15566,59366,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch,Antioch,"Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side (left bank) of the Orontes River on the site of the modern city of Antakya, Turkey. - -It was founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. Antioch became a rival of Alexandria as the chief city of the nearer East and the cradle of gentile Christianity. It was one of the four cities of the Syrian tetrapolis. - -The geographical character of the district north and north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the perfect natural centre of Syria, so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic, and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of Damascus. During the Crusades, the Christian crusaders laid siege to Antioch. One Wijerd Jelckamas ancestors from his father's side of the family had died at the Siege of Antioch. -The siege of Antioch (lost by the Crusaders, initially), was a turning point in the Crusades. - -History of Antioch -Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus - -After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals divided up the territory he had conquered. Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he founded four ""sister cities"" in north-western Syria - Antioch, Seleucia Pieria, Apamea and Laodicea-on-the-Sea. Although Seleucia Pieria was at first the Seleucid capital city in north-western Syria, Antioch soon rose above it to become the Syrian capital. - -The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius. -The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers, Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). The total free population of Antioch at its foundation has been estimated at between 17,000 and 25,000, not including slaves and native settlers. During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, the population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates vary from 400,000 to 600,000) and it was the third largest city in the world after Rome and Alexandria. By the 4th century, Antioch's declining population was about 200,000 according to John Chrysostom, a figure which again does not include slaves. - -Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia on the Tigris. - -The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid Antiochenes; but the Roman emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could ever be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. -The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to Christianity. - Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy (cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas and Paul, who here preached his first Christian sermon in a synagogue, its converts were the first to be called Christians (Acts 11:26). - -In 638, during the reign of the emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Muslim Arabs during the Battle of Iron Bridge, and became known in Arabic as أنطاكيّة Antākiyyah. - -In recent years, what remains of the Roman and late antique city have suffered severe damage as a result of construction related to the expansion of Antakya. In the 1960s, the last surviving Roman bridge was demolished to make way for a modern two-lane bridge. The northern edge of Antakya has been growing rapidly over recent years, and this construction has begun to expose large portions of the ancient city, which are frequently bulldozed and rarely protected by the local museum. - -References - -Other websites - - Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: ""Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey"" - Antioch (Antakya) Includes timeline, maps, and photo galleries of Antioch's mosaics and artifacts - Antakya Museum Many photos of the collection in Antakya's museum, in particular Roman mosaics - The Ancient City of Antioch Map - -4th-century BC establishments" -20365,78311,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wheel%20of%20Fortune,The Wheel of Fortune,"For other uses, see Wheel of Fortune. - -The Wheel of Fortune, or Rota Fortunae, is a concept in medieval and ancient philosophy and means the unpredictable nature of Fate. The wheel belongs to the goddess Fortuna, who spins it at random, changing the positions of those on the wheel - some suffer great misfortune, others gain windfalls. - -Origins -The concept developed in antiquity; it was used by Cicero. The Wheel originally belonged to the Roman goddess Fortuna, whose name seems to derive from Vortumna, ""she who revolves the year"". Fortuna eventually became Christianized: the Roman philosopher Boethius (d. 524) was a major source for the medieval view of the Wheel, writing about it in hisConsolatio Philosophiae. - -Carmina Burana - -The Wheel of Fortune motif appears significantly in the Carmina Burana (or Burana Codex), over one thousand poems and songs — often profane in content — written by students and clergy in the early 13th century. Excerpts from two of the collection's better known poems, ""Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi (Fortune, Empress of the World)"" and ""Fortune Plango Vulnera (I Bemoan the Wounds of Fortune),"" read:The concept developed in antiquity; it was used by Cicero. The Wheel originally belonged to the Roman goddess Fortuna, whose name seems to derive from Vortumna, ""she who revolves the year"". Fortuna eventually became Christianized: the Roman philosopher Boethius (d. 524) was a major source for the medieval view of the Wheel, writing about it in hisConsolatio Philosophiae.vv - - Sors immanis - et inanis, - rota tu volubilis, - status malus, - vana salus - semper dissolubilis, - obumbrata - et velata - michi quoque niteris; - nunc per ludum - dorsum nudum - fero tui sceleris. - . . . . . . . . . . - Fortune rota volvitur; - descendo minoratus; - alter in altum tollitur; - nimis exaltatus - rex sedet in vertice - caveat ruinam! - nam sub axe legimus - Hecubam reginam. - - Fate - monstrous - and empty, - you whirling wheel, - you are malevolent, - well-being is vain - and always fades to nothing, - shadowed - and veiled - you plague me too; - now through the game - I bring my bare back - to your villainy. - . . . . . . . . . - The wheel of Fortune turns; - I go down, demeaned; - another is raised up; - far too high up - sits the king at the summit - - let him fear ruin! - for under the axis is written - Queen Hecuba. - -Later usage - -Fortune and her Wheel have remained an enduring image throughout history. - -William Shakespeare in Hamlet wrote of the ""slings and arrows of outrageous fortune"" and, of fortune personified, to ""break all the spokes and fellies from her wheel."" And in Henry V, Act 3 Scene VI, are the lines: - -Selections from the Carmina Burana, including the two poems quoted above, were set to new music by twentieth-century classical composer Carl Orff, whose bombastic and well-known ""O Fortuna"" is based on the poem Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi. - -Fortuna does occasionally turn up in modern literature. She is often associated with gamblers, and dice could also be said to have replaced the Wheel as the primary metaphor for uncertain fortune. - -References -Boethius, The Consolation of Philosophy , trans. W.V. Cooper (London: J.M. Dent, 1902) -Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales: The Monk's Tale -Thomas Malory, Le Morte d'Arthur, Chapter XVII' -William Shakespeare, Henry V, Act 3 Scene VI -Fortuna was also used by a character in the novel ""Confederacy of Dunces"";the main character, Ignatus J. Reilly, makes many references to ""Fortuna's wheel"" and also Boethius's works. - -Mythology -Middle Ages" -13661,50549,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephra%C3%AFm%20Inoni,Ephraïm Inoni,"Ephraïm Inoni (born 16 August, 1947) is the former Prime Minister of Cameroon, a country in central west Africa. H.E. Ephraim Inoni comes from the South West province in Cameroon, which is part of the Anglophone provinces in Cameroon. Ephraim Inoni is a member of the ruling party and a strong supporter of President Paul Biya. He was part of President Paul Biya's campaign team in 2006. - -""Chief Inoni Ephraim claimed his innocence after the judge gave him a 20 years sentence for his alleged participation in funds embezzlement in the Albatross affair."" - -Inoni was found guilty of conspiracy in the embezzlement of about $31 million in a fouled up 2001 deal to purchase an airplane for the President Paul Biya of Cameroon. He was sentenced to 20 years in prison by the Yaounde Special Criminal Tribunal. - -References - -1947 births -Living people -Prime Ministers of Cameroon -Criminals -Prisoners" -10508,37358,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars%20Ulrich,Lars Ulrich,"Lars Ulrich ( ; born 26 December 1963) is a Danish musician and songwriter best known as the drummer and co-founder of the American heavy metal band Metallica. He was born in Denmark, but moved to Los Angeles when he was seventeen. - -Lars Ulrich is also known for his part in the removal of a music-sharing computer program called Napster, which he felt to be illegally using and sharing the music he and Metallica made. - -Lars Ulrich stars as himself in the 2010 movie Get Him to the Greek starring Russell Brand. The movie is a spin-off of the 2008 movie Forgetting Sarah Marshall. - -Discography - -Metallica - Kill 'Em All (1983) - Ride the Lightning (1984) - Master of Puppets (1986) - The $5.98 E.P.: Garage Days Re-Revisited (EP) (1987) - ...And Justice For All (1988) - Metallica (1991) - Live Shit: Binge and Purge (1993) - Load (1996) - ReLoad (1997) - Garage Inc. (1998) - S&M (1999) - St. Anger (2003) - Death Magnetic (2008) - Orgullo, Pasión y Gloria: Tres Noches en la Ciudad de México (2009) - Six Feet Down Under (2010) - -Mercyful Fate - In the Shadows (Guest on ""Return of the Vampire 1993"") (1993) - -1963 births -Living people -Danish musicians -Metallica -Rock drummers" -5702,18530,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hailstone,Hailstone,"A hailstone is a round ball of ice which falls out of a storm cloud. About 5,000 hailstorms a year in the United States of America make hail 3/4 of an inch or larger. - -The beginning of a hailstorm -A hailstone begins as a small water drop or a round snow pellet in a cloud. The drop grows by collecting many cloud drops. The little drop is blown by a strong wind inside the cloud to where it meets with some extremely cold water drops. These supercooled drops are still liquid water even though the temperature is below freezing. When the little drop mixes with these extremely cold drops, they join, and the little drop has now become a hailstone. - -The little hailstone is thrown up inside the cloud, still collecting other cold drops. The hailstone gets bigger and bigger until it goes to the top of the cloud. Then, because there is no more wind, it falls back down through the cloud. While it is falling it gets even bigger as it bangs into more supercooled drops. If it goes down very fast it can hit the earth at up to 90 mph (144 kph), bouncing like popcorn. If the hailstone hits dirt, it can actually bury itself. - -Hailstone sizes - -The biggest hailstone recorded in the United States weighed 1.67 pounds (0.75 kg), and was 5.5 inches (14 cm) across. It fell near Coffeyville, Kansas, on September 3, 1970. The biggest recorded hailstone in the world was 4.2 pounds (almost 2 kilograms). It fell in Kazakhstan in Asia. - -Hailstones are made of many rings of clear, cloudy ice. The rings show different amounts of freezing on the hailstone. The cloudy ice is because it freezes so quickly, trapping many small air bubbles. The clear rings are made by slow freezing of the water, which lets bubbles escape. - -Hail damage and protection - -Hail does a very great amount of damage every year. Even small hail with strong winds can crush a field of wheat flat in a few minutes. It sometimes breaks windows, and can dent cars and roofs. Big hailstones can hurt and even kill small animals. - -Because hail damages crops, there has been many efforts to stop hail. In the 16th century, farmers used to shoot cannons at thunderstorms, thinking this would destroy the hail. Cloud seeding (trying to make rain by putting dry ice crystals or a kind of smoke in clouds) is the more recent way, but it is expensive and we do not know for sure how well it works. To this day, there is no proved way of stopping hailstorms. - -Related pages -Ice pellets -Sleet (disambig page) - -References - -Other websites - -Hail Research Information Center -Hail factsheet -The Economic Costs of Hail Storm Damage NOAA Economics -https://stormmaps.com/pages/hail-impact-reports NOAA Economics - Images -Hail and hailstorms -Major hail event in Brazil -NOAA Hail Reports on Google map (non commercial) - -Severe weather" -15018,56617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unperson,Unperson,"In the George Orwell book Nineteen Eighty-Four, an Unperson is someone who has been vaporized. Vaporization is when a person is secretly murdered and erased from society, the present, the universe, and existence. Such a person would be taken out of books, photographs, and articles so that no trace of them is found in the present anywhere – no record of them would be found. This was so that a person who defied the Party would be gone from all citizens' memories, even friends and family. There is no Newspeak word for what happened to unpeople, therefore it is thoughtcrime to say an unperson's name or think of unpeople. - -This is similar to the Stalinist Soviet Party erasing people from photographs after death; this is an example of ""real"" unpeople. - -The Stalin-era Soviet Union also provided real-world examples of unpersons in its treatment of Leon Trotsky and other members of the Communist Party who became politically inconvenient. In his 1960 magazine article ""Pravda means 'Truth'"", reprinted in Expanded Universe, Robert A. Heinlein argued that John Paul Jones and a mysterious May 15, 1960 cosmonaut had also received this treatment. - -Other websites - A look at Orwell’s Newspeak - -Words - -en:List of Newspeak words#Unperson" -18649,69986,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humat%20Al%20Hima,Humat Al Hima,"Humat Al-Hima is the national anthem of Tunisia since November 1987. - -The text (words) of this anthem was written by two men, Mustapha Sadiq Al-Rafi'i and Abul-Qacem Ech-Chebbi. And the Egyptian musician Mohamad Abdul-Wahab made its music. - -Words - -Tunisia -National anthems -1987 establishments in Africa" -7037,22224,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep,Sleep,"Sleep is a state of resting, which happens in animals, including humans. During deep sleep, most of the muscles that animals can otherwise control are not active, but regain the energy for the next time they wake up. Animals during sleep are usually in an unconscious, relaxed state. Like most animals, healthy sleep in humans takes place at night. Asleep describes the condition where animals are in the process of sleeping. During this time, they will not react as quickly (if at all) as they would if they were awake. They can, however, wake up from sleep more easily than from hibernation or coma. All mammals, birds, many reptiles, amphibians and fish have a sleep cycle. In humans, other mammals, and most other animals that were studied, regular sleep is essential for survival. - -Sleep is extremely important to human health and well-being. Humans and animals need sleep in order for their bodies to be prepared for the next day. Everyday activities, one’s appearance, and how one expresses oneself all rely on this necessity. If one is tired (from not getting enough sleep), one will not be able to function properly in common activities. Being sleep-deprived leads to struggling to remember information, altering one’s mood, energy, health, focus and a number of other effects. Sleep deprivation (not allowing a person enough sleep) can even be used as torture. Also, the immune system releases compounds known as cytokines which are used to help fight inflammation and infection. If a person does not receive enough sleep, they will not have enough cytokines to protect them from getting sick. The body may not have time to complete memory recollection, muscle repair, and release hormones that regulate growth and appetite. - -During daytime, the sun is out and most people are awake. They work, go to school, or complete daily errands and activities. Many people sleep for a short time in the early afternoon for a quick rest—or because they are not able to sleep during the day. This is called a nap. A successful nap should run between 15-30 minutes, and longer naps taking 30-60 minutes will result in feeling dazed and less attentive. - -In some countries, most notably where the weather is warm, there is a tradition to take a nap right after noon, or early in the afternoon. This tradition is called siesta, and is most common in Spain and Latin America. Some stores and services close while their owners and/or employees take their siesta. - -Word -The word ""sleep"" comes from the old Old Germanic verbs for sleep. In Old and Middle High German, it was called ""SLAF"". The original meaning of the word was ""to slap"", which was related to the word for ""flabby"" (not hard or firm). - -Many words related to ""sleep"" have very different meanings. For example, ""sleep"" may be used to mean death, so that ""putting an animal to sleep"" means to kill the animal without pain. ""Sleep with someone"" can also have a sexual meaning. - -What sleep is for -Generally, the reason for sleep is that the brain needs it. The details are not fully understood, but it is important to get enough sleep for the body and the brain to be healthy and to work properly. In general, animals (and people) sleep at periodic intervals, such as once a day. Certain animals send out signals to the others that they will soon go to sleep. Yawning is such a signal. - -Both humans and many animals sleep about once a day. Some animals, such as cats, sleep many times a day for short periods up to 15 hours a day (or even longer). - -When people sleep, they often have dreams. Probably some animals do, too. - -Not only people sleep, but all mammals and birds, and most fish, reptiles and other animals also too. - -Brief stages of sleep -There are four stages during sleep: - - Stage 1: The lightest sleep of NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep which is the process of falling asleep. - Stage 2: The first stage of NREM sleep; the beginning of falling asleep including regular breathing and heart rates, the body temperature dropping, and becoming disconnected with the environment. - Stages 3: Deep NREM sleep which involves delta waves or slow waves. It is difficult to wake one up in the course of this stage as they are in deep sleep. Common disorders that occur during this stage are sleepwalking and talking. - Stage 4: The dreaming stage in which brain waves are more vigorous with rapid eye movement. Awakenings are more common in REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep as opposed to NREM. - -While humans sleep, REM and NREM are sleep patterns that help with long term memory, remembering information, procedural memory, and creative thinking. - -Different types of sleep - -REM sleep -In mammals and birds, sleep can be divided into two categories. In one of them, the eyes move rapidly. It is called REM-sleep (rapid eye movement). Most dreams take place in this phase. as the body becomes relaxed and the eyes move while sleeping. This phase helps prepare one for the next day. REM-sleep occurs normally at intervals throughout the night, and the periods of REM-sleep increase in length in the second half of the night. It is often encountered 90 minutes after falling asleep, and continues to occur every 90 minutes. REM-sleep was first discovered in 195253. - -REM sleep is found in mammals and songbirds, but is ""poorly established"" in reptiles and fish. According to a survey: -""This remarkable similarity of characteristics may have resulted from a convergent evolution in mammals and songbirds"". - -NREM sleep -The other category, where this movement of the eyes does not happen, is called NREM-sleep (Non-REM sleep). In general, dreams do not occur during this time. There are three or four stages of NREM-sleep. Stage I is just barely sleeping, or dozing. Stage II is also light sleep. Normally, in adult humans, about half of the time spent asleep is spent in light sleep. Stages III and IV are called deep sleep. Deep sleep is necessary for growth and healing. It can be quite difficult to awaken someone who is in stage III or stage IV sleep. Sometimes, stages III and IV are combined and called stage III. - -Adult humans normally sleep in cycles of 90 to 110 minutes each. The night's sleep can be 4 or 5 of these cycles. Each cycle includes, in this order: stage I, stage II, stage III (IV), and REM. - -Getting enough sleep - -People who regularly get less than 8 hours of sleep a night tend to complain more and feel very fatigued throughout the day. Getting the appropriate amount of sleep is extremely important, as it could affect one’s body and increase the chances of serious health problems. For each age group, there are different amounts of sleep that are recommended: - -- Toddlers (4 to 12 months): 12 to 16 hours (w/ naps) - -- Toddlers (1-2 years): 11 to 14 hours (w/ naps) - -- Preschoolers (3-5 years): 10 to 13 hours (w/ naps) - -- Grade Schoolers (6 to 12 years): 9 to 12 hours - -- Teenagers(13-18 years): 8 to 10 hours - -- Adults (including old age): 7 to 9 hours - -The timing of sleep and the amount of it are both important. Both are different for different people. Some adults sleep best from 22:00 to 05:00 or 06:00 or 07:00. Some sleep best from midnight to seven or eight. These variations are normal. - -How much sleep is enough also depends on age. Children need more sleep than adults. Newborn babies sleep about 18 hours per day. Small babies sleep many times a day; human babies do not develop circadian rhythms before they are 3 – 4 months old. At the age of 1 year, they sleep for about 14 hours. - -A nine-year-old should sleep about 9–10 hours per day and teenagers, too, also need that much sleep. Adults who sleep less than about 8 hours a day perform worse than those who sleep that long. - -Bad habits -Poor habits could affect one’s sleep schedule in many ways without taking notice. A few habits that are very common and ruin sleep are: - - Overeating or being too full (since the digestive system will not work to digest those foods processed) - Sitting in front of a TV (since powerful light source produced by TV can prevent sleep) - Drinking too much (since it will cause one to use the bathroom multiple times during the night) - Going on a phone or playing a video game (since the artificial light from the screen simulates the mind and body) - Not having a bedtime routine - Any type of pain such as back, joint and tooth pain (these can making sleeping difficult and should be addressed quickly) - Having cold feet (it is better to wear something to keep warm in this case) - Using caffeine (since this can result in “all-nighters”) - Having stress (since this can keep the brain active at night, thinking of all the things on one’s mind) - Snoring (since one can be awaken by it) - -Sleeping problems -A good night’s sleep is extremely important for one’s quality of life. People may have trouble going to sleep, staying asleep or getting enough sleep. This usually means that they are too sleepy in the daytime. - -There are many things that influence sleep. Also some substances, called stimulants – coffee is an example – can cause poor sleep. When people have just eaten something, the body is busy digesting what they have eaten. This can cause poor sleep, too. Worrying and stress can also cause poor sleep. - -There are many diseases that cause poor sleep. Fever can lead to bad dreams. Poor sleep can be a side effect of some medications. - -Sleep disorders directly influence how a person sleeps. Examples of sleep disorders are narcolepsy, sleep apnea and circadian rhythm sleep disorders. - -The four most common sleep disorders are: - -Insomnia which consists of difficulties going to sleep at night, having no energy, waking up often in the middle of the night, waking up earlier than planned, and changing mood behaviors. - -Sleep apnea which is due to the lack of breathing for several seconds which results in the brain awakening and forcing a respiratory effect to breathe harder. As a result of the multiple occurrences during the night, the body cannot go back to sleep, leading to fatigue. - -Restless leg syndrome is a need to move one’s leg while resting. Having the urge to move one's feet during the night may affect the ability to fall and stay asleep. - -Narcolepsy, the inability to control the brain’s sleep/wakefulness cycle which leads to daytime sleepiness and falling asleep at unexpected times. - -Sleep specialists - doctors specialized in sleeping problems - often suggest better sleep hygiene to people with sleeping problems. Sleep hygiene means things people can try, such as: - - get to sleep quick and early - avoid extreme emotion in the hours before sleep - try to get up at the same time every day (sticking to a routine) - sleep in a cool, quiet and very dark place with the right mattress, lighting, blanket, pillow and temperature. - avoid bright light the last hour before bedtime. Eat dinner at least 3 hours before bedtime so the digestive system has time to break it down. - avoid a big meal just before bedtime - get enough exercise every day - sleep in varying positions. However, avoid sleeping on the stomach as it starts to flatten the curve of the spine, which can lead to severe lower back pains - -References - -Other websites - American Academy of Sleep Medicine - National Sleep Foundation - World Sleep Foundation - National Center on Sleep Disorders Research - - -Basic English 850 words -VOA Special English words" -12054,44338,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Cheadle,Don Cheadle,".Donald Frank Cheadle Jr. (/ˈtʃiːdəl/; born November 29, 1964) is an American actor, author, director, producer and writer. Following early roles in Hamburger Hill (1987), and as the gangster ""Rocket"" in the film Colors (1988), Cheadle built his career in the 1990s with roles in Devil in a Blue Dress (1995), Rosewood (1997) and Boogie Nights (1997). His collaboration with director Steven Soderbergh resulted in the films Out of Sight (1998), Traffic (2000) and The Ocean's Trilogy (2001–2007). - -Cheadle was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his lead role as Rwandan hotel manager Paul Rusesabagina in the historical genocide drama film Hotel Rwanda (2004). From 2012 to 2016, he starred as Marty Kaan on the Showtime comedy series House of Lies; he won a Golden Globe Award in 2013 for the role. - -Cheadle extended his global recognition with his role as the superhero War Machine in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, replacing Terrence Howard. He currently appeared in Iron Man 2 (2010), Iron Man 3 (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Captain Marvel (2019) and Avengers: Endgame (2019) and will appear in the upcoming Disney+ series Iron Heart. - -Film and television work -Cheadle became eligible for his Screen Actors Guild (SAG) card when he appeared as a burger joint employee in the 1985 comedy Moving Violations. In 1987 he received a small role in episode 19, season 7 of Hill Street Blues where he played a teenager with learning difficulties. Followed by an appearance in Hamburger Hill the same year; Cheadle secured the role of Jack in the April 1, 1988, ""Jung and the Restless"" episode of Night Court. Although his character was 16 years old, Cheadle was 23 at the time. - -Cheadle then played the role of Rocket in the 1988 movie Colors. In 1989, he appeared in a video for Angela Winbush's No. 2 hit single ""It's the Real Thing"", performing dance moves in an orange jumpsuit, working at a car wash. In 1990, he appeared in an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air titled ""Homeboy, Sweet Homeboy"", playing Will Smith's friend and Hilary's first love interest, Ice Tray. In 1992, he played a supporting role in The Golden Girls spin-off The Golden Palace. Cheadle subsequently played district attorney John Littleton on three seasons of Picket Fences. - -Cheadle first received widespread notice for his portrayal of Mouse Alexander in the film Devil in a Blue Dress, for which he won Best Supporting Actor awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association and the National Society of Film Critics and was nominated for similar awards from the Screen Actors Guild and the NAACP Image Awards. Following soon thereafter was his performance in the title role of the 1996 HBO TV movie Rebound: The Legend of Earl ""The Goat"" Manigault. He also starred in the 1997 film Volcano, directed by Mick Jackson.Don Cheadle also starred in Rush Hour 2 (2001), with Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker.. - -Cheadle's television credits include Emmy-nominated performances in the movies The Rat Pack, A Lesson Before Dying, Things Behind the Sun and in a guest appearance on ER. The last of these spanned four episodes during the show's ninth season, in which he portrayed Paul Nathan, a medical student struggling to cope with Parkinson's disease. He has made appearances in films including Rosewood, The Family Man, Boogie Nights, Out of Sight, Traffic, and Ocean's Eleven. These last three were directed by Steven Soderbergh. He made a cameo appearance in the film Abby Singer. In 2005, Cheadle was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Paul Rusesabagina in the film Hotel Rwanda. He also starred in and co-produced Crash, which won the 2006 Academy Award for Best Picture. For his performance in Crash, Cheadle was nominated for the BAFTA and Screen Actors Guild Awards for Best Supporting Actor. He played the main character in the movie Traitor. - -In March 2007, Cheadle starred with comedian Adam Sandler in Mike Binder's Reign Over Me, a comedy-drama about a man who has slipped away from reality after the death of his wife and three daughters in 9/11. The film was a box office flop, earning a domestic gross of $22.2 million. Cheadle later starred in the 2009 DreamWorks Pictures film Hotel for Dogs. Cheadle was to make his directorial debut with the adaptation of Elmore Leonard's Tishomingo Blues, but in July 2007 he stated, ""'Tishomingo' is dead..."" - -Cheadle appeared in NFL commercials promoting the Super Bowl from 2002 to 2005. He so regularly appeared for the NFL in its Super Bowl advertising that in 2006, in a drive to get fans to submit their own advertising ideas, the NFL sought his permission to reference his previous commercials to portray themselves as having no new ideas: ""he quickly signed off on the idea and found it funny."" Abe Sutton (along with Etan Bednarsh), one of the finalists in this NFL contest, played on this commercial by proposing an ad where every player on a football team is Don Cheadle. - -In 2009, Cheadle and Boondocks creator Aaron McGruder worked on a potential comedy show on NBC. The ""project revolve[d] around mismatched brothers who reunite to open a private security company."" Cheadle and McGruder were slated to serve as executive producers, while McGruder was expected to write the script. - -Also in 2009, Cheadle performed in The People Speak, a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States. - -In 2010, Cheadle assumed the role of War Machine / James Rhodes in Iron Man 2 (2010), replacing Terrence Howard. Cheadle currently reprised this role in Iron Man 3 (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Avengers: Endgame (2019) and will reprise it in the Disney+ series Iron Heart. - -From 2012 to 2016, Cheadle starred in the Showtime TV series House of Lies. In 2013, he won the Golden Globe as Best Actor in a Comedy Series for his role on the show. - -Cheadle spent ten years writing and producing the film Miles Ahead (2016) based on the life of jazz musician Miles Davis. Cheadle also directed and starred in the film. Locations for the movie were found in Cincinnati. - -In 2018, Cheadle guest-starred in the first-season finale of DuckTales, providing Donald Duck's new voice box. - -Some of the movies he was in are: -Boogie Nights -Mission to Mars -Hotel Rwanda -Ocean's Eleven -Ocean's Twelve -Ocean's Thirteen - -References - -Other websites - -Actors from Kansas City, Missouri -African American actors -African American movie producers -American movie actors -American television actors -American television producers -American voice actors -Movie producers from Missouri -1964 births -Living people" -21931,83538,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boswil,Boswil,"Boswil is a municipality in Muri in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -8300,27892,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/WESC,WESC,"WESC is a Swedish company. The company makes clothing, like jeans and shirts. Many people like these clothes, and they can buy them in many countries, for example in the United States, Japan and Germany. Because some famous people use the clothes, other people want to buy them too. - -Companies of Sweden -Clothing companies" -20873,80288,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albiorix%20%28moon%29,Albiorix (moon),"Albiorix is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by Holman, et al. in 2000, and given the designation S/2000 S 11. - -Albiorix is the biggest member of the Gallic group of non-spherical moons. - -It was named in August 2003 from one of the Celtic names for the god of tribal unity, better known as Toutatis. - -Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16,000,000 km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers, assuming an albedo of 0.04. A day on Albiorix is 13 hours and 19 minutes long. - -The diagram illustrates its orbit in relation to other prograde non-spherical moons of Saturn. The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre. - -Different colours seen recently suggest a possibility of a big crater, suggesting that Erriapo and Tarvos could be pieces of Albiorix following a near break-up collision with another body. - -Other websites - David Jewitt pages - -Saturn's moons" -17316,65642,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujita%20scale,Fujita scale,"The Fujita scale is a scale used for rating tornado strength, based on the damage tornadoes cause on human-built buildings and vegetation. The official Fujita scale category is determined by meteorologists (and engineers) after a ground and/or aerial damage inspection; also including analysis of available sources such as eyewitness accounts and damage images and/or videos. It was replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale in the United States in February 2007. - -Other F0 Rated Tornadoes: -Waterspout - -Notes - -References - -Tornadoes" -23889,92288,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic%20coordinate%20system,Geographic coordinate system,"A geographical coordinate system is a coordinate system. This means that every place can be specified by a set of three numbers, called coordinates. - -A full circle can be divided into 360 degrees (or 360°); this was first done by the Babylonians; Ancient Greeks, like Ptolemy later extended the theory. - -Today, degrees are divided further. There are minutes, and seconds; 1 minute (or 1') in this context is 1/60 of a degree; 1 second (or 1"") is 1/60 of a minute. - -The first concept needed is called latitude (Lat, or the Greek symbol ""phi"", ). For it, the Earth is cut up into 180 circles, from the Equator at 0°. The poles are at 90°, the North Pole is at 90° N(orth), the South Pole is at 90° S(outh). Places with the same latitude are on a circle, around the Earth. - -The other concept is called longitude (Long, or the Greek symbol ""lambda"", ), sometimes referred to as ""meridian"". The 0° longitude line (or zero meridian) goes through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. Greenwich is a part of London. Then lines are drawn in a similar way; the opposite (or ""antipodal"") meridian of Greenwich is considered both 180°W(est), and 180°E(ast). - -The third number is the height, altitude, or depth. This is given with respect to some fixed (usually easily calculable point). One of these is called mean sea level. - -Coordinate systems -Geocodes" -10071,34549,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaton,Automaton,"An Automaton (one automaton, several automata) is a concept from mathematics. Sometimes the concept is called state machine. It is like an abstract machine. - -Such a machine can be given input, which is either rejected, or accepted. It's like a vending machine. When something is bought, coins (or money) needs to be inserted into the machine. If these are the right coins, they are accepted, and the requested item is dropped so it can be removed. If the coins are wrong, they are rejected. - -Internally, the automaton has different states it can be in. Feeding it input may (or may not) change its state. That way, the automaton goes through all the input, consuming one item (which mathematicians call a symbol) at a time. When no symbol is left, the automaton is in a certain state. This may be an final state. In this case the input is accepted. Otherwise, the input is rejected. - -If the machine has a countable, finite number of states, it is called finite state machine. A diagram that shows all the states, and transitions of such a machine is called finite state diagram. - -Problems -Like in real life, there are machines that are too complex to understand. The mathematician and computer scientists therefore ask themselves if a certain automaton is minimal. If it is not minimal, there must be another automaton with fewer states that can do the same thing. An example of an automaton is the Turing machine. -Mathematics -Theoretical computer science" -10403,36781,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paran%C3%A1%20%28state%29,Paraná (state),"Paraná is a state in Southern Brazil. It is next to Paraguay and Argentina. Its capital is Curitiba. Paraná is a famous state because of Itaipu Dam and the Iguaçu Falls. - -Paraná is bounded on the north by São Paulo, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Santa Catarina and the Misiones Province of Argentina, and on the west by Mato Grosso do Sul and the republic of Paraguay, with the Paraná River as its western boundary line. - -Paraná is one of the Brazilian states that shows the most signs of recent European colonization. Most of the population are descendants of European settlers, and is one of the most ethnically diverse. Waves of European immigrants started arriving after 1850, mainly Germans, Italians, Poles and Ukrainians. The development of the state is closely linked to the arrival of the immigrants. Nowadays, migrants from other Brazilian states (especially from the São Paulo, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and the Northeast Region) come to Paraná in search of a better life. - -People of Polish descent predominate in the central and south regions, mainly around Curitiba. Italians predominate in the capital, Curitiba, and in the coast. People of Ukrainian descent predominate in a few cities, such as Prudentópolis; many Ukrainians are found throughout the state. Germans predominate in a few cities, such as Rolândia. Almost all towns have many Portuguese people and their descendants. - -People of mixed-race ancestry predominate in a few towns in the north. There is an important Muslim Lebanese and Syrian community around Foz do Iguaçu. In the north, there are many Japanese people. - -The main cities of the state are: - - Curitiba (Capital and largest, east) - Londrina (2nd largest, north) - Maringá (3rd largest, north) - Foz do Iguaçu (4th largest, west) - Ponta Grossa (5th largest, center-east) - Cascavel (6th largest, center-west) - São José dos Pinhais (7th largest, Greater Curitiba) - Colombo (8th largest, Greater Curitiba) - Guarapuava (9th largest, center) - Paranaguá (10th largest, east-coast) - -Album - -References - -Other websites - - - - -States of Brazil" -18988,71580,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20circuits,Continental circuits,"The UCI ProTour is the series of races for the top cycling teams. The Continental circuits are for teams that are not so good. - -Some teams, such as Team Milram, have one team on the ProTour, a team of younger riders on the continental circuit as well as being linked with U23 teams. In this way teams can spot talented riders. - -There are five circuits, one each for -Africa -America -Australasia -Europe -Oceania - -Usually organisers of a ProTour event can invite one or two teams from the continental circuit to compete. Also a ProTour team might decide to compete in a continental circuit race - -Cycle races" -2040,6764,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziggy%20Stardust,Ziggy Stardust,"Ziggy Stardust is a fictional character. Ziggy was created and used by David Bowie, from 1970 to 1973. - -Bowie used Ziggy Stardust as a second personality (alter ego). Ziggy appeared to be neither male nor female. - -Ziggy's band was The Spiders From Mars. They recorded a couple of albums: -The Rise And Fall Of Ziggy Stardust And The Spiders From Mars (1972) -Aladdin Sane (1973) - -Ziggy's 'life' came to an end in a live concert at Hammersmith Odeon, on July 3, 1973. This show was in 1983 released in a movie: Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture. A 30th anniversary edition was released in 2003. - -Fictional characters -David Bowie" -23223,88753,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain%20English%20Campaign,Plain English Campaign,"Plain English Campaign Limited (PEC) is a commercial editing and training firm based in the United Kingdom. It was started in 1979 by Chrissie Maher. The company advocates for the use of simple (""plain"") English. It tries to persuade organisations in the UK and abroad to communicate with the public simply. In 1990, Plain English Campaign created the Crystal Mark, its ""seal of approval."" This is a symbol printed on documents which the Plain English campaign thinks are very easy to understand. According to the Plain English Campaign, the symbol appears on over 20,000 documents worldwide. - -The Plain English Campaign also gives out an annual ""Foot in Mouth Award"" for ""a baffling comment by a public figure."" The name of this award comes from a humorous English idiom. If a person has their ""foot in their mouth,"" that means they are speaking badly and not paying attention to what they are saying. The plain English Campaign also gives out a ""Golden Bull Award"" for ""the worst examples of written tripe"". The name of this award also comes from a common English idiom. ""Bull"" is short for ""bullshit,"" which literally means the excrement of a bull, but is often used to mean stupid, dishonest or unbelievable speech or writing. The word ""tripe,"" similar to ""bullshit,"" has both a literal and a figurative meaning. Literally, it means a food made from an animal's stomach lining. As it is used here, ""tripe"" means something very close to ""bullshit."" - -In other words, the Plain English Campaign's ""Foot in Mouth Award"" is given to someone famous who speaks stupidly. The ""Golden Bull Award"" is given to someone famous who writes stupidly. Both awards are sarcastic. They are different from normal awards because they criticise, rather than honor, the people they are given to. Famous winners of the Foot in Mouth Award include George W. Bush and Donald Rumsfeld. - -Plain English Campaign has worked for many organisations. Many UK forms and bills carry the Crystal Mark, including the British passport application form. Plain English Campaign is often described in the media as a ""pressure group."" - -It regularly makes public comments about language-related news stories and about jargon. For example, in 2006 its supporters voted Bill Shankly the author of the greatest football quotation of all time. Plain English Campaign did a survey in 2004 and announced that ‘At the end of the day’ was considered the most irritating cliché. Chrissie Maher, who created Plain English Campaign, was awarded the Order of the British Empire in 1994 for her services to plain communication. Famous supporters of PEC include Margaret Thatcher and broadcaster John Humphrys. - -Other websites - - - - -Companies of the United Kingdom -Prose" -15546,59255,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyamide,Polyamide,"A polyamide is a polymer made of amides which are joined by peptide bonds. Examples for polyamides that occur naturally are proteins, such as wool and silk. It is also possible to artificially produce polyamides, one growth-step at a time. Examples for artificially-made polyamides are nylons, aramids and Sodium poly(aspartate). - -Polymers" -11185,40472,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians,Armenians,"The Armenians are an ethnic group from the Caucasus. Their country is Armenia. The Armenian culture is very old. Armenia reached its peak in 69 BC during the reign of king Tigranes the Great. Armenia was also the first christian nation because of this, many Armenians are Christians. - -Background -In the Assyrian period, the Armenian people of Nairi formed the kingdom of Ararat (well known in Assyrian as Urartu). One of the earliest record of Armenians is from a text which says Armani, Արման (most common Armenian name Arman, the older variant of Armen, Արմեն) together with Ibla, as land conquered by Naram-Sin (2300 BC) identified with an Akkadian colony in the Diarbekr region. To this day the Assyrians speak about Armenians by saying Armani. Another record is by Thutmose III of Egypt, says the people of Ermenen in 1446 BC, and says in their land ""heaven rests upon its four pillars"". (Thutmose was the first Pharaoh to cross the Euphrates to reach the Armenian Highlands). To this day Kurds and Turks refer to Armenians by Ermeni. - -Historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people from the most common Armenian names: Arman, Արման (Armenians use Arman, the older variant of Armen, Արմեն), Armen, and Armin'e (female name). Armenians call themselves Hay (Հայ, pronounced Hye; plural: Հայեր, Hayer). The word has traditionally been linked to the name of the legendary founder of the Armenian nation, Haik, which is also a popular Armenian name. - -Some scholars believe, for example, that the earliest mention of the Armenians is in the Akkadian inscriptions dating to the 28th-27th centuries BC, in which the Armenians are referred to as the sons of Haya, after the regional god of the Armenian Highlands. - -Related pages -List of Armenian scientists - -References - -Other websites - Armenia and Armenians - Famous Armenians - ""PanArmenian E-Library"" website`s e-books about Armenians - History of Armenia" -15749,60295,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citron,Citron,"The citron (Citrus medica) is a species of citrus fruit. It usually has a thick rind and small sections. Originally, the tree came from Southeast Asia. Today it is mainly grown in Sicily, Morocco, Crete, and Corsica, as well as Puerto Rico. The tree can grow to a size of about 3 metres. The fruit can grow to a size of about 25 cm in length, and about 4 kg in weight. The pulp of the fruit is hardly ever used. The rind is used. It is made into an additive for cooking. Jam can also be made from the rind. The rind is also used to make vegetable oil, which is used for perfumes. - -Generally, it is eaten preserved or in bakery goods, such as fruitcakes. (The candied peel rather than the fruit is often used in cooking.) In some cultures, it is made into a fruity tea. Pliny the Elder states that in his time , the citron could only be grown in Media and Persia (HN xii.7). The Romans tried to transport it into the Roman Empire in tightly packed pots, but failed, according to Pliny. There is evidence, however, which shows it was cultivated in the Mediterranean during Pliny's lifetime. Zohary and Hopf believe this tree was first domesticated in India. They think that its wild forms, along with those of the mandarin and pomelo, were the original citrus species. - -The citron has many names in different countries; one popular reference is Cedrat, which is the French name for the fruit. Theophrastus referred to the citron as the Persian or Median Apple, and the fruit later came to be known as the Citrus Apple. Pliny calls the tree the Assyrian, or the Median, ""apple"" (the generic Greco-Roman name for globose fruits). Other citrus crops were not introduced to the Mediterranean basin until Islamic times. - -In many languages other than English, a normal lemon is called a ""citron"" and a Lime is called a ""limon"". Although the East Asian citrus fruit yuzu (also called yuja) is sometimes called a citron, it is actually a separate species, Citrus junos. - -Cultivation and uses -The citron fruit is slow-growing. The citron tree is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old; the tree begins to bear fruit when it is around three years old. The fruit is oblong in shape, and sometimes as much as six inches in length. Its skin is thick, somewhat hard, fragrant, and covered with protuberances; the pulp is white and subacid. - -In Pliny's time the fruit was never eaten (it began to be used in cooking by the early 2nd century), but its intense perfume was used, penetrating clothes to repel noxious insects (compare Citronella). - -In Hebrew, the citron is known as the etrog (). It is one of the Four Species used during the holiday of Sukkot each fall. The role of the citron in that holiday was portrayed in the Israeli movie Ushpizin. Citrons that have been bred with lemon (in order to increase output per tree and make the tree less fragile) are not kosher for use as part of the Four Species. - -In South Indian cuisine, especially Tamil cuisine, citron is widely used in pickles and preserves. In Tamil, the unripe fruit is referred to as 'narthangai', which is usually salted and dried to make a preserve. The tender leaves of the plant are often used in conjunction with chili powder and other spices to make a powder, called 'narthellai podi', literally translating to 'powder of citron leaves'. Both narthangai and narthellai podi are usually consumed with 'thayir sadam' (Curd Rice - Yogurt Rice). - -In Korea, it is used to create a syrupy tea (called Yuja cha) where the slices of whole fruit are eaten with the sweet tea. The fruit is thinly sliced (peel, pith and pulp) and soaked or cooked in honey or sugar to create a chunky syrup. This syrupy candied fruit is mixed with hot water as a fragrant tea, where the fruit at the bottom of the cup is eaten as well. Often perserved in the syrup for the cold months, Yuja tea served as a source of fruit in winter. It is also popular in Taiwan, where it is known as 柚子茶 (Youzi cha). -[Note: The Korean Yuja is the same as the Japanese Yuzu 柚子 and must be different from the citron being described in this article. The Japanese Yuzu = Citrus junos.] - -Notes - -Related pages -List of Citrus fruits - -Other websites - Citrus medica used as a medicinal plant." -3835,11526,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Forest,Black Forest,"The Black Forest (German: Schwarzwald) is a world famous forest in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. - -Important towns are (from north to south): Pforzheim, Calw, Baden-Baden, Offenburg, Freudenstadt, Horb, Villingen-Schwenningen, Titisee-Neustadt and Waldshut-Tiengen. The highest mountain is the Feldberg (1492m). - -The Black Forest is quite popular for hiking, skiing and Nordic walking. In Triberg, at the lake Titisee and in other places you can buy the famous cuckoo clocks. A good way to get known to the Black Forest is to travel on the Deutsche Uhrenstraße, a ""National Scenic Byway."" - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - Black Forest image galleries - Information about Black Forest, Hotels, Wellness and more - -Forests of Germany -Geography of Baden-Württemberg" -20203,77584,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazzard%20Records,Biohazzard Records,"Biohazzard Records is a German based Independent record label. It was founded by music journalist Sascha Bahn and Alexander C.H. Lorenz (publisher of ""MUMM"" compilation). He has more as 20 years experience in management of bands. The label is distributed through ""Alive!"", edel.net (Digital Distribution) and DanseMacabre (Das Ich). They focus at Gothic, Gothic Metal and some kinds of Electro. - -Releases - 2000: Sinnflut - Vergessene Melodien - 2001: Sinnflut - Wortlosigkeit - 2003: Silence - The p/o/u/r letters - 2003: Sinnflut - Gefüge (Part I & II) - 2004: Sinnflut - Im Anblick meines Augenblicks - 2006: Eisenfunk - Funkferngesteuert - 2006: Sanity Obscure - Resurrection - 2007: Silence - the badtime stories e.p. - 2007: Eisenfunk - Eisenfunk - 2007: adoptedCHILD - geliebt-getötet - -Artists - Eisenfunk - PISCIDE - adoptedCHILD - Sanity Obscure - Silence - Sinnflut - Die Braut - Concrete/Rage - Agapèsis - Scarelett - S.C. Inc - -Other websites -Biohazzard Records -Biohazzard Records@myspace - -Independent record labels -Entertainment in Germany" -5712,18547,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dining%20room,Dining room,"A dining room is a room used for eating and is usually near the kitchen. This is to make serving food easier. - -Usually a dining room will contain a table with a set of chairs, normally positioned at the sides and end of a table. People often only use their dining rooms now for formal occasions and eating in the kitchen has become more popular. - -Rooms" -15586,59446,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20power%20in%20Spain,Solar power in Spain,"Spain is the fourth largest manufacturer in the world of solar power technology and exports 80 percent of this output to Germany. Spain is one of the most attractive countries with regard to the development of solar energy, as it has the greatest amount of available sunshine of any country in Europe. - -The Spanish government wants to produce 12 percent of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010. That would mean a solar generating capacity of 400 megawatts. -Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004, the Spanish government removed economic barriers to grid-connection of renewable energy. The widely applauded Royal Decree 436/2004 equalises conditions for large-scale thermal and photovoltaic plants and guarantees feed-in tariffs. - -Solar thermal power plants -In March 2007, Europe's first commercial concentrating solar power tower plant was opened near the sunny southern Spanish city of Seville. The 11 megawatt plant, known as the PS10 solar power tower, produces electricity with 624 large heliostats. Each of these mirrors has a surface measuring 120 square meters (1,290 square feet) that concentrates the Sun's rays to the top of a 115-meter (377 foot) high tower where a solar receiver and a steam turbine are located. The turbine drives a generator, producing electricity. PS10 is the first of a set of solar electric power generation plants to be constructed in the same area that will total more than 300MW by 2013. This power generation will be accomplished using a variety of technologies. - -Solar thermal power plants designed for solar-only generation are ideally matched to summer noon peak loads in prosperous areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain. Using thermal energy storage systems, solar thermal operating periods can even be extended to meet base-load needs. For example, the 50-MWe AndaSol solar trough power plants are designed with six to twelve hours of thermal storage, which increases annual availability by some 1,000 to 2,500 hours. - -Photovoltaics -Construction has started on a 20MW solar photovoltaics power system in Trujillo, Cáceres, in Spain. Costing €150m, the new plant will have double the output of the 10MW Bavaria Solar Park in Germany, the previous largest ever photovoltaic (PV) system. The project will use 200 100 kW units (120,000 PV modules in total), gaining the top feed-in tariff for this type of plant. - -BP Solar has begun constructing a new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plant at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid. -For phase one of the Madrid expansion, BP Solar is aiming to expand its annual cell capacity from 55 megawatts (MW) to around 300 MW. Construction of this facility is underway, with the first manufacturing line expected to be fully operational this year. - -The new cell lines use innovative screen-printing technology. By fully automating wafer handling, the manufacturing lines will be able to handle the very thinnest of wafers available and ensure the highest quality. - This is of particular importance since there has been a silicon shortage in recent years. - -Since the beginning of 2007, Aleo Solar AG has also been manufacturing high-quality solar modules for the Spanish market at its own factory in Santa Maria de Palautordera near Barcelona. - -New building codes -New building code laws in Spain are now mandating solar hot water for new and remodeled private residences, and photovoltaic to offset some power requirements for all new and remodeled commercial buildings. The new laws also reflect inceased awareness of the importance of better building insulation and the use of daylighting. - -Research and Development -The Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) in Spain, part of the Center for Energy, Environment and Technological Research (CIEMAT), is the largest center for research, development, and testing of concentrating solar technologies in Europe. - -Related pages - Andasol 1 solar power station - List of Solar thermal power stations - -References - -Other websites - Spain pioneers grid-connected solar-tower thermal power - -Solar energy -Spain" -1521,5235,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina%20Ricci,Christina Ricci,"Christina Ricci (born February 12, 1980) is an American actress. She was born in Santa Monica, California and grew up in Montclair, New Jersey. - -Filmography - -Film - -Television - -Other works - -Music - 2005: ""Hell Yes"" – Beck - -Music videos - 1990: ""The Shoop Shoop Song (It's in His Kiss)"" – Cher - 1991: ""Addams Groove"" – MC Hammer - 1993: ""Addams Family (Whoomp!)"" – Tag Team - 2000: ""Natural Blues"" – Moby - -Video games - 2008: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon as Cynder - 2008: Speed Racer: The Videogame as Trixie - -Audiobook - Gossip Girl – Narrator - Gossip Girl ""You Know You Love Me"" – Narrator - -Other websites - - - -1980 births -Actors from New Jersey -Actors from Santa Monica, California -American child actors -American movie actors -American voice actors -American television actors -Living people -People from Montclair, New Jersey" -22085,83888,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallenkirch,Gallenkirch,"Gallenkirch is a former municipality of the district Brugg in canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -It has a middle school, but the district school is in Brugg - -On 1 January 2013 the former municipalities of Gallenkirch, Linn, Oberbözberg and Unterbözberg merged into the new municipality of Bözberg. - -Other websites - -Official Website of Gallenkirch - -Former municipalities of Aargau -2013 disestablishments in Switzerland" -11167,40374,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy%20Brandt,Willy Brandt,"Willy Brandt (18 December 1913 – 8 October 1992) was a German chancellor from 1969 until 1974. He was born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm in Lübeck, Germany. He was the leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany 1964–1987 and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize (1971). He died on 8 October 1992 in Unkel on the Rhine. - -Biography -He was born as son of Martha Frahm and John Möller in 1913 in Lübeck. He never met his father and grew up with his mother and his grandfather. - -He fled to Norway when the Nazis took over government in Germany. He led a contact office for the resistance against the Nazi regime. After he lost his German citizenship, he became Norwegian. The Germans arrested him when they occupied Norway. He fled to Sweden. In 1945, Brandt returned to Germany as writer for Scandinavian newspapers. - -He was married three times: - Carlotta Thorkildsen - 1940 to 1948 - Rut (Hansen) Bergaust - 1948 to 1980 - Ruth Seebacher - 1983 to 1992 - -Political life -His political career started in 1948. He became a representative for the SPD in the Bundestag for a district of Berlin. He was member of the state parliament of Berlin from 1950 until 1971. - -He became president of the Parliament of Berlin (1955) and Mayor of Berlin (1957). Willy Brandt started to campaign for the position as Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) for the Social Democrats (SPD) in 1961. In 1966, he became Vice-Chancellor of the ""Grand Coalition"" of SPD and the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) under Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He started the social-liberal coalition between the SPD and the Free Democratic Party of Germany (FDP). Willy Brandt became Chancellor in 1969. - -He made many changes in several political areas. For example: -Society politics - New divorce laws - Right of vote was made 18 instead of 21 - Easier to be declared a Conscientious objector -Education politics - No study fees - Financial aid for poor students - Opened more universities -Foreign politics - The New Eastern Politics of Western Germany. - -He travelled to East Germany, Warsaw and Moscow to improve relationships. His acceptance the Oder-Neisse Line and many of controversies in the Parliament and society followed. - -In 1971, he got the Nobel Peace Prize for his politics. - -In 1972, Rainer Barzel of the CDU believed he could end the Brandt administration, but he failed to win the vote of no-confidence. Brandt was re-elected to a second term later that year. In 1974, Günther Guillaume who worked in Brandt's office was discovered to be a spy. Brandt resigned and Helmut Schmidt became chancellor. - -Brandt stayed leader of the SPD, and later of the Socialist International too. He was member of the European Parliament from 1978 to 1983. He gave up the position as chief of the SPD in 1987. Willy Brandt died of colon cancer at his home in Unkel, a town on the River Rhine, on 8 October 1992, at the age of 78. He was given a state funeral and was buried at the cemetery at Zehlendorf in Berlin. - -References - -Other websites - Biography of Willy Brandt - New Berlin Airport to be named after Willy Brandt - -1913 births -1992 deaths -Chancellors of Germany -Deaths from colorectal cancer -Former members of the German Bundestag -Former MEPs -German Nobel Prize winners -Government ministers of Germany -MEPs for Germany -People from Lübeck -Politicians from Schleswig-Holstein -Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany -Recipients of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria -Socialist International -Time People of the Year -Vice Chancellors of Germany" -3010,9470,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/January%2017,January 17," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 395 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I dies in Milan. The Roman Empire is re-divided into West and East. - 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades the island of Menorca. - 1377 - Pope Gregory XI moves the Pope's residence (place where he lives) back to Rome from Avignon. - 1524 - Giovanni da Verrazzano sets sail westward from Madeira to find a sea route to the Pacific Ocean. - 1562 – France accepted the Huguenots under the Edict of St. Germain. - 1566 - On his 62nd birthday, Pope Pius V officially becomes Pope. - 1595 - Henry IV of France invades Spain. - 1648 – England's Long Parliament agrees with the Vote of No Address, stopping dealing with King Charles I which then started the second part of the English Civil War. - 1746 – Charles Edward Stuart, ""Bonnie Prince Charlie"", makes a Hanoverian army lose at Falkirk in his failing campaign to get back the throne for the Jacobite dynasty. - 1773 – Captain James Cook becomes the first person to cross the Antarctic Circle. - 1781 – Continental troops of Brigadier General Daniel Morgan makes British forces under Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton lose at the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina. - 1799 - Maltese patriot Dun Mikiel Xerri, along with some other patriots, is executed. - 1811 - Mexican War of Independence: Battle of Calderon Bridge - A heavily outnumbered Spanish force of 6,000 troops defeats 100,000 Mexican revolutionaries. - 1813 - Humphrey Davy creates the electric arc. - 1819 – Simón Bolívar creates the Republic of Colombia. - 1852 – United Kingdom accepts the freedom of the Boer places of the Transvaal. - 1873 – First Battle of the Stronghold in the United States Modoc War. - 1885 – A British force makes a large Dervish army lose at the Battle of Abu Klea in the Sudan. - 1893 – American sugar planters led by the Citizen's Committee of Public Safety remove the government of Queen Liliuokalani of the Kingdom of Hawaii. - 1899 – The United States gets Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean. - -1901 1950 - 1904 - Anton Chekhov's play The Cherry Orchard is performed for the first time, at Moscow Art Theatre. - 1912 – Robert Falcon Scott reaches the South Pole, one month after Roald Amundsen. The return journey will lead to the deaths of all members of Scott's expedition, including Scott himself. - 1913 - Raymond Poincaré becomes President of France. - 1916 – The Professional Golfers Association of America (PGA) starts. - 1917 – The United States pays Denmark $25 million for the Virgin Islands. - 1918 - Finnish Civil War: The first serious battles take place between the Red Guards and White Guards. - 1929 - Inayatullah Khan, King of Afghanistan, abdicates (resigns) the throne after only three days. - 1929 – Popeye the Sailor Man, a cartoon character made by Elzie Crisler Segar, first seen in a newspaper comic strip. - 1944 - World War II: Allied forces launch the first of four assaults on Monte Cassino, Italy, in an effort to reach Rome. It would take four months and would cost 105,000 Allied lives. - 1945 – Soviet forces get the almost completely destroyed Polish city of Warsaw. - 1945 – The Nazis begin the process of people leaving the Auschwitz concentration camp as Soviet forces surround it. - 1945 – Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg disappears in Hungary while the Soviets were in charge of him. - 1946 – The United Nations Security Council has its first meeting. - 1949 – The Goldbergs, the first sitcom on American television, is seen. - 1950 – The Great Brinks Robbery – 11 people steal more than $2 million from an secure car in Boston, Massachusetts. - -1951 2000 - 1955 - Nuclear submarine Nautilus starts its first mission. - 1961 - Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba is murdered, with the governments of both Belgium and the United States suspected of being involved. - 1966 – Simon and Garfunkel release their second album, Sounds of Silence, on Columbia Records. - 1966 – A B-52 bomber slams into a KC-135 jet tanker over Spain, dropping three 70-kiloton hydrogen bombs near the town of Palomares and another one into the sea. - 1966 – Carl Brashear, the first African American United States Navy diver, gets hurt in a way so his leg has to be chopped off. - 1972 - Bangladesh receives its current Flag. - 1973 – Ferdinand Marcos is declared ""President for Life"" of the Philippines. - 1975 – Bob Dylan puts out Blood on the Tracks, often said to be one of his best albums. - 1977 – Gary Gilmore is put to death by a firing squad in Utah, ending a ten-year delay on being put to death as punishment in the United States. - 1982 –"" Cold Sunday"" in the United States sees temperatures fall to their lowest levels in over 100 years in many cities. - 1985 – British Telecom says that Britain's famous red telephone boxes will no longer exist. - 1989 - Cleveland school massacre in Stockton, California: Patrick Purdy kills 5 elementary school children with an assault rifle, as well as one teacher, before killing himself. - 1991 – Gulf War: Operation Desert Storm begins early in the morning. Iraq shoots 8 Scud bombs into Israel in a failed attempt to provoke Israel to fight back. - 1991 – Harald V becomes King of Norway because his father, Olav V, died. - 1992 – Punk rock band Green Day sends out their second full-length album, Kerplunk. - 1994 – A magnitude 6.7 earthquake happens in Northridge, California. - 1995 – A magnitude 7.3 earthquake called the ""Great Hanshin earthquake"" happens near Kobe, Japan, causing property to be damaged and killing 6,433 people. - 1996 – The Czech Republic asks the European Union if they can be a member. - 1998 – Paula Jones says she was sexually harassed by President Bill Clinton. - -From 2001 - 2002 – Mount Nyiragongo erupts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, making about 400,000 people homeless. - 2007 - The Doomsday Clock is set to five minutes before midnight in response to North Korea's nuclear testing. - 2008 - British Airways Flight 38 crash-lands at London Heathrow Airport. All people on board survive. - 2010 - Religious riots between Muslims and Christians erupt in Jos, Nigeria, killing more than 200 people. - 2018 - A car bomb attack in Bogota, Colombia, kills 21 people. - -Births - -Up to 1850 - 1463 – Frederick III of Saxony, Elector of Saxony (d. 1525) - 1501 - Leonhart Fuchs, German scientist (d. 1566) - 1504 – Pope Pius V (d. 1572) - 1574 - Robert Fludd, English physician, astrologer and mathematician (d. 1637) - 1600 – Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish playwright (d. 1681) - 1640 - Jonathan Singletary Dunham, American settler and ancestor of Barack Obama (d. 1724) - 1659 - Antonio Veracini, Italian composer and violinist (d. 1745) - 1706 – Benjamin Franklin, American writer, inventor and statesman (d. 1790) - 1712 - John Stanley, English composer (d. 1786) - 1732 – Stanislaw II August Poniatowski of Poland (d. 1798) - 1734 - François-Joseph Gossec, Belgian composer (d. 1829) - 1738 - James Anderson, Scottish botanist (d. 1809) - 1746 - Paul Brigham, Governor of Vermont (d. 1824) - 1749 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian poet and dramatist (d. 1803) - 1761 - Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet, Scottish geologist and geophysicist (d. 1832) - 1789 – August Neander, German theologian (d. 1850) - 1798 – Auguste Comte, French philosopher (d. 1857) - 1800 - Caleb Cushing, American diplomat (d. 1879) - 1811 – Emperor Norton, self-declared Emperor of the United States (d. 1880) - 1820 – Anne Brontë, English writer (d. 1849) - 1828 - Lewis A. Grant, American Civil War general (d. 1918) - 1829 - Catherine Booth, English wife of William Booth (d. 1890) - 1831 – Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria (d. 1903) - 1845 - Manuel Barillas, President of Guatemala (d. 1907) - 1847 - Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky, Russian mathematician and aviator (d. 1921) - 1850 - Aleksandr Yaneyev, Russian composer (d. 1918) - -1851 1900 - 1856 - Jens Bratlie, Prime Minister of Norway (d. 1939) - 1860 – Douglas Hyde, 1st President of Ireland (d. 1949) - 1863 – David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1945) - 1863 - Constantin Stanislavski, Russian theatre practitioner (d. 1938) - 1865 - Charles Fergusson, Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1951) - 1867 - Carl Laemmle, German-born American movie pioneer (d. 1939) - 1870 - Princess Marie Louise of Bourbon-Parma (d. 1899) - 1871 - Nicolae Iorga, 34th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1940) - 1879 - Burt McKinnie, American golfer (d. 1946) - 1881 - Antoni Lamnicki, Polish mathematician (d. 1941) - 1882 - Noah Beery, Jr., American actor (d. 1946) - 1883 – Compton Mackenzie, Scottish novelist (d. 1972) - 1886 - Glenn L. Martin, American aviation pioneer (d. 1955) - 1887 – Ola Raknes, Norwegian psychoanalyst and philologist (d. 1975) - 1889 - Ralph Howard Fowler, British astronomer and physicist (d. 1944) - 1895 - John Duff, Canadian racing driver (d. 1958) - 1897 - Marcel Petiot, French physician and serial killer (d. 1946) - 1899 – Al Capone, American gangster (d. 1947) - 1899 – Nevil Shute, English writer (d. 1960) - -1901 1925 - 1901 - Aron Gurwitsch, Lithuanian-born American philosopher (d. 1973) - 1902 - Nazim Hikmet, Turkish poet (d. 1963) - 1905 – Guillermo Stabile, Argentine footballer (d. 1966) - 1908 - Cus D'Amato, American boxing coach (d. 1985) - 1911 – George Stigler, American economist (d. 1991) - 1911 - John S. McCain, Jr., father of John McCain (d. 1981) - 1914 - Taizo Kawamoto, Japanese footballer (d. 1985) - 1914 - Fang Zhaoling, Chinese artist (d. 2006) - 1917 – M. G. Ramachandran, Indian politician and actor (d. 1987) - 1918 – George M. Leader, former Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 2013) - 1918 - Keith Joseph, British politician (d. 1994) - 1921 – Antonio Prohias, Cuban-born cartoonist (d. 1998) - 1921 - Asghar Khan, Pakistani politician and military officer (d. 2018) - 1922 – Luis Echeverria Alvarez, former President of Mexico - 1922 – Betty White, American actress (d. 2021) - 1922 - Nicholas Katzenbach, 55th United States Attorney General (d. 2012) - 1925 – Robert Cormier, American writer (d. 2000) - 1925 - Edgar Ray Killen, American criminal (d. 2018) - -1926 1950 - 1926 – Moira Shearer, Scottish actress (d. 2006) - 1926 - Nélida Romero, Argentine actress (d. 2015) - 1927 – Eartha Kitt, American singer (d. 2008) - 1927 - Harlan Mathews, United States Senator from Tennessee (d. 2014) - 1928 – Vidal Sassoon, British hairdresser (d. 2012) - 1928 - Chu Shijian, Chinese businessman (d. 2019) - 1929 – Jacques Plante, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1986) - 1931 – James Earl Jones, American actor - 1931 – L. Douglas Wilder, American politician, former Governor of Virginia - 1931 - Don Zimmer, American baseball coach (d. 2014) - 1933 – Dalida, French singer (d. 1987) - 1934 - Cedar Walton, American pianist and composer (d. 2013) - 1935 – Ruth Ann Minner, American politician, former Governor of Delaware (d. 2021) - 1938 - Toini Gustafsson, Finnish-Swedish cross-country skier - 1939 – Christodoulos, Archbishop of Athens (d. 2008) - 1940 - Mircea Snegur, former President of Moldova - 1940 - Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni, Egyptian church leader (d. 2015) - 1940 – Kipchoge Keino, Kenyan runner - 1940 – Tabaré Vazquez, President of Uruguay - 1942 – Muhammad Ali, American boxer (d. 2016) - 1942 - Forges, Spanish cartoonist (d. 2018) - 1943 – René Préval, former President of Haiti (d. 2017) - 1944 - Françoise Hardy, French singer - 1944 - Jan Guillou, Swedish writer and journalist - 1945 - Javed Akhtar, Indian composer, poet and scriptwriter - 1948 - Eddie Gray, Scottish footballer - 1948 – David Oddson, former Prime Minister of Iceland - 1949 – Andy Kaufman, American comedian (d. 1984) - 1949 – Mick Taylor, British musician - 1949 - Gyude Bryant, Liberian politician (d. 2014) - 1949 - Dick Nanninga, Dutch footballer (d. 2015) - 1949 - Anita Borg, American computer scientist and activist (d. 2003) - 1949 - Heini Hemmi, Swiss skier - 1950 - Richard L. Anderson, American sound editor - -1951 1975 - 1954 – Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., American lawyer and activist - 1956 – Paul Young, English musician - 1956 - Damian Green, British politician - 1957 - Keith Chegwin, British television presenter (d. 2017) - 1957 - Steve Harvey, American comedian and actor - 1959 - Susanna Hoffs, American musician - 1959 - Momoe Yamaguchi, Japanese singer and actress - 1960 - John Crawford, American musician - 1960 - Chili Davis, Jamaican baseball player - 1961 - Maia Chiburdanidze, Georgian chess player - 1961 - Brian Helgeland, American screenwriter, director and movie producer - 1962 – Jim Carrey, Canadian actor and comedian - 1963 - Kai Hansen, German singer and guitarist - 1963 - Cyrus Chestnut, American jazz musician - 1964 – Michelle Obama, former First Lady of the United States - 1964 – Andy Rourke, English guitarist - 1965 - Sylvain Turgeon, Canadian ice hockey player - 1966 - Nobuyuki Kojima, Japanese footballer - 1966 - Joshua Malina, American actor - 1967 – Filippo Raciti, Italian police officer (d. 2007) - 1968 - Svetlana Masterkova, Russian athlete - 1969 - Lukas Moodysson, Swedish writer and director - 1971 - Leslie Benzies, Scottish video game producer - 1971 - Leonardo Ciampi, Italian-American singer and musician - 1971 - Kid Rock, American singer - 1971 – Richard Burns, English rally driver (d. 2005) - 1971 - Sylvie Testud, French actress - 1972 - Ken Hirai, Japanese singer-songwriter, producer and actor - 1973 - Chris Bowen, Australian politician - 1973 – Cuauhtémoc Blanco, Mexican footballer - 1974 - Danny Bhoy, Scottish comedian - 1974 - Ladan and Laleh Bijani, Iranian conjoined twins (d. 2003) - 1975 - Freddy Rodriguez, American actor - -From 1976 - 1976 - Tonique Williams-Darling, Bahamian athlete - 1978 – Ricky Wilson, English singer (Kaiser Chiefs) - 1979 – Ricardo Cabanas, Swiss footballer - 1980 – Zooey Deschanel, American actress - 1981 - Daniel Diges, Spanish singer - 1981 - Warren Feeney, Northern Irish footballer - 1981 - Ray J, American singer and actor - 1981 - Stefan Petzner, Austrian politician - 1982 - Hwanhee, South Korean actor and singer - 1982 - Dwyane Wade, American basketball player - 1983 - Alvaro Arbeloa, Spanish footballer - 1983 – Yelle, French singer and songwriter - 1984 – Calvin Harris, Scottish singer and musician - 1985 - Riyu Kosaka, Japanese singer - 1985 – Simone Simons, Dutch singer - 1985 – Pablo Barrientos, Argentine footballer - 1986 - Viktor Stalberg, Swedish ice hockey player - 1986 - Max Adler, American actor - 1988 - Earl Clark, American basketball player - 1988 - Héctor Moreno, Mexican footballer - 1989 - Björn Dreyer, German footballer - 1989 - Taylor Jordan, American baseball player - 1991 - Lee Kiseop, South Korean actor and singer - 1992 - Nate Hartley, American actor - 1992 - Frankie Cocozza, English singer - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 395 – Theodosius I, Roman Emperor (a kind of leader) - 1229 – Albert of Buxhoeveden (b. 1165) - 1369 – Peter I of Cyprus (b. 1328) - 1468 – Skanderbeg, Albanian leader against the Ottoman Empire (b. 1405) - 1598 – Fyodor I of Russia (b. 1557) - 1617 – Faust Vrancic, Croatian inventor of the Parachute (b. 1551) - 1705 - John Ray, English naturalist (b. 1627) - 1738 - Jean-François Dandrieu, French organist and composer (b. 1682) - 1751 – Tomaso Albinoni, Italian song maker (b. 1671) - 1799 - Dun Mikiel Xerri, Maltese patriot (b. 1739) - 1834 - Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist (b. 1762) - 1861 – Lola Montez, adventurer (b. 1821) - 1863 - Horace Vernet, French painter (b. 1789) - 1874 – Chang and Eng Bunker, Siamese twins (b. 1811) - 1884 - Hermann Schlegel, German ornithologist (b. 1804) - 1886 – Amilcare Ponchielli, Italian composer (b. 1834) - 1887 - William Giblin, Premier of Tasmania (b. 1840) - 1893 – Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th President of the United States (b. 1822) - -1901 2000 - 1908 – Ferdinand IV of Tuscany (b. 1835) - 1909 - Francis Smith, Premier of Tasmania (b. 1819) - 1911 – Francis Galton, English polymath, anthropologist (b. 1822) - 1927 - Juliette Gordon Low, founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA (b. 1860) - 1931 - Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia (b. 1864) - 1933 – Louis Comfort Tiffany, American artist and designer (b. 1848) - 1947 - Pyotr Krasnov, Russian general (b. 1869) - 1947 - Jean-Marie-Rodrigue Villeneuve, Canadian cardinal (b. 1883) - 1951 - Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Assamese poet, playwright and movie maker (b. 1903) - 1956 - Blind Alfred Reed, American musician (b. 1880) - 1961 – Patrice Lumumba, Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. 1925) - 1963 - Henri Masson, French fencer (b. 1872) - 1964 – T.H. White, writer (b. 1906) - 1967 – Evelyn Nesbit, actress, also known as ""The Girl In The Red Velvet Swing"" (b. 1884) - 1972 - Betty Smith, American writer and singer (b. 1896) - 1975 - Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, President of Colombia (b. 1900) - 1977 - Dougal Haston, Scottish mountaineer (b. 1940) - 1977 – Gary Gilmore, American murderer (executed by firing squad) (b. 1940) - 1991 – King Olav V of Norway (b. 1903) - 1993 – Albert Hourani, historian (b. 1915) - 1994 - Yevgeni Ivanov, Soviet spy (b. 1926) - 1996 – Amber Hagerman, American murder victim (b. 1986) - 1996 – Barbara Jordan, American politician (b. 1936) - 1997 – Clyde Tombaugh, American astronomer (b. 1906) - -From 2001 - 2001 – Laurent-Désiré Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b. 1939) - 2002 – Camilo José Cela, Spanish writer, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature 1989 (b. 1916) - 2003 – Richard Crenna, American actor (b. 1926) - 2004 – Czeslaw Niemen, Polish musician (b. 1939) - 2004 – Rafael Churumba Cordero, mayor of Ponce, Puerto Rico (b. 1942) - 2004 – Ray Stark, American movie producer, produced Funny Girl in 1968 (b. 1915) - 2005 – Charlie Bell, former chief executive officer of McDonald's (b. 1960) - 2005 – Virginia Mayo, American actress of the 1940s and 1950s (b. 1920) - 2005 – Albert Schatz, microbiologist, discoverer of streptomycin (b. 1920) - 2005 – Zhao Ziyang, Premier of the People's Republic of China and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (b. 1917) - 2008 – Bobby Fischer, American-born Icelandic chess player (b. 1943) - 2009 - Anders Isaksson, Swedish journalist, writer and historian (b. 1943) - 2010 – Jyoti Basu, Indian politician (b. 1914) - 2010 – Erich Segal, American writer and screenwriter (b. 1937) - 2011 – Don Kirshner, American composer (b. 1934) - 2012 - Johnny Otis, American singer and musician (b. 1921) - 2013 - Jakob Arjouni, German writer (b. 1964) - 2013 - Sophiya Haque, British actress (b. 1971) - 2013 - John Nkomo, Vice President of Zimbabwe (b. 1934) - 2014 - Suchitra Sen, Indian actress (b. 1931) - 2014 - Mohammed Burhanuddin, Indian Islamic leader (b. 1915) - 2014 - Alistair McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of West Green, English politician (b. 1941) - 2015 - Faten Hamama, Egyptian actress (b. 1931) - 2015 - Bill Sykes, English chaplain and writer (b. 1939) - 2015 - Don Harron, Canadian comedian, actor and author (b. 1924) - 2015 - Origa, Russian singer (b. 1970) - 2016 - Blowfly, American musician and producer (b. 1939) - 2016 - Bob Harkey, American racing driver (b. 1930) - 2016 - Gottfried Honegger, Swiss artist and graphic designer (b. 1917) - 2016 - V. Rama Rao, Indian politician, former Governor of Sikkim (b. 1935) - 2017 - M. M. Ruhul Amin, Bangladeshi judge (b. 1942) - 2017 - Brenda C. Barnes, American businesswoman (b. 1953) - 2017 - Philip Bond, British actor (b. 1934) - 2017 - Colo, American-bred Western gorilla (b. 1956) - 2017 - Mario Fasino, Italian politician, President of Sicily (b. 1920) - 2017 - Heng Freylinger, Luxembourgish wrestler (b. 1926) - 2017 - Steven Plaut, American-Israeli economist and academic (b. 1951) - 2017 - Robert Timlin, American judge (b. 1932) - 2017 - Daniel Vischer, Swiss politician (b. 1950) - 2018 - Simon Shelton, English actor (b. 1966) - 2018 - Jessica Falkholt, Australian actress (b. 1988) - 2018 - Augusto Polo Campos, Peruvian composer (b. 1932) - 2019 - Babiker Awadalla, Prime minister of Sudan (b. 1917) - 2019 - Windsor Davies, British actor (b. 1930) - 2019 - Mary Oliver, American poet (b. 1935) - 2019 - Reggie Young, American guitarist (b. 1936) - 2019 - Horst Stern, German science journalist, filmmaker and writer (b. 1922) - -Observances - Ancient Latvia – Zirgu Diena observed - Catholicism – Feast day of St. Anthony. - Martin Luther King, Jr. Day in the United States when this day falls on a Monday. - National Day of Menorca - -Other websites - BBC: On This Day - -Days of the year" -22243,84299,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%20Pepper,Dr Pepper,"Dr Pepper is a soft drink (soda) similar to Coca Cola in its color. Each can of Dr Pepper contains 150 calories. - -Dr Pepper's Slogans - - 1889–1914: ""King of Beverages."" - 1920s–1940s: ""Drink a Bite to Eat at 10, 2, and 4 o'clock."" - 1940s: ""Good For Life."" - 1945: ""Dr Pepper has 23 flavors"" - 1950s: ""The Friendly Pepper Upper."" - 1960s: ""America's Most Misunderstood Soft Drink."" - 1970s: ""The Most Original Soft Drink Ever."" - 1977–1985: ""I'm a Pepper, He's a Pepper, We're a Pepper."", ""Be a Pepper."", ""Wouldn't you like to Be a Pepper too?"" - c. 1986 ""Out of the Ordinary. Like You."" - c. 1986 ""Out of the Ordinary for Out of the Ordinary Bodies."" (Diet Dr Pepper) - 1986–1997: ""Hold Out For the Out of the Ordinary."" - 1991: ""Just what the Doctor ordered."" - c. 1997: ""It's Dr Pepper Flavour, Silly!"" Australia - c. 1997: ""Expect the Unexpected!"" Australia - 1997: ""Now's the Time. This is the Place. Dr Pepper Is The Taste."" - 2000: ""Dr Pepper, It Makes the World Taste Better."" - 2000–Present: ""Just What The Dr Ordered."" - c. 2001 ""Dr Pepper, so misunderstood"" - 2002–2004: ""Be You."" - 2002–Present: ""Solves All Your Problems."" (used in Europe) - 2003 ""Dr Pepper, to try it is to love it"" (used in the UK) - 2004–Present ""Dr Pepper, what's the worst that could happen?"" (used in the UK) - 2005–Present: ""One Taste & You Get It."" - 2006: ""Can You Handle The Taste?"" (seen in Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden, and Poland) - 2006: ""Authentic blend of 23 flavors."" USA, Canada - 2006: ""Dr Pepper, makes the world go round."" - 2006: ""Dr Pepper, nothing better."" USA - 2006: ""The Dr knows the right touch."" (used in Europe) - 2006: ""There's more to it."" USA -c. 2006: ""Get Berried in Cream"" USA (used for the new Berries and Cream flavor) - 2007: ""I Want It All."" USA - (2007): ""El Dr muy bueno"" Latin America - (2008): ""What's the worst that could happen?"" Europe - (2008): ""Drink It Slow, Dr's Orders"" (USA) - (2009): ""Trust me - I'm a Doctor."" (ft. Julius Erving, Kelsey Grammer, Gene Simmons and Dr. Dre) USA - (2009): UK based television advertising; Sung ""Dr Pepper, What's the worst that could happen?"" UK - -Websites -Dr Pepper's Official website - -References - -Soft drinks" -4556,14225,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staind,Staind,"Staind is an American rock band from Massachusetts, United States. The band was started in 1994. Its first album, Tormented was released in 1996. Staind's newest album, The Illusion of Progress was released on August 19, 2008. Some of its biggest hits have been Outside, It's Been Awhile, and So Far Away. - -In 2013, They announced that they were going on hiatus but were not breaking up. - -Band members -Aaron Lewis - Vocals/Acoustic Guitar -Mike Mushok - Guitars -Jon Wysocki - Drums -Johnny April - Bass Guitar - -References - -1994 establishments in the United States -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American heavy metal bands -American rock bands -Musical groups established in 1994 -Musical groups from Massachusetts -Post-grunge bands" -492,2024,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP%20address,IP address,"An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is a label which is used to identify one or more devices on a computer network, such as the internet. It can be compared to a postal address. An IP address is a long -number written in binary. Since such numbers are difficult to communicate, IP addresses are usually written as a set of numbers in a given order. Devices using IP addresses use the internet protocol to communicate. - -The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns IP addresses to regional internet registries (RIRs). The RIRs assign them to Internet Service Providers. Internet Service Providers then assign IP addresses to their customers. Very often, people have a router or gateway at home, to which they connect computers, printers, and other devices. These routers or gateways are often configured to assign ""local"" IP addresses to the devices that are connected. - -Each address has two parts: one that specifies the computer or group of computers, and another which specifies the network. A device can have more than one IP address. Certain types of IP addresses are used to address a group of devices, while others are used to address only one device. Certain types of addresses are unique, others can be re-used. A number of IP addresses are used for special purposes, for example to obtain an IP address automatically. - -An IP address is converted to physical or Media Access Control Address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). If an IP address is your phone number, then your MAC address is your name. You may change your phone number, but your name will not change. - -Example -Suppose one of our friends wants to meet us but they don’t know our address. He asks for our address and then we give our address (Example: 123 Main Street, Anytown, USA). After giving the address, he or she can easily locate our address. The same thing is done in case of internet. Every network is assigned an address. - -Who allocates IP Address -IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates the IP address. IANA is responsible for the IP addressing system. - -What an IP address looks like -An IP address is a long binary number, made of ones and zeros. An IPv4 address is 32 binary digits (or bits) long. An IPv6 is 128 bits long, allowing many more IP addresses to be used. IP addresses are usually written in human-readable form, where 8 bits are grouped into one octet. IPv4 addresses are usually written as a group of four numbers. Each number can take a value from 0 to 255. IPv6 addresses are written as a group of eight hexadecimal numbers. Many Ipv6 addresses contain many zeroes. There are special rules which say that in certain cases, these zeroes do not need to be written. - -Public and private addresses -Certain IP addresses can be assigned freely on the local area network. Since they are not unique, they are not routed on the internet. The addresses which can be freely assigned are called private IP addresses, and the ones which are unique are called public. To be routed, a private address needs to be translated into a public one. This process of translating between private and public addresses is called network address translation, or NAT. Routers and firewalls often also perform this task. - -Reaching one or more devices -There are three different types of addresses: - Unicast addresses: The address is assigned to one specific device. This is the most common case, most addresses are unicast addresses. - Broadcast addresses: Addresses all computers on the same network. There are certain cases where this is useful, such as to obtain a new address automatically. The sender sends the data once, and the devices used for routing the data make copies, as needed. - Multicast addresses: This case is similar to the broadcast case above: Some devices are interested in receiving certain data, and the network copies the data as needed. The big difference to the broadcast case above is that all devices connected to the broadcast network see the data sent using broadcast. With multicast, devices need to subscribe to see a given content. The devices on the same network that are not subscribed will not see the content. - -Obtaining a new IP address -There are different ways of getting a new IP address. One of them is called Bootstrap Protocol (usually shortened to BOOTP). The device that needs a new address, does not know what network it is in, so it uses an IP address of all zeroes (0.0.0.0) which it sends as a broadcast to the current network, on a special port. In addition, it sends the MAC address of the network card, plus a 4 byte random number. The BOOTP server will send a reply, also as broadcast, addressed to a different port. The reply will contain the mac address of the client, the random number, and the IP address of the client. When the client receives the data, it will set the address specified. If the BOOTP server is configured that way, it will also send the IP address and hostname of the BOOTP Server, the name and path to a file which should be loaded to boot the client (using TFTP) or the name of a directory, which the client should mount using NFS. - -DHCP extends BOOTP, and allows to send more information, such as the address of a time server, or information which is useful for routing. - -IP addresses obtained automatically can be dynamic or static. Static addressing means the same machine will always get the same IP address. With dynamic addresses, a device will get the next address which is not used. Dynamic addresses which are used need to be reviewed from time to time. If they are not renewed, they can be used for other devices. - -IP Version 4 -With IPv4, each address consists of four 8-digit binary numbers, called octets. An IPv4 address is 32 bits in total. The biggest number one can make with 8 regular digits is 99,999,999, but the biggest number one can make with 8 binary digits is 255 (11111111 in binary), so each octet can be any number from 0 to 255. - -An IPv4 address could look something like this: - 198.51.100.137 -Each octet is converted to its decimal form and separated by a period. - -There are are also special meanings associated with two different ending numbers. In general, a last number of 0 stands for the network (called base address), and a last number of 255 stands for all hosts on that network (called broadcast address). Computers that are on the same local network share 3 of the 4 numbers. A computer can be on more than one network. It can also have several names. - -Public/Private addresses -The problem with IPv4 is that it only allows for 4.3 billion addresses, and we've almost used them all. To delay this, Network Address Translation (NAT) was created. Network Address Translation has a network share one public IP address and give every computer on the network a private IP address. Everyone living in the same house uses the same address, but mail can be meant for multiple different people living in the house. - -Special IP addresses -There are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes. For example, the address 127.0.0.1 is called the Loopback Address and will ""loop back"" any packets sent to this address back to the computer that sent them, like sending mail to yourself. Although this may not seem useful, it is used to test servers. - -Network -It identifies the class of a network. - -Host Part -It identifies the host on a network. - -Static IP Address -It is a permanent internet address. It has to be configured manually. It is used in smaller networks. All servers use static IP addresses. It is a simple way for communication. - -Dynamic IP Address -(Dynamic means Constantly changing) - -It is a temporary internet address. It is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server from a specific range of IP address. - -IPv4 subnetting -To make a network work faster, it is split up into subnets. To do this, an IP address contains a network ID, subnet ID, and a host ID. A special binary number called a Subnet Mask is used to determine the size of the network, subnet, and host IDs. - -The original IPv4 only supported 254 networks, so in 1981 the Internet addressing specification was changed to a classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual networks. The first three bits of an IP address determined its class. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for normal computer communication (Unicast). The size of the network ID was based on the class of the IP address. Each class used more octets for the network ID, making the host ID smaller and reducing the number of possible hosts. - -Classful networks have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) since 1993. CIDR also provides a network address and host address. CIDR does not have classes, which means network and host address sizes don't have to be in octets. - -An IPv4 Address in CIDR notation looks like192.168.0.14/24The slash and number represent the amount of bits that the network id uses, in this case 24 or 3 octets. - -IP Version 6 -Because IPv4 is only 32 bits, the number of available addresses will run out. To prevent this, an organization called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created IP Version 6 (IPv6), which will eventually finish replacing IPv4. - -IP Version 6 uses 8 octets each 16 bits = 128 bits in total. Octets in IPv6 are written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons (:). An IPv6 address might look like this: - 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 -An IPv6 address can be long and this can lead to mistakes when typing them into the computer or writing them down. There are two ways in which an IPv6 address can be made shorter without leaving anything out: - Leading zeroes can be left out: 2001:0db8:00b8:0008:0000:0000:0000:0001 becomes 2001:db8:b8:8:0:0:0:1 - Any number of sequential, all-zero 'chunks' may be compressed to simply ::. This can be done only once in the same address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001 could be written as 2001:db8::1 - -DNS -DNS stands for Domain Name System - -It is also called a service server, and is based on client server network architecture. Like a phonebook, it contains a database of public IP addresses. - -Other versions -Versions before IPv4 were experimental and never widely used. Version 5 was used exclusively for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was also never widely used. - -Internet" -4657,14551,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Hamilton,Alexander Hamilton,"Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 – July 12, 1804) was a statesman, a political theorist and an economist. He was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Hamilton was the United States' first Secretary of the Treasury. He was known for the creation of a national bank. Born on the island of Nevis in the Caribbean, Hamilton moved to New York City. When the American Revolutionary War started, Hamilton served in the Continental Army. He was a close aide to General George Washington. After leaving the military he started a bank. He was one of the framers of the United States Constitution. Along with James Madison and John Jay, he wrote the Federalist Papers, which supported the new Constitution. - -Hamilton became the Secretary of the Treasury under George Washington. He helped set up the United States' financial system. Hamilton supported a national bank as well as the funding of the national debt. A leader of the Federalist Party, he was a long time rival of Thomas Jefferson. He was killed in a duel with political rival Aaron Burr ,who was one of his first friends, in 1804. - -Today, Hamilton is usually thought of as one of the most important of the early leaders. Hamilton's portrait appears on the United States ten-dollar bill. - -Early life -Hamilton was not born in the United States. He was from the Caribbean island of Nevis. His father was James Hamilton and his mother was Rachel Fawcett Lavien. Hamilton's mother had a child from a previous marriage that she left behind when she moved to Nevis. At the time, she was still married to another man. This meant that Hamilton was illegitimate. He was very sensitive about this fact. His father had left him as a child. Two years after this tragedy both Hamilton and his mother became sick. Hamilton recovered, but unfortunately his mother died. He was grief-stricken and moved in with his cousin. His cousin committed suicide. - -In 1772 Hamilton went to New York to continue his education. He attended Kings College, now called Columbia University, until 1776. - -Career -Early in the American Revolution Hamilton was an artillery officer. Later he served on George Washington's staff. Hamilton believed by the late 1780s that the Articles of Confederation made a government that was too weak to work well, and he supported drafting a new document. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention, and he was a signer of the Constitution. In 1789 he was co-author of the Federalist Papers, a series of letters written by Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name ""Publius."" Hamilton wrote about two-thirds of the essays. They were published in newspapers in New York and supported the new Constitution. These writings are usually thought of as being one of the most important American works on politics and government. They are still widely read today. - -George Washington, who became President in 1789, chose Hamilton to be the first United States Secretary of the Treasury. While in this job, he supported a national bank and invented a way to pay the debt that the country owed for the Revolutionary War. He helped start the Federalist Party. John Adams was a member, and Washington supported the party though he was not a member. After being Secretary of the Treasury he worked as a lawyer and continued to lead the Federalist Party. - -Hamilton said he was very anti-slavery. Along with John Jay he was a leader of the New York Manumission Society. The society worked to end slavery in New York by getting slave owners to choose to free their slaves. However, he bought and sold slaves for himself, his family, and his friends. - -Hamilton also had great respect for the small Jewish community in America and was a major supporter of religious freedom. - -In 1800 Hamilton's political rival Thomas Jefferson beat the Federalist John Adams. Jefferson and Hamilton had very different ideas about the direction the new country should take, although both were important founding fathers. - -Gunning and death -Hamilton had a long-time rivalry with Jefferson's vice president Aaron Burr. This resulted in the Burr–Hamilton duel of 1804 in which Burr killed Hamilton. Hamilton kept Burr from being re-nominated for Vice President. He also kept him from becoming Governor of New York. Burr responded by challenging Hamilton to a duel. They agreed to meet July 11, 1804 at Weehawken, New Jersey. Dueling was illegal in New York which is why they chose Weehawken. It was also the site where Philip Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton's son, had been killed in a duel three years earlier. The night before the duel, Hamilton wrote his will, letters to friends, and finally a letter to his wife. At dawn the next morning the two met at Weehawken. Without any discussion, the two men took their positions. Unusual for a duel of this kind, the two fired about 4–5 seconds apart. Who fired first is not known today. Burr's bullet struck Hamilton and knocked him down. Then Burr promptly turned and left. The bullet went through Hamilton's ribs, and damaged his lungs and liver. Hamilton was taken to a friend's house in Manhattan where his wife and children joined him. He asked two ministers to give him Communion but was refused. Finally the Episcopal Bishop Benjamin Moore gave him the sacrament. Hamilton died the next morning. - -Legacy - -Hamilton is shown on the face of the U.S. 10-dollar bill. Hamilton is one of only two non-presidents honored on commonly used notes. Some of Hamilton's words are still quoted. For example, - -""I never expect a perfect work from imperfect man."" -The Federalist #25 - -Hamilton was the founder of the United States Revenue Cutter Service, which in 1915 became the United States Coast Guard. For that reason, he is considered the father of the United States Coast Guard. He was a staunch constitutionalist who, unlike several of the founding fathers, believed in a strong central government. During his life he was involved in nearly every major political event from the Revolution to the election of 1800. His writings fill a staggering 27 volumes. Yet he is probably the least well understood of any of the founding fathers. By the time of Hamilton's death, the Federalist Party he had helped start was in decline. Hamilton and the Federalists had convinced Washington to create a central bank, assume the debts of the states and pass tax laws. There is little doubt these moves helped save the new democracy. - -Hamilton is the subject of the 2015 Broadway Musical, Hamilton. It was written by and stars Lin-Manuel Miranda in the title role. - -References - -Other websites - Alexander Hamilton Citizendium - What if Alexander Hamilton had lived?; YouTube - Hamilton for Dummies; YouTube - Thomas Jefferson vs Alexander Hamilton (AP US History - APUSH Review):YouTube - -1750s births -1804 deaths -Federalist party (US) politicians -United States Secretaries of the Treasury -Founding Fathers of the United States -Columbia University alumni -Politicians from New York -18th-century American politicians -Slavers" -3633,11031,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20of%20Cleves,Anne of Cleves,"Anne of Cleves (22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII of England from January 1540 to July 1540. - -Biography -She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg. She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515. -She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January of 1540. When the couple met for the first time, they did not like each other. - -Henry VIII got married six times. Except for Anne of Cleves, Henry knew all of his wives for a long time before marrying them. Henry decided to marry Anne so England and the Protestant League would be allies. It was a political marriage. Henry also knew that having more than one son would be good, in case his and Jane Seymour's son, Edward, died. So he also married Anne so he could have more children. - -Hans Holbein painted a beautiful picture of Anne of Cleves and showed it to Henry. One of the reasons Henry decided to marry Anne (instead of her sister Amelia) was because she looked so beautiful in her portrait. When Anne's ship landed in England, Henry decided to sneak out to meet her early. He brought a few of his friends and servants with him. Henry dressed in the exact same clothes as the servants, and they all came into the room where Anne was waiting with her women. Henry was acting out a story from the tradition of courtly love in which a man goes to see a woman while he is disguised as a servant, and she recognizes him because of the magic of true love. Almost everyone in the courts of England and France knew this story. But Anne grew up in a strict German court. She did not know that the man dressed as a servant was King Henry, playing a game. She spoke to him him like a real servant. Henry was very embarrassed. - -Henry started complaining that Anne was not pretty. He said that he could not have sexual intercourse with her because she had ""bad breath"" and smelled. Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it. In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier. - -After the divorce -After the divorce, Henry made Anne his ""sister"" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life. As part of her divorce agreement, Henry gave Anne Hever Castle to live in. Anne invited Henry's daughters Mary and Elizabeth to visit her at Hever Castle. King Henry visited her too. In 1541, there were rumors that King Henry had gotten his ex-wife Anne pregnant, but historians do not think this is true. - -After Henry died, Anne did not have enough money. His son, Edward VI, did not give her the same generous sums. - -Anne of Cleves died on July 16, 1557 when she was 41 years old. She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years. Anne was buried in Westminster Abbey. - -References - -1515 births -1557 deaths -House of Tudor -People buried in Westminster Abbey -Kings and Queens consort of England" -3162,9845,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%2023,February 23," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1455 – Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western book printed from movable type. - 1554 - In present-day Chile, Mapuche forces under leadership of Lautaro, score a victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Mairihueno. - 1574 – The 5th holy war against the Huguenots begins in France. - 1660 – Charles XI becomes King of Sweden. - 1732 – First performance of George Frideric Handel's Orlando, in London. - 1778 – American Revolution: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania to help to train the Continental Army. - 1820 – Cato Street Conspiracy: A plot to murder all the British cabinet ministers is exposed. - 1836 – The Siege of the Alamo begins in San Antonio, Texas. - 1847 – Mexican-American War: Battle of Buena Vista – In Mexico, American troops defeat Mexican general Antonio López de Santa Anna. - 1861 – President-elect Abraham Lincoln arrives secretly in Washington, DC after an assassination attempt in Baltimore, Maryland. - 1870 – Military control of Mississippi ends and it is readmitted to the Union. - 1874 – Walter Winfield patents a game called ""sphairistike"" which is more commonly called lawn tennis. - 1883 – Alabama becomes the first U.S. state to enact an antitrust law. - 1886 - Charles Martin Hall produces the first samples of man-made aluminium. - 1887 – The French Riviera is hit by a large earthquake, killing around 2,000. - 1893 – Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine. - 1898 – Émile Zola is imprisoned in France after writing ""J'accuse"", a letter accusing the French government of anti-Semitism and wrongfully placing Captain Alfred Dreyfus in jail. - 1900 – Battle of Hart's Hill: In South Africa the Boers and British troops battle. - -1901 1950 - 1903 – Cuba leases Guantanamo Bay to the United States ""in perpetuity"". - 1904 – For $10 million the United States gains control of the Panama Canal Zone. - 1905 – Chicago, Illinois attorney Paul Harris and three other businessmen meet for lunch to form the Rotary Club, the world's first service club. - 1909 – The Silver Dart makes the first powered flight in Canada and the British Empire. - 1917 - Beginning of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg, Russia. - 1918 - The last monarch of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Adolphus Frederick IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, commits suicide. - 1918 - The Red Army recruits its first soldiers. - 1919 – Benito Mussolini forms the Fascist Party in Italy. - 1927 – The Federal Radio Commission (later renamed the Federal Communications Commission) begins to regulate the use of radio frequencies. - 1927 - German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg writes a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in which he describes his uncertainty principle for the first time. - 1934 – Léopold III becomes King of Belgium. - 1940 – World War II: Soviet Union troops conquer Lasi Island. - 1940 – The animated movie Pinocchio is released. - 1941 - Plutonium is first produced and isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg. - 1942 - World War II: Japanese submarines fire artillery shells at the California coast near Santa Barbara. - 1943 - Fire breaks out in St. Joseph's Orphanage in County Cavan, Ireland, killing 35 children and one adult. - 1944 - The Soviet Union begins the forced deportation of the Chechen and Ingush people from the north Caucasus to Central Asia. - 1945 – Early in the Battle of Iwo Jima, a group of United States Marines reach the top of Mount Surabachi on the island and are photographed raising the American flag. The photo would later win a Pulitzer Prize. - 1945 – World War II: The capital of the Philippines, Manila, is liberated by American forces. - 1945 – World War II: Capitulation of German garrison in Poznań, city is liberated by Soviet and Polish forces. - 1945 – World War II: The German town of Pforzheim is completely destroyed by a raid of 379 British bombers. - 1947 – International Organization for Standardization(ISO) is founded. - -1951 2000 - 1954 – The first mass vaccination of children against polio begins in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. - 1955 – First meeting of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). - 1955 – Edgar Faure becomes Prime Minister of France - 1956 – Nikita Khrushchev attacks the veneration of Joseph Stalin as a ""cult of personality"". - 1957 – The founding congress of the Senegalese Popular Bloc is opened in Dakar. - 1958 – Cuban rebels kidnap 5-time world driving champion Juan Manuel Fangio. - 1966 – A military coup in Syria replaces the previous government. - 1970 – Forbes Burnham declares Guyana a republic, severing ties to the British crown. - 1974 – The Symbionese Liberation Army demands $4 million more to release kidnap victim Patty Hearst. - 1975 – In response to the energy crisis, daylight saving time commences nearly two months early in the United States. - 1980 – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini states that Iran's parliament would decide the fate of the American embassy hostages. - 1981 – 23-F, Antonio Tejero attempts a coup d'état by capturing the Spanish Congress of Deputies. - 1982 - In a referendum in Greenland, most voters choose to leave the European Economic Community. - 1983 – The Spanish Socialist government of Felipe González and Miguel Boyer nationalizes Rumasa, a holding of José María Ruiz Mateos. - 1983 – The Environmental Protection Agency announces its intent to buy out and evacuate the dioxin-contaminated community of Times Beach, Missouri. - 1987 – A supernova is seen in the Large Magellanic Cloud (see Supernova 1987a). - 1991 – Gulf War: Ground troops cross the Saudi Arabia border and enter Iraq, thus starting the ground-phase of the war. - 1991 – Thailand: General Sunthorn Kongsompong leads a bloodless coup d'état, deposing Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan. - 1992 – The Socialist Labour Party is founded in Georgia. - 1993 – Gary Coleman wins a $1,280,000 lawsuit against his parents. - 1995 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains 30.28 to close at 4,003.33, closing above 4,000 for the first time. - 1997 – A large fire occurs in the Russian Space station, Mir, though it is extinguished after 14 minutes, without anyone on board coming to harm. - 1997 - A fire disaster in Orissa, India kills over 100 people. - 1998 – Tornadoes in central Florida destroy or damage 2,600 structures and kill 42. - 1998 – Osama bin Laden publishes a fatwa declaring jihad against all Jews and Crusaders. - 1998 – Netscape Communications Corporation announces the foundation of mozilla.org, to co-ordinate the development of the open source Mozilla web browser. - 1999 – Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey. - 1999 – White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and killing African American James Byrd Jr by dragging him behind a truck for two miles. - 1999 – An avalanche destroys the Austrian village of Galtür, killing 31. - -From 2001 - 2002 - In Colombia, Ingrid Betancourt is kidnapped by FARC guerrillas. - 2005 - In France, a controversial law on the teaching of French colonialism is passed. After protests, the law is abandoned about a year later. - 2005 – Slovakia Summit 2005 begins, marking the first occasion when a sitting American President visits Slovakia; Bush and Putin are in attendance. - 2007 – A passenger train crashes near Grayrigg, Cumbria, killing 1 person and injuring 22. - 2010 - Unknown criminals pour more than 2.5 million liters of diesel oil and other hydrocarbons into the River Lambro in Northern Italy, sparking an environmental disaster. - 2014 - The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Southern Russia, end. The host nation, Russia, ends the games with the most gold medals, making it the second Winter Olympics in a row in which the host country achieves this (after Canada in 2010). - 2018 - One of the biggest surprises occurs in Olympic sport occurs, when Germany defeats Canada 4-3 in their men's ice hockey semi-final at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1417 – Pope Paul II (d. 1471) - 1443 – Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (d. 1490) - 1583 - Jean-Baptiste Morin, French mathematician, astrologer and astronomer (d. 1656) - 1633 – Samuel Pepys, English naval officer and diarist (d. 1703) - 1646 – Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japanese shogun (d. 1709) - 1649 - John Blow, English composer (d. 1708) - 1664 – Georg Dietrich Leyding, German composer and organist (d. 1710) - 1680 - Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, French Governor of Louisiana (d. 1767) - 1685 – Georg Friedrich Handel, German/British Baroque composer (d. 1759) - 1723 - Richard Price, Welsh philosopher (d. 1791) - 1729 - Josiah Hornblower, American statesman (d. 1809) - 1730 - Cristiano Giuseppe Lidarti, Austrian composer (d. 1793) - 1744 - Mayer Amschel Rothschild, German-born banker (d. 1812) - 1751 - Henry Dearborn, American statesman (d. 1829) - 1792 – Jose Joaquin de Herrera, President of Mexico (d. 1854) - 1803 – John Sutter, Swiss pioneer in California (d. 1880) - 1809 - William Sprague, American minister and politician (d. 1868) - 1817 – George Frederic Watts, British painter (d. 1904) - 1821 - Amos T. Akerman, United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1880) - 1842 – Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, German philosopher (d. 1906) - 1846 - Luigi Denza, Italian composer (d. 1922) - 1850 – César Ritz, Swiss hotelier (d. 1918) - 1852 – Duc Duc, Emperor of Vietnam (d. 1883) - 1868 - Anna Hoffman-Uddgren, Swedish director and actress (d. 1947) - 1868 – W. E. B. Du Bois, American academic, writer and social activist (d. 1963) - 1873 – Liang Qichao, Chinese scholar (d. 1929) - 1874 – Konstantin Pats, President of Estonia (d. 1956) - 1879 – Kazimir Malevich, Russian painter (d. 1935) - 1883 – Karl Jaspers, German psychiatrist and philosopher (d. 1969) - 1884 - Casimir Funk, Polish biochemist (d. 1967) - 1889 – Victor Fleming, American movie director (d. 1949) - 1889 - John Gilbert Winant, 60th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1949) - 1889 - Musidora, French actress and singer (d. 1957) - 1893 - Charles Merz, American journalist (d. 1977) - 1899 – Erich Kaestner, German writer (d. 1974) - 1899 – Norman Taurog, American movie director (d. 1981) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - Ivar Lo-Johansson, Swedish writer (d. 1990) - 1904 – William L. Shirer, American historian (d. 1993) - 1904 - George Docking, Governor of Kansas (d. 1964) - 1906 - Samuel Joensen-Mikines, Faroese painter (d. 1979) - 1908 – William McMahon, twentieth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1988) - 1911 - G. Mennen Williams, Governor of Michigan (d. 1988) - 1914 - Theofiel Middelkamp, Dutch cyclist (d. 2005) - 1915 – Paul Tibbets, American Air Force pilot (d. 2007) - 1923 – Yiannis Grevas, 87th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2016) - 1923 - Rafael Addiego Bruno, Uruguayan politician (d. 2014) - 1924 – Allan McLeod Cormack, South African physicist (d. 1998) - 1924 - Claude Sautet, French director (d. 2000) - 1925 - Louis Stokes, American attorney and politician (d. 2015) - 1927 – Willie Ormond, Scottish footballer (d. 1984) - 1928 – Vasili Lazarev, Soviet cosmonaut (d. 1990) - 1928 - Hans Herrmann, German racing driver - 1929 – Patriarch Alexius II, Head of the Russian Orthodox Church (d. 2008) - 1929 - Jaan Einasto, Estonian cosmologist - 1929 - Elston Howard, American baseball player - 1932 - Majel Barrett, American actress (d. 2008) - 1935 – Diane Shalet, American actress (d. 2006) - 1937 - Tom Osborne, American football player - 1938 - Paul Morrissey, American movie director - 1938 – Diane Varsi, American actress (d. 1992) - 1940 – Peter Fonda, American actor (d. 2019) - 1942 - Dioncounda Traoré, Malian politician - 1944 – Johnny Winter, American musician (d. 2014) - 1944 - Bernard Cornwell, British writer - 1947 - Pia Kjaersgaard, Danish politician - 1947 - Boris Kuznetsov, Russian boxer (d. 2006) - 1948 - Steve Priest, British musician - 1949 - Marc Garneau, Canadian astronaut and politician - 1950 - Rebecca Goldstein, American writer and philosopher - -1951 1975 - 1952 – Brad Whitford, American musician (Aerosmith) - 1953 - Satoru Nakashima, Japanese racing driver - 1953 - Adnan Polat, Turkish businessman - 1954 – Viktor Yushchenko, former President of Ukraine - 1955 - Flip Saunders, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015) - 1955 - Francesca Simon, American author - 1956 - Paul O'Neill, American producer, composer and songwriter (d. 2017) - 1956 – Reinhold Beckmann, German journalist and television presenter - 1957 - Andreas Schockenhoff, German politician (d. 2014) - 1958 - David Sylvain, English musician - 1959 - Clayton Anderson, American astronaut - 1959 - Ian Liddell-Grainger, Scottish soldier and politician - 1959 - Linda Nolan, Irish singer - 1959 - Graeme Morrice, Scottish politician - 1960 – Emperor Naruhito of Japan - 1963 - Radoslav Sikorski, Polish journalist and politician, foreign minister - 1964 – John Norum, Norwegian guitarist - 1965 - Michael Dell, American computer manufacturer - 1966 - Alexandre Borges, Brazilian actor - 1969 - Michael Campbell, New Zealand golfer - 1971 – Melinda Messenger, British television presenter - 1973 – Lars-Olof Johansson, Swedish musician - 1975 - Wilfred Kibet Kigen, Kenyan marathon runner - 1975 - Michael Cornacchia, American actor, director, producer and screenwriter - -From 1976 - 1976 – Kelly Macdonald, Scottish actress - 1976 - Satoshi Yoneyama, Japanese professional wrestler - 1978 - Jo Joyner, British actress - 1978 - Dan Snyder, Canadian ice hockey player - 1980 - Kim Kyung-roul, South Korean billiards player (d. 2015) - 1981 – Gareth Barry, English footballer - 1981 - Jan Böhmermann, German satirist and comedian - 1982 - Anna Chapman, Russian agent - 1982 - Adam Hann-Byrd, American actor and screenwriter - 1982 - Karan Singh, Indian politician - 1983 – Mido, Egyptian footballer - 1983 – Mirco Bergamasco, Italian rugby player - 1983 – Emily Blunt, British actress - 1983 - Aziz Ansari, American actor, comedian and writer - 1984 - Jeong Yu-mi, South Korean actress - 1986 - Skylar Grey, American singer-songwriter - 1986 - Ola Svensson, Swedish pop singer - 1988 - Nicolas Gaitan, Argentine footballer - 1989 - Evan Bates, American ice dancer - 1989 - Amara Baby, French footballer - 1990 - Kevin Cheung, Mauritian swimmer - 1992 - Kyriakos Papadopoulos, Greek footballer - 1993 - Kasumi Ishikawa, Japanese table tennis player - 1994 – Dakota Fanning, American actress - 1995 - Andrew Wiggins, Canadian basketball player - 2012 – Princess Estelle, Duchess of Ostergotland, second-in-line to the throne of Sweden - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 1011 - Willigis, Archbishop of Mainz (b. 940) - 1072 - Peter Damian, theologian (b. 1007) - 1100 – Emperor Zhezong of China (b. 1076) - 1270 - Isabel of France (b. 1225) - 1447 - Pope Eugene IV (b. 1383) - 1447 - Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (b. 1390) - 1464 – Zhengtong, Emperor of China (b. 1427) - 1603 – Andrea Cesalpino, Italian philosopher, physician and botanist (b. 1519) - 1669 - Leo Aitzema, Dutch historian and statesman (b. 1600) - 1766 – Stanislaw Leszczynski, King of Poland (b. 1677) - 1781 - George Taylor, Irish-American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1716) - 1792 – Joshua Reynolds, English painter (b. 1723) - 1821 – John Keats, English poet (b. 1795) - 1848 – John Quincy Adams, 6th President of the United States (b. 1767) - 1855 – Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (b. 1777) - 1859 - Zymunt Krasinski, Polish-Roman poet (b. 1812) - 1879 – Albrecht Graf von Roon, Prime Minister of Prussia (b. 1803) - 1896 - Justo Arosemena, Colombian politician and writer (b. 1817) - 1897 - Woldemar Bargiel, German composer (b. 1828) - -1901 2000 - 1918 - Adolphus Frederick VI, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b. 1882) - 1925 - Samuel Berger, American heavyweight boxer (b. 1884) - 1931 – Nellie Melba, Australian operatic soprano (b. 1861) - 1934 – Edward Elgar, English composer (b. 1857) - 1944 – Leo Hendrik Baekeland, Flemish-American chemist, inventor of Bakelite (b. 1863) - 1946 - Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japanese general (b. 1885) - 1948 - John Robert Gregg, Irish-born publisher and inventor (b. 1866) - 1955 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (b. 1868) - 1960 - Arthur Legat, British racing driver (b. 1898) - 1965 – Stan Laurel, English actor and comedian (b. 1890) - 1969 – King Saud of Saudi Arabia (b. 1902) - 1973 – Dickinson W. Richards, American physician (b. 1895) - 1974 - Harry Ruby, American composer and writer (b. 1895) - 1976 – L. S. Lowry, English painter (b. 1887) - 1979 - W. A. C. Bennett, 25th Premier of British Columbia (b. 1900) - 1983 - Hubert Howells, English composer (b. 1892) - 1984 – Uwe Johnson, German writer (b. 1934) - 1990 – Jose Napoleon Duarte, President of El Salvador (b. 1925) - 1995 - James Herriot, British writer (b. 1916) - 1995 - Melvin Franklin, American singer (b. 1942) - 1996 – Helmut Schön, German football manager (b. 1915) - 2000 – Stanley Matthews, English footballer (b. 1915) - -From 2001 - 2001 - Sergio Mantovani, Italian racing driver (b. 1929) - 2003 - Howie Epstein, American musician (b. 1955) - 2004 – Vijay Anand, Indian movie director (b. 1934) - 2004 - Sikander Bakht, Indian politician, Governor of Kerala (b. 1918) - 2004 - Neil Ardley, English jazz pianist and composer (b. 1955) - 2004 - Carl Liscombe, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1915) - 2006 – Diane Shalet, American actress (b. 1935) - 2008 – Janez Drnovsek, Slovenian politician (b. 1950) - 2008 - Paul Frère, Belgian racing driver (b. 1917) - 2009 – Sverre Fehn, Norwegian architect (b. 1924) - 2010 – Orlando Zapata, Cuban dissident, died after hunger strike (b. 1967) - 2011 - Nirmala Srivastava, Indian religious leader (b. 1923) - 2013 - Julien Ries, Belgian cardinal (b. 1920) - 2014 - Alice Herz-Sommer, Czech-born pianist, Holocaust survivor and supercentenarian (b. 1903) - 2015 - John Rowlands, Welsh author and novelist (b. 1938) - 2016 - Ramon Castro Ruz, Cuban revolutionary (b. 1924) - 2016 - Peter Lustig, German sound engineer and television presenter (b. 1937) - 2016 - Donald E. Williams, American astronaut (b. 1932) - 2017 - Alan Colmes, American political commentator and television presenter (b. 1950) - 2017 - Sabine Oberhauser, Austrian physician and politician (b. 1963) - 2017 - David Waddington, Baron Waddington, British politician (b. 1929) - 2017 - Leon Ware, American musician, record producer and songwriter (b. 1940) - 2018 - James Colby, American actor (b. 1961) - 2018 - James Laxer, Canadian political economist (b. 1941) - 2018 - Lewis Gilbert, British film director (b. 1920) - -Observances - Republic Day (Guyana) - National Day (Brunei) - Defender of the Fatherland Day (Russia) - -Days of the year" -352,680,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport%20utility%20vehicle,Sport utility vehicle,"A sport utility vehicle (SUV) is a type of vehicle. It is built as a rugged vehicle for cargo and passenger carrying. Originally SUVs were not designed to be fuel efficient but modern designs are getting better fuel mileage. In 2014 US sales of SUVs were over five million vehicles. - -Appearance - - -The typical SUV is a two-box design. Unlike a pickup truck (US term) that has an open cargo box the SUV has an enclosed cargo/passenger compartment. It has upright seating for five to seven passengers. It has an open interior with no trunk. It is often built on a pickup truck chassis for towing capacity, and usually has four wheel drive. Only about 15% of SUV owners ever go off-road. According to Jeep Wrangler brand manager Kevin Metz, 60% of Jeep Wrangler owners go off-road while around 80% of Rubicon owners do. - -A similar class of vehicle is the CUV crossover, a common UK term. That is built on a car chassis. Often it uses a Unibody chassis instead of the heavier body-on-frame design of SUVs. Crossover vehicles often have all-wheel-drive instead of four-wheel drive. Crossovers are usually lighter than SUVs and get better fuel mileage. In general, when referring to an SUV, many include crossovers. However it is incorrect to refer to an SUV on a truck frame as a crossover. - -History - - -Early SUVs were built like light commercial and light wheeled military utility vehicles. Famous examples were the World War Jeep (US), and the Land Rover (UK). - -The term ""sport utility vehicle"" came into popular use in the late 1980s. Until then, they were marketed as station wagons. An early example of marketing a civilian off-roader as a ""sports utility"" is the two-door pickup version of the 1966 Ford Bronco. In 1974 Jeep used the term ""sport(s) utility vehicle"" exactly in their brochures for the 1st generation Jeep Cherokee. - -Off-roading sports - -Many kinds of off-roading in the USA are centered around SUVs. - Rockcrawling is a popular off-road sport. Vehicles used for rock crawling are usually modified with different tires, suspension and gear ratios. Rock crawling takes time to learn and can be very expensive. Most rock crawlers have full-time jobs and many get sponsors to help with the costs. The object is to get the vehicle across difficult to near-impossible rocks and terrain without completely destroying the vehicle. - The Camel Trophy competition (1981–2000) was an annual 4x4 competition. The first Camel trophy was held on the Trans-Amazonian Highway, a road across Brazil. Over the next eight years, the expeditions crossed Sumatra, Papua New Guinea, Zaire, Brazil, Borneo, Australia, Madagascar and Sulawesi before returning to the Amazon. After the first year the endurance event came to be dominated by specially equipped Land Rover vehicles. The Camel Trophy Owners Club is a group of people who collect ex-Camel Trophy vehicles. - Jeep Jamborees have been held since 1953. Jeep Jamborees are off-road excursions that travel historic and scenic trails across the US. In 2013 alone there were 32 events in various locations. All models of Jeep enter the events and drivers range from first time off-roaders to seasoned veterans. - Easter Jeep Safari is an annual event held at Moab, Utah. It has been held every year since 1967. It runs for nine days ending on Easter Sunday and can have up to 1,000 vehicles of all kinds; not just Jeeps. It uses up to 40 trails in the Moab area. Trails are rated from easy to difficult. - King of the Hammers is an a one-day 200+ mile endurance off-road race. It combines desert racing and rock crawling. This race is held in February on Means Dry Lake at Johnson Valley, California USA. 2015 will be the 9th annual King of the Hammers event. The vehicles are extremely modified and for off-road use only. - -Popularity - - -There are many reasons why SUVs have become popular. One reason is the comfort of their large cabins. Many models can carry almost as much as a minivan. Another reason is the driver sits higher than other cars, giving better all-round vision. SUVs with truck frames are heavier (sometimes much heavier) than standard cars. Their size gives them an image of safety. - -Men aren't the only targets of SUV and CUV ads. For example, some ads for the Subaru Forester are deliberately aimed at women buyers. Roughly 35 to 40 percent of SUV buyers are women. Ads commonly show SUVs driving across boulders or perched on a mountain peak. Advertisers know that one important reason many people buy SUVs is image. - -Practicality for larger families is a consideration. Not only can the vehicle take a family of five or six, plus luggage, but also the family dog (who often has a special compartment at the back). On the other hand, the vehicle doesn't fit standard parking spaces. That can be quite a problem in, for example, the UK. The alternative, when groups of more than four travel, is to take more than one standard size car. - -Other names -In Australia and Europe SUVs are often called 4 wheel drives (4X4) or 4WDs. - -References" -23876,92239,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navel%20piercing,Navel piercing,"A navel piercing is type of piercing to the bellybutton. It is the second most popular piercing, next to ear piercing. It is considered a form of body art. There can be multiple piercings and it is possible to change rings, depending on how you pierce it. - -Jewelry" -20432,78500,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan%20Santiago%2C%20El%C3%ADas%20Pi%C3%B1a,"Juan Santiago, Elías Piña","Juan Santiago is a Dominican municipality in the Elías Piña province. - -Population -The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 4,360: 2,394 men and 1,966 women. The urban population was of the total population. - -History -Juan Santiago became a municipal district of Comendador by the law 916 of 12 August 1978. Then, in 2005, it became a municipality of the Elías Piña province. - -Geography -Juan Santiago has an area of . The limits of the municipality are the municipality of El Llano to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the Independencia province to the south and the municipality of Hondo Valle to the west. - -Economy -The main economic activity of the municipality is farming. - -References - -Settlements in the Dominican Republic -2005 establishments in North America -21st-century establishments in the Dominican Republic" -22714,85968,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curio%2C%20Switzerland,"Curio, Switzerland","Curio is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -10427,37004,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/February%20Revolution,February Revolution,"The February Revolution (, ) of 1917 was a revolution that ended the monarchy in the Russian Empire. A provisional government replaced the Tsar, Nicholas II. This was the beginning of the Russian Revolution. The February Revolution was caused by problems left over from World War I. These included economic and other hardships that caused tension among the people.. - -History - -Industrialization and workers -Industrialization had already spread from Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) and other cities in August 1917. When Russia lost the Crimean War to England and France in 1856, it became obvious that Russia needed economic and social change to keep up with other countries. Large reforms followed, including the abolition of serfdom in 1861, judicial reform in 1864, and the establishment of national government groups, called Semstwos, in 1864. This strategy was designed to encourage industrial growth. - -Economic crisis and cultural change -Russia had an economic crisis during the Crimean War. The country did not have enough new weapons or new machines. After the war, the Tsar, Russia's emperor, tried to change this. He increased Russia's ability to make things in factories. This cost the Russian people a lot of money. - -Most of the economic, social, and cultural change was in cities. To get ready to develop more modern industry, new laws were made to increase the power of regional leaders. Cultural modernization included development of new styles in literature and art. A new group of people who focused on art and literature sought further reforms. - -Agriculture in Tsarist Russia -The Russian national economy was still mostly based on farming and most people were peasants. Because the number of people grew faster than the area's ability to grow food, there were serious food shortages. - -Agrarian social protest was usually spontaneous but did not last long. The farmers always went back to their farms. This happened in the hot autumn of the year 1905, and again in the late summer of 1917. Rural areas remained calm after World War I began in 1914. Because the large majority of the soldiers came from villages, few people were left to fight against the authorities. - -With all that the question remained, why farmers revolted against their own landlords but never joined to work together carefully. Only this new connection, between the farmers in the rural regions and the inhabitants of the cities, lent a revolutionary quality to the agrarian social protest. - -Defeats in the First World War -The war brought Russia losses of more than a million dead. The war had begun, as in all European states, with high national morale. However, defeat in the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive in 1915 led to other defeats. The legitimacy of the autocratic Romanovs was weakened further by the fact that Nicholas II had personally taken command of the armed forces and thus each further retreat and defeat would damage the reputation of the regime. - -The workers and farmers, like other Russians, were unhappy. They no longer supported the Tsar. In September 1915, the Tsar sent the parliament home. Tensions increased and endangered the internal peace of the realm. - -Abdication of the Tsar -In 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took over command of the troops during the First World War. But he did not do a good job, and the army lost battles in embarrassing ways. Nicholas II did not get along well with the elected Duma. Nicholas II ignored the advice of his former Minister of Finance Sergei Juljewitsch Witte, who recommended comprehensive reforms. The frequent defeats combined with food shortages and the catastrophic supply situation to cause the revolution. The increasing anger of the population showed up in the Duma, which was dominated by representatives of the middle class and the aristocracy. In the Duma of 1915, the progressive block was the strongest parliamentary opposition. - -In February 1917, army units stopped fighting revolutionaries in the capital and joined them instead. They took control of the capital and prevented the Tsar from returning. He eventually agreed to give up the throne. - -Other websites - Tour - Flash Animation of BBC - -Russian Revolution -1917 in Russia" -15284,57929,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20Solar%20Loan%20Programme,Indian Solar Loan Programme,"The United Nation Environment Programme's Indian Solar Loan Programme has won the World award for Sustainability for helping to establish a householder loan program for solar home power systems. - -Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed through 2,000 bank branches, mainly in areas of South India where the electricity grid does not yet extend. - -Related pages -Energy policy of India - -References - -Other websites -Solar loans light up rural India - -India -Solar energy" -20225,77672,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babil%20Province,Babil Province,"Babil () is a province in Iraq. The area is . 2,000,000 people live in the province. The capital is Al Hillah a Shia - -It contains the ancient city of Babylon. - -The name Babil is the Arabic name for Babylon." -15106,56982,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscacha,Viscacha,"Viscachas or vizcachas are rodents. Together with the chinchilla they make up the family Chinchillidae. - -There are two genera and four species of viscacha. - Plains viscacha (Lagostomus maximus): Lives in the Pampas of Argentina and Chile . It can be easily differentiated from other viscachas because it has black and gray moustache-like facial markings. This species makes colonies. It lives in warrens of ten to over one hundred. It is very vocal and emits alarm calls. The plains viscacha can strip grassland used to graze livestock; this caused ranchers to consider the rodent a pest species. - - Northern viscacha (Lagidum peruanum): Native to the Peruvian Andes at those elevations between the timber line and the snow line. It is dorsally gray or brown in color. It has a bushy tail and long, furry ears. This species lives in large colonies. The colonies are separated into individual family units, like an apartment complex. It eats a wide range of plants. It lives in a harsh, rocky environment. Therefore, it is not too picky about the food. - - Mountain viscacha (Lagidum viscacia): Also called southern viscacha, this species is similar to the northern viscacha, but its fur is more red in color. It lives in similar habitat in the Andes. - - Wolffsohn's viscacha (Lagidum wolffsohni): Little is known about this species, as it is rarer than the other three viscachas. - -Rodents" -4973,15723,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melon,Melon,"A melon is any kind of edible, fleshy fruit in the Cucurbitaceae family. Many different cultivars have been produced, especially of muskmelons. Botanically speaking, the melon is a fruit, but some kinds are often considered vegetables. Most melons belong to the genus Cucumis, but there are also some that belong to Benincasa, Citrullus and Momordica. The muskmelon belongs to Cucumis, while the watermelon belongs to Citrullus. - -The word melon comes from the Latin , which itself comes from the Greek (). - -History -Melons come from Africa and southwest Asia. They gradually began to appear in Europe toward the end of the Roman Empire. Melons were introduced to America by early settlers, who grew honeydew and casaba melons as early as the 1600s. A number of Native American groups in New Mexico have a tradition of growing their own kinds of melon cultivars, derived from melons originally introduced by the Spanish. - -Nutrition -Melons are a nutritious food. The seeds of cantaloupe were used in China to moderate fevers and the digestive system. Elsewhere, seeds were ground into a powder and used to treat tuberculosis. Cantaloupes are particularly beneficial to people with heart disease, as they have large of amounts of an anticoagulant known as adenosine. They also have high levels of potassium, which benefits those with high blood pressure. Due to their high water content, all melons are considered diuretics. - -There is also evidence that suggests that eating melons can lower the risk of cancer. USDA researchers discovered that melons have lycopene, an antioxidant found in a select group of fruits and vegetables. Lycopene treats and prevents cancer by trapping free-radicals in cells. - -References - -Other websites - - - - . List of photographed varieties of melons. - - - -Cucurbitaceae" -17384,65914,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smothers%20Brothers,Smothers Brothers,"The Smothers Brothers are an American folk music comedy duo, made up of real-life brothers Tom (""Tommy"") and Dick Smothers. They were at their most popular during the 1960s and 1970s. Tom plays acoustic guitar and Dick plays upright bass, and both men sing. They pretend to get into arguments about the songs, and this forms much of their comedy act. - -Early career -The Smothers Brothers began their career during the folk music boom in the United States, during the late 1950s and early 1960s. Their comedy got them noticed, and they began to make records and appear on television. Later they starred in their own television series, The Smothers Brothers Show. They did not sing or perform music on this show, but instead Dick played a man whose brother (Tom) became his . - -The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour -Their next series, The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, was a variety show, with live performances by musical guests, and sometimes actors and comedians. The brothers hosted the program, which began in 1967. They would begin with a song in their usual style, and introduce the performers. Along with guests, the show had regular actors and writers. These included Steve Martin, Pat Paulsen, Bob Einstein, Mason Williams, Leigh French and Lorenzo Music. - -Some of the guests who appeared on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour were Bette Davis, Tony Randall, Kate Smith, Eddie Albert and Eva Gabor, and Inger Stevens. Some of their musical guests were Pete Seeger, The Turtles, Janis Ian, Jefferson Airplane, Nancy Sinatra, The First Edition (with a young Kenny Rogers), Donovan, Peter, Paul and Mary, Joan Baez, Jennifer Warnes, Harry Nilsson and The Buckinghams. Glen Campbell regularly appeared on the show, and hosted a summer replacement series, The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour. - -Sometimes the performances had controversial topics, like the Vietnam War, population and many social issues. CBS, who broadcast the show, sometimes censored it, taking parts out that a large number of people might disagree with. They warned the brothers about presenting things that might cause upset to viewers. The Smotherses and their staff, though, believed it was important to comment about such things. The issues mattered to them, and were affecting people around the United States and the world. - -In 1969, CBS cancelled the show, even though they had already promised another season of shows would be made. The reason given was that David Steinberg, a comedian whose style included , had been invited back to appear even though CBS had his reappearance. The two sides went to court. - -In 1973, the court decided CBS had violated (broken) their contract with the Smothers Brothers, and that the real reason they had cancelled the show was out of censorship. CBS had to pay the Smotherses for the never-made season. The reputation of the brothers, though, had suffered. - -Later career -The Smothers Brothers tried to produce a new show, this time for the ABC television network, but it did not last long. Times had changed, and viewers were now interested in other shows and performers. - -The brothers went back to appearing live, in small clubs and large venues, as the chances came. One night in 1974, they were appearing in the Troubadour Club in Los Angeles, California. Two members of the audience were Harry Nilsson and John Lennon, who both knew the Smothers Brothers offstage. (Tom Smothers had even appeared on Lennon's 1969 single ""Give Peace A Chance"", as a member of the Plastic Ono Band, while Nilsson had appeared on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour.) As it turned out, Nilsson and Lennon were drunk, and began to the brothers, thinking it would help the show. It did not, and Nilsson and Lennon were finally escorted out. (They both sent flowers to the Smotherses the next day, and issued an apology.) - -The Smothers Brothers remained popular with many fans, and continued to perform their act as years went by. They appeared on programs like The Tonight Show during the 1970s and 1980s. A television special in 1988 reunited many of the Comedy Hour cast members, and another short-lived series was produced. CBS aired the new programs, having long ago made peace with the Smotherses. - -In later years, the Smothers Brothers appeared in Las Vegas and Branson, Missouri, still performing their familiar act. They continue to tour, more than fifty years after their careers began, often backed by local symphony orchestras. - -Actors from New York City -American television actors -Comedians from California -Comedians from New York City -Folk music groups -Musical groups from San Francisco -Sibling musical duos" -12053,44332,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Talent,Billy Talent,"Billy Talent, before called Pezz, is a Canadian punk rock band from Mississauga, Ontario. The name Billy Talent was inspired by the guitarist ""Billy Tallent"" from the Michael Turner novel Hard Core Logo. They performed and recorded together for about 10 years before becoming famous. - -Members -Benjamin Kowalewicz - vocals -Ian D'Sa - guitar, vocals -Jon Gallant - bass, vocals -Aaron Solowoniuk - drums - -Albums -Billy Talent (2003) -Billy Talent II (2006) -Billy Talent III (2009) -Dead Silence (2012) -Afraid of Heights (2016) - -Other websites - Official site - Billy Talent at MySpace - Billy Talent exclusive video interview on peta2 - -1993 establishments in Canada -2000s music groups -2010s music groups -Canadian rock bands -Canadian punk bands -Post-hardcore bands -People from Ontario -Musical groups established in 1993" -21315,81663,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless%20Application%20Protocol,Wireless Application Protocol,"The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a protocol. It was made to allow devices like mobile phones to access the internet. - -Internet -Computer protocols" -6843,21588,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi%20language,Marathi language,"Marathi () is the language spoken in Maharashtra, India. It is also Maharashtra's official language. The written script is Devanāgarī. - -People living in Maharashtra and parts of neighboring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Chattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh, union-territories of Daman-diu and Dadra Nagar Haveli speak Marathi. - -References - -Other websites - - Marathi News - MarathiMati.net - Marathi Language Web Portal - -Indo-Aryan languages -Languages of India" -15551,59302,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracy,Theocracy,"In Theocracy, a form of government, the institutions and people that govern the state are very close to the leaders of the main religion or are religious leaders themselves. If the religious leaders do not directly run some bodies of the state, they influence them very much. The word theocracy comes from two Greek words literally meaning God-government, and meaning the government is run by ""The Church"". - -Modern-day states that are theocracies - -Andorra -The Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell as the Co-Prince, is one of the two heads of states of Andorra (the other Co-Prince as head of state is the President of France). His role is mostly ceremonial, and while Roman Catholicism is the official religion of the country, it is not a theocracy. - -Iran -Iran is a theocratic Islamic republic. In Iran, two bodies, the Supreme Leader and Guardian Council consist of members who are not elected by the people. These two bodies are staffed by Shia clerics. The highest elected official is the President of Iran. - -Mohammad Khatami, the former president, said that this model is an alternative to democracy, as it brings in religious elements. He called it a religious democracy. - -Vatican City -The Vatican City is a true theocracy, with no separation of church and state. The head of the Catholic Church is the leader of the country. The pope is elected by the Papal Conclave. Most popes have stayed for the rest of their lives, but some have resigned. One who resigned was Pope Benedict XVI. - -State religion -Many states have a state religion (also called official religion). Israel, for example mixes some aspects of rabbinical law and civil law, even though Judaism is not a state or official religion of the country. Also, the state hires rabbis. In some such states, religious leaders also have civil duties, not only religious ones. - -Some historic theocratic states - -Some (now extinguished) states throughout history had characteristics of a Theocracy, as for example: - - In the Empire of Japan (1868 - 1947), Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, was the official state religion (State Shinto), besides, the Emperor of Japan was worshipped, and viewed as, a living deity. - Bhutan was formerly governed as a Buddhist theocracy. - Though the Byzantine Empire was not de facto a theocracy, the Greek Orthodox Church had a significant role and influence in society, and in matters where the Church had a considerable interest, its concerns would have been taken into account, and even to the point of influence the ruler's decision. - -References - -Forms of government" -17937,67566,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination,Divination,"Divination (Greek μαντεια, from μαντις ""seer"") is an attempt to get information through omens or supernatural things. The verb form is to divine, but this should not be confused with the adjective divine. Divining the outcome of things has been done by many different methods, such as the ones listed below. - -Divination is different from fortune-telling. Divination is more ritual, usually religious. Fortune-telling is more for personal things. - -Types of divination - - Astrology (by celestial bodies) - Ailuromancy (by the behaviour of felines) - Augury (by the flight of birds) - Aura-Soma, based on colors - Bibliomancy (by book, frequently but not always a religious text) - Cartomancy (by cards, e.g., playing cards, tarot cards, and non-tarot oracle cards; see also Taromancy) - Cheiromancy (by palms; see Palmistry) - Chronomancy (by time; lucky/unlucky days) - Coscinomancy (by a sieve) - Crystallomancy (by crystals or other reflecting objects; see also Scrying) - Extispicy (from the entrails of sacrificed animals) - Geomancy (by earth), includes Feng Shui divination - Graphology (by handwriting) - I Ching divination (ancient Chinese divination using I Ching): (But using an I Ching manual can make it also a form of Bibliomancy/Stichomancy) - Heruspicy (by the organs of sacrificed animals) - Necromancy (by trying to ask the dead) - Numerology (by numbers) - Oneiromancy/Incubatio (by dreams) - Onomancy (by names) - Ouija board divination - Palmistry (by palm inspection) - Phrenology (by the shape of one's head) - Pyromancy, or pyroscopy (by fire) - Rhabdomancy divination by rods - Scrying (""seeing"" in a crystal ball, a mirror, or water) - Runecasting / Runic divination (by runes) - Sternomancy (by markings or bumps on the chest) - Taromancy (by specially designed cards: Tarot; see also Cartomancy) - -Related pages -Oracle - -Other websites - -Apple Divination -Ancient Astrology and Divination on the Web , resources on Greco-Roman and Mesopotamian divination -W. R. Halliday, Greek Divination (1913), a complete scanned edition of the most recent general treatment of Greek divination -1913 Catholic Encyclopedia: Divination -Divination Methods - Encyclopedia Iranica: Divination -Theory of Divination by Tim Maroney, exploring different possibilities -The Sator Formula engraved on a human skull - -Occult" -23198,88637,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch%20Alexius%20II,Patriarch Alexius II,"Patriarch Alexius II (23 February 1929—5 December 2008) was the 15th Patriarch of Moscow and the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church. - -1929 births -2008 deaths - -Patriarchs -Estonian people" -16596,63616,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shushanik%20Kurghinian,Shushanik Kurghinian,"Shushanik Kurghinian (Popoljian) (1876-1927) was an Armenian poet. Kurghinian received little or no recognition for her outstanding poems. Although a socialist with some stirring poems of labour's rebellion to her name, she remained a dim star even in the Soviet era. Today she is almost unknown, away from the literary canon in Armenia and the Diaspora. - -Background -Shushanik Kurghinian was born on August 18, 1876, in Alexandrapol, in the Yerevan province of Eastern Armenia, into a poor family of Popolji Harout. In her autobiography Shushanik writes of her childhood: “Sometimes father would bring his [shoe-repair] ‘workstation’ home, in order to save money, and I would work for him – demanding my wages, every single kopek (Coin). My mother, having been raised in a traditional household, would reprove my ‘ill behavior toward my parent,’and blamed those harmful books for corrupting me.” - -Works -`Whoever is without hope, dulled, without spirit, -alone and lacking faith... -bring them to me -my spirit is free -I will give them of my soul...' -(Selected Works, 1982 Yerevan p260) - -Other websites -`I Want to Live: Poems of Shushanik Kurghinian' or at ArmeniaPedia.org - -Armenian poets -Autobiographers -1876 births -1927 deaths" -19209,72824,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%20Summer%20Olympics,2020 Summer Olympics,"The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad, was a sporting event in Tokyo, Japan from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Tokyo was announced as the host city at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 7 September 2013. The winning bid, Tokyo, was announced on 7 September 2013. - -The event was originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, but was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. - -Olympic bids -The following was the bid results - -Sports -The Sports played in the competition will be similar to those played in previous Olympic years. Popular sports that will be played include Athletics, Swimming, Tennis, gymnastics, and diving. The international Olympic committee said that there will be at least 25 sports played in addition to these. All sports competitions will feature athletes from many countries playing to try and win a medal, which is given to the winning player or team. - -Stadiums -The Olympics will take place at many stadiums and locations throughout the Tokyo area. National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo will be the main stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies, along with athletics. Other sports will take place in new and already built stadiums in and around Tokyo. The athletes will sleep in an Olympic village. - -References - -2021 in Asia -2021 in sports -21st century in Japan -History of Tokyo -July 2021 events -August 2021 events" -24298,93676,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis%20Aragon%C3%A9s,Luis Aragonés,"Luis Aragonés (28 July 1938- 1 February 2014), became active as a Spanish football player in 1957 and football coach in 1974. He played in, and was involved in managing, Real Oviedo, Real Betis Balompié, and Atlético Madrid. Additionally, he participated in coaching Barcelona, Valencia, Sevilla, Espanyol Barcelona, Mallorca and Fenerbahçe. - -Club career statistics - -|- -|1960/61||Real Oviedo||La Liga||13||4 -|- -|1961/62||rowspan=""3""|Real Betis Balompié||rowspan=""3""|La Liga||28||8 -|- -|1962/63||30||14 -|- -|1963/64||24||11 -|- -|1964/65||rowspan=""11""|Atlético Madrid||rowspan=""11""|La Liga||30||19 -|- -|1965/66||28||18 -|- -|1966/67||23||11 -|- -|1967/68||28||16 -|- -|1968/69||17||4 -|- -|1969/70||30||16 -|- -|1970/71||17||3 -|- -|1971/72||31||11 -|- -|1972/73||32||16 -|- -|1973/74||23||9 -|- -|1974/75||6||0 -360||160 -360||160 -|} - -International career statistics - -|- -|1965||1||0 -|- -|1966||2||0 -|- -|1967||1||0 -|- -|1968||4||1 -|- -|1969||0||0 -|- -|1970||2||2 -|- -|1971||0||0 -|- -|1972||1||0 -|- -!Total||11||3 -|} - -References - -1938 births -2014 deaths -Deaths from leukemia -Spanish football managers -Spanish footballers -Sportspeople from Madrid" -8324,28050,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kookaburra%20Sport,Kookaburra Sport,"Kookaburra Sport is an Australian company named after an Australian bird related to the kingfisher, which eats snakes and is, therefore, very valuable to the Australians. - -Kookaburra makes and sells cricket supplies which are used by amateurs and professionals. They are one of the leading brands and are famous for their colourful and artistic designs. It is the leading manufacturer of cricket equipment in the world. Its balls are used the most in international cricket matches. - -Companies of Australia -Cricket in Oceania" -22360,84717,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Thomas%2C%20U.S.%20Virgin%20Islands,"Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands","Saint Thomas is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It is a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands (USVI). The territorial capital and port of Charlotte Amalie is on the island. As of the 2000 census, Saint Thomas had 51,181 people, about 47% of the US Virgin Islands total. The district has a land area of 80.9 km² (31.24 sq mi). - -Other websites -Official sites -United States Virgin Islands - Official Website for the United States Virgin Islands Department of Tourism -Districts of the United States Virgin Islands, United States Census Bureau - -Map -St. Thomas USVI Google Map - Satellite Map of St. Thomas, USVI - -US Virgin Islands" -5922,19171,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta,Ceuta,"Ceuta is a Spanish city in North Africa, at the Strait of Gibraltar. The City area is about 20 square kilometers, and there are over 82,000 people living in the city. The city is surrounded by a border fence, which has been built to keep the Moroccans (and other Africans) from moving there unlawfully. Ceuta is part of Spain (and therefore the European Union). Until it became a self-governing city in 1994, it belonged to the Cadiz Province. - -It was built by the Phoenicians at a strategic position. - -Other websites - -Exclaves" -10175,35226,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard%20Munch,Edvard Munch,"Edvard Munch (12 December 1863 – 23 January 1944) was a Norwegian painter and print-maker. He was born in Adalsbruk. He was an expressionist who painted 1789 known paintings. He is well known for his treatment of emotion such as fear. His way of seeing things had a large influence on the expressionism of the 20th century. People saw this treatment as being intense. - -During his life, he had success as a painter: He became famous outside Norway, and his paintings got high prices. The National Gallery (Norway) used much money to buy paintings by Munch. He painted a large murals in the aula (main room) of Norway's (then) only university. - -Early life and education -He had four brothers and sisters. He had followed his mother and sister by being the best artists in their family. While Edvard was still young, his mother and one of his sisters died. But it was when he was thirteen that he really came to like art. The first paintings he did were simple objects like medicine bottles and other objects. Later on, he drew oil paintings. - -He went to technical college in 1879 where he learnt how to draw paintings with perspective. However, in 1880, the following year he left the school to become a painter. - -He went to the Royal School of Art and Design. This is where he learnt sculpturing and naturalistic painting. This is where he drew his first important portrait of himself and his father. - -Health and death -Munch was ill very often. Many scientists think that he suffered from bipolar disorder (manic depression). He died at his house in Oslo. - -Paintings -The Scream (1893; originally called Despair). This is Munch's best-known painting, and is one of the best known images in the world. It is one of the pieces in a series titled The Frieze of Life. In the series Munch explored the themes of life, love, fear, death and melancholy. As with many of his works, he made several versions of the painting. One version was stolen from the Munch-museum in Oslo, Norway, on 22 August 2004, but on 31 August 2006 Norwegian police found it together with another picture that was stolen at the same time, Madonna. - -The Frieze of Life themes come back throughout Munch's work. These themes can be seen in paintings such as The Sick Child (1886, portrait of his deceased sister Sophie), (1893–1894), Ashes (1894), and The Bridge. The last-named shows limp figures. Those figures have faces with no features, or they have no faces at all. Threatening shapes of heavy trees and houses are above the figures. Munch portrayed women either as frail, innocent sufferers or as lurid, life-devouring vampires. Munch analysts say this reflects his sexual anxieties. - - 1885-86: The Sick Child - 1892: Evening on Karl Johan - 1893: The Scream - 1894: Ashes - 1894–1895: Madonna - 1895: Puberty - 1895: Self-Portrait with Burning Cigarette - 1895: Death in the Sickroom - 1899–1900: The Dance of Life - 1899–1900: The Dead Mother - 1903: Village in Moonlight - 1940–1942: Self Portrait: Between Clock and Bed - -Other paintings - -Nudes - -Self-portraits - -Photographs - -References - -Other websites - - Biography from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs - The Munch Museum - Gallery Munch - Løten - Munch at artcyclopedia - Catalogue raisonné of Edvard Munch's paintings. - Edvard Munch - Interpol's page about the stolen works of art -Munch and bipolar disorder: - Rothenberg A. Bipolar illness, creativity, and treatment. Psychiatr Q. 2001 Summer;72(2):131-47. - Edvard Munch in Germany - -Norwegian painters -1863 births -1944 deaths" -22631,85727,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden%20fruit,Forbidden fruit,"The words forbidden fruit stand as a metaphor (an image). The metaphor comes from the book of Genesis in the Bible. There Adam and Eve are thrown out of Paradise because they eat from the tree of knowledge. - -The fruit has commonly been represented as an apple due to wordplay of the Latin word for apple, malus, which can mean both ""evil"" and ""apple"". The Bible does not specify a fruit, but locates it as being at the very center of The Garden of Eden. In Judaism the fruit is believed to be either a grape, a fig, a citron or wheat. Most scholars say that the type of fruit is not forbidden, it was just the fruits of that particular tree that were. - -In general, the term can also refer to something illegal or immoral to do. It might also be dangerous. Many times this is about sex outside of marriage. - -Related pages -Adam's apple - -References - -Old Testament -Metaphors" -1253,4602,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright%20Eyes%20%28band%29,Bright Eyes (band),"Bright Eyes is an American indie rock music band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA. - -Oberst's singing style and the words to the songs are called desperate or on the verge of tears. Many people think his songs are always about himself, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, ""Padraic My Prince"", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions. - -Discography - -Albums -Letting Off the Happiness (1998) -Fevers and Mirrors (2000) -A Collection of Songs: Recorded 1995-1997 (2000) -Lifted or the Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground (2002) -Vinyl Box Set (7 LP's) (2003) This collection contains Oberst's first five releases plus bonus material. -I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning (2005) -Digital Ash in a Digital Urn (2005) -Cassadaga (2007) -The People's Key (2011) - -EPs/Singles -Every Day and Every Night EP (1999) -""Don't Be Frightened Of Turning The Page"" (2001) -""Oh Holy Fools: The Music of Son, Ambulance & Bright Eyes"" (2001) -""Drunk Kid Catholic"" CDS (2001) -There Is No Beginning To The Story EP (2002) -Lover I Don't Have To Love CDS (2002) -Home: IV EP (2004) -One Jug of Wine, Two Vessels EP (2004) -""Lua"" (2004) -Take It Easy (Love Nothing) (2004) -Four Winds EP (2007) - -American rock bands -Indie bands -Electronic music bands -Musical groups from Nebraska -Musicians from Omaha, Nebraska -Musical groups established in 1995 -1995 establishments in the United States -20th-century establishments in Nebraska" -19658,75325,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert%20hall,Concert hall,"A concert hall is a place where concerts of classical music take place. “Concert hall” can either mean the actual room where the concerts takes place, or the whole building. The hall where the concerts are held may have a “stage” (where the performers are) and there will be an “auditorium” where the audience sits. - -Some concert halls are purpose-built. That means they were built to be concert halls. Other concert halls may have been something else many years ago, e.g. a Corn Exchange (a place where farmers used to sell their corn) and the building has later been changed into a concert hall. Purpose-built concert halls started about the beginning of the 20th century. At that time scientists began to understand the importance of good acoustics (somewhere where the sound was good). - -Concert halls that are purpose-built usually have fixed seating (seats that cannot be moved). Some halls may have seats that can be moved, either by stacking them in small piles, or tiered seating that can fold up. This allows the hall to be used for other things, e.g. dancing. - -A concert hall is usually a big hall: big enough for an orchestra to be on the stage. A small concert hall, designed for just a few performers (as in chamber music) may be called a “recital hall”. - -Some concert halls are especially famous. In London there is the Royal Festival Hall on the banks of the river Thames, the Barbican Centre in the City (near St Paul’s Cathedral) and the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington which is used for other events as well. There is also a famous recital hall called the Wigmore Hall. New York has the Carnegie Hall, Vienna has the Vienna Musikverein with a beautiful hall called the Golden Hall where the famous New Year’s Day concerts are given. In Germany there is the Berliner Philharmonie in Berlin and the Gewandhaus in Leipzig. In Amsterdam there is the Concertgebouw (which means: ""concert hall""). - -Concert halls" -8878,30050,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urdu,Urdu,"Urdu, also known as Lashkari or the Lashkari language (لشکری ‍زبان) is the national language of Pakistan and a recognized regional language in India. It is an Indo-Aryan language, meaning it descends from Proto-Indo-Aryan, a language spoken northeast of the Caspian Sea in the third millennia BCE. - -It is spoken as a lingua franca by the majority of people in Pakistan. And it is also spoken in some parts of India like the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. With exceptions of numerous vocabulary words, phrases or tone of speaking, some words are similar to spoken Hindi. When written, it is written completely different from Hindi. That is why speakers of Hindi and Urdu can have a conversation with one another, but they cannot read or write with Urdu or Hindi letters to one another. - -History -What is today most commonly known as ""Urdu"" is believed to have been born in the 11th century AD in Lahore and its surroundings when the Ghaznavid Empire entered the subcontinent and ruled over Punjab, the land of five rivers. - -Punjab was also known as ""Hind"" or the land east of the Indus. - -The Ghaznavids, although racially Turkic, spoke Persian as their main language. When conquering Punjab or Hind with Lahore as its capital, they came into contact with the local population who spoke an Indo-Aryan language which began to adopt Persian words into their language. This local language was also the ancestor of modern standard Punjabi. - -The contacts between Persian and the native language of Punjab began to form a new language and that became known as 'Lashkari Zaban' or language of the battalions. - -This new language also known as Hindavi became the common language of the locals and the ruling Ghaznavids in the region. By the twelfth century AD, the Ghaznavids pushed further east into the subcontinent and brought this language to Delhi where it became influenced by the local language, Khariboli. - -From Delhi it spread across much of the northern subcontinent and became the common language of communication. It continued to be influenced by Khariboli and spread to cities like Lucknow and Hyderabad Daccan. It was also given new names and titles through the centuries. - -Native poets in these cities and most of the region contributed to its development and added many Persian and Chagatai words to it. They also indirectly added Arabic words which Persian already contained. - -It continued to evolve during the Delhi Sultanate under the influence of Khariboli. - -The Mughal Empire was another Muslim Empire of Turkic origin and spoke Chagatai natively and Persian as their other language, although they were not ethnically Persian or racially Iranic. - -During this time the language commonly became known as the Zaban-i-Ordu or language of the Royal Camp. - -By the very late eighteenth century AD, the poet Ghulam Mashafi is believed to have given it the name ""Urdu"" which was shortened from ""Zaban-i-Urdu."" - -The word is from Chagatai, the native language of the Mughals and belonged to the Eastern Turkic subfamily of languages. Chagatai was closely related to today's Uzbek and Uyghur and distantly related to today's Turkish because all of them belonged to the same Turkic family of languages. - -In its own indigenous translation it was Lashkari Zaban and Lashkari for short. - -Also during the Mughal Empire, what commonly became known as Urdu was a court language in a number of major South Asian cities, including Delhi, Amristsar, Lucknow and Lahore. - -By the time of the British Empire, it also became known as ""Hindustani"" or the language of Hindustan, the land of the Indus. It continued to serve as a court language in the same cities. - -It was adopted as a first language by many people in North India. - -By the end of British rule and the independence of Pakistan, it was selected as the national language for the people of the country because they spoke different languages and dialects. - -In India it became the national language but went by the name Hindi and was written in the Devanagari script. It also used a lesser amount of Arabic, Persian and Chagatai words and instead Sanskrit words were adopted in their place. - -Today it is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan in terms of total speakers and a registered language in 22 Indian states. - -Relations to Persian - -Differences -The letters in Urdu are derived from the Persian/Farsi alphabet, which is derived from the Arabic alphabet. The additional letters that are found in Urdu include ٹ ,ڈ ,ڑ (ṫ, ḋ, ṙ). To make the alphabet more enriched two letters were created for sounds ه (h) and ی (y). By adding these letters to the existing Persian letters the Urdu alphabet became more suitable for the people of Pakistan and for some people of North India who primarily use nastaliq script. Both are also Indo-Iranic languages descending from Proto-Indo-Iranic, but deriving from separate subbranches, Iranic and Indo-Aryan respectively. - -Similarities -Urdu is written right to left like Farsi (Persian) script. Urdu is also written in the Nasta’ liq style of Persian Calligraphy. Nastaliq style is a cursive script invented by Mīr ʿAlī of Tabrīz, a very famous calligrapher during the Timurid period (1402–1502). Both belong to the Indo-Iranic language subfamily. - -Levels of formality - -Informal -Urdu in its less formalized register has been called a rekhta (ریختہ, ), meaning ""rough mixture"". The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes called zabān-e-Urdu-e-mo'alla (زبان اردو معلہ ), the ""Language of Camp."" - -In local translation, it is called Lashkari Zabān ( []) meaning ""language of battalions"" or ""battalion language."" This can be shortened to Lashkari. - -The etymology of the word used in the Urdu language for the most part decides how nice or well done your speech is. For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pānī and آب āb, both meaning ""water"" for example, or between آدمی ādmi and مرد mard, meaning ""man."" The first word is ad derivative from Adam (آدم) Arabic mean from Adam and it can be used for both man and woman in place of human being. Second word مرد mard refers to a gender or can be used for manly hood as well. - -If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is thought to be more formal. If Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also thought more formal and correct. If a word is inherited from Chagatai, the level of speech is thought more colloquial and personal. - -Formal -Urdu is supposed to be a well formed language; many of words are used in it to show respect and politeness. This emphasis on politeness, which comes from the vocabulary, is known as Aadab ( Courteous ) and to sometimes as takalluf (Formal) in Urdu. These words are mostly used when addressing elders, or people with whom one is not met yet. Just like French Vous and Tu. Upon studying French and other forms of Language similar formal language construct are present. The whole grammatical layout appears to be almost identical to French language structure. The rules to form sentences and structuring them are identical - -Poetics - -Two very respected poets who are not only celebrated in the South Asian subcontinent but are famous in many other communities worldwide are Mirza Ghalib and Sir Dr Muhammed Iqbal. - -Mirza Ghalib - -Ghalib (1797-1869) is famous for his classic satire and sarcasm as seen in the following verse; - -(Latin/Roma alphabet): - -Umer bhar hum yun hee ghalati kartey rahen Ghalib - -Dhool ch-herey pei thee aur hum aaina saaf karte rahe - -(translation): - -O Ghalib (himself) all my life I kept making the same mistakes over and over, - -I was busy cleaning the mirror while the dirt was on my face. - -Sir Dr Muhammed Iqbal - -Iqbal (1877-1938) was a poet, and an active politician. He focused his poetry on bringing out the plight of the suffering Muslim community of British India. In his poetry he very boldly highlighted the missing virtues and values in the morally corrupt Indian society. Despite much opposition in the beginning, he ended up leaving a huge impact. He is also called the “Poet of the East” and the “Poet of Islam”. His work is displayed in the following verse; - -(Latin/Roma Alphabet):      - -Aapne bhe khafa mujh sei beganey bhe na khush - -Mein zeher -e-halahal ku kabhi keh na saka qand - -(translation): - -I could not keep happy either my loved ones nor the strangers, - -as I could never call a piece of poison a piece of candy.   - -Iqbal is considered by many an inspirational poet. He played a large role in the Pakistan Movement, with many claiming that he was the one to imagine and initiate it. - -Common Words/Phrases in Urdu -Formal Urdu: - -Aap tashreef rakhein = Please have a seat - -Main mu'azzarat chahta/chahti hun = Please excuse me/I apologize - -Informal Urdu: Aap bethein (You sit) or Tum betho (Sit, more informal) - -Main maafi chahta/chahti hun= I ask for forgiveness - -************* - -Aap kaisay hein? = How are you? - -Main theek hun = I am fine - -Assalam O Alaikum = Peace be upon you (It basically means hello, and it is a common greeting used in Islamic countries or among Muslims in general) - -Urdu vs Hindi--What's the difference? -Urdu is a language spoken primarily in Pakistan. Its terminology borrows from Chagatai, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic. -Hindi is a language spoken primarily in India which replaced Farsi, Chagatai and Arabic terminology with Sanskrit. Grammatically they are the same, which is why Hindi and Urdu speakers are able to have a somewhat easy conversation with each other. - -Urdu has a majority of its vocabulary words and phrases borrowed from Persian, Chagatai and Arabic, languages spoken in Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, many countries of the Middle East and in Afghanistan etc. Urdu's written script is also in the exact alphabets and scripts of Persian-Arabic and Chagatai. That is why, they are able to read and write easily in Arabic and Persian. - -Name of colors, objects, feelings, animals and more are all different in Urdu and Hindi. - -Related pages -Languages of South Asia -Languages of Pakistan -Languages of India - -References - -Other websites -ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خاؿ اردولشکری زبان (sample texts) - -Languages of Pakistan -National symbols of Pakistan - -Languages of India - -Languages of Jammu and Kashmir" -19299,73276,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9o%20Delibes,Léo Delibes,"Léo Delibes (born St. Germain-du-Val, France, 21 February 1836; died St. Germain-du-Val 16 January 1891) was a French composer of Romantic music. He is particularly famous for his ballets, especially Coppélia, and operettas and operas, of which Lakmé is the most famous. - -Biography -Delibes’s father worked for the post office. His mother was musical and played the piano. Her father, the composer’s grandfather, had been a baritone in the Opéra-Comique and she had a brother who was an organist and professor at the Paris Conservatoire. - -When Delibes’s father died in 1847 his family moved to Paris so that the young Léo, who was 11, could continue having a good musical education. At first he found it difficult living in a large city as he was used to the countryside. He was a student of the well-known composer and teacher Adolphe Adam. At first he did well in his music lessons and won prizes, but after a few years he no longer won any prizes. He never tried to win the Prix de Rome which is what all French students of composition normally want to do. As a young boy he sang in choirs. Later he became a church organist and an accompanist at the Théâtre-Lyrique. - -Soon Delibes started to composer operettas. He wrote 14 operettas in 14 years. He was commissioned to write some music to celebrate the emperor’s return from Algiers. The piece he wrote was called Alger. It was a huge success. The emperor gave him a gold medal, personally fastening a pin with diamonds to his lapel. In 1864 he became chorus master at the Opéra where he coached the chorus to sing many famous operas. Two years later he started to write ballets. These became very successful and three years later he stopped writing operettas. - -In 1870 his ballet Coppélia was produced. By 1884 it had been performed 100 times. Together with La Sylphide and Giselle it was one of the most popular of all ballets. The story is about a man who makes a mechanical doll. Another popular ballet he wrote was Sylvia. His most successful opera was Lakmé which was first performed at the Opéra-Comique in 1883. It gives great opportunity for the main soprano, especially in the song called the Bell Song. Musicians usually think Lakmé is his greatest work. - -Delibes died in 1891, and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre, Paris. - -Reputation -Delibes started to compose at a time when ballet had become less popular in France than it had been earlier. Around the time of the Revolution there had been lots of performances of ballet, but during the 19th century there was less interest with the exception of La Sylphide and Giselle. Delibes was to change that. He had a great gift for writing easy melodies. At one time he thought he ought to compose like Wagner, using richer harmonies and leitmotifs, but fortunately he chose not to, following instead the style to which he was so well suited. Coppélia is in the repertoire of all major ballet companies, and several of its tunes are familiar to people even if they do not know where they come from. - -The Flower duet from Lakmé became particularly well known in recent years through an advert for British Airways. - -1836 births -1891 deaths -Romantic composers -French composers -Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris" -16471,63242,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix%20Wright%3A%20Ace%20Attorney,Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney,"Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney is a visual novel/adventure game developed and published by Capcom. The game was originally a Japan-only Game Boy Advance title called Gyakuten Saiban. However, the Nintendo DS remake Gyakuten Saiban Yomigaeru Gyakuten was translated and released in 2005 outside of Japan. The DS remake features a bonus case called Rise From The Ashes which was not in the original GBA version. - -Characters - -Phoenix Wright -Phoenix Wright is the main protagonist of the game. He is a defense attorney who must prove that his falsely-accused clients are not guilty. - -Mia Fey -Mia Fey is Phoenix's boss and mentor. She is killed in the second case. However, her spirit can be channelled by Maya and sometimes she reappears to give Phoenix help or advice. - -Maya Fey -Maya is Mia's little sister. She is Phoenix's assistant. She is also a spirit medium and can sometimes channel Mia's spirit. - -Miles Edgeworth -Miles Edgeworth is a prosecutor, and Phoenix Wright's rival. He is the prosecutor in every case in the game except for The First Turnabout and Turnabout Goodbyes. - -Larry Butz -Larry Butz is Phoenix's client in the first case of the game, where he is accused of murder. He is also a witness in the fourth case. - -Winston Payne -Winston Payne is the prosecutor of the first case. He has appeared in every Ace Attorney game except Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Dual Destinies. He is normally the prosecutor of the Tutorial cases of each game. - -Dick Gumshoe -Dick Gumshoe is a detective who is usually in charge of investigating the cases that Phoenix takes on. - -Manfred von Karma -Manfred von Karma is the prosecutor in case 4 of the game, and is Edgeworth's mentor. - -Plot -The game features 5 cases. - -The First Turnabout -Phoenix defends Larry Butz, who is accused of murdering his girlfriend. - -Turnabout Sisters -Phoenix's mentor, Mia Fey, is killed. Phoenix defends her sister, Maya Fey, who is accused of murdering her. - -Turnabout Samurai -Will Powers, an actor who potrays the Steel Samurai, is accused of murdering Jack Hammer. Phoenix defends him in court. - -Turnabout Goodbyes -A man is killed on a boat at Gourd Lake, and Miles Edgeworth is accused of the murder. Phoenix defends him. - -Rise from the Ashes -Lana Skye is accused of the murder of Bruce Goodman. Her sister, Ema Skye, convinces Phoenix Wright to take her case. - -Game System -The game is split into 2 segments, Investigation segments and Trial segments. - -Investigation -During Investigation sections Phoenix visits the crime scene, looks for evidence that might be useful in the trial, and talks to witnesses. - -Trial -Phoenix has to defend his client, and Cross Examine witness testimonies. - -2001 video games -2005 video games -Ace Attorney -Game Boy Advance games -Nintendo DS games -Video game remakes -Windows games -Visual novels - -ja:逆転裁判#蘇る逆転" -14770,55668,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalize,Animalize,"Animalize is a studio album by the American hard rock/heavy metal band Kiss. It was released on September 13, 1984. - -Track listing - -1984 albums -Heavy metal albums -Hard rock albums -Kiss albums" -12093,44547,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Michael,George Michael,"Georgios Kyriacos Panayiotou, (25 June 1963 – 25 December 2016), known professionally as George Michael, was an English singer-songwriter, and record producer. - -Career -George Michael who rose to fame in the 1980s, when he formed the pop duo Wham! with his school friend Andrew Ridgeley. The duo released a string of massive singles in 1982 like Young Guns (Go For It) and Wham Rap! (Enjoy What You Do), both written by Michael. In 1983, Wham’s debut album, ""Fantastic"" was released. It reached #1 in the UK charts and had the hit single Club Tropicana with a music video, shot in Ibiza. After a year, Wham changed its image with the release of their second album Make it Big, which was a critical and commercial success, hitting #1 in both the UK and the USA. It produced four singles, all topping the charts on both sides of the Atlantic. One of the most popular songs in the album, Careless Whisper, Michael's first solo single, was released in 1984 while he was still performing with Wham!. In 1986, Wham! disbanded after release of a third studio album, single and concert at Wembley Stadium. - -Following his split with Wham!, George Michael began a successful solo career, releasing four studio albums, ""Faith"" (1987), ""Listen Without Prejudice Vol. 1"" (1991), ""Older"" (1996), and ""Patience"" (2004). Michael has sold over 100 million records worldwide as of 2010, encompassing 11 British #1 singles, 9 British #1 albums, 10 US #1 singles, and 2 US #1 album. His 1987 debut solo album, Faith has sold over 20 million copies worldwide alone and its considered by some music critics to be one of the greatest albums in pop music history. In 2004, Radio Academy has named Michael the most played artist on British radio between the period of 1984-2004. - -In 2006, George Michael announced his first tour in 15 years. 25 Live tour was a massive, worldwide undertaking by Michael that spanned forth individual tours over the course of five years (2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010). - -Charity -In November 1984, Michael joined other popular British and Irish pop stars to form Band Aid, singing on the charity song ""Do They Know It's Christmas?"" for relief of famine in Ethiopia. This single became the UK Christmas number one on the UK Singles Chart in December 1984. Michael's own song, ""Last Christmas"" by Wham!, was held at number two. ""Do They Know It's Christmas?"" sold 3.75 million copies in the UK. It became the biggest selling single in UK Chart history. It held this position until 1997 when it was overtaken by Elton John's ""Candle in the Wind 1997"", released in tribute to Princess Diana following her death Michael also attended Diana's funeral with Elton John. Michael donated the royalties from ""Last Christmas"" to Band Aid and subsequently sang with Elton John at Live Aid (the Band Aid charity concert) in 1985. - -Personal life -Michael was born in London to an English mother and Greek father. Michael was raised there and in Hertfordshire. He was initially private about being homosexual. During his Wham! career, he was in relationships with well-known women such as actress Brooke Shields, and model Pat Fernandes. Between 1986-1988, he was romantically involved with Kathy Yueng, an American makeup artist who was featured in ""I Want Your Sex"" Music Video. Nonetheless, his sexual orientation was well known among London music business people. - -These persisted into his solo career, but Michael had already established a relationship with Anselmo Feleppa, whom he had met at the 1991 concert ""Rock in Rio"". Feleppa died of an AIDS-related brain hemorrhage in 1993. Michael's single Jesus to a Child is a tribute to Feleppa: (he consistently dedicates it to him before performing it live), as is his 1996 album ""Older"". Since 1996, Michael has been in a long-term relationship with businessman Kenny Goss. They have homes in London and Dallas. - -Death -On 25 December 2016 before 17:24 GMT, Michael died at his property in Goring, Oxfordshire, England from heart failure and a fatty liver, aged 54. Before 22:59 GMT his publicist stated that he had ""passed away peacefully"" and Thames Valley Police said they were treating the death as unexplained and there were no suspicious circumstances. South Central Ambulance Service had attended his property at 13:42 GMT on Christmas Day. - -Discography - -Faith (1987) - Faith - Father Figure - I Want Your Sex - One More Try - Hard Day - Hand To Mouth - Look At Your Hands - Monkey - Kissing A Fool - A Last Request (I Want Your Sex Part 3) - -Listen Without Prejudice, Vol. 1 (1990) - Praying For Time - Freedom '90 - They Won't Go When I Go - Something To Save - Cowboys And Angels - Waiting For That Day - Mothers Pride - Heal The Pain - Soul Free - Waiting (Reprise) - -Older (1996) - Jesus To A Child - Fastlove - Older - Spinning The Wheel - It Doesn't Really Matter - The Strangest Thing - To Be Forgiven - Move On - Star People - You Have Been Loved - -Ladies And Gentlemen: The Best Of George Michael (1998) - Jesus To A Child - Father Figure - Careless Whisper - Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me - You Have Been Loved - Kissing A Fool - I Can't Make You Love Me - Heal The Pain - A Moment With You - Desafinado - Cowboys And Angels - Praying For Time - One More Try - A Different Corner - Waltz Away Dreaming - Outside - Fastlove - As - Too Funky - Freedom '90 - Star People '97 - Killer - Papa Was A Rollin' Stone - I Want Your Sex - Monkey - Spinning The Wheel - Waiting For That Day - Fantasy - I Knew You Were Waiting For Me - Hard Day - Faith - Somebody To Love - -Songs From The Last Century (1999) - Brother Can You Spare A Dime - Roxanne - You've Changed - My Baby Just Cares For Me - The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face - Miss Sarajevo - I Remember You - Secret Love - Wild Is The Wind - Where Or When - -Patience (2004) - Patience - Amazing - John & Elvis Are Dead - Cars & Trains - Round Here - Shoot The Dog - My Mother Had A Brother - Flawless (Go To The City) - American Angel - Precious Box - Please Send Me Someone (Anselmo's Song) - Freeek! - Through - -Twenty Five (2006) -Disc 1 - Everything She Wants - Wham! - Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go - Wham! - Freedom - Wham! - Faith - Too Funky - Fastlove - Freedom '90 - Spinning the Wheel - Outside - As (with Mary J. Blige) - Freeek! (Not '04) - Shoot The Dog - Amazing - Flawless (Radio Edition) - An Easier Affair -Disc 2 - Careless Whisper - Last Christmas - Wham! - A Different Corner - Father Figure - One More Try - Praying For Time - Heal The Pain (with Sir Paul McCartney) - Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me (with Sir Elton John) - Jesus To A Child - Older - Round Here - You Have Been Loved - John and Elvis Are Dead - This Is Not Real Love (with Mutya) -Disc 3 - Understand - Precious Box - Roxanne - Fantasy - Cars and Trains - Patience - You Know That I Want To - My Mother Had A Brother - If You Were There - Wham! - Safe - American Angel - My Baby Just Cares For Me - Brother Can You Spare A Dime? (performed at Pavarotti & Friends) - Please Send Me Someone (Anselmo's Song) - Through - -References - -Other websites - George Michael | The Official Website - -1963 births -2016 deaths -Deaths from cardiomyopathy -Deaths from liver disease -Criminals from London -English LGBT people -English songwriters -Gay men -LGBT criminals -LGBT musicians -LGBT rights activists -Musicians from Hertfordshire -Singers from London -Commanders of the Order of the British Empire -Deaths from myocarditis" -13078,47983,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/480s,480s," - -Events -481 – Clovis I becomes king of the Franks upon the death of Childeric I (or 482) -481 – Baekje, Silla, and Daegaya form an alliance against Goguryeo. -488 – Theodoric the Great becomes king of the Ostrogoths. -488 – Kavadh I succeeds Balash in Persia." -11354,41198,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey%20Karjakin,Sergey Karjakin,"Sergey Karjakin (born 12 January 1990 in Simferopol) is a Russian (formerly Ukrainian) chess grandmaster. - -He was a chess prodigy and holds the record for the youngest grandmaster in history, at the age of twelve years and seven months. - -On 25 July 2009 Karjakin adopted Russian citizenship and afterwards played for Russia. - -He won Candidates Tournament 2016 and earned the right to challenge for the World Chess Championship. In November 2016, he lost the championship match to Magnus Carlsen in the rapid tiebreaks after drawing 6–6 in the classical games. He won the 2016 World Blitz Chess Championship. He played in the candidates tournament again in 2018, coming third. - -References - -1990 births -Living people -Ukrainian chess players -Chess grandmasters" -6321,20119,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1560,1560," - -Events -July 6 – Treaty of Edinburgh - -Births - Anton Praetorius, fighter against torture and chase of witches (d. 1613) - August 7– Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian murderer - November 28– Baltasar of Marradas, Spanish noblemanbleman, knight of the Knights of Malta, imperial field marshal, governor in Bohemia (d. 1638) - -Deaths -April 19– Philipp Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer -September 29– King Gustav I of Sweden (b. 1496)" -15627,59661,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afternoon,Afternoon,"Afternoon is the time period from noon to evening. It is generally agreed upon that afternoon starts at 12:00 pm, but there is no exact definition of when it ends. - -Parts of a day" -8927,30224,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Paso%2C%20Texas,"El Paso, Texas","El Paso is a city in the U.S. state of Texas. It is in El Paso County and is the county seat (the city where the county is governed). It is at the western end of Texas, and is along Interstate 10. The name comes from El Paso de Norte, meaning The Passageway to the North, which was shortened to El Paso. - -The large majority of the city's inhabitants are Hispanic. - -El Paso has a desert climate. - -On 3 August 2019, 22 people were killed in a mass shooting. - -References - - -County seats in Texas" -23921,92422,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affoltern%20am%20Albis,Affoltern am Albis,"Affoltern am Albis is a municipality of the district Affoltern in the canton of Zürich in Switzerland. - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Zürich -Cities in Switzerland" -20695,79645,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basil%20Hume,Basil Hume,"George Basil Cardinal Hume OSB, OM, MA, STL (2 March 1923 – 17 June 1999) was a British prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Westminster from 1976 and President of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales from 1979 until his death. Hume was elevated to the cardinalate in 1976. - -Early life and ministry -George Haliburton Hume was born in Newcastle upon Tyne to Sir William Errington Hume and Marie Elizabeth Tisseyre. His father was a Protestant heart doctor from Scotland, and his mother the French Catholic daughter of an army officer. He had three sisters and one brother. - -Hume joined the Benedictine monastery at Ampleforth Abbey in North Yorkshire at the age of 18. He took the name Basil when he made his final promise to be a monk 1945. He became a priest on July 23, 1950. - -Bishop -On 9 February 1976, Pope Paul VI made Hume the Archbishop of Westminster, the highest ranking Catholic priest in England and Wales. He was the first monk to be archbishop since 1850 when Roman Catholic bishops returned to England. - -Hume was told he was being appointed at dinner - -Cardinal Hume's time in office saw Catholicism become more accepted in Britain than it had been for 400 years. 1995 saw the first visit of Queen Elizabeth II to Westminster Cathedral. He also read from the Bible at the installation ceremony of Archbishop Robert Runcie as of Canterbury in 1980. It was also during his term in Westminster that Pope John Paul II made first ever visit of a pope to England. - -In 1998, Hume asked John Paul II for permission to retire, so that he could go back to his monastery at Ampleforth and spend some time fly fishing and watching Newcastle United Football Club. The request was refused. - -He was diagnosed with inoperable abdominal cancer in April 1999. On 2 June of that same year, Queen Elizabeth awarded him the Order of Merit. He died just over two weeks later in London, at age 76. His funeral was broadcast live on British national television and he was buried in Westminster Cathedral. John Paul II said he was a ""shepherd of great spiritual and moral character"". - -Legacy - A statue of Cardinal Hume was erected in his home town of Newcastle and unveiled by the Queen in 2002. - The Cardinal Hume Centre based in Westminster works to improve the lives of homeless young people, families, and other vulnerable and socially excluded members of society. - The Cardinal Hume Rose is named after him. - The Cardinal Hume Catholic School has been recently opened in Wrekenton, part of Gateshead, Tyne and Wear. - -References - -Other websites - Cardinal Hume Secondary School - BBC Coverage of the Cardinal's death - Cardinal Hume Centre - Archdiocese of Westminster's biography - Statue of Cardinal Hume, Newcastle upon Tyne - -1923 births -1999 deaths -Benedictines -Cancer deaths in England -Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church -English Roman Catholics -Monks -Order of Merit -People from Newcastle upon Tyne -Roman Catholic archbishops" -15678,59998,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%20%28disambiguation%29,Alpha (disambiguation),"Alpha may mean: - -The Greek letter alpha -Alpha, a letter in the Greek alphabet. α may be used as the symbol for: -Angle of attack in aerodynamics -Common-base current gain of a transistor in electronics -In physics: -Fine-structure constant, a fundamental physical constant -Alpha particle, form of particle radiation -H-alpha, or H-α, an emission line created by hydrogen atoms -The alpha carbon in organic chemistry -In Bayer designation, the typically brightest star in a constellation -The significance level in statistical hypothesis testing -Alpha channel, describing transparency and opacity in computer graphics -The alpha coefficient in evaluating financial returns -Thermal diffusivity - -Place names -Alpha, Michigan -Alpha, Minnesota -Alpha, New Jersey -Alpha, Queensland - -Media, literature and fiction -Alpha (band), a British electronic music group -Alpha Magazine, Australian men's sport magazine -Alpha (search engine), a search engine by Yahoo! -Alpha TV, a Greek terrestrial channel -Alpha the Ultimate Mutant, a character featured in Marvel Comics - -Science and mathematics - The Bayer designation of the brightest star in a constellation, for example - Alpha Centauri, the brightest star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus -Alpha (biology), ""alpha male"" and ""alpha female"", the highest ranking individuals in a community of social animals -Alpha (investment), a measurement of risk-adjusted performance -Alpha waves, recorded by electroencephalography -Cronbach's alpha, a statistical measure of reliability -ALPHA, the Antihydrogen Laser PHysics Apparatus, an experiment at CERN. - -Computing -Alpha (machine learning), the degree to which a learning agent takes into account new information -ALPHA refers to the set of ASCII characters A-Z and a-z, as defined in RFC 4234 -The ALPHA programming language -Alpha, a development stage of software release -DEC Alpha, a microprocessor/central processing unit (CPU) -AlphaServer - DEC now HP machine successor to the VAX -AlphaStation - DEC now HP workstation successor to the VAX - -Other -Latin alpha, an open back unrounded vowel -Space Station Alpha, the original name and unofficial call sign for the International Space Station -The first letter in the NATO phonetic alphabet -Alpha (radio navigation), a Russian radio navigation system similar to the former Omega Navigation System -Alpha 2000, a light aircraft built in New Zealand -Alpha Group, a dedicated counter-terrorism unit that belonged to OSNAZ -Alpha class submarine, a Russian fast attack nuclear submarine -Sony α or Sony Alpha, a digital SLR series by Sony -Minolta α or Minolta Alpha, the Japanese name for a series of SLR cameras known as Maxxum or Dynax elsewhere, and predecessor to Sony's brand of the same name -Tropical Storm Alpha (2005) -Alpha Industries, clothing company - -Related pages -Beta" -12889,47355,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation,Saturation,"Saturation or saturated generally means ""thoroughly full"", while unsaturated means less than full. These terms may be related to: - - Dew point, which is a temperature that occurs when atmospheric humidity reaches 100% and the air can hold no more moisture - Market saturation, in economics, a situation in which a product has become diffused (distributed) within a market - Saturated model, a concept in mathematical logic - Saturation (album), an album by the alternative rock band Urge Overkill - Saturation (biology), in mutation studies, the observed number of mutations relative to the maximum amount possible (usually undefined). - Saturation (chemistry), multiple definitions for chemistry - Saturation (color), the intensity of a specific hue - Saturation (magnetic), the state when the material cannot absorb a stronger magnetic field - Oxygen saturation, a clinical measure of the amount of oxygen in a patient's blood - Saturation (telecommunications), a number of meanings - Saturation arithmetic, in arithmetic, a version of arithmetic in which all operations are limited to fixed range - In the earth sciences, saturation generally refers to the water content in the soil, where the unsaturated zone is above the water table and the saturated zone is below. - A saturated liquid or saturated vapor contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling or condensing. - A saturated transistor is a BJT transistor that is fully turned on." -4640,14503,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1557,1557," - -Events -Start of the Italian War of 1551–59 -End of the Great Russian War 1553-1557 - -Deaths - September 1 – Jacques Cartier" -16024,61523,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaman,Shaman,"A shaman is a kind of medicine man who practices shamanism. Shamans were believed to be able to talk to the spirit world, usually animal spirits. In some tribes shamanism is important such as the Yanomamis (a Venezuelan tribe in the Venezuelan forest). - -A shaman was a person who had a special connection to the spiritual world. - -Related pages - Spiritism -Medicine man -Ainu - -Religious people" -1846,6184,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Arafat,Mount Arafat,"Mount Arafat or Mount Arafah ( transliterated Jabal ‘Arafāt) is a granite hill east of Mecca in the plain of Arafat. Arafat is a plain about southeast of Mecca. Mount Arafat reaches about in height and is also known as the Mount of Mercy (Jabal ar-Rahmah). According to Islamic tradition, the hill is the place where the Islamic prophet Muhammad stood and delivered the Farewell Sermon to the Muslims who had accompanied him for the Hajj towards the end of his life. - -On the 9th of the month of Dhu al-Hijjah pilgrims go to Arafat from Mina, for the most important part of the Hajj. The Khutbah of Hajj is narrated and Zuhr prayer and Asr prayer are prayed together. The pilgrims spend the whole day on the mountain to supplicate to Allah to forgive their sins and to pray for personal strength in the future. - -Hajj -Arafah rituals end at sunset and pilgrims then move to Muzdalifah for a shortened Maghrib Prayer and Isha prayer and for a short rest. - -The level area surrounding the hill is called the Plain of Arafat. The term Mount Arafah is sometimes applied to this entire area. It is an important place in Islam because during the Hajj, pilgrims spend the afternoon there on the ninth day of Dhul Hijjah (ذو الحجة). Failure to be present in the plain of Arafat on the required day invalidates the pilgrimage. - -Since late 2010, this place is served by Mecca Metro. On a normal Hajj, it would be around to walk. - -References - -Hills -Mount Arafat -Mount Arafat" -5392,17600,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma,Asthma,"Asthma (or Asthma bronchiale) is a disease that hurts the airways inside the lungs. It causes the tissue inside the airways to swell. Asthma also causes the bands of muscle around the airways to become narrow. This makes it hard for enough air to pass through and for the person to breathe normally. Asthma also causes mucus-making cells inside the airways to make more mucus than normal. This blocks the airways, which are already very narrow during an asthma attack, and makes it even more difficult to breathe. - -A person having an asthma attack often makes wheezing sounds when trying to breathe. This is the sound of air trying to pass through the very narrow airway. They also have shortness of breath, which means they cannot take a full deep breath. Chest tightness may happen which feels like their chest is being squeezed. They may also cough a lot. - -Asthma attacks can be a medical emergency because they can be fatal (cause a person to die). There is no cure for asthma. There are treatments such as different kinds of medicines to help people with asthma. There are also things that people with asthma can do to help themselves to keep their asthma from getting worse. - -There are a lot of risk factors for getting asthma. The exact reasons for each is not yet clearly understood. Some of the factors are believed to come from genetics. A person inherits genetic mutations from one or both of their parents that may increase the chances of developing asthma. Epigenetics, which are changes in the way a gene acts, may also increase their chances of getting asthma. These epigenetic changes may also be inherited. They may happen when a baby is still growing inside its mother, or during childhood. - -Socioeconomic status (SES) is also believed to play a part in developing asthma. A person's socioeconomic status is based on such things as how much money their family makes, where they live, and their education level. Race and ethnicity also may play a part. It also is related to access to medical care, personal beliefs, and dietary habits. People of lower socioeconomic status suffer higher rates of asthma, have worse outcomes, and also have higher asthma-related death rates than people of higher economic status. - -Causes - -The exact cause of asthma is not yet known. It is believed that it may be because of a of many different reasons: - -Genetics: When changes happen in a person's genes (called mutations) these changes are passed on to their children. One or both parents may have these changes or mutations in their genes, and some or all of their children may be born with them, which means they inherited them. These mutations, once they happen, run in families from one generation to the next and are permanent mutations, they change the gene in the DNA. These changes can make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma. In some diseases it may be only one change in one gene that may make a person get that disease, in asthma it may be changes in many different genes that may make a person more likely to get asthma. - -Epigenetics changes or modifications cause different kind of changes that affect how a person's genes work or 'express themselves' in three different ways (called epigenetic mechanisms), but do not change the gene in the DNA. These epigenetic changes may be inherited, or they may happen in utero which is when a baby is still inside its mother. They may also happen in childhood, because of different reasons, like a respiratory infection, being exposed to chemicals or drugs, diet etc. These changes can be passed from one generation to the next but are not permanent and might only be passed down one or two generations. Even though epigenetic changes affect how a person's genes work they do not permanently change a person's genes. It is believed epigenetic changes may also make a person more likely to get certain diseases like asthma. - -Environmental factors are things that affect a person; which can be either healthy or unhealthy. Unhealthy environmental factors are things like living in an area where there is a lot of air pollution, or living somewhere where there are lots of bugs in the house, or being around cigarette smoke. - -If a person who has genetic or epigentic changes in their genes that makes them have a bigger chance of getting asthma (genetic predisposition), also has unhealthy environmental factors in their life, like living in a home that has a lot of dust mites, then it is more likely that they will get asthma. - -Atopy - -Atopy is when there are changes in some of the genes a person is born with (genetic inheritance). These genetic changes make their body produce more Immunoglobulin E (IgE), a type of antibody. They are also more sensitive to things things like chemicals, smoke and dust (environmental antigens). This hypersensitivity means they are more sensitive or allergic to things in the environment than people who do not have these changes in their genes and are not hypersensitive or allergic. - -This hypersensitivity causes their body to react in certain ways. Usually a person who is atopic develops allergic rhinitis which affects the nasal passages which are behind the nose and they are also more likely to get atopic dermatitis which causes skin rashes and atopic asthma. Up to 40% of people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma. These three medical problems, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis and atopic asthma are called the Atopic Triad (a triad is when there is three of something). People who are atopic may also have other medical problems including food and drug allergies, stinging-insect hypersensitivity, hives (urticaria), Quincke's edema (angioedema), and contact dermatitis. - -If a person has one parent who is atopic they have a chance of being atopic too. If they have two parents who are atopic they have an even bigger chance of being atopic. - - Acetaminophen and asthma - -There have been studies that show a link between acetaminophen (Tylenol) and asthma. For instance a 2008 analysis of information collected from a very large study called the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood, or the ""Isaac study"" for short, showed that children who had taken acetaminophen for a fever during the first year of their life had a 50% higher risk of getting asthma later on. The more acetaminophen children took the higher their risk of getting asthma. Children who took it once a month had threefold increase in their risk of getting asthma. An increase in asthma rates in multiple countries corresponded with increased sales of drugs which contained acetaminophen. Previously the American College of Physicians reported a link between non-atopic asthma and acetaminophen use based on results of The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Not all doctors are convinced of the link between acetaminophen and asthma. - -""Children with asthma or at risk for asthma should avoid the use of acetaminophen."" (McBride JT, 2011). - -Types of Asthma - -Atopic asthma - -Atopic asthma is the most common form of asthma. - -Cough-variant asthma - -Cough-variant asthma is a type of asthma in which a cough is the main, and sometimes only sign. Cough-variant asthma usually does not cause wheezing or breathlessness and causes a dry, scratchy, mostly nonproductive cough (this means little or no phlegm is coughed up). About 30% of people who have cough-variant asthma will develop typical asthma. - -Work-related asthma - -Work related asthma are types of asthma that are caused or made worse by irritants in the environment at a person's place of work. The kind of jobs that may cause work related asthma are usually those in which there is a lot of smoke or chemicals are used. There are different types of work-related asthma (WRA): - -1. Occupational asthma with latency: this asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma occur after a period of time (latency) after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g.: John starts working at a factory where chemicals are used the first week of January. At the end of March he starts developing the signs and symptoms of asthma. The period of time from when he started the job in January to when the signs and symptoms of asthma started in March is the latency period. - -2. Irritant-Induced Asthma (IIA) is occupational asthma without latency: this is an asthma type is when the signs and symptoms of asthma can occur immediately (without latency) after being exposed to the environmental irritants. e.g. Frank starts a new job working as a janitor where he uses ammonia to clean. After opening the bottle of ammonia and breathing the fumes Frank starts finding it difficult to breath, his chest tightens up and he develops other signs and symptoms of asthma. -3. Reactive Airways Dysfunction Syndrome (RADS): - -4. Work-aggravated asthma: this is when a person already has asthma and environmental triggers at their place of work makes it worse. - -Exercise induced asthma - -Exercise induced asthma (EIA) - also called exercise induced bronchospasm - is the term used to describe asthma cases in which exercise is the main, and many times the only trigger for an asthma attack. If a person already has a form of asthma or they are atopic there is more of a chance of getting EIA. - -Nocturnal asthma - -Nocturnal asthma: is the term used to describe asthma cases that get worse at night (nocturnal). - -Premenstrual asthma (PMA): is when asthma symptoms get worse during the premenstrual period. This condition may affect up to 40% of female asthma sufferers. For a diagnosis of PMA to be made it is necessary to have a detailed history of the timing of menstrual cycles along with asthma symptoms experienced, and the peak expiratory flow rate (PMA may cause the PEF to be lowered in the premenstrual period). It is helpful in making a diagnosis to keep a diary of symptoms and peak expiratory flow (PEF) rates. - -Status asthmaticus - -Status asthmaticus is a severe form of asthma in which an asthma attack gets worse as it goes along and the medicines that are usually used to treat asthma do not work. Status asthmaticus can be fatal. - -Signs and symptoms - -Signs and symptoms in medicine are the way a medical condition affects a person's body. Sometimes the signs and symptoms of asthma may be mild which does not bother the person too much. At other times they may be severe which may make the person feel very sick. - -Not every person with asthma has all the signs and symptoms of asthma all the time. A person may have some signs and symptoms during one asthma attack and have different symptoms during another asthma attack. Some people with asthma may have long periods of time between asthma attacks where they show no signs and experience no symptoms of asthma, while others may have some or all of the signs and symptoms everyday which become more severe during an attack. It also depends on what type of asthma a person has and whether they have a mild, moderate or severe case. - -There are also some people with asthma who might only have signs and symptoms during certain times, such as those with exercise induced asthma, where the exercise triggers the symptoms. For some the signs and symptoms of asthma may be triggered or made worse (exacerbated) when they have viral respiratory tract infections, often the type casued by human rhinoviruses. - -Early warning signs of an asthma attack are physical changes in health that a person with asthma has before they have the attack. By knowing the early warning signs a person may be able to take steps to keep from having an asthma attack or if they do have one, to keep it from getting worse. - -Early warning signs - -The early warning signs of asthma may include: - Coughing a lot, especially at night - Losing your breath easily - Shortness of breath: this is when a person cannot take a deep breath which means they cannot fill their lungs all the way with air. They may be only able to take short, shallow breaths which does give their lungs enough air. When a person has shortness of breath they may also have chest tightness. - Getting tired easily during exercise and feeling weak and wheezing or coughing after exercise - Feeling the symptoms of a cold or allergies coming on like sneezing, a runny or stuffed up nose, coughing, sore throat, and headache - -Triggers - -A trigger factor or trigger for short, is something that causes the signs and symptoms of a medical condition to begin in a person who already has that medical condition. Common triggers for asthma are: - Tobacco smoke: a person does not need to smoke themselves, second-hand smoke can trigger an asthma attack. Second-hand smoke is the smoke from the end of a burning cigarette, cigar or pipe that someone else is smoking, or the smoke that they breathe out (exhale). - Pets: animals give off chemicals called proteins which are allergens; people can be allergic to them. These allergens can act as irritants and make someone's asthma worse and trigger an asthma attack. The proteins are in the pet's dander which is the dead flakes of skin that animals (and people) shed. They are also in their urine, feces, saliva, and sebum which is made by glands in the skin called sebaceous glands. Sebum is what makes hair and skin oily. When dander, urine, feces, saliva, and sebum dry out their proteins can become airborne and breathed in. Some of the types of pets people can be allergic to are, dogs, cats, gerbils, hamsters, guinea pigs and pet birds. - Bugs: different types of bugs which may be found inside homes may trigger asthma attacks. They may trigger asthma symptoms in the same way as pets; the proteins they give off are allergens and become airborne. Some of the more common bugs which may trigger asthma are dust mites, cockroaches and also bedbugs and fleas. Many other species that may infest a home may serve as a source of allegens such as Pharaoh ants. - Fungus spores (mold): fungus reproduce by releasing spores into the air, if the spores land in a good place form them to grow then a new fungus starts. Breathing in these spores can trigger asthma. One of the most common types of fungus spores found in both outside and outside environments are from a group (genus) known as aspergillus. - Strong emotions such as anger, stress and even laughter may worsen asthma symptoms. - Outdoor air pollution can come from many sources such as car and truck fumes in areas of heavy traffic and chemicals in the air near factories and refineries. - Weather: changes in the weather can trigger an asthma attack. Changes in air temperature can trigger an attack not just cold air. If a person goes from being outside in the cold into a warm house the sudden change can cause a broncospasm. Sudden changes in humidity also plays a part. - -The best way to deal with asthma triggers is to learn what they are and avoid them if possible, and if not totally avoidable then adjust one's behavior to deal with them. Example: running on a cold winter day right up to the doorstep of a warm house and going immediately inside; the sudden temperature change can cause an attack and could have been avoided. In general but especially with a medical condition such as asthma it is necessary to be aware of one's environment and what's in it, both indoors and outdoors. Most often the Asthma is triggered by allergens. One big source of allergens is the carpet. Totally replace it with a tiles floor reduce the possibility to create a good environment for the allergens and it is more simple to clean and disinfect. - -Asthma attack - -An asthma attack is when, after a period of time when aperson has had only a few or no symptoms of asthma, the asthma gets worse all of a sudden, usually because of being exposed to one or more triggers. When the asthma attack happens, the tissue inside the airways swell because of inflammation - which is how the body tries to protect itself from harmful things, like germs and irritants. When the tissues swell the opening (called the lumen) in the airway gets very narrow. - -The smooth muscles (which are the kind of muscles in the body that do not contract voluntarily, like the ones in the arm) around the bronchi and bronchioles begin to spasm or contract which makes the opening in the airway even narrower. This is called a bronchospasm. - -Inside the lining of the airways are glands called, submucosal glands, and above them, closer to the opening in the airway are cells called goblet cells - because they are shaped kind of like a goblet, which is a type of cup. The submucosal glands and the goblet cells make mucous which helps protect the inside of the airways. The mucous in the airways of healthy lungs is a thin film which traps irritants such as dust particles and pollen so they do not damage the airways and keep them from entering the air sacs (alveoli). - -There are tiny hairs lining the airway called cilia. The cilia wave back and forth like a liitle whips, and help push the mucous and the trapped particles up the airways to the ""pharynx. From there the mucous, the trapped particles from the lower airways can be coughed up (this is called sputum). - -During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and the goblet cells start making much more mucous than normal, and the mucous is also thicker than normal. This makes it very hard for the cilia to do their job, and bring the mucous up out of the airways. So now there is too much mucous being made, and not enough being brought up by the cilia. The airways are already to narrow to breathe properly because of the tissue swelling caused by inflammation and the constriction caused by the bronchospasms, so the extra mucous blocks the airway even more. This makes breathing very difficult. In fatal asthma attacks the airways can become so constricted and/or plugged with mucous that no air can get through at all.Carroll NG, Mutavdzic S, James AL. Increased mast cells and neutrophils in submucosal mucous glands and mucus plugging in patients with asthma. Thorax. 2002 Aug;57(8):677-82. PMID 12149526 - -There are other signs of breathing difficulty as in an asthma attack, which are important to learn, and knowing them can help tell if someone who cannot talk is having breathing problems. People who may not be able to let somebody know they are having breathing problems include babies and young children. - -Some of the other signs of asthma include: - -Chest and neck retractions; which cause muscles within the chest and neck not normally used too much when breathing, to begin contracting as they try and help to take in more air. Retractions are how the body tries to get enough air because of the difficulty in breathing normally because of the asthma attack. These retractions cause the skin of the chest wall, the skin of the neck and or the breastbone (sternum) to move in when breathing. There are different types of retractions which depend on which muscles start contracting, and this depends on how much difficulty a person is having breathing during an attack. - -Nasal flaring is when the opening of the nostrils get larger than normal during breathing. It is often a sign that a person is having difficulty in breathing. - -Blue lips and fingertips: oxygen which is in the air we breathe, is what makes blood have a red color. Blood without oxygen has a blue color. Oxygen enters the body through the air sacs (alveoli) which are at the end of the airways. During an asthma attack it difficult for the body to get enough oxygen because it is difficult to get enough air. As less air with oxygen in it makes it to the air sacs and into the blood, there is less red blood (blood with oxygen in it) and more blue blood (blood without oxygen in it). The blue color of the lips and under the fingernails is because of the blue blood, which can be seen in the small blood vessels under the skin. More parts of the body start turning blue the longer the body goes without oxygen. When parts of the body turn blue because of lack of oxygen it is called cyanosis. - -Sweating : sweating may be noticed especially on the forehead, but the skin does not feel warm, it may feel cool and clammy to touch. -Rapid breathing (tachypnea); breathing in and out much faster than normal. -Rapid heart beat: (tachycardia): the heart starts beating much faster than normal. - -Diagnosis - -A diagnosis of asthma is based on a person's: - Medical history; information such as what signs and symptoms of asthma have they had - Family medical history; has anyone they are related to had asthma or related conditions such as occur with those who are atopic Physical examination and testing -Diagnostic Tests - -There is no specific test that can tell if a person has asthma, however there are tests that can help in the diagnosis when the results are considered along with the medical and family history and physical exam - Lung function tests [Pulmonary function tests (PFTs)] - Spirometry; measures how much air the lungs are able to breathe in and how much air they breathe out and how fast a person can exhale. - Bronchoprovocation test; in this test the airways (bronchi and bronchioles) are provoked (to try and make something happen) into having a bronchospasm (make the airways constrict) this is to see how sensitive they are. Some of the things done to provoke a bronchospasm are making the person exercise, breathing cold air that gets colder, or breathing in a special chemical called methacholine. The results of bronchoprovocation are checked using spirometry. - -Differential diagnosesDifferential diagnoses are different medical disorders which may cause the same symptoms. Before a doctor makes a final diagnosis, which means they are sure of what medical disorder is causing the problem, they think of what other medical conditions have the same or almost the same symptoms, and make sure it's not one of them. - -The differential diagnoses of asthma include: - Bronchiectasis - Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) - -Airway remodeling - -Airway remodeling is when there are permanent physical changes to the airways that also affects how they work. This may happen after chronic long-term asthma. After cycles of inflammation, damage and repair to the airways. permanent remodeling of the airways may occur. This is when the physical structure of the airway changes. This will cause permanent airway narrowing (they are always more narrow than normal and get narrower during an asthma attack), bronchospasms are more easily triggered (bronchial hyperresponsivenes), airway edema (fluid in the airway), and mucus hypersecretion (too much mucous is made) as well as the build-up of collagen around the airway which is called fibrosis. Airway remodeling has been observed in chldren as young as six. - -Not managing asthma properly can lead to airway remodeling and this can increase the risk of dying from an asthma attack.Therapeutic Targets in Airway Inflammation Eds. N. Tony Eissa, David P. Huston : CRC Press; 1 edition (2003) pp.752-753. One of the main problems which cause poor asthma management is not using the asthma inhaler correctly. One of the main reasons for improper inhaler use is the asthma patient not having the proper knowledge in using the inhaler due to not receiving proper instruction. - -Goblet cell and submucosal gland hyperplasia: Among the physical changes that may happen in airway remodeling is goblet cell hyperplasia and submucosla gland hyperplasia. Submucosal glands and goblet cells make mucous which helps to protect the airways by trapping harmful particles like dust and pollen. The mucous is normally a thin film which lines the airways. The mucous and whatever particles they trap are brought up to the pharynx by tiny (microscopic) hairs on the inside of the airway that move back and forth called cilia. - -During an asthma attack the submucosal glands and goblet cells make too much mucous, and it is thicker than normal which makes it harder for the cilia to bring the mucous up. When airway remodeling happens the body may make many more submucosal glands and goblet cells than normal, which means even more mucous is made. There may be too much mucous for the cilia to bring up and the airway may become blocked. This is one of the reasons that people with airway remodeling often have more severe asthma. In fatal cases the airway may have become totally plugged causing asphyxia. - -Airway Reconstruction Methods - -Regular Breastfeeding sessions are a proven benefit to airway reconstruction. While previous studies have shown a similar effect between breastfeeding and asthma risk, this research is the first that showed a link between the length of breastfeeding and the number of wheezing episodes. Also, this study found evidence that the first asthma-related symptoms occur earlier in life if children were breastfed for shorter lengths of time or not exclusively. The study shows it’s not the nutritional benefit from the liquid, it’s the pull on lung of which dilates the smooth muscles of the air passage. Dry-nursing has actually proven to had been more beneficial in this study for strengthening airway health in both children and adults. Dilating the airways will strengthen them and the lungs themselves. - -Treatment - -Asthma can be controlled most often by avoiding contact with triggers and by using certain drugs. Most asthma sufferers carry special medicines around with them. These are called inhalers. The medicine inside the inhaler opens the tubes that go to the lungs. The inhaler is usually used to prevent an asthma attack, or to stop an attack that is already happening. -Rescue medicine — A rescue medicine is an inhaler (""puffer"") that is used if a person thinks they are having an asthma attack. - -Controller medicine — A controller medicine is a medicine in either a pill or an inhaler taken every day to prevent asthma attacks. - -Common treatment in a hospital - -Hospitals have other options they can use in an emergency when the regular treatments don't work: - Oxygen - Certain drugs that act like an asthma spray, but are much stronger - Certain drugs that can be given through an IV (intravenously). - Steroids - Breathing aids (including tubes, and valves in very severe cases) - -Unconventional Treatments / At Home Remedies - Warm steam baths have often been used to help alleviate nasal congestion and airway irritation associated with asthma. - Omega-3 fatty acids are often used as a natural remedy to help prevent and treat heart disease. Though some research suggests that omega-3s may also help to decrease airway inflammation and boost lung function - The Buteyko Breathing Technique is based on the premise that raising blood levels of carbon dioxide through shallow breathing can help people with asthma. Carbon dioxide is believed to dilate the smooth muscles of the airways. - Hot beverages are known to open breathing passages, have been said to open airways for irritated asthma symptoms. This method has been said to give temporary relief. - High consumption of apples may protect against asthma. Daily intake of fruits and vegetables in childhood decreased the risk of asthma. - Breastfeeding or the reflection of in adolescence and adults has been proven to strengthen and promote airway health. The strain from the pull on the lung will dilate the smooth muscles of the airways. Extended therapeutic sessions on a regular basis have been shown to dramatically improve air passage function, and promote less asthma complications. - -Drugs that may worsen an asthma attack - -There are certain types of drugs that make asthma worse or that can trigger such an attack. Certain types of drugs should only be used in very specific situations. Some of these drugs are: - Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or 'NSAID' for short. Aspirin is a NSAID and some people are allergic to it, or may have a higher risk of becoming allergic to it, even if they had used it before. - Beta blockers are a kind of drug used to treat heart problems, but should not be taken by people with asthma. - Acetaminophen is another drug that is believed might help not only to cause asthma, but also make asthma worse in people who already have it. Acetaminophen is an analgesic, a pain reliever. Because of its pain-reliving properties, Acetaminophen is often added to other drugs. Labels should always be read when taking any kind of medicine, including over-the-counter drugs. - ACE Inhibitors; are a type of drug usually used to treat high blood pressure and heart disease. They usually don’t make asthma worse, but in rare cases they may cause some of the signs and symptoms of asthma, such as airway obstruction and coughing, especially in the first few weeks of taking ACE Inhibitors. - Sleeping pills and trainquilizers; should usually not be taken by people with asthma. - -Managing comorbid asthma, depression and/or anxiety - -Depression and anxiety have a negative impact on asthma. Comorbid anxiety with asthma is particularly confusing because of the similarity of symptoms and interference in perception and treatment of asthma. The National Asthma Council Australia recommends treatment for comorbid psychological symptoms. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is one recommended treatment for anxiety and depression. There is tentative research evidence suggesting that a program of CBT amended for asthma, delivered in conjunction with medical treatment and in close liaison with your medical team, can improve anxiety, asthma and quality of life. Clinicians intending to deliver CBT for comorbid asthma, anxiety or depression should refer to and the research reviewed by for guidance on safe and effective intervention. - -The Global Initiative for Asthma - -The global Initiative for Asthma (GINA), launched in 1993, is a collaborative effort between the World Health Organisation (WHO), the National Institutes of Health USA (NIH), and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Its aims include; to increase public awareness of asthma, encourage research into the causes for the increasing prevalence of asthma worldwide, encourage research into the links between asthma and environmental factors, improve the effectiveness of asthma management practices, reduce the mortality and morbidity rates associated with asthma, and make treatments for asthma more readily available. - -One of the ways in which GINA fulfils these aims is by producing medical guidelines on the management of asthma, which based on a systematically conducted review of the most recent-worldwide literature. These guidelines are free and available to all patients and clinicians from the GINA website. The GINA main report is updated annually and aims to reflect evolving best practice as it highlights changes in asthma management strategies. - -GINA established ‘World Asthma Day’ in 1998, with the first event organised in Barcelona, Spain. It is held annually on the first Tuesday of May, and includes the participation of more than 35 countries. - -Comorbidities - -Often, having one medical problem makes it more likely a person will also have one or more other medical or psychiatric problems. These other disorders are the ""comorbid problems"" or ""comorbidities"". There are various comorbid medical and psychiatric conditions associated with asthma. - -Respiratory disorders - Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) - Respiratory infections - Chronic sinusitis - Rhinitis: allergic (atopic), nonallergic - Hyperventilation syndrome - Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a disorder that affects the airways of the lungs which is caused by an allergic hypersensitivity to the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. - -Gastrointestinal disorders - Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - Eosinophilic esophagitis (EE) - -Psychiatric disorders - Depression - Anxiety disorders - Panic disorder -Sleep disorders - Obstructive sleep apnea - -Skin disorders - Atopic dermatitis (AD): is a type of eczema - -Epidemiology - -In medicine epidemiology'' is the study of what causes diseases and medical conditions, how often they happen, where they happen and who they happen to. - -It is more common in developed countries than developing countries. The United States and Canada have some of the highest asthma rates in the world even though they are not poor countries. In Africa the country of South Africa has the highest asthma rate on the whole continent even though it is one of the richest countries. - -More than 80% of the people who die from asthma are usually from low and middle income countries, but not always, as South Africa has the fourth highest death rate in the world even though it is one of the richer countries in the world. In the United States the death rates are higher for females, adults and people of African descent. - -As of 2011, 235–300 million people worldwide are affected by asthma, and approximately 250,000 people die per year from the disease. Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18%. - -The amount of asthma cases reported each year has gotten much higher between the 1960s and 2008 Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid-1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world. Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and 5% of people in the United Kingdom. Canada, Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14–15%. - -Other websites - How to Use an Inhaler - -References - -Diseases -Pulmonology" -8158,27150,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wesleyan,Wesleyan,"Wesleyan is the adjective form of Wesley, which could also mean: -John Wesley, the founder of Methodism -The Wesleyan Church, split from the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1843. - Any person who adopts the principles of Wesleyan theology. -Wesleyan used as a noun may refer to one of many universities and liberal arts colleges named after John Wesley. Institutions include: -United States -Dakota Wesleyan University, in South Dakota -Illinois Wesleyan University, in Illinois -Indiana Wesleyan University, in Indiana -Iowa Wesleyan College, in Iowa -Kentucky Wesleyan College, in Kentucky -Nebraska Wesleyan University, in Nebraska -North Carolina Wesleyan College, in North Carolina -Ohio Wesleyan University, in Ohio -Oklahoma Wesleyan University, in Oklahoma -Roberts Wesleyan College, in New York -Southern Wesleyan University, in South Carolina -Tennessee Wesleyan College, in Tennessee -Texas Wesleyan University, in Texas -Virginia Wesleyan College, in Virginia -Wesleyan College, in Georgia -Wesleyan University, in Connecticut -West Virginia Wesleyan College, in West Virginia -Global -Nagasaki Wesleyan University, Japan -Wesleyan University, in the Philippines" -15890,60938,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asmara,Asmara,"Asmara is the capital city of Eritrea. It is the largest settlement in the country. Asmara has a population of about 579,000 people. Textiles and clothing, meat, beer, shoes, and ceramics are the major industrial products of the city. - -History -Asmara grew from four villages founded in the twelfth century. It is said that there were four clans living in the Asmara area. The women of these tribes told them men to join together to fight bandits who had been attacking the area. After they defeated the bandits, a new name was given to the place, Arbaete Asmara. This name, in the Tigrinya language, meant the four females united. Arbaete was later dropped and the name was made Asmara. - -In 1889, Asmara became an Italian colony. It was made the capital of the country in 1897 and was called Asmara italiana. The city was damaged during earthquakes in 1913 and 1915. During the 1930s, the Italians made many chances to how Asmara looked. Many new buildings were created during this time and the city was mainly populated by Italian colonists (in 1940 there were 57000 Italian residents on a total population of 98000). - -These buildings were built in the same style as Italian buildings. This gave Asmara the look of an Italian city: that is why sometimes the city is nicknamed ""Piccola Roma since then. Today many of the buildings and stores in Asmara still have Italian names. - -During World War II, after the defeat of Italy in Africa, Asmara was under British rule. In 1952, the United Nations placed the country and Asmara under Ethiopian control. In the 1960s, the Eritrean people started fighting for independence from Ethiopia. - -This bloody war lasted until 1991. Asmara was given back to the Eritrean people on May 24, 1991. - -In July 2017 Asmara has been declared World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. - -Related pages - Eritrea - Piccola Roma - -References - -Bibliography - - Francesca Calace. Restituiamo la Storia – dagli archivi ai territori. Architetture e modelli urbani nel Mediterraneo orientale Gangemi editorial Rome, 2012 ISBN 978-88-492-2364-4 - Giovanni Godoli. Asmara: immagine di una città. Architettura e Potere da Ferdinando Martini all'Impero. Universita' di Firenze. Florence, 2012 () - Jochen Visscher. Asmara - The Frozen City Jovis ed. Berlin, 2006 ISBN 978-3-936314-61-8 () - -Capital cities in Africa -Cities in Eritrea -12th-century establishments in Africa -History of Italy" -17558,66422,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1417,1417," - -Events of 1417 -April 18 – Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg begins to rule as margrave of Brandenburg -June 24 – The Isle of Man holds the first known Tynwald Day; the annual meeting of its parliament Tynwald which has continued every year until present. -July 27 – Avignon Pope Benedict XIII is deposed, bringing to an end the Great Western Schism. -November 11 – Pope Martin V succeeds Pope Gregory XII as the 206th pope. - The use of street lighting is first recorded in London, when Sir Henry Barton, the mayor, orders lanterns with lights to be hung out on the winter evenings between Hallowtide and Candlemas. - -Births -February 23 – Pope Paul II (d. 1471) -June 19 – Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, lord of Rimini (died 1468) -November 23 – William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel, English politician (died 1487) -date unknown -Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, regent of Sweden -Nicholas of Flüe, Swiss hermit and saint (died 1487) - -Deaths -January – Art mac Art MacMurrough-Kavanagh, King of Leinster (born 1357) -April 29 – Louis II of Naples (born 1377) -September 4 – Robert Hallam, English Catholic bishop -September 16 – Francesco Zabarella, Italian jurist (b. 1360) -October 18 – Pope Gregory XII -December 14 – John Oldcastle, English Lollard leader -probable – Huitzilíhuitl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan" -3534,10600,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/222%20BC,222 BC," - -Events - -By place - -Greece - Cleomenes III is defeated and the Spartan army annihilated by the Achaean League and the Macedonians in the Battle of Sellasia. - Ptolemy IV succeeds his father Ptolemy III as king of Egypt. - -Rome - Marcus Claudius Marcellus leads the Romans to victory in the Battle of Clastidium, conquering the area later known as Cisalpine Gaul. -The Romans capture Milan. - -Asia - State of Qin conquers the state of Yan and defeats the last defensive forces of the state of Zhao in China . - -Deaths - - Ptolemy III Euergeter I, king of Egypt - Ctesibius, mathematician - -222 BC" -24957,98072,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20T%C3%A8ne%20culture,La Tène culture,"The La Tène culture existed from about 500 BC to about 100 AD. Named after a town in Switzerland near Neuchâtel, it was greatly influenced by the Roman and the Greek cultures. There are two sources for this: - Things found - Romans and Greeks came in contact with the culture and called them Celts, usually. They wrote about them, most notably Julius Caesar's ""On the Gallic War"" (De bello gallico). - -The Celts basically lived in clans, which were led by leaders, the druids and the bards. Women were much better off than under the Romans and were of a similar status to men. There were both polygyny (a man could have several women) and polyandry (a woman could have several men). - -Ancient history" -1526,5240,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Taylor,Elizabeth Taylor,"Dame Elizabeth ""Liz"" Rosemond Taylor DBE (February 27, 1932 – March 23, 2011) was a British-American actress. - -The movies she starred in were, National Velvet, Father of the Bride, A Place in the Sun, Giant, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, and Suddenly, Last Summer. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for BUtterfield 8. She played the title role in Cleopatra, and married her costar Richard Burton. They appeared together in 11 films, including Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. Taylor won a second Academy Award in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. From the mid-1970s, she appeared less frequently in film, and made occasional appearances in television and theatre. - -Her personal life included eight marriages and several life-threatening illnesses. From the mid-1980s, Taylor supported HIV and AIDS programs; she co-founded the American Foundation for AIDS Research in 1985, and the Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation in 1993. She received the Presidential Citizens Medal, the Legion of Honour, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award and a Life Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. The American Film Institute named her seventh on their list of the ""Greatest American Screen Legends"". Taylor died of congestive heart failure in March 2011 at the age of 79 after suffering many years of ill health. - -Early life -Taylor was born in London to American parents, Francis Lenn Taylor and Sara Sothern, who were Americans living in England. Her parents were originally from Arkansas City, Kansas. They returned to the United States on the onset of World War II. - -Acting career -Her first act was in Lassie Come Home (1942). The next one was National Velvet (1944). Throughout her teens, she appeared in various supporting roles and easily made the transition to young adult parts. - -Her first major role was in A Place in the Sun in 1950, with Montgomery Clift. Working steadily during the 1950s, notable movies have included; The Father of the Bride (1951), Ivanhoe (1952), Elephant Walk (1954), Rhapsody (1954), Giant (1956), Raintree County (1957), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958), Suddenly, Last Summer (1959), BUtterfield 8 (1960), etc. - -In 1963, she played the lead role in Cleopatra and met actor Richard Burton, who became her fifth husband in 1964. They appeared in several movies together; The V.I.P's (1963), The Sandpiper (1965), Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf ? (1966), The Taming of the Shrew (1967), Boom (1968). She also starred in Secret Ceremony (1969), X, Y and Zee (1972) and Ash Wednesday (1973). - -She has won two Academy Awards for best actress, the first for her performance in Butterfield 8, the second for her performance in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. In 1999 she won the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award. - -Personal life -Taylor often received media attention because of her many illnesses and controversial marriages to well known figures such as Conrad Hilton Jr., Michael Wilding, Mike Todd, Eddie Fisher, Richard Burton (twice), John Warner. She has two sons with Michael Wilding and a daughter with Mike Todd. She also adopted a daughter while married to Richard Burton. She was the godmother of two of Michael Jackson's children. - -Activism - -HIV/AIDS -Taylor devoted consistent and generous humanitarian time, advocacy efforts, and funding to HIV and AIDS-related projects and charities. She helped to raise more than $270 million for the cause. She was one of the first celebrities and public personalities to do so at a time when few people knew about the disease and organized and hosted the first AIDS fundraiser in 1984 to benefit AIDS Project Los Angeles. - -Taylor was cofounder of the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) with Dr. Michael Gottlieb and Dr. Mathilde Krim in 1985. Her longtime friend and former co-star Rock Hudson had disclosed having AIDS and died of it that year. She also founded the Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation (ETAF) in 1993, created to provide critically needed support services for people with HIV/AIDS. For example, in 2006 Taylor commissioned a ""Care Van"" with examination tables and xray equipment, the New Orleans donation made by her Elizabeth Taylor AIDS Foundation and Macy's. That year, after Hurricane Katrina, Taylor donated $500,000 to the NO/AIDS Task Force, a non-profit organization serving the community of those affected by HIV/AIDS in and around New Orleans.The donation was shared by Taylor for her celebration of her 74th birthday and to help NO/AIDS Task Force continue their work on fighting AIDS. - -Taylor was honored with a special Academy Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, in 1992 for her HIV/AIDS humanitarian work. Speaking of that work, former President Bill Clinton said at her death, ""Elizabeth's legacy will live on in many people around the world whose lives will be longer and better because of her work and the ongoing efforts of those she inspired."" - -Jewish causes -After she converted to the Jewish religion, Taylor worked for Jewish causes throughout her life. -In 1959, her purchase of Israeli Bonds caused Arab boycotts of her films. In 1962, she was prevented from entering Egypt to complete Cleopatra; its government announced that she would not be allowed to come to Egypt because she had adopted the Jewish faith and ""supports Israeli causes"". However the ban was lifted in 1964 after it was considered that the film had brought good publicity to Egypt. - -In 1974, Taylor and Richard Burton considered marrying in Israel, but they were unable to do so because Burton was not Jewish. Taylor helped to raise money for organizations such as the Jewish National Fund; advocated for the right of Soviet Jews to emigrate to Israel and canceled a visit to the USSR because of its disapproval of Israel due to the Six-Day War, along with signing a letter protesting the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 of 1975. - -She offered herself as a replacement hostage after more than 100 Israeli civilians were taken hostage in the Entebbe skyjacking in 1976. After the success of the operation, which freed the hostages, she acted with Kirk Douglas in a TV special, Victory at Entebbe, broadcast in January, 1977. When she experienced the role, she stated, ""I couldn't pass up this opportunity. I have strong ties to Israel and I firmly believe in the courage and dedication of the Entebbe mission."" - -Illness and death -Taylor had a lot of health problems. In 2004, she was diagnosed with congestive heart failure. In 2009, she underwent cardiac surgery for it. In early 2011, new symptoms related to congestive heart failure caused her to be admitted into Cedars-Sinai Medical Center for treatment. Taylor died on March 23, 2011, surrounded by her four children at the same medical center in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 79. - -References - The Illustrated Who's Who of the Cinema, Lloyd, Fuller & Dessler, Portland House, New York, 1987. - -1932 births -2011 deaths -Actors from London -Actors from Los Angeles -American activists -American movie actors -American stage actors -American television actors -Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States -Converts to Judaism -Deaths from congestive heart failure -English movie actors -English stage actors -English television actors -Jewish activists -Jewish American actors -Jewish British actors -Presidential Citizens Medal recipients -Former Roman Catholics -Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire" -12414,45805,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinium%20arboreum,Vaccinium arboreum,"Vaccinium arboreum (also called sparkleberry or farkleberry) is a species of Vaccinium native to south-eastern United States. They are usually found in southern Virginia west to southeastern Missouri, and south to Florida and eastern Texas. - -Vaccinium arboreum is a shrub (rarely a small tree) growing to 3-5 metres (sometimes up to 9 metres) tall. The leaves are evergreen in the south of the range, but deciduous farther north where winters are colder. They are oval-elliptic with an acute apex, 3-7 cm long and 2-4 cm broad, with a smooth or very finely toothed margin. The flowers are white, bell-shaped, 3-4 mm in diameter, with a five-lobed corolla, produced in racemes up to 5 cm long. The fruit is a round dry berry about 6 mm diameter, green at first, black when ripe, edible but bitter and tough. - -References -Germplasm Resources Information Network: Vaccinium arboreum -Missouriplants: Vaccinium arboreum -Virginia Tech Dendrology: Vaccinium arboreum - -Berries -Vaccinium" -7823,25628,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handball,Handball,"(For the different sport of the same name played with two, three or four players, see.) - -Handball (also known as team handball, field handball or Olympic handball) is a team sport similar to football (soccer). Two teams of 7 players each (six players and a goalkeeper) pass and bounce a ball using the hands, trying to throw it into the goal of the other team. Games are an hour of playing time, divided into 30-minute halves, with 15 minutes break at halftime. The size of the court is a little bigger than a basketball court, 40 meters by 20 meters, which is the same court as indoor soccer. It has a six-meter line which no one but the goalie is allowed to have possession of the ball and touching the ground. If this happens, a foul is called and the player committing the foul gets ejected, (sitting out of the game for two minutes, five minutes, or the rest of the game). There are seven players total on a handball team, six players and a goalie. Most historians agree that handball predates soccer, (football) but that is not for certain - -References -""Team handball."" World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012" -2532,8066,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fantastic%20Four,The Fantastic Four,"The Fantastic Four is a team of superheroes. The team originally first appeared in a series of comic books created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. It was published by Marvel Comics starting in 1961. They also appeared in several cartoons and films as well. - -The members of the group are scientist Reed Richards, his girlfriend/wife Sue Storm, her teenage brother Johnny Storm, and Ben Grimm, a friend of them. While test flying a rocket ship, they are affected by cosmic rays, and gain superpowers. Richards becomes ""Mr. Fantastic"" who can stretch his limbs and body for long distances and sizes. Sue became the ""Invisible Girl/Woman"" who could make herself invisible, create force fields, and other things. Johnny transformed into the ""Human Torch"" who can become a giant ball of fire. Ben turned into a rock-like creature with super-strength, called ""The Thing"". - -They decide to use these powers for good and work from their laboratory in a New York City skyscraper. - - -Marvel Comics adapted into movies" -4336,13512,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European,Indo-European,"Indo-European may refer to: - - Indo-European languages - Indo-European people, the native speakers of Indo-European languages - Aryan race, a 19th and early 20th century term for those peoples - Proto-Indo-European language, the reconstructed common ancestor of all Indo-European languages - Proto-Indo-Europeans, an ancient ethnic group speaking the Proto-Indo-European language" -19760,75582,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2703%20Bonnie%20%26%20Clyde,'03 Bonnie & Clyde,"'03 Bonnie & Clyde is a single by rapper Jay-Z, featuring R&B singer Beyoncé. It was taken from his ninth studio album The Blueprint²: The Gift & the Curse and can also be found on the international editions of Beyoncé's first solo album Dangerously in Love. Released in 2002, the song reached number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. It was Jay-Z's second top ten single and Beyoncé's first top ten single as a solo artist. It also reached number two in the United Kingdom. The single is notable for causing drama between Jay-Z and Toni Braxton over what she said was a stolen sample. Jay-Z had to work with Suge Knight to secure the rights to cover this song from Tupac Shakur, because he made the original version of the song, which was called ""Me and My Girlfriend"". ""Me and My Girlfriend"" was on his 1996 classic The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. Jay-Z also referenced this in his song ""All I Need"" from The Blueprint. - -Music video -The music video for the song, which was directed by Chris Robinson, was nominated for ""Best Hip-Hop Video"" at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. However, it lost to Missy Elliott's ""Work It."" The name of the song is a reference to Eminem's song ""'97 Bonnie and Clyde"". - -There is a changed version of it called ""Bonnie & Clyde '03"" which has many of Beyoncé's vocals rather than Jay-Z's. It is included in her ""Dangerously In Love"" CD. - -Official versions - ""'03 Bonnie & Clyde"" (Clean version for the radio) - ""'03 Bonnie & Clyde"" (Instrumental) - ""'03 Bonnie & Clyde"" (Radio E) - -References - -2002 songs -Beyoncé songs -Jay-Z songs -Rap songs" -13745,50866,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich,Sandwich,"A sandwich is a food prepared by placing different kinds of foods between two pieces of bread. The pieces of bread in a sandwich are referred to as slices or sheets of bread. Between the slices of bread, people often add in vegetables, meat, or cheese. The sandwich is thought to have been made first for the Earl of Sandwich, hence the name. - -Many people enjoy the sandwich as it is easy and quick to make in a hurry. Also, the sandwich can be easily eaten with one hand without utensils which allows consumers to have a hand free to do other things. Some people prefer to eat a sandwich with both hands. - -In many countries, children eat sandwiches for lunch at school. The sandwiches are put in a lunchbox and often wrapped in cling film to keep them fresh. - -Variations - -A sandwich is not limited to a single layer of filling between two pieces of bread. It can have more than one layer of filling and bread. Each layer of filling is commonly referred to as a ""deck"". For instance, a single decker sandwich would be the standard two slices of bread and one layer of filling. A double decker sandwich will have three slices of bread with two layers of fillings. Generally one piece, is one piece of bread cut in two with a filling between each piece. - -The double decker sandwich is so called because each layer of filling forms a deck, much like a double decker bus. A club sandwich is a double decker sandwich with chicken, bacon and salad. A triple decker sandwich would consist of four slices of bread with three layers of fillings. The BLT is a common type of sandwich filled with bacon, lettuce and tomato. - -If there is only one piece of bread it is sometimes called an open sandwich. Open sandwiches are very common in Scandinavian countries, e.g. in Denmark ""smørrebrød"" is an open sandwich. - -Another form of sandwich is the toasted sandwich. The toasted sandwich can be made from slices of toast instead of bread or the sandwich is toasted whole in an oven or a sandwich presser. - -Sandwiches made with different types of bread might be given unique names. A panini, for example, is usually a sandwich on a small roll or loaf which is pressed between two heavy, heated grill plates. Sandwiches are commonly made of white bread, brown bread or French bread, but can also be made of other types (e.g. a panini uses ciabatta). - -Sandwiches can also be called by many other names in different parts of the world such as 'grinder', 'sub', 'hoagie' and 'wedge'. - -Types - -There are many different types of sandwiches. Examples are: - -Cold sheets of bread: Sandwich -Heated sheets of bread: Toastie -A breaded bun : Burger -Ciabatta: Panini -A long bread: Baguette -Wrap: Soft Flatbread -Peanut butter and jelly sandwich: White Bread -Peanut butter sandwich: White Bread - -Fillings - -There are many types of filling that can be placed within a sandwich. These include: - -Eggs -Ham -Ground beef -Cheese -Chicken -Cucumber -Ice cream (Ice cream sandwich) -Toast -Peanut butter -Jelly -Tuna -chocolate spread -butter - -In popular culture - -In one episode of The Apprentice, the apprentices were required to make sandwiches for Donald Trump. - -In the French film Taxi the protagonist is made a special sandwich with half Bayonne ham, half Paris. This later sparks the jealousy of another character. - -In the Warner Brothers cartoon Scooby Doo, Scooby was well known to love making sandwiches with Shaggy having many layers, often with a great variety of fillings. - -In the television series Buffy, during episode 61, Buffy eyes a classmate eating a sandwich, snatches it and hungrily scarfs it down. - -In the television series Star Trek, Scotty used the word sandwich to refer to the makeup of a piece of technology which was made of three layers of two materials, which caused the food synthesizer in the galley of the USS Enterprise to believe that he was requesting a meal. Scotty canceled the process by kicking the offending unit. - -The largest sandwich ever made was made by Wild Woody's Chill and Grill, Roseville, Michigan. It weighed 5,440 lbs. - -References - -Sandwiches" -4909,15549,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20the%20Ripper,Jack the Ripper,"Jack the Ripper is the name given to an unidentified serial killer. He was active during the summer and autumn of 1888 in the Whitechapel district of London, England, which was known for its overpopulation and prostitution. - -The main victims thought to be killed by the Ripper were five prostitutes: - Mary Ann Nichols - 43 years old (31 August) - Annie Chapman - 47 years old (8 September) - Elizabeth Stride - 44 years old (30 September) - Catherine Eddowes - 46 years old (30 September) - Mary Jane Kelly - around 25 years old (9 November) - -Newspapers and police in London around this time started to get taunting letters. The letters were signed ""Jack the Ripper"". Other murders were reported around the same time, but were not thought to be done by Jack the Ripper. He was also known to have sex with his victims before he killed them. - -Who was Jack the Ripper? - -Nobody knows who Jack the Ripper really was. Some think he might have been a doctor or a butcher because of how he killed and cut up the women, much like how a surgeon might perform surgery, or how a butcher might dissect an animal. All the murders happened on weekends, so it could have been someone who did not live in London but visited the city on weekends, or someone who worked during the week and was only free at the weekends. -In September 2014, a research group claimed that it had identified Jack the Ripper as a 23-year old Jewish immigrant from Central Europe named Aaron Kosminski. - -Jack the Ripper's first murders - -The Ripper was famous for the brutality of his murders. He often mutilated his victims, usually killing them by slashing their throats open, almost to the point of decapitation, and stabbing them multiple times, especially in the abdomen. At about 23:00 on 30 August, Mary Ann Nichols was seen walking the Whitechapel Road; at 00:30 she was seen to leave a pub in Brick Lane, Spitalfields. An hour later, she was turned out of 18 Thrawl Street as she was lacking fourpence for a bed, implying by her last words that she would soon earn the money on the street with the help of a new bonnet she had acquired. She was later seen at the corner of Osborn Street and Whitechapel Road, at 02:30, an hour before her death, by Nelly Holland. Nichols claimed she had made enough money to pay for her bed three times over, but had drunk it all away, it was the last time she was seen alive. An hour later, she was found lying dead in front of a gated stable entrance in Buck's Row (since renamed Durward Street), Whitechapel, her throat cut and her abdomen ripped open. Nobody had seen or heard a thing, the killer struck again on 8 September, Annie Chapman was seen talking to a man at about 5:30 a.m. just beyond the backyard of 29 Hanbury Street, Spitalfields. Mrs. Long described him as over forty, and a little taller than Chapman, of dark complexion, and of foreign, ""shabby-genteel"" appearance. He was wearing a deer-stalker hat and dark overcoat, carpenter Albert Cadosch had entered the neighbouring yard at 27 Hanbury Street seconds later, and heard voices in the yard followed by the sound of something falling against the fence. Chapman's body was discovered at just before 6:00 a.m. on the morning of 8 September 1888 by a resident of number 29, market porter John Davis. She was lying on the ground near a doorway in the back yard. Her throat was cut from left to right, and she had been disembowelled, with her intestines thrown out of her abdomen over each of her shoulders. The morgue examination revealed that part of her uterus was missing. Chapman's protruding tongue and swollen face led Dr Phillips to think that she may have been asphyxiated with the handkerchief around her neck before her throat was cut. - -Letters - -""Dear Boss"" - -Two weeks later, a letter was sent claimed to have been written by the killer himself. The letter, received on September 27 1888, was signed ""Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper."" The law enforcement and newspapers referred to him as the Ripper from that point on. The letter read: - -""From Hell"" -The ""From Hell"" letter was received by George Lusk, leader of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee, on 16 October 1888. The handwriting and style is unlike that of the ""Dear Boss"" letter and postcard. The letter came with a small box in which Lusk discovered half of a kidney, preserved in ""spirits of wine"" (ethanol). Eddowes' left kidney had been removed by the killer. The writer claimed that he ""fried and ate"" the missing kidney half. There is disagreement over the kidney: some contend it belonged to Eddowes, while others argue it was nothing more than a macabre practical joke. The kidney was examined by Dr Thomas Openshaw of the London Hospital, who determined that it was human and from the left side, but (contrary to false newspaper reports) he could not determine its gender or age. Openshaw subsequently also received a letter signed ""Jack the Ripper"". - -Double murders -Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were killed in the early morning of Sunday 30 September 1888. Stride's body was discovered at about 1 a.m., in Dutfield's Yard, off Berner Street (now Henriques Street) in Whitechapel. The cause of death was one clear-cut incision which severed the main artery on the left side of the neck. Uncertainty about whether Stride's murder should be attributed to the Ripper, or whether he was interrupted during the attack, stems from the absence of mutilations to the abdomen. Witnesses who said they saw Stride with a man earlier that night gave differing descriptions: some said her companion was fair, others dark; some said he was shabbily dressed, others well-dressed. Eddowes' body was found in Mitre Square, in the City of London, three-quarters of an hour after Stride's. The throat was severed, and the abdomen was ripped open by a long, deep, jagged wound. The left kidney and the major part of the uterus had been removed. A local man, Joseph Lawende, had passed through the square with two friends shortly before the murder, and he described seeing a fair-haired man of shabby appearance with a woman who may have been Eddowes. His companions, however, were unable to confirm his description. Eddowes' and Stride's murders were later called the ""double event"". Part of Eddowes' bloodied apron was found at the entrance to a tenement in Goulston Street, Whitechapel. Some writing on the wall above the apron piece, which became known as the Goulston Street graffito, seemed to implicate a Jew or Jews, but it was unclear whether the graffito was written by the murderer as he dropped the apron piece, or merely incidental.Police Commissioner Charles Warren feared the graffito might spark antisemitic riots, and ordered it washed away before dawn. The ""Saucy Jacky"" postcard was postmarked 1 October 1888 and received the same day by the Central News Agency. The handwriting was similar to the ""Dear Boss"" letter. It mentions that two victims were killed very close to one another: ""double event this time"", which was thought to refer to the murders of Stride and Eddowes. It has been argued that the letter was mailed before the murders were publicised, making it unlikely that a crank would have such knowledge of the crime, but it was postmarked more than 24 hours after the killings took place, long after details were known by journalists and residents of the area. - -The end of the crimes -Mary Jane Kelly was seen with a man of ""Jewish appearance"". Kelly and the man headed for her room at 13 Miller's Court, Elizabeth Prater, who was woken by her kitten walking over her neck, and Sarah Lewis both reported hearing a faint cry of ""Murder!"" at about 4:00 a.m., but did not react because they reported that it was common to hear such cries in the East End. She claimed not to have slept and to have heard people moving in and out of the court throughout the night. She thought she heard someone leaving the residence at about 5:45 a.m. Kelly's gruesomely mutilated body was discovered the next morning lying on the bed at 10:45 a.m. on Friday 9 November 1888. The throat had been severed down to the spine, and the abdomen virtually emptied of its organs. The heart was missing. - -After the murder of Mary Jane Kelly, the Ripper murders stopped suddenly. The identity of Jack the Ripper is unknown. Although many historians have different opinions and theories on who Jack the Ripper was, it will probably never be known who he was. - -References - -1888 in Europe -1880s in the United Kingdom -Murder in London -Prostitution -Unidentified serial killers -Unsolved murders in the United Kingdom -19th century in London" -18571,69688,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20College%20of%20Music,Royal College of Music,"The Royal College of Music is a conservatory in London where young people can study music. It was founded in 1882. Many musicians who became famous studied music at the Royal College of Music. - -The Royal College of Music was founded by Royal charter. The president was the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII). The president has always been a member of the royal family. The first director was Sir George Grove and he was followed by Sir Hubert Parry. The first building was opposite the west side to the Royal Albert Hall, but in 1894 the RCM moved to a larger building south of the Royal Albert Hall on Prince Consort Road. The College is still there, but there have been many extensions and improvements to the building since then. - -There are about 520 students at the RCM. About 170 of these are post-graduate students. The college can award degrees and diplomas in music. Composers and performing musicians can study there. There is a large museum of musical instruments. Next to the main building is a 400-seater opera house, the Britten Theatre, opened in 1986. There are now over 600 students from about 50 countries. - -The director of the Royal College of Music is Dr Colin Lawson. - -Some famous people who studied at the Royal College of Music -Thomas Allen (born 1944), singer -Julian Anderson (born 1967), composer -Malcolm Arnold (1921 - 2006), composer -Arthur Bliss (1891 - 1975), composer -Rutland Boughton (1878 - 1960), composer -Julian Bream (born 1933), guitarist and lutenist -Benjamin Britten (1913 - 1976), composer -George Butterworth (1885 - 1916), composer -Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875 - 1912), composer -Thurston Dart (1921 - 1971), performer and musicologist - Andrew Davis (born 1944), conductor -Colin Davis (born 1927), conductor -James Galway (born 1939), flautist -Eugène Goossens (1893 - 1962), conductor -Charles Groves (1915 - 1992), conductor -David Helfgott (born 1947), pianist -Gustav Holst (1874 - 1934), composer -Herbert Howells (1892-1983), composer - John Ireland (1879 - 1962), composer and pianist -Dame Gwyneth Jones (born 1936), Wagnerian soprano -Thea King (1925-2007), clarinetist -Constant Lambert (1905 - 1951), composer and critic -John Lill (born 1944), pianist -Hamish MacCunn (1868-1916), composer and conductor -Neville Marriner (born 1924), conductor -Francis Monkman (born 1949), rock, classical and film score composer -Peter Pears (1910 - 1986), singer -Trevor Pinnock (born 1946), harpsichordist and conductor -Edmundo Ros (1910—2011), band leader -Cyril Smith (1909 - 1974), pianist -Leopold Stokowski (1882 - 1977), conductor -Joan Sutherland (born 1926), singer -Michael Tippett (1905 - 1998), composer -Mark-Anthony Turnage (born 1960), composer -Fanny Waterman (born 1920), founder, chairman and artistic director of the Leeds International Pianoforte Competition musician -Andrew Lloyd Webber (born 1948), composer -Julian Lloyd Webber (born 1951), cellist -William Lloyd Webber (1914 - 1982), composer -Gillian Weir (born 1941), internationally-renowned organist -John Williams (born 1941), guitarist -Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872 - 1958), composer - -Other websites - Royal College of Music website - -Music schools -Colleges and universities in London" -17047,64679,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvin%20E%27tesami,Parvin E'tesami,"Parvin E'tesami (March 17, 1907 – April 5, 1941; ) is an Iranian poetess. She was daughter of Yosuf E'tesami, Iranian poet and writer. She started poetry when she was 9. Alladin Pazargadi translated her works from Persian into English in 2000. - -Persian poets -1907 births -1941 deaths" -13943,51605,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre,Ochre,"Ochre or Ocher is a golden-yellow or light yellowish brown colour. The word is from the Greek ochros, meaning ""yellow"". Ochre is natural earth pigment containing hydrated iron oxide. - -Meaning of ochre - -The use of ochre is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the Aurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived. - -Tones of ochre colour comparison chart - - Banana Yellow (Yellow Ochre) (Human Feces) (Hex: #CCCC33) (RGB: 204, 204, 51) -
  • Ochre (Hex: #CC7722) (RGB: 204, 119, 34)
  • - -Pigments" -21924,83529,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Z%C3%BCrich,Lake Zürich,"Lake Zürich is a lake in Switzerland, that goes southeast of the city Zürich. - -References - -Other websites - Zürichsee Schifffahrtsgesellschaft -- Boat schedules, mainly non-English. - Zürichsee-Fähre Horgen-Meilen -- Ferry schedules, in German. - Waterlevels Lake Zürich at Zürich - -Lakes of Switzerland -Canton of Zürich -Canton of St. Gallen -Canton of Schwyz" -14780,55697,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matcha,Matcha,"Matcha (pronounce: ""MA-cha"") also spelt maccha (Japanese: 抹茶), is a fine, powdered green tea. It is used in Japanese tea ceremony and for dying and flavouring foods such as mochi and soba noodles, green tea ice cream and different types of wagashi (Japanese confectionery). The most famous Matcha-producing regions are Uji in Kyoto (tea from this region is called ""Ujicha""), Nishio in Aichi (tea from this region is called ""Nishiocha"") both on the main island of Honshū; Shizuoka, and Kyushu. - -Matcha costs more money than other kinds of tea. Its price depends on its quality (how good it is). It can be hard to find outside Japan, and also the special things that are used to make it and drink it. - -History - -Powdered tea, stored and traded as tea bricks, seems to have been invented in China during the Song Dynasty (960-1279). Making and drinking powdered tea was formed into a ritual (special ceremony) by the Chan Buddhists. These Buddhists use to drink from the same bowl as a sacrament. -Chan Buddhism (also known in Japanese as Zen), and powdered tea, were brought to Japan in 1191 by the monk Eisai. Powdered tea was slowly forgotten in China, but the 16th century tea master Sen no Rikyu made the rules of the Japanese tea ceremony. He said that matcha was the correct tea to use. - -Production -The preparation of matcha starts several weeks before harvest. At that time, the tea bushes are covered so that they do not get direct sunlight. This makes it grow slower and turns the leaves a darker shade of green. It also causes amino acids to be made, and these make the tea taste sweeter. - -After harvesting, if the leaves are rolled out before drying as usual, the result will be gyokuro (jewel dew) tea. However, if the leaves are laid out flat to dry, they will crumble and become known as tencha (). Tencha can then be de-veined, de-stemmed, and ground (pressed) with a stone until it becomes the fine, bright green, talc-like powder known as matcha. - -Only ground tencha can be called matcha: other powdered teas are known as konacha (, lit. ""powdered tea""). - -Nearly all the flavour of matcha comes from the amino acids. The best matcha has more sweetness and a deeper flavour than the normal grades of tea harvested later in the year. - -Grades -The way that watcha is graded depends on several things: - -Location on the green tea tree -Leaves that are going to be made into tencha have to come from certain parts of the tree. - -The very top of the tree has developing leaves that are soft and supple. This gives a finer texture to higher grades. More developed leaves are harder, giving lower grades a sandy texture. The better flavour is due to the tree sending all its nutrients to the growing leaves. - -Chlorophyll's relationship to tannin is also important. Younger growth is greener and stronger in colour, while more developed leaves farther down the plant have had their chlorophyll changed gradually into tannin, which gives a more bitter flavour and duller brown-green colour. - -Treatment before processing -Tencha leaves are traditionally dried outside in the shade and are always kept away from direct sunlight. However, these days, drying has mostly moved indoors. Quality matcha is very green because of this treatment. - -Stone grinding -Stone grinding is quite difficult to do well. Without the right tools and technique, matcha can become ""burnt"" and is not such good quality. - -Oxidation -Matcha must be kept away from oxygen. Oxidation smells like hay and affects colour and texture. - -Preparation - -Before it is served, the matcha is often forced through a sieve in order to break up clumps. There are special sieves available for this purpose. These sieves are usually made of stainless steel and combine a fine wire mesh sieve and a temporary storage container. A special wooden spatula is used to force the tea through the sieve, or a small, smooth stone may be put on top of the sieve and shaken gently. - -If the sieved matcha is to be served at a Japanese tea ceremony, then it will be put into a small tea caddy called a chaki. Otherwise, it can be poured directly from the sieve into a tea bowl. - -A small amount of matcha is placed into the bowl, traditionally using a bamboo scoop called a chashaku, and a small amount of hot (not boiling) water is added. The mixture is then whisked until it is all the same consistency (thickness). This is traditionally done with a special kind of whisk made of bamboo known as a chasen. There must be no lumps left in the liquid. Ideally no ground tea should remain on the sides of the bowl. - -Usucha, or thin tea, is prepared with half a teaspoon of matcha and about 75 ml (2.5 oz) of hot water. Some drinkers (and schools of tea ceremony) prefer to whip the mixture to produce a light frothy ""head,"" while others prefer as little foam as possible. Schools also vary on the amount of water and matcha. Usucha makes a lighter and slightly more bitter tea. - -Koicha, or thick tea, needs much more matcha, as many as six teaspoons to 3/4 cup of water. Because the mixture is much thicker, blending it needs a slower, stirring movement which does not produce foam. Koicha produces a sweeter tea, and is almost always only served as part of Japanese tea ceremonies. Special chasen made for this purpose are often used. - -Because matcha can be bitter, it is traditionally served with a small Japanese sweet. - -Other uses -Matcha is now a common ingredient in sweets. It is used in castella, manju, and monaka; as a topping for kakigori; mixed with milk and sugar as a drink; and mixed with salt and used to flavour tempura in a mixture known as matcha-jio. It is also used as flavouring in many Western-style chocolates, candy, and desserts, such as cakes and pastries (including Swiss rolls and cheesecake), cookies, pudding, mousse, and ice cream. Even the Japanese snack Pocky has a matcha-flavoured version. - -The use of matcha in modern drinks has also spread to North American café culture. Here, as in Japan, it is put into lattés, iced drinks, milkshakes, and smoothies, as well as alcoholic drinks. - -People now realize that green tea and matcha are good for the health. This is why in North America it can be found in a lot of health food products such as cereal and energy bars. - -Other websites" -11076,39859,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPN,UPN,"UPN (which originally stood for the United Paramount Network) was a television network in over 200 places in the United States. UPN was owned by CBS Corporation, which also owns the larger CBS network. UPN shut down on September 15, 2006, and was replaced with The CW, a joint venture between CBS Corporation and the Warner Bros. division of Time Warner, which owned The WB before that network was also shut down in 2006 and merged with UPN to create The CW. - -References - -American television networks -Viacom -Columbia Broadcasting System" -10521,37404,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celle,Celle,"Celle is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. - -References" -19960,76365,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular%20size,Angular size,"Angular size is a measurement of how large or small something is using rotational measurement. It is useful for measuring things that are so far away that they appear two dimensional. - -Other websites -Small-Angle Formula - Visual Aid to the Apparent Size of the Planets - -Measurement" -3607,10963,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20VI%20of%20England,Edward VI of England,"Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland, from 28 January 1547, until his death on 6 July 1553. - -Edward was the son of Henry VIII of England and Jane Seymour. His mother died 12 days after his birth. He became king at the age of 9 when his father died. Although he had two older sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, Edward was the next in line for the throne because he was male. Because he was such a young king, the country was governed by nobles. He had two advisors (or regents). The first was his uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, who became Lord Protector. For the first two-and-a-half years of Edward's reign, Lord Somerset advised and guided the young king. Somerset was then replaced by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. - -Edward was the first Protestant king of England. Although his father, Henry VIII, had broken the Church of England away from the Roman Catholic Church, he had not changed much else. Most of the major changes to the Church of England happened during Edward's reign. They were led by Somerset, Northumberland and Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Also during his reign, England tried to take over Scotland. After a good start, it ended in defeat. His reign also saw economic problems and unrest. - -He died when he was 15 and a half years old, probably from tuberculosis. Before he died, Edward named his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. He was trying to prevent Mary, a Catholic, from returning the country to Catholicism. However, Mary overthrew Jane less than two weeks later and became the queen. Mary undid the reforms of Edward's reign, but Elizabeth restored them in 1559. - -Religious changes -Laws were passed to make churches more plain. Catholic churches were rich in decorations and colour. Now under Edward, stained glass windows and icons were removed from churches; the furniture within churches became very basic and plain. - -The actual services became more plain and the common person could now understand what was being said at services – now called Holy Communion – were in English rather than Latin. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer wrote the Book of Common Prayer also in English. Priests did not have to dress in the bright clothing associated with the Catholic Church and under Edward. They were also allowed to marry. The king remained as Head of the Church. - -All of these changes were a major break from the traditions of the Catholic Church. In parts of Germany and Switzerland, religious groups had also broken away in protest against the wealth and corruption of the Catholic Church. They became known as Protestant, and England under Edward, became a Protestant country with an independent Church of England. - -Edward had never been a healthy boy and his health failed in 1553. After the nine-day reign of Lady Jane Grey, his Catholic half-sister Mary became queen of England and the country went through another period of religious changes. - -1537 births -1553 deaths -British children -House of Tudor -Kings and Queens of England -1550s in England -1540s in Europe" -3044,9558,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959,1959,"1959 (MCMLIX) was . - -Events - Fidel Castro becomes the President of Cuba. - Alaska and Hawaii become the 49th and 50th states of the United States. - February 3- American musicians, Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, and The Big Bopper are killed in a plane crash on their way to a concert, an event that would be known as The Day the Music Died. - March 9 – the first Barbie dolls are issued. - October-The 1959 Mexico hurricane hits western Mexico. Storm kills over 1,800 people. - -Births - January 5 – Clancy Brown, American actor - January 22 – Linda Blair, actress - January 30 – Irina Pudova, Yakut ballerina - March 6 – Tom Arnold, American comedian - April 15 – Emma Thompson, British actor - April 20 – Clint Howard, American actor - May 3 – Ben Elton, British comedian and writer - June 19 – Christian Wulff, German politician - June 20 – Chris Williams, African-American actor - June 29 - Gary Rydstrom, American sound designer - July 22 - Lon Bender, American sound editor - July 29 – Sanjay Dutt, Indian actor - October 10 – Maya Lin, American architect - October 31 – Neal Stephenson – science fiction writer - November 14 – Paul McGann, British actor - December 31 – Val Kilmer, American actor - R. A. Salvatore, science-fiction and fantasy writer - -Deaths - - February 3 — Buddy Holly, singer and guitarist, Ritchie Valens, singer and guitarist, Jiles Perry “The Big Bopper” Richardson Jr. disc jockey and singer - - February 4 – Una O'Connor, actress - February 5 – Gwili Andre, actress - February 28 – Maxwell Anderson, playwright, movie writer - March 3 – Lou Costello, comedian and actor, half of Abbott and Costello comedy team - March 26 – Raymond Chandler, American novelist. - June 16 – George Reeves, actor - June 18 – Ethel Barrymore, actress - June 23 – Boris Vian, French novelist - September 18 - Harvey Glatman, American serial killer (executed by gas chamber; b. 1927) - October 14 – Errol Flynn, actor - November 20 – Sylvia Lopez, European actress - November 25 – Gérard Philipe, French actor - -Movies released - Anatomy of a Murder - Auntie Mame - Ben-Hur - Darby O'Gill and the Little People - Diary of Anne Frank Imitation of Life North by Northwest The Nun's Story Pillow Talk Rio Bravo The Shaggy Dog Some Like It Hot Sleeping Beauty Series - The Gumby Show – Gumby is premiered The Zoops, Even Stevens, The Glob, Chicken Feed, Hidden Valley, The Groobee, The Witty Witch and Hot Rod Granny. - - New books - Advertisement for Myself – Norman Mailer - Advise and Consent – Allen Drury - The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz – Mordecai Richler - The Children of Gebelaawi – Naguib Mahfouz - Children of the Wolf – Alfred Duggan - Dear and Glorious Physician – Taylor Caldwell - The Defeat of the Spanish Armada – Garett Mattingly - The Elements of Style – William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White - Exodus – Leon Uris - Goldfinger – Ian Fleming - Goodbye, Columbus – Philip Roth - The Haunting of Hill House – Shirley Jackson - Hawaii – James A. Michener - Henderson the Rain King – Saul Bellow - The Magic Christian – Terry Southern - Mountolive – Lawrence Durrell - Mrs. 'Arris Goes to Paris – Paul Gallico - Naked Lunch – William S. Burroughs - Poor No More – Robert Ruark - Psycho – Robert Bloch - Rape of the Fair Country – Alexander Cordell - Sink the Bismarck! aka The Last Nine Days of the Bismark – C.S. Forester - The Sirens of Titan – Kurt Vonnegut - Starship Troopers – Robert Heinlein - The Tin Drum – Günter Grass - The Ugly American'' – William J. Lederer and Eugene L. Burdick - -Hit songs - ""A Fool Such As I"" – Elvis Presley - ""All For The Love Of A Girl"" – Johnny Horton - ""(All of A Sudden) My Heart Sings"" – Paul Anka - ""Among My Souvenirs"" – Connie Francis - ""Apron Strings"" – Cliff Richard - ""The Battle Of New Orleans"" – Johnny Horton - ""Beyond The Sea"" – Bobby Darin - ""The Big Hurt"" – Toni Fisher - ""Billy Bayou"" – Jim Reeves - ""Ciao, Ciao Bambina"" – Dalida - ""Come Softly To Me"" – The Fleetwoods - ""Crackin' Up"" – Bo Diddley - ""Crying, Waiting, Hoping"" – Buddy Holly - ""Dream Lover"" – Bobby Darin - ""El Paso"" – Marty Robbins - ""First Name Initial"" – Annette - ""Forty Miles Of Bad Road"" – Duane Eddy - ""Heartaches By The Number"" – Guy Mitchell - ""He'll Have To Go"" – Jim Reeves - ""High Hopes"" – Frank Sinatra - ""I'm Blue Again"" – Patsy Cline - ""I'm Sorry"" – Bo Diddley - ""I Only Have Eyes For You"" – The Flamingos - ""It Doesn't Matter Anymore"" – Buddy Holly - ""It's All In The Game"" – Tommy Edwards - ""It's Just A Matter Of Time"" – Brook Benton - ""It's Only The Good Times"" – Tommy Edwards - ""Kansas City"" – Wilbert Harrison - ""Kissin' Time"" – Bobby Rydell - ""La Bamba"" – Ritchie Valens - ""Lipstick On Your Collar"" – Connie Francis - ""Lonely Boy"" – Paul Anka - ""Lonesome Town"" – Ricky Nelson - ""Love Potion Number Nine"" – The Clovers - ""M.T.A"" – The Kingston Trio - ""Mack The Knife"" – Bobby Darin - ""Mr. Blue"" – The Fleetwoods - ""Misty"" – Johnny Mathis - ""My Heart Is An Open Book"" – Carl Dobkins, Jr. - ""Non Dimenticar"" – Nat King Cole - ""Peggy Sue Got Married"" – Buddy Holly - ""Personality"" – Lloyd Price - ""Pillow Talk"" – Doris Day - ""Poison Ivy"" – The Coasters - ""Poor Jenny"" – The Everly Brothers - ""Put Your Head On My Shoulder"" – Paul Anka - ""Raining In My Heart"" – Buddy Holly - ""Roberta"" – Frankie Ford - ""Rockin' Mother"" – Frankie Laine - ""Rocks And Gravel"" – Frankie Laine - ""Rummy Polka"" – Matys Brothers - ""Running Bear"" – Johnny Preston - ""Say Man"" – Bo Diddley - ""Say Man, Back Again"" – Bo Diddley - ""Sea Cruise"" – Frankie Ford - ""Since I Don't Have You"" – The Skyliners - ""Sleepwalk"" – Santo & Johnny - ""Small World"" – Johnny Mathis - ""Smoke Gets In Your Eyes"" – The Platters - ""Stagger Lee"" – Lloyd Price - ""Sweet Nothin's"" – Brenda Lee - ""Take A Message To Mary"" – The Everly Brothers - ""Tall Oak Tree"" – Dorsey Burnette - ""A Teenager In Love"" – Dion & the Belmonts - ""There Goes My Baby"" – The Drifters - ""'Til I Kissed Youe"" – The Everly Brothers - ""Till There Was You"" – Anita Bryant - ""True Love, True Love"" / ""Dance With Me"" – The Drifters - ""The Twist"" – Hank Ballard - ""Venus"" – Frankie Avalon - ""What A Difference A Day Makes"" – Dinah Washington - ""What'd I Say"" – Ray Charles - ""Where the Boys Are"" – Connie Francis - ""Why"" – Frankie Avalon - ""A Worried Man"" – The Kingston Trio" -5303,17368,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device%20driver,Device driver,"A device driver is a program that lets the operating system communicate with specific computer hardware. - -Computer parts need a driver because they do not use standard commands. For example, video cards from Advanced Micro Devices (or AMD) and Nvidia do the same job, but each requires its own driver as different hardware requires different commands. Different operating systems also need different drivers, a driver written for macOS can not be used by Microsoft Windows. - -Many parts of a computer need drivers, and common examples are: -Computer printers -Graphic cards -Modems -Network cards -Sound cards - -Some other computer parts do not need drivers (or the driver is built-in to the operating system) because they use a kind of standard; the operating system recognizes those parts and knows how to use those parts. - -Such parts include items on the following list: -Processors -RAMs -Compact disc (called CD) and digital versatile disc (called DVD) drives (including player and burner). -Mouse and keyboard -Integrated video cards -PC speaker (the speaker inside the computer case that beeps) -Floppy drives -Hard drives -USB flash drives (or thumb drive) -USB webcams -USB sound cards -USB hubs (devices that turn one USB port into two or more) - -computer science -software -Computer hardware" -23477,90354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgdorf%20%28district%29,Burgdorf (district),"The district of Burgdorf in the Swiss canton of Bern has 24 municipalities in an area of 197 km²: - -Burgdorf" -4792,15195,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform,Uniform,"Uniforms are special clothes to show that a group of people belong together. The group of people will all be dressed in the same way (""uni"" means ""one"", and form means ""shape"" one shape). - -People may wear uniforms for several reasons. The uniform will help the people to feel a team spirit so that they work well together. They may also help members of the public to know who they are, e.g. in a department store a customer can tell who is a member of staff, or in the street people will recognize a police officer. Uniforms may also be worn because they are practical, e.g. it might keep them safe when operating machinery or keep them clean when doing their work. - -In the army soldiers wear uniform. They also wear extra things such as badges on their uniform which show how important they are (what rank they are). - -Nurses in hospitals wear uniform. Sometimes domestic workers wear uniform when working for their employers. Important domestic workers may wear special smart uniforms called ""livery"" e.g. porters (doormen) at luxury hotels. - -In some countries such as India, Japan, China, Korea, Australia and United Kingdom many school children wear uniform. The uniform would be a set of clothes with the school crest or symbol. It helps them to feel proud of their school and children from rich families and poor families all look the same. In Britain, for example, most young children wear school uniform. In state schools the children may wear polo-necked T shirts with a school logo. Other schools, especially private schools, may have a formal uniform, or they may be free to choose their own clothes so long as they are the school colour. - -Other websites - -Uniforms" -18466,69319,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Okinawa,Battle of Okinawa,"The Battle of Okinawa was a great battle of World War II. It took place on Okinawa Island in the Ryukyu Islands (south of the four big islands of Japan). The battle was between the military forces of the Empire of Japan and the Allies. It was the second biggest amphibious battle (from sea to land) of World War II, after the Battle of Normandy. It was also one of the longest battles in history, from April to June 1945. The Allies won the battle and occupied Okinawa. Today, Okinawa is Japanese territory, but there are still American military bases there. - -The Battle of Okinawa is considered to be the last major battle of World War II. The Americans were planning Operation Downfall, the invasion of the four great islands of Japan. This never happened, since the Japanese surrendered after the American use of the atomic bomb in August 1945 (first in Hiroshima, and a second time in Nagasaki) and the Soviet Union declaring war on Japan. - -The battle has been called ""Typhoon of Steel"" in English, and ""tetsu no ame,"" ""tetsu no bōfū"" by the people of Okinawa, which mean ""rain of steel"" and ""violent wind of steel"", because of the very heavy firing of guns and bombs at this battle. - -Some battles, such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, had no civilians present, but Okinawa had a large civilian population. The civilians killed or injured in the battle were at least 150,000. American deaths were 18,900 killed or missing and 53,000 injured, more than double of the soldiers killed at Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal put together. Several thousand soldiers who died from wounds and other causes after the battle had finished, are not included. About a third of the civilian population of the island were killed. - -There were about 100,000 Japanese soldiers killed and 7,000 captured. Some of the soldiers committed seppuku or simply blew themselves up with grenades. Some of the civilians, convinced by Japanese propaganda that the Americans were barbarians who did terrible things to prisoners, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture. - -In 1945, Winston Churchill called the battle ""among the most intense and famous in military history.""''' - -Order of battle -Allied - -Overall Allied command authority for battle was Fifth Fleet (under Admiral Raymond A. Spruance). Fifth Fleet was divided into several task forces and groups. - -TF 56 was the largest force within TF 50 and was built around the 10th Army. The army had two corps under its command. In all, the Army had over 102,000 Army (of these 38,000+ were artillery, combat support and HQ troops, with another 9,000 service troops), over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel). - -At the start of the Battle of Okinawa the 10th Army had 182,821 men under its command. The U.S. Navy had greater casualties in this operation than in any other battle of the war. - -Japanese - -The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was had 67,000 men (77,000 according to some sources). As well, there were 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) troops at Oroku naval base. There were also 39,000 local Ryukyuan people who were forced to fight. -Naval battle - -The United States Navy's Task Force 58 was east of Okinawa. It had 6 to 8 destroyers and 13 carriers. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz gave his naval commanders time to rest. - -Japanese air attacks had been light during the first few days after the landings. However, on 6 April, there was an attack by 400 planes from Kyushu. From 26 March-30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged. - -The Japanese had lost up to more than 1,100 planes in the battle. - -Between 6 April and 22 June, the Japanese flew 1,465 kamikaze aircraft attacks. Several fleet carriers were severely damaged. - -Operation Ten-Go - -Operation Ten-Go (Ten-gō sakusen'') was the attack by ten Japanese ships. In all, the Imperial Japanese Navy lost 3,700 sailors, including Admiral Itō. The US lost just 10 U.S. aircraft and 12 airmen. - -British Pacific Fleet -The British Pacific Fleet was ordered to attack Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands. - -Land battle - -The land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945. The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division, who landed west of Okinawa on 26 March. - -On 31 March, Marines of the Fleet Marine Force Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion landed without opposition on Keise Shima. - -Northern Okinawa - -The main landing was made by XXIV Corps and III Amphibious Corps on the western coast of Okinawa on 1 April. - -The 10th Army moved across the south-central part of the island. They captured the Kadena and the Yomitan airbases. - -Six days later on 13 April, the 2nd Battalion, 22nd Marine Regiment reached Hedo Point (Hedo-misaki) at the northern part of the island. Japanese forces in the north were on the Motobu Peninsula. - -The 77th Infantry Division attacked Ie Island (Ie Shima) on 16 April. - -Southern Okinawa -The U.S. Army 96th Infantry division and 7th Infantry Division went south across Okinawa. The 96th Infantry Division had violent fights with Japanese troops in fortified positions. -They had 1,500 battle casualties, while killing or capturing about 4,500 Japanese. - -The next American goal was Kakazu Ridge. The Japanese soldiers hid in caves. There were many casualties on both sides. - -On the evening of 12 April, the 32nd Army attacked U.S. positions. The attackers retreated. A final attack on 14 April was again stopped. - -The launched a new attack on 19 April with 324 guns, the largest ever in the Pacific Ocean war. Then 650 Navy and Marine planes attacked with napalm, rockets, bombs, and machine guns. - -A tank attack failed with the loss of 22 tanks. XXIV Corps lost 720 men KIA, WIA and MIA. - -On 4 May, the 32nd Army launched another attack. This time, Ushijima tried to land troops on the coasts behind American lines. Japanese artillery fired 13,000 rounds. The attack failed. - -Buckner launched another American attack on 11 May. By the end of May, monsoon rains turned hills and roads into mud. - -On 29 May, Maj. Gen. Pedro del Valle ordered Company A, 1st Battalion, 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle. - -The Japanese retreat moved nearly 30,000 men into its last defense line on the Kiyan Peninsula. The 4,000 Japanese sailors — including Admiral Minoru Ota — all committed suicide. - -On 18 June, Gen. Buckner was killed by enemy artillery fire. The last Japanese stopped fighting on 21 June, although some Japanese stayed hidden. - -References - -Other websites - WW2DB: Okinawa Campaign - US military on the Battle of Okinawa - New Zealand account with reference to Operation Iceberg - USS Gilbert Islands CVE 107. 1945 {at Okinawa} - United States Army in World War II The War in the Pacific Okinawa: The Last Battle - Global Security history of Battle of Okinawa particular combat fatigue figures - History Online about Battle of Okinawa particular force strengths and casualties on both sides - -1945 in Japan -Battles involving the United Kingdom -Battles involving the United States -Pacific battles of World War II -Ryukyu Islands" -23264,88899,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Castle%2C%20Indiana,"New Castle, Indiana","New Castle is a city in Henry County, Indiana, 44 miles (71 km) east of Indianapolis, on the Big Blue River. In 1900, 3,406 people lived in the town; in 1910, 9,446; in 1920, 14,458; and in 1940, 16,620. The population was 17,780 in 2000. The city is the county seat of Henry County. New Castle is home to New Castle Fieldhouse, the largest high school in the world. - -References - -Other websites - City of New Castle - -News & Media - The Courier-Times - New Castle Online - -Cities in Indiana -County seats in Indiana" -8149,27100,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20Chafee,Lincoln Chafee,"Lincoln Davenport Chafee (born March 26, 1953) is an American politician. He was the Governor of Rhode Island from 2011 to 2015. Before becoming governor, he was a junior U.S. Senator of Rhode Island from 1999 to 2007. - -In 2016, he made a brief and unsuccessful bid for President of the United States in the 2016 Democratic primaries. In January 2020, Chafee announced he would run again, but this time for the Libertarian nomination. He ended his second campaign in April 2020. - -Early life -Chafee was born in Providence, Rhode Island. His father, John Chafee, was also a Senator from Rhode Island and member of the liberal wing of the Republican Party. His mother was Virginia Coates. Chafee was raised in Warwick, Rhode Island. He studied at Brown University and at Montana State University. - -Early career -Chafee entered politics in 1985 as a delegate to the Rhode Island Constitutional Convention. A year later, he was elected to the Warwick City Council, where he served until his election as Warwick's mayor in 1992, a post he held until his 1999 appointment to the U.S. Senate. - -U.S. senator (1999-2007) -After his father died in office, Chafee was appointed to fill his vacancy. He was elected to his first full term in 2000. - -He was a very liberal Republican senator. He is strongly pro-choice and supports gay rights and gun control. He was the only Republican senator in 2002 to voted against war in Iraq. He was the only Republican United States senator to vote against authorizing the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein from power. - -In 2004, he did not endorse the reelection of President George W. Bush, and urged other Republicans to write-in in the November election George H. W. Bush, not his son. In January 2006, he was also the only Republican senator to vote against Samuel Alito to the United States Supreme Court. - -He was defeated for re-election in the Senate in 2006 by Democrat Sheldon Whitehouse. - -Governor of Rhode Island (2011-2015) - -Chafee was elected as Governor of Rhode Island in 2010. He was sworn in on January 4, 2011. He became the first Independent to serve as Governor of Rhode Island since John Collins in 1790. - -In 2012, he served as co-chair of Barack Obama's re-election campaign. Since then, he was a Democrat. - -On May 1, 2013, Chafee signed a bill that legalized same-sex marriage in Rhode Island. - -Chafee has shown some willingness to deviate from strict ""War on Drugs"" policies, in favor of alternative approaches to America's drug-crime problem. - -On September 4, 2013, Chafee announced that he would not run for re-election as Governor of Rhode Island after months of low-approval ratings from the public and by election officials. - -2016 presidential campaign - -On April 9, 2015, Chafee announced that he had formed an exploratory committee in preparation for a potential candidacy for President of the United States as a Democrat in 2016. He formally declared his candidacy on June 3, 2015. - -Following a widely panned debate performance, poor polling numbers, and a poor fundraising campaign, Lincoln Chafee announced on October 23 that he would be suspending his campaign. - -2020 presidential campaign - -On March 11, 2019, Chafee officially switched from the Democratic to Libertarian Party, stating that, ""It's what I've always been — fiscally conservative and socially liberal."" - -In August 2019, Chafee said that he'd ""be open"" to running for president as a Libertarian. - -On January 5, 2020, Chaffee formally filed to run for the Libertarian nomination. He is scheduled to make a formal campaign announcement on January 8 at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C. He ended his campaign on April 5, 2020 after failing to win any of the primary contests. - -Personal life -Chafee married Stephanie Chafee in January 1990. They have three children. He now lives in Teton Village, Wyoming. - -References - -Other websites - - - -1953 births -Living people -American mayors -Governors of Rhode Island -2016 United States presidential candidates -2020 United States presidential candidates -United States senators from Rhode Island -Politicians from Wyoming -US Democratic Party politicians -US Republican Party politicians -US Libertarian Party politicians -People from Warwick, Rhode Island" -18894,70973,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Armenia,Ancient Armenia,"Ancient Armenia was a rocky land of ravines, rivers, rugged cliffs, and hundreds of stone monuments and churches. Many survive to this day inside the Turkish border near Armenia. Armenia anciently had far more bigger land than it has now. - -Ancient Armenia grew larger into parts of what are now Turkey and Iran. - -Religion - -De Morgan has said there are signs which show that the Armenians, as their other Aryan relatives, were nature worshipers and that this faith in time was later changed to the worship of national gods, of which many were the equivalents of the gods in the Roman, Greek and Persian cultures. The main proto-Armenian (Aryan) god was Ar, the god of Sun, Fire and Revival. The Armenian hypothesis of Indo-European origins connects the name with the Ar- Armenian root meaning light, sun, fire found in Arev (Sun), Arpi (Light of heaven), Ararich (God or Creator), Ararat (place of Arar), Aryan, Arta etc. According to the researchers, the name of Ardini religious center of ancient Urartu also related to the god Ar-Arda. The cult of Ar appear in Armenian Highland during 5-3th millennium BC and had common Indo-European recognition: Ares (Greek), Ahuramazd (Persian) Ertag (German), Ram (Indian), Yar-Yarilo (Slavonic) etc. After adoption of Christianity the cult of Ar was also evident in Armenia, remembered in the national myth, poetry, art and architecture. - -Related pages - Urartu - Armens - Nairi - Religion in ancient Armenia - -References - -Other websites - History of Armenia - Ancient Armenia on ArmeniaPedia.org - History of Ancient Armenia and Urartu - -History of Armenia -Ancient Armenia" -11848,43428,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marki,Marki,"Marki is a town near Warsaw, in Poland. About 23,300 people live there. - -Towns in Poland" -496,2031,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Gode,Alexander Gode,"Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch, or simply Alexander Gode (October 30, 1906 – August 10, 1970), was a German-American linguist, and translator. He helped create the auxiliary language Interlingua. - -American linguists -American translators -German people -1906 births -1970 deaths" -12327,45454,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziziphus%20mauritiana,Ziziphus mauritiana,"Ziziphus mauritiana (or Indian jujube) is a type of fruit tree. It is most often found in south-east Asia, usually India. - -References - -Ziziphus" -18220,68392,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomi,Yomi,"Yomi (黄泉), the Japanese word for the underworld in which horrible creatures guard the exits. According to Shinto mythology as related in Kojiki, this is where the dead go to exist and rot forever. When one eats at the hearth of Yomi it is impossible to return to the land of the living. - -Overview -Yomi is similar to Hades or Hell. In the Shintoist tradition, Yomi is known because Izanami retreated to that place after her death. Izanagi followed her there and when he returned, he washed himself, creating Amaterasu, Susanoo, and Tsukuyomi. (See Japanese mythology.) - -Yomi is different from Christian Hell in that all souls go there, no matter their actions in life; and one does not receive punishment for evils made when alive. It is a dirty and polluted place. In Japanese tradition, pollution is usually associated to evil. By the tradition of Kojiki, Yomi is usually believed to be underground, and its entrance to be located in Izumo province. - -Yomi is ruled over by Izanami no Mikoto, the Grand Deity of Yomi (Yomotsu-Ōkami 黄泉大神). According to Kojiki. The entrance to Yomi was blocked by Izanagi when he returned to Earth, using a great boulder (Chibiki-no-Iwa 千引の岩) at the base of the slope that leads to Yomi (Yomotsu Hirasaka 黄泉平坂). - -Japanese mythology -Shinto -Afterlife" -2856,9084,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu%20people,Ainu people,"The Ainu people are the native population of northern Japan and the eastern part of Russia, mostly in the Amur river region, Sakhalin, the Kuril islands and on the Kamchatka Peninsula. The term is also used for their culture and language in the Ezo region (Hokkaido). - -History -The majority of their ancestors, the Jōmon people, arrived in Japan about 30,000 – 15,000 years ago from Central Asia and southern Siberia. They were largely replaced by the proto-Japanese which arrived from southeastern China about 2,000 years ago. The Ainu have strong similarities with Palaeolithic Europeans and people of the Middle East as well as with Native American groups of the northwestern coastal culture area in North America. Some scholars think they were related to the Emishi of northern Honshu. - -During and after the Yayoi period they were attacked by the early Japanese people. The Ainu and relative tribes lost most of their land in Honshū, many were killed or ensalved by the Yayoi-Japanese. After the rise of the Yamato, few Ainu were left in Honshu. After the Meiji restoration in the late 1800s, the Japanese began to colonize Hokkaido, sending their own people to live there. They forced the Ainu to leave the warm coast of Hokkaido and try to live in the mountains in the middle of the island. The Ainu were not allowed to fish for salmon or hunt deer. The Ainu were required to speak Japanese and use Japanese names. Japanese scientists and treasure hunters would dig up Ainu graves and steal the bodies and artifacts. - -The Ainu in Russia had more luck and lived their traditional life until the Second World War, when they were forced to act like other Russians. - -In April 2019, the Ainu became recognized as native population of northern Japan, and the rest of Japan has started to think of their culture as good and valuable. However, the Ainu still face discrimination in Japan. Most Japanese outside of Hokkaido mistake the Ainu for foreigners or tourists. - -Culture -Their culture is based on the ancient Jomon culture of northern Japan and eastern Russia. Their native folk religion has some similarities to early Shinto. Their gods are named kamuy, similar to the Japanese Kami. They practiced agriculture but were also hunter gatherers. The Ainu are famous for their wood work and art. - -The Ainu lived in villages called kotan and were often built along rivers or lakes. Every villages consisted of at least four to seven families, sometimes more than ten. The traditional house was called cise or cisey. - -Language -They speak the Ainu language. The Ainu language is classificated as language isolate, although there exist several theories about a genetic relation. Some linguists suggest a relation to Altaic languages while others suggest a link to Indo-European languages. Some similarities also exist with northern native American languages. - -References - -Other websites - - The Ainu Museum - Smithsonian Institute - Nippon Utari Kyokai - Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu - Ainu-North American cultural similarities - Spirit Cave Man May Rewrite Continent's History - Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture - Ainu Lineage - The Boone Collection - -Ethnic groups in Japan" -1706,5725,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/H,H,"H () is the eighth (number 8) letter in the English alphabet. - -Meanings for H - In chemistry, H is the symbol for hydrogen. - In music, H is a note in the German system, meaning ""B natural"". - In particle physics, H is the symbol for the Higgs boson." -12370,45661,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%20avens,Yellow avens,"Yellow avens is a type of flowering plant It is found in the warmer areas of North America, Asia and Europe. It is 1 meter (3 feet) tall. - -Other websites - Distribution map - -Rosaceae" -2004,6666,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull,Bull,"A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species Bos taurus. They are more muscular and aggressive than the female of the species, the cow. The bull has long been an important symbol in many cultures, and plays a large role in beef ranching, dairy farming. They are also important in other cultural activities, including bull fighting and bull riding. The management of livestock animals in hot climates is a challenge. The physiological and behavioral changes induced in these animals compromise their welfare, breeding, health, and zootechnical performance, resulting in final products (eggs, milk, and meat) with unsatisfactory characteristics. - -As with other animals, some bulls have been regarded as pets. - -Life -The bull semen market is very lucrative. Animal agriculture forcefully breeds animals to have what it considers the best traits for food production. In 2011, the U.S. exported $124.7 million worth of bull semen to other nations, representing 32 percent of the global market. In February 2019, an Angus bull named SAV America 8018 sold for the record-breaking price of $1.5 million due to “superior genetics.” -A bull can live up to 18 - 22 years. - -References - -Cattle" -2101,7192,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20R.%20R.%20Tolkien,J. R. R. Tolkien,"John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (3 January 1892 – 2 September 1973) was a British philologist, university professor, and writer. Tolkien is best known for his most famous works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. - -Biography -He was born in Bloemfontein, South Africa but his parents were both from England. He lost much of his family at an early age. He fought in World War I, and after the war he found a job helping to produce the Oxford English Dictionary. Tolkien was very interested in languages, and he had studied at Oxford University. Soon he became a professor of English Language at the University of Leeds. He was then a professor at the University of Oxford until 1959, when he retired. He also was good friends with many other writers and scholars, most notably C. S. Lewis, who wrote the Narnia books, The Screwtape Letters, and many essays on Christian theology. Tolkien himself was a devout Catholic. - -Tolkien married Edith Mary Bratt on 22 March 1916 in England, at the age of 24. They had four children, three sons and a girl: John, Michael, Christopher, and Priscilla. - -Writing -He created and worked on the fictional fantasy world of Middle-earth for most of his life, and his most famous books are set in that world. Because of his Middle-earth books he is often considered the ""father of high fantasy"" which made the fantasy genre very popular. - -Tolkien wrote other books, for example Farmer Giles Of Ham, and also illustrated (drew the pictures and maps for) The Lord of the Rings. The Lord of the Rings was published in three parts and has been made into several motion pictures. The Lord of the Rings took 12 years to write. - -Bibliography - -Fiction and poetry - The Hobbit or There and Back Again, (HM). (1937) - Leaf by Niggle (1945, short story) - Farmer Giles of Ham (1949, medieval fable) - The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955) - The Fellowship of the Ring: being the first part of The Lord of the Rings, (HM). (1954) - The Two Towers: being the second part of The Lord of the Rings, (HM). (1954) - The Return of the King: being the third part of The Lord of the Rings, (HM). (1955) - The Adventures of Tom Bombadil and Other Verses from the Red Book (1962) - Smith of Wootton Major (1967) - The Road Goes Ever On (1967) - The Silmarillion (1977) - Unfinished Tales (1980) - The History of Middle-earth (1983–1996) - Bilbo's Last Song (1990) - The Children of Húrin (2007) - The History of The Hobbit (2007) - -Academic and other works - Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1937) - On Fairy-Stories (1947) - Ancrene Riwle or Ancrene Wisse - -References - -Other websites - - HarperCollins Tolkien Website - Tolkien Biography (The Tolkien Society) - The Lord of the Rings Wiki - Tolkien Gateway Wiki - 1952 recording of Tolkien reading part of The Two Towers (from ""Of Herbs and Stewed Rabbit"") - The Tolkien Library - Tolkien news, articles, resource, bibliography, biography, collectors guide - -1892 births -1973 deaths - -Academics of the University of Oxford -Bloemfontein -British academics -Deaths from pneumonia -English novelists" -8485,28820,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Britten,Benjamin Britten,"Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh, OM CH (born Lowestoft, 22 November 1913; died Aldeburgh, 4 December 1976) was one of the greatest English composers of his time. He came from East Anglia (a region in the East of England) and he often thought about the East Anglian landscape and the sea when writing his music. He wrote a lot of music for his long-term partner, the tenor Peter Pears. His operas include Peter Grimes, Billy Budd, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, and Death in Venice. His War Requiem was performed in Coventry Cathedral in 1962 after it had been rebuilt because the old cathedral had been destroyed in the war. He wrote music for children which sounds like proper, adult music. Britten started the Aldeburgh Festival. He was an excellent pianist and conductor. - -Life - -Early years -Benjamin Britten started composing music at the age of five although he had no one to help him. When he was ten years old he took part in an amateur music festival in Norwich. A composer called Frank Bridge heard him and was so impressed that he offered to teach him composition. He helped Britten to compose using proper musical techniques. Britten started to get to know music by a lot of important modern composers including Schoenberg and Bartók. In 1930 he went to the Royal College of Music. He had excellent piano teachers but he did not learn much from his composition teacher John Ireland and most of the music he wrote was never performed. Britten was more interested in music from abroad than in English music. In 1934 he heard the opera Wozzeck by Alban Berg. He wanted to go to Austria to study with Berg but he was not allowed to. Meanwhile, some of his first proper compositions started to be performed. He wrote some music for movies that were being made by the General Post Office, including one about a train delivering mail. The music describes the rhythm of the train rushing along. - -USA -While working on the movie music he met the writer W. H. Auden. He started to be interested in political ideas. These can be heard in some works he wrote at this time such as Our Hunting Fathers (1936) and Ballad of Heroes (1939). When Auden emigrated to the United States Britten followed him. With him was the tenor Peter Pears who was to become a lifelong friend and partner, and who was to be the inspiration for many songs and operas. - -Britten wrote several compositions in the USA including Sinfonia da Requiem (1940) and his First String Quartet (1941). The following year he was reading about the poet George Crabbe who came from Suffolk, the same part of England where Britten had grown up. Britten suddenly became homesick. He realized that he could not work and be himself in a foreign country. So he returned with Pears to England. - -Aldeburgh Festival -As soon as he was on the boat sailing back to England he started work on Ceremony of Carols. Back in England, Britten and Pears gave concerts to audiences of all kinds and took part in opera productions of Sadler's Wells Opera Company, which was having a new theatre built. On the 7 June 1945 the new theatre was opened with a performance of Britten’s opera Peter Grimes. This opera was to make Britten into the most famous English composer of his time. It was soon being performed abroad as well as in England. - -Britten was now composing lots of music: songs, chamber music and a very popular piece called Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra (also known as Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell). This piece shows off each instrument of the orchestra in turn so that young people can get to know the sound of the musical instruments. It is based on a tune written by Henry Purcell 300 years ago. There were more popular works: St Nicolas and the Spring Symphony. There were not many opportunities for big operas to be performed, so he wrote some “chamber operas” which only needed small orchestras and a small number of singers. These were performed in places such as local churches by a group which called themselves English Opera Group. He wrote The Rape of Lucretia (1946) and Albert Herring (1947). In 1948 the group helped to start a music festival in Aldeburgh. Benjamin Britten spent the rest of his life mainly working on music which was to be performed at the Aldeburgh Festival. He composed some of his greatest works for the festival, and he took part in the performances as conductor and pianist. - -The 1950s -One of Britten’s most popular pieces of music for amateurs including children was Noye’s Fludde (1957). He wrote three “church parables”. His large operas include Billy Budd (1951) which was soon produced in Covent Garden. In June 1953 he wrote Gloriana, an opera about Queen Elizabeth I, written for the coronation celebrations of Elizabeth II. When he travelled with Peter Pears to the Far East he was influenced by the music of Bali and he composed a ballet called The Prince of the Pagodas, performed in Covent Garden in 1957. Another great work inspired by the East was the parable Curlew River (1964). The opera A Midsummer Night’s Dream was written for the Aldeburgh Festival in 1960. In 1962 he wrote the War Requiem to celebrate the new Coventry Cathedral. This is one of the greatest musical works of the 20th century. - -His last years -In 1961 he became friends with the great Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich. He composed a Cello Sonata and a Cello Symphony (1963) (a kind of cello concerto), as well as three suites for solo cello. He travelled with Pears to the Soviet Union. - -In 1967 the Aldeburgh Festival had a new concert hall, the Maltings at Snape. His next opera was Owen Wingrave (1970), written for television but soon produced in Covent Garden. In June 1973 Britten produced another great opera Death in Venice. The main character, called Aschenbach, was perhaps the best music he ever wrote for Peter Pears. It was performed at the Aldeburgh Festival, but Britten was ill by this time and unable to be at the performance. His heart condition made it impossible to work on any more large works, but he still wrote some harp music for the harpist Ossian Ellis, a song called Phaedra for Janet Baker, and a Third String Quartet. He died in Aldeburgh on 4 December 1976. - -Britten received many honours both in Britain and in other countries. He became a Companion of Honour in 1952 a member of the Order of Merit in 1965 and, in the year he died, he was the first musician ever to receive a life peer (the title Lord Britten). - -His music -Britten’s early works were often written for instruments. His Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge (1937) for string orchestra is a very popular work today. He often borrowed and reinvented themes by other composers (this is called “parody” technique). During his last years he again gave much attention to instrumental music, mainly chamber music. - -After he met Peter Pears much of his music was vocal. This includes more than 100 songs, a number of operas, chamber operas as well as three works for tenor solo and orchestra: Les Illuminations, the Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings and the Nocturne. His songs are often grouped in cycles. He also wrote many folksong settings. These were very popular as encore pieces when he accompanied Peter Pears in song recitals. - -Britten wrote music for choirs, including Hymn to St Cecilia (Britten was proud of having been born on St Cecilia’s day: 22 November). The War Requiem is his greatest work which combines writing for choir and orchestra. It describes the horrors of war (Britten had refused to fight in World War II). - -He wrote a lot of work for children. There are even parts for children in some of his operas, e.g. Peter Grimes, The Turn of the Screw and Owen Wingrave. He even wrote an opera in which all the main parts are sung by children: The Little Sweep (1949). - -Many of his great operatic roles, from Peter Grimes to Aschenbach in Death in Venice, deal with the theme of the outsider, the person who does not quite fit into society, or who is misunderstood. Britten’s homosexuality (which was something that was never discussed in his lifetime) may have something to do with this. He also knew what it was like to be an outsider when he tried to live in the United States, and his refusal to fight in the war may have distanced him from some people. - -The Aldeburgh Festival at the Maltings in Snape (a village near Aldeburgh) continue to be a focus for Britten’s music. Every year the Brittens-Pears School of Music organizes lessons and performance opportunities for young musicians. A series of “Prom” concerts is held there every year in August. - -References - -20th-century English composers -British conductors -Cardiovascular disease deaths in England -Companions of Honour -Deaths from heart failure -English LGBT people -English pianists -Gay men -Grammy Award winners -LGBT composers -LGBT musicians -Musicians from Suffolk -Order of Merit -1913 births -1976 deaths" -21493,82159,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servicio%20Meteorol%C3%B3gico%20Nacional,Servicio Meteorológico Nacional,"The Servicio Meteorologíco Nacional (SMN) is Mexico's national weather organization. It collects data and issues forecasts, advisories, and warnings for the entire country. - -Other websites - Servicio Meteorologico Nacional - -Weather services -Mexico" -12376,45674,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acaena,Acaena,"Acaena is a group of shrubs. They are in the family of Rosaceae. - -Rosaceae" -22818,86603,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh%27s%20Island,Pharaoh's Island,"Pharaoh's Island is an island on the River Thames, in Surrey, England. - -Location -The island is above Shepperton Lock. It can only be reached by boats. - -History -The island was given to Admiral Nelson as a reward for winning Battle of the Nile, and he used it as a place to fish. - -Other websites - - The River Thames Guide — Shepperton Lock - -Islands of England -Surrey" -4683,14725,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Vista,Windows Vista,"Windows Vista is the 6th version of the Microsoft Windows operating system from Microsoft. It is the successor to Windows XP. While it was being made, it was called Longhorn. On July 28, 2005, Microsoft gave out its real name, which was Windows Vista. Microsoft stopped supporting Windows Vista on April 11, 2017. - -Microsoft had worked on Vista for more than five years, so it came with many new features, such as improved graphics, new built-in programs, and stronger defenses against malware. However, Windows Vista introduced many changes to the way the operating system worked, which caused some older programs to stop working. - -Vista editions and system requirements -Vista was released in November 2006 for computer makers and January 30, 2007 for home users. The six main editions of Windows Vista are: - -Home Basic Edition -Home Premium Edition -Starter Edition -Business Edition -Enterprise Edition -Ultimate Edition - -Some editions are meant for home use, while others are made mainly for businesses. Starter Edition is similar to Windows XP Starter Edition, as it is a low-budget edition that was only released in countries where computers were not as common. Enterprise Edition is for big companies that need computers that have good performance. - -Windows Vista needs at least 512 MB of RAM to run on all computers. Some new parts of Vista need 1 GB of RAM to work and for better stability and performance. - -Development -At first, a major version of Windows code-named Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Features planned for Blackcomb included the Sidebar, an emphasis on looking for data, and an advanced storage system named WinFS. However, a minor release code-named Longhorn was announced for 2003, delaying the making of Blackcomb. By the middle of 2003, Longhorn had gotten some of the features meant for Blackcomb. After three major viruses exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time in 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn's major development work on hold while they made new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn was reset in September 2004, and it was renamed to Windows Vista. A number of features were cut from Windows Vista as it was being remade. - -After Windows Vista was released, Microsoft announced a new plan for the next version of Windows, code-named Windows 7, in 2007. - -Service Packs -Microsoft releases service packs to update software and fix problems to the operating system. - -Service Pack 1 -Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on February 4, 2008 alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM partners, after a five-month beta test period. The first use of the service pack caused a number of machines to continually reboot, making them unusable. This caused Microsoft to temporarily stop release of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The same release date of the two operating systems showed the merging of the workstation and server kernels back into a single code base for the first time since Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on February 15, 2008. SP1 became available to current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the Download Center on March 18, 2008. Initially, the service pack only supported 5 languages - English, French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the remaining 31 languages was released on April 14, 2008. - -Service Pack 2 -Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on April 28, 2009, Windows Vista SP2 RTM + Windows Vista SP1 Blocker Tool Removed and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on May 26, 2009. In addition to security and other fixes, a number of new features were added. However, it did not include Internet Explorer 8. - -References - -Other websites - -Microsoft - Microsoft Windows Vista — Microsoft Windows Vista homepage - Microsoft Windows Vista Upgrade Info — Windows Vista Upgrade planning - Microsoft Windows Vista Hardware Design — Hardware Design for Windows Vista — News for Driver Developers and Hardware Engineers - Microsoft Technet — Windows Vista: Resources for IT Professionals - MSDN — Windows Vista Developer Center on MSDN - The Windows Vista Blog — Official blog of the Windows Vista Team - -Reviews and screenshots - Windows Vista Screenshots Gallery — Collection of Vista Screenshots from Different Builds - Features of Windows Vista - Windows Vista 32-bit and 64-bit Performance Compared - Windows Vista Ultimate — CNET review - Windows XP vs. Vista: The Benchmark Rundown — Tom's Hardware Guide review - -Microsoft operating systems" -14153,52442,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial%20counties%20of%20England,Ceremonial counties of England,"The Ceremonial counties of England are areas of England are defined by the government with reference to the metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England. They are also often called geographic counties. - -Map - -† ceremonial county covers larger area than the non-metropolitan county - -Definition -The Lieutenancies Act 1997 defines the ""ceremonial counties"" in terms of local government areas created by the Local Government Act 1972 as amended. Schedule 1, paragraphs 2–5 defines them as: - Bedfordshire, including Luton - Berkshire - Bristol - Buckinghamshire, including Milton Keynes - Cambridgeshire, including Peterborough - Cheshire, including Halton and Warrington - City of London - Cornwall, including Isles of Scilly - Cumbria - Chester - Derbyshire, including Derby - Devon, including Plymouth and Torbay - Dorset, including Bournemouth and Poole - County Durham, including Darlington, Hartlepool, and Stockton-on-Tees north of the River Tees - East Riding of Yorkshire, including Kingston-upon-Hull - East Sussex, including Brighton and Hove - Essex, including Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock - Gloucestershire, including South Gloucestershire - Greater London, excluding the City of London - Greater Manchester - Hampshire, including Southampton and Portsmouth - Herefordshire - Hertfordshire - Isle of Wight - Kent, including Medway - Lancashire, including Blackburn with Darwen, and Blackpool - Leicestershire, including Leicester - Lincolnshire, including North Lincolnshire, and North East Lincolnshire - Merseyside - Norfolk - North Yorkshire, including York, Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland, and Stockton-on-Tees south of the River Tees - Northamptonshire - Northumberland - Nottinghamshire, including Nottingham - Oxfordshire - Rutland - Shropshire, including Telford and Wrekin - Somerset, including Bath and North East Somerset and North Somerset - South Yorkshire - Staffordshire, including Stoke-on-Trent - Suffolk - Surrey - Tyne and Wear - Warwickshire - West Midlands - West Sussex - West Yorkshire - Wiltshire, including Swindon - Worcestershire - -Lieutenancy areas in 1890 - - Bedfordshire - Berkshire - Buckinghamshire - Cambridgeshire, including Isle of Ely - Cheshire - held jointly with Chester - Cornwall - Cumberland - Derbyshire - Devon - held jointly with Exeter - Dorset - held jointly with Poole - Durham - Essex - Gloucestershire - held jointly with Gloucester and Bristol - Herefordshire - Hertfordshire - Huntingdonshire - Kent - held jointly with Canterbury - Lancashire - Leicestershire - Lincolnshire - held jointly with Lincoln - City of London, having commissioners of Lieutenancy (not shown on map) - County of London - Middlesex - Norfolk - held jointly with Norwich - Northamptonshire, including the Soke of Peterborough - Northumberland - held jointly with Berwick-upon-Tweed and Newcastle upon Tyne - Nottinghamshire - held jointly with Nottingham - Oxfordshire - Rutland - Salop (Shropshire) - Somerset - Southamptonshire (Hampshire) - held jointly with Southampton - Staffordshire - held jointly with Lichfield - Suffolk - Sussex - Warwickshire - Westmorland - Wiltshire - Worcestershire - held jointly with Worcester - Yorkshire - had three Lieutenants, one for each of the three ridings - (a) East Riding, held jointly with Kingston upon Hull - (b) North Riding - (c) West Riding, held jointly with York - -References - -Other websites - Lieutenancies Act 1997" -10207,35383,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Navarro,Dave Navarro,"David Michael Navarro (born June 7, 1967 in Santa Monica, California), better known as Dave Navarro) is an American guitarist. He played in many different bands, most notably Jane's Addiction and Red Hot Chili Peppers. With the Red Hot Chili Peppers, they recorded One Hot Minute in 1995. Also, he was married to Carmen Electra from 2003 to 2006. - -American guitarists -Red Hot Chili Peppers -Musicians from California -1967 births -Living people -People from Santa Monica, California -American bloggers" -7839,25701,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Di%C3%A9-des-Vosges,Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,"Saint-Dié-des-Vosges is a city in the northeast of France, in Lorraine. - -Demography -Now about 23,000 people live there. - -Tourism -Surrounded by the Vosges mountains, it is a popular resort for tourists. - Cathedral - Museum Pierre-Noël - -Events -The city is famous for the International Festival of Geography, which takes place every autumn. - -Higher education - -Electronics, computer science, graphic design and communication are studied at the University Institute of Technology. - -In French it is called ""IUT"" (Institut universitaire de technologie). - -People of Saint-Dié-des-Vosges - Jules Ferry - Yvan Goll - -Other websites - Saint-Dié-des-Vosges website - Institut universitaire de technologie - -Communes in Vosges -Subprefectures in France" -16957,64458,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amethyst,Amethyst,"An amethyst is a mineral gemstone that comes from quartz. It is usually transparent and best known for its violet colour. Even though it is a form of quartz, it has more iron oxide (Fe2O3) than any other kind of quartz. Because of this, some experts think that its color comes from the iron in it. - -Heating the amethyst either takes away its color or changes it to a yellow hue. Amethysts are found in Brazil, Uruguay, Canada (Ontario) and America (North Carolina). The rock amethyst is the birthstone of the month February. In the Mohs scale, it has a hardness of seven. - -Meaning and superstition -Many people believe amethysts protect one from poison, evil, and getting drunk. This is where the name of this rock came from, The Greek word amethustos, means ""without being drunken"". - -Also they are thought to be good for healing, recovering from headaches, good dreams, and more. Some Catholic popes also wear a rosary of amethyst around their necks. Some Roman women thought gems could keep their husbands faithful to them. - -Amethysts are also worn because it is believed that it makes them look gentle. The “powers” of an amethyst also include healing, peace, love, more spirituality, courage, protection from robbers, and happiness. - -In the Book of Revelations the amethyst was one of the twelve foundation stones of New Jerusalem. - -There are many stories and myths about amethysts. One of them tells how amethysts were supposedly created. According to the story, Bacchus, the Roman god of wine and partying, was angry because of something against him and wanted to get revenge. He ordered that the first person who was mortal to come across his path would be eaten by tigers. - -Just at that moment a beautiful maiden named Amethyst came, on her way to worship the goddess Diana. Diana saw what was going to happen and she quickly made Amethyst into a stone to save her from the tigers. When Bacchus saw this, he repented and poured wine over the stone, making its color purple. - -Decoration -The amethyst is worn and used for fashion in a number of different ways. It is polished and shaped for rings, earrings, and cufflinks. It may be also used for brooches, sometimes being carved into a cluster of grapes. People like the way amethysts look, especially when they are put in gold and diamonds. - -The amethyst is worn by royalty and nobility. This is because its royal color was purple. When it was found in the Minoan period in Greece (c. 2500 B.C.), it was polished and shaped into cabochons (dome-shaped stones). Then, it was set in gold. - -During the 15th century, the French fleur-de-lis brooch could only be worn by the Royal family on special times. The fleur-de-lis design on it is put in with sapphires and amethysts. - -References - -Gemstones -Birthstones" -20132,77112,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakalipithecus,Nakalipithecus,"Nakalipithecus nakayamai is a fossil ape species. It was a discovery of a 10-million-year-old jawbone with teeth, in a volcanic mud in Nakali, Kenya. N. nakayamai is thought to have lived around 9.9 million to 9.8 million years ago. More teeth were found in the same place; eleven of them are thought to belong to this specimen. - -Other websites -New ancient ape species discovered -Jawbone sheds light on divergence of humans and apes - -Fossils -Hominids" -3060,9586,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love,Love,"Love is a mix of feelings and actions that shows a deep liking for someone or something. Love involves caring for another. Romantic love can lead to things such as dating, marriage and sex, but a person can also feel for friends, such as platonic love, or family. -There are also chemical reactions within the brain that can be triggered by the different types of love. - -Forms of love -Their are many kinds of love. There can be self-love, love towards a friend (such as platonic love), love in romance, towards family, toward God, or towards an object or idea. -Often love can be confused with other feelings. Being sexually or physically attracted is the feeling of lust. Lust and love may be thought of as different. Normal friendship is a form of love that can be distracted by lust and misunderstanding. - -First love -People describe the person that they first loved romantically as their ""first love."" For example, in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is Juliet's very first love. At that time, she was only 13. In Maria Edgeworth's book Belinda, Mr. Vincent says, ""First loves are silly things."" - -Chemical basis -The biological model of lust is different from love because it is more like hunger or thirst. Helen Fisher, an expert in the topic of romantic love, divides it into three stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust makes people like each other, attraction encourages people to focus on mating, and attachment helps people tolerate the spouse (or the child). - -Lust is the passionate sexual desire that promotes mating. This usually lasts only a few weeks or months. Attraction is more for one person specially. Recent studies in neuroscience say that as people fall in love, the brain releases chemicals, including dopamine. These chemicals make people less hungry and sleepy, and also adds an intense feeling of excitement. Research shows that this stage normally lasts from one and a half to three years. - -Since these lust and attraction stages are both described as temporary, a third stage might describe long-term love. Attachment can be used to describe the bonding period that helps keep husband and wife together for many years. Attachment occurs in the longer term. - -Love and health -Love has consequences for health and well-being. Joyful activities such as love activate areas in the brain responsible for emotion, attention, -motivation and memory, and it may further lead to reduction of cortisol, which reduces stress. Some people usually do not feel love. They are called aromantics. - -Related pages - -Saint Valentine - -Notes - -Basic English 850 words -Love -Healthy lifestyle" -10536,37468,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenfels,Weissenfels,"Weißenfels was the capital city of the old Weißenfels Rural District in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, until the district changes of 2007. The King of Saxony used to live here. It is about 30 km southwest of Leipzig. - -Population -Growth in number of people over the years: - -Data source from 1990: Statistic national office Saxony-Anhalt -1 29. October -2 31. August -3 03. October - -References - -Other websites - -Burgenlandkreis Rural District" -14486,54550,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annelid,Annelid,"Annelids are a phylum of invertebrate worms. They are the segmented worms, with over 17,000 known species. - -Well known species are earthworms and leeches. Annelids can be found in most wet environments. Some of these species are parasitic or mutualistic. This means they live together with (or inside) another organism. A mutualistic relationship is beneficial to both organisms. Their size varies from under a millimetre to about 3 metres. The largest known species is the seep tube worm (Lamellibrachia lymnesi), which is related to the giant tube worm. - -Annelids are made of one or more body segments. Each segment has one or more rings. These rings are called annuli (singular: 'annulus' = 'little ring'). Annelids reproduce sexually by hermaphroditic cross-fertilization. They can regenerate cut off pieces of their body, unlike sponges, which can come back together if ripped apart. They have a hydrostatic skeleton, a one-way digestion system, and bilateral symmetry. - -Nervous system -Annelid worms have a nervous system. The brain forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it. In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections. - -The rest of the central nervous system is usually 'ladder-like', with a pair of nerve cords that run along the bottom part of the body cavity. In each segment there are paired ganglia linked by a cross-connection. From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body. - -Main groups -Polychaetes: about 12,000 species, free-living -Clitellates: about 5,000 species -Oligochaetes -Hirudinea -Echiura - -References" -4758,15044,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime,Anime,"Anime (アニメ) is Japanese for 'animation'. In Japan, anime is the word used for all animation. Outside of Japan, the term anime refers to Japanese animation, which this article is about. - -Some anime is drawn by hand, but anime can also be made with CGI computer animation. There are many types of anime; you can find anime about sports, magic, or romance. These are just some examples. Anime are shown on television, on DVD and VHS, and are used in video games. Also, some anime cartoons are just movies, but they have cartoon characters and animation instead of real people and places. Anime is often based on Japanese comics that are called manga and graphic novels. Sometimes live action (not animation) movies and television series are based on an anime. - -The history of anime begins around 1900, when Japanese filmmakers tried out ways of animation at the same time as the United States, Russia, Germany and France. - -The filmmakers in Japan did not have a lot of money to make their movies and not a lot of places where they could film their movies. The people that the filmmakers could use as actors in their movies was also a problem for making Japanese movies. Japanese people look different from people in other places in the world (e.g. If the movie's theme were about Vikings, Ancient Rome or the Black Death pandemic in Medieval Europe, for example), and it was hard for filmmakers to make a movie about places other than Japan with Japanese actors. Movie makers liked animation because then they could have animator draw other places and people that could not be filmed in a normal movie, and the animators could be very creative with the cartoons they made. - -During the 1970s, more and more people started to like manga. At the same time, manga were used as the starting point to make anime with the same characters and stories. Animators would take the drawings done by a manga artist and the stories the manga artist wrote, and turn them into the stories and characters of a similar anime. At that time Osamu Tezuka became very popular. Now he is called a ""legend"" and the ""god of manga"". Tezuka and other pioneers of anime made a lot of types of stories and styles that are common to anime today. The giant robot genre (known as ""mecha"" outside Japan) began with manga and anime from Tezuka's ideas. Robot anime like Gundam and Macross became classics in the 1980s. Today, the robot genre is still very popular in Japan and worldwide. In the 1980s, anime became very popular in Japan, and saw an increase in production. (Manga is much more popular than anime in Japan). There are a lot of different kinds of anime that many different kinds of people like besides Mecha, and there are types of anime based on the age of the people (e.g. seinen or shōnen) who might like it or the subject of the anime. - -Very popular stories in anime and manga are often translated into other languages, and the words used in the anime or manga will be put into another language where they mean the same thing. That way, people who live outside of Japan and who do not understand Japanese (the language used for dialogue in anime and manga in Japan) can also understand the stories. If a manga or anime is not translated by a company in another country, sometimes people in that country will translate the story to share with other people for free before a company translates it for the general public. This is good because it allows more people to watch animes, but some companies think it is stealing. - -Forms of anime - Kodomo (Aimed at children) - Shōnen (Young teen boys.) - Shōjo (Young teen girls.) - Seinen (Young adult men.) - Josei (Young adult women.) - Harem (Boy surrounded by girls.) - Reverse Harem (Girl surrounded by boys.) - Hentai (Anime with erotic and pornographic themes, this type of anime is generally about sex and sexual arousal, and depicts scenes of explicit sexual intercourse and nudity) - Romance (Anime about people falling in love.) - Horror (Anime intended to invoke fear, anxiety or dread in its viewers, the most common elements in horror-themed animes are ghosts (yūrei), yōkai, demons, demonic possession, graphic violence, monsters, curses, etc.) - Comedy - Fantasy - Ecchi (Sexual content, but not as much as hentai. Doesn't show any sex.) - Mecha (Anime about robots, usually ones big enough for people to sit inside them and control them like people drive cars. Mecha anime often have wars where the robots are used to fight between countries like tanks and planes are used today.) - Isekai (Protagonist transported to a different world.) - Yaoi or shounen-ai (Anime about boys who are in love with other boys.) - Yuri or shojo-ai (Anime about girls who are in love with other girls.) - Drama - Supernatural (Anime about witches, magic, ghosts, deities, or other things that we do not normally see in everyday life) - Thriller - Slice of Life (Anime that contains moe, but usually about things people do every day, like going to school, or playing sports, or going to cultural festivals, Generic life) - Adventure, the main and the characters embark on a journey facing obstacles, some of them on a mission, some have their own purposes. - OVA, also known as Original Video Anime (Anime is about talks to 1993-2005 VHS tapes and the 1998-2021 DVDs of VeggieTales from Big Idea Studios from 20th Century Fox owned by Paramount) - -In the late 1980s, lots of people in countries other than Japan started to like anime too. In the United States, giant robot anime became popular. In Europe, anime for children became popular. Today, many different kinds of anime are popular all around the world. Anime helped spread in popularity thanks to the internet. - -Anime Expo -Anime Expo is a convention all about anime. It has mostly cosplay but attendees can also meet anime creators and voice actors. - -Related pages - Manga - Otaku - Cosplay - Hentai - Anime convention - VeggieTales - -Other websites -Anime News Network - Funimation -Kyotoanimation -- VeggieTales.com - - -Entertainment in Japan" -17784,67110,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay,Jay,"The jays are several species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy birds in the crow family Corvidae. - -Jays in culture - -Slang - The word ""jay"" has an archaic meaning in American slang meaning a stupid or dull person, from which is derived the term jaywalking - -Organizational symbols - The Toronto Blue Jays, a Major League Baseball team based in Toronto, Ontario. - -Related pages -General licences under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 - -References - - Ericson, Per G. P.; Jansén, Anna-Lee; Johansson, Ulf S. & Ekman, Jan (2005): Inter-generic relationships of the crows, jays, magpies and allied groups (Aves: Corvidae) based on nucleotide sequence data. Journal of Avian Biology 36: 222-234. PDF fulltext - -Other websites -Jay videos on the Internet Bird Collection - -Corvids" -3186,9874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%203,April 3," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 257 BC – A solar eclipse is seen over southern Gaul and Tuscany. - 33 – Crucifixion of Jesus (traditional date) - 1043 – Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. - 1559 – The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis treaty is signed, ending the Italian Wars. - 1764 - Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor is crowned Roman-German King in Frankfurt. - 1834 – The Generals in the Greek War of Independence stand trial for treason. - 1860 – The first successful Pony Express run from Saint Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California is started (completed on April 13). - 1865 – American Civil War: Union forces capture Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the break-away Confederate States of America. - 1881 - The Greek island of Chios is hit by a major earthquake. People do not return to the island until 1911. - 1882 - American Old West: Outlaw Jesse James is killed by Robert Ford. - 1884 - Belgian passenger ship Daniel Steinmann sinks in a storm of Halifax, Nova Scotia, killing 121 people. - 1885 – Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for his engine design. - 1895 - The trial in the libel case brought by Oscar Wilde begins. It eventually leads to imprisonment on charges of homosexuality. - 1896 - La Gazzetta dello Sport first goes on sale in Italy. It is the world's oldest sports paper. - -1901 2000 - 1905 – Boca Juniors football club is founded in Buenos Aires. - 1922 – Joseph Stalin succeeds Vladimir Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union. - 1926 - Honduras introduces the Lempira as its currency. - 1933 - The first flight over Mount Everest occurs, as part of a British expedition led by Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton, and funded by Lucy, Lady Houston. - 1941 – Hungarian and German troops march into Yugoslavia. - 1942 – World War II: Japanese forces begin an all-out assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula. Bataan fell on April 9 and the Bataan Death March began. - 1944 - A mine explosion in Heessen, Westphalia, Germany, kills 169 miners. - 1946 – Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed outside Manila in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March. - 1948 – President Harry Truman signs the Marshall Plan which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countries. - 1948 - In Jeju, South Korea, a civil war-like period of violence and human rights abuses begins. - 1954 - Oxford University wins the 100th Oxford-Cambridge Boat Race. - 1956 - A deadly Force 5 tornado hits the western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. - 1961 - Leadbeater's Possum is re-discovered in Australia, after 72 years. - 1968 – Elvis Presley sings Heartbreak Hotel on the Milton Berle Show with an estimated 25% of the United States population viewing. - 1968 – Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers his ""mountaintop"" speech. - 1973 – The first ever Mobile phone call is placed by Martin Cooper, in New York City - 1974 – The Super Outbreak occurred. 148 tornadoes affected 13 states and 1 Canadian province in 18 hours. It was the biggest tornado outbreak in the planet's recorded history. 315 people die, nearly 5,500 are injured. - 1975 - Bobby Fischer refuses to play a chess match against Anatoly Karpov, who wins the world championship by default as a result. - 1979 - Spain holds its first local elections since the death of Francisco Franco. - 1981 - Osborne 1, the first-ever portable computer, is unveiled in San Francisco. - 1984 - Lansana Conté comes to power in Guinea through a military coup. - 1986 – IBM unveils the PC Convertible, their first laptop computer. - 1991 - Miguel Trovoada becomes President of São Tomé and Príncipe. - 1992 – Albania's last Communist leader Ramiz Alia resigns. - 1996 – Suspected ""Unabomber"" Theodore Kaczynski is arrested at his Montana cabin. - 1997 – Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but 1 of the 53 people living in Thalit are killed by guerrillas. - 2000 – Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust laws by keeping ""an oppressive thumb"" on its competitors. - -From 2001 - 2004 – Islamist terrorists blow themselves up in Madrid, after a shootout with police. - 2007 – A new speed record is set by a TGV train on the LGV Est high speed line in France. - 2008 – ATA Airlines files for bankruptcy. - 2010 – South African far-right politician Eugene Terre'Blanche is beaten to death on his farm near the town of Ventersdorp. - 2013 - Over 50 people are killed in floods in Buenos Aires and La Plata in Argentina. - 2016 - Panama Papers: A leak of 11 million legal documents related to the firm Mossack Fonseca in Panama reveals information on 214,488 offshore companies, involving many rich and famous people, including political leaders, businessmen and celebrities. - 2017 - 2017 Saint Petersburg Metro bombing: A bomb is detonated in the subway system in Saint Petersburg, Russia, killing 14 people. - 2018 - YouTube headquarters shooting: Nasim Najafi Aghdam injures several people at the headquarters of YouTube in San Bruno, California, before turning the gun on herself. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1151 - Igor Svyatoslavich, Kievan Rus Prince (d. 1202) - 1245 – King Philip III of France (d. 1285) - 1367 – King Henry IV of England (d. 1413) - 1529 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1581) - 1593 - George Herbert, Welsh-born English poet (d. 1633) - 1639 – Alessandro Stradella, Italian composer (d. 1682) - 1643 - Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1690) - 1683 – Mark Catesby, English naturalist (d. 1749) - 1715 - William Watson, English physician and scientist (d. 1787) - 1764 - John Abernethy, English surgeon (d. 1831) - 1769 - Christian Gunther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian statesman and diplomat (d. 1835) - 1770 - Theodoros Kolokstronis, Greek general (d. 1843) - 1781 - Swaminarayan, Indian religious leader (d. 1830) - 1783 – Washington Irving, American writer (d. 1859) - 1798 – Charles Wilkes, American navy officer and polar explorer (d. 1877) - 1806 – Ivan Kireevsky, Russian literary critic and philosopher (d. 1856) - 1807 - Jane Digby, English aristocrat and adventuress (d. 1881) - 1814 – Lorenzo Snow, American Mormon leader (d. 1901) - 1822 - Edward Everett Hale, American writer (d. 1909) - 1823 - William M. Tweed, American politician (d. 1878) - 1843 – Knut Ekvall, Swedish artist (d. 1912) - 1848 - Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and naval officer (d. 1879) - 1861 - Frederik van Eeden, Dutch writer and psychiatrist (d. 1932) - 1863 - Henry van de Velde, Belgian architect and designer (d. 1957) - 1876 - Margaret Anglin, Canadian Broadway actress (d. 1958) - 1876 - Celso Constantini, Italian cardinal (d. 1958) - 1880 - Jorge Brown, Argentine footballer and cricketer (d. 1936) - 1880 – Otto Weininger, Austrian philosopher (d. 1903) - 1881 – Alcide De Gasperi, Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1954) - 1882 - Philippe Desranleau, Canadian archbishop (d. 1952) - 1883 - Ikki Kita, Japanese philosopher and author (d. 1937) - 1885 - Bud Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 1954) - 1885 - Allan Dwan, American director, producer and screenwriter (d. 1981) - 1887 - Otori Tanigoro, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1956) - 1889 - Grigoras Dinicu, Romanian composer and violinist (d. 1949) - 1893 - Leslie Howard, British actor (d. 1943) - 1895 – Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian composer (d. 1968) - 1898 – Henry Luce, American publisher (d. 1967) - 1898 - George Jessel, American actor, singer and producer (d. 1981) - 1899 – David Jack, English footballer (d. 1958) - 1899 - Maria Redaelli, Italian supercentenarian (d. 2013) - 1900 - Camille Chamoun, President of Lebanon (d. 1987) - -1901 1950 - 1903 - Lili Kraus, Hungarian-American pianist (d. 1986) - 1904 - Sally Rand, American Burlesque dancer (d. 1979) - 1905 - Robert Sink, American military officer (d. 1965) - 1907 - Iron Eyes Cody, American actor (d. 1999) - 1911 – Stanislawa Walasiewicz, Polish athlete (d. 1980) - 1912 - Grigoris Lambrakis, Greek politician, physician and athlete (d. 1963) - 1913 – Per Borten, Prime Minister of Norway (d. 2005) - 1915 – Piet de Jong, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2016) - 1918 - Mary Anderson, American actress (d. 2014) - 1919 - Ervin Drake, American songwriter and composer (d. 2015) - 1920 – Stan Freeman, American composer and lyricist (d. 2001) - 1920 – John Demjanjuk, Ukrainian convicted Nazi war criminal (d. 2012) - 1920 - Yoshibayama Junnosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1977) - 1922 - Doris Day, American actress (d. 2019) - 1922 - José Hierro, Spanish poet (d. 2002) - 1922 - Carlo Lizzani, Italian movie director, screenwriter and actor (d. 2013) - 1924 – Marlon Brando, American actor (d. 2004) - 1925 – Tony Benn, British politician (d. 2014) - 1926 – Gus Grissom, American astronaut (d. 1967) - 1926 - Timothy Bateson, English actor (d. 2009) - 1928 - Earl Lloyd, American basketball player (d. 2015) - 1928 - Cheikh Hamidou Kane, Senegalese writer - 1929 - Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese actress (d. 2007) - 1929 - Poul Schlüter, former Prime Minister of Denmark - 1930 – Helmut Kohl, former Chancellor of Germany (d. 2017) - 1930 - Lawton Chiles, 41st Governor of Florida (d. 1998) - 1930 - Mario Menéndez, Argentine general and politician (d. 2015) - 1933 - Bob Dornan, American politician - 1933 - Fu Da-ren, Taiwanese sports broadcaster and assisted suicide activist (d. 2018) - 1934 – Jane Goodall, English zoologist - 1935 - Salvatore Senese, Italian magistrate and politician (d. 2019) - 1936 – Reginald Hill, English crime fiction writer (d. 2012) - 1936 - Harold Vick, American jazz saxophonist and flautist (d. 1987) - 1942 - Wayne Newton, American singer and actor - 1942 - Billy Joe Royal, American singer (d. 2015) - 1942 - Marsha Mason, American actress - 1943 - Mario Lavista, Mexican composer - 1943 - Jonathan Lynn, English actor, director and screenwriter - 1945 - Bernie Parent, Canadian ice hockey player - 1945 - Catherine Spaak, French actress - 1946 - Dee Murphy, English musician (d. 1992) - 1946 - Marisa Paredes, Spanish actress - 1946 - Hanna Suchocka, 5th Prime Minister of Poland - 1948 – Carlos Salinas de Gortari, former President of Mexico - 1948 – Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Dutch politician and former NATO Secretary-General - 1948 - Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck, German footballer - 1949 – Daniel Catan, Mexican composer (d. 2011) - 1949 - A. C. Grayling, British philosopher - 1950 - Sally Thomsett, English actress - -1951 1975 - 1953 - Wakanohana Kanji II, Japanese sumo wrestler - 1956 - Miguel Bosé, Spanish singer and actor - 1957 - Yves Chaland, French cartoonist (d. 1990) - 1958 - Francesca Woodman, American photographer (d. 1981) - 1958 – Alec Baldwin, American actor - 1959 – David Hyde Pierce, American actor - 1960 - Elizabeth Gracen, American actress and model - 1960 - Arjen Anthony Lucassen, Dutch singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer - 1961 – Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian - 1962 – Jennifer Rubin, American actress - 1964 – Bjarne Riis, Danish cyclist - 1964 – Andy Robinson, English rugby player and coach - 1964 - Nigel Farage, English politician, former leader of UKIP - 1965 - Katsumi Oenoki, Japanese footballer - 1966 – Mina Tominaga, Japanese voice actress - 1966 - Michael Mittermeier, German comedian - 1968 – Sebastian Bach, Canadian singer - 1968 - Charlotte Coleman, English actress (d. 2001) - 1968 - Jamie Hewlett, English comic creator - 1970 - Donald-Olivier Sié, Ivorian footballer - 1971 - Robert da Silva Almeida, Brazilian footballer - 1971 – Vitalijs Astafjevs, Latvian footballer - 1971 - Picabo Street, American skier - 1972 – Kenny Logan, Scottish rugby player - 1972 - Lola Pagnani, Italian movie actress - 1972 - Jennie Garth, American actress - 1972 - Leigh-Allyn Baker, American actress - 1972 - Catherine McCormack, English actress - 1973 - Prabhu Deva, Indian dancer, choreographer, movie director and actor - 1973 – Jamie Bamber, English actor - 1975 - Shawn Bates, American ice hockey player - -From 1976 - 1976 – Drew Shirley, American musician - 1976 – Will Mellor, English actor - 1978 – Matthew Goode, English actor - 1978 – Tommy Haas, German tennis player - 1978 – John Smit, South African rugby player - 1980 – Suella Braverman, English politician - 1981 – Aaron Bertram, American trumpeter (Suburban Legends) - 1982 – Cobie Smulders, Canadian actress - 1983 – Ben Foster, English footballer - 1985 – Leona Lewis, English singer - 1986 – Amanda Bynes, American actress - 1986 – Coleen Rooney, English celebrity - 1987 – Park Jung-min, South Korean singer, dancer and actor - 1987 – Martyn Rooney, English sprinter - 1988 – Tim Krul, Dutch footballer - 1989 – Israel Folau, Australian rugby player - 1990 – Sotiris Ninis, Greek footballer - 1990 – Karim Ansarifard, Iranian footballer - 1991 – Hayley Kiyoko, American singer, dancer and actress - 1992 – Simone Benedetti, Italian footballer - 1992 – Yuliya Yefimova, Russian swimmer - 1992 – Juan Cazares, Ecuadorean footballer - 1993 – Pape Moussa Konaté, Senegalese footballer - 1994 – Dylann Roof, American murderer, perpetrator of the Charleston church shooting - 1995 – William de Asevedo Furtado, Brazilian footballer - 1997 – Gabriel Jesus, Brazilian footballer - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 963 – William III, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 915) - 1203 - Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1196) - 1287 - Pope Honorius IV (b. 1240) - 1350 - Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295) - 1617 – John Napier, Scottish mathematician (b. 1550) - 1680 - Shivaji, Indian founder of the Maratha Empire (b. 1608) - 1682 – Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter (b. 1618) - 1691 - Jean Petitot, French-Swiss painter (b. 1608) - 1717 - Jacques Ozanam, French mathematician (b. 1640) - 1849 – Juliusz Slowacki, Polish poet (b. 1809) - 1857 - Federico de Roncali, 1st Count of Alcoy, Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1809) - 1868 – Franz Berwald, Swedish composer and inventor (b. 1796) - 1882 – Jesse James, American outlaw (b. 1847) - 1897 – Johannes Brahms, German composer (b. 1833) - -1901 2000 - 1901 - Richard D'Oyly Carte, British talent agent, impresario, composer and hotelier (b. 1844) - 1936 – Bruno Hauptmann, German, convicted for the murder of Charles Lindbergh III (b. 1899) - 1941 – Pal Teleki, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1879) - 1941 - Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1877) - 1943 - Conrad Veidt, German-American actor (b. 1893) - 1950 – Kurt Weill, German composer (b. 1900) - 1950 - Carter G. Woodson, American historian, writer and journalist (b. 1875) - 1952 – Miina Sillanpaa, Finnish politician (b. 1866) - 1954 - Aristides de Sousa Mendes, Portuguese diplomat (b. 1885) - 1975 - Mary Ure, Scottish actress (b. 1933) - 1978 - Ray Noble, English bandleader, actor and composer (b. 1903) - 1982 - Warren Oates, American actor (b. 1928) - 1986 – Peter Pears, English tenor (b. 1910) - 1990 – Sarah Vaughan, American jazz singer and pianist (b. 1924) - 1991 – Graham Greene, English writer (b. 1904) - 1994 – Frank Wells, American businessman, President of the Walt Disney Company (b. 1932) - 1996 - Ron Brown, American politician (b. 1941) - 1999 – Lionel Bart, English composer (b. 1930) - -From 2001 - 2003 – Edwin Starr, American singer (b. 1942) - 2004 - Gabriella Ferri, Italian singer (b. 1942) - 2007 – Nina Wang, Asia's richest woman (b. 1937) - 2008 – Hrvoje Custic, Croatian footballer (b. 1983) - 2010 – Eugene Terre'Blanche, South African far-right politician (b. 1941) - 2012 - Xenia Stade-de Jong, Dutch athlete (b. 1922) - 2013 - Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German-born novelist, short story writer and screenwriter (b. 1927) - 2014 - Régine Deforges, French author, playwright and director (b. 1935) - 2014 - Fred Kida, American illustrator (b. 1920) - 2014 - Arthur ""Guitar Boogie"" Smith, American guitarist, fiddler and composer (b. 1921) - 2014 - Paul Salamunovich, American choral director and movie scorer (b. 1927) - 2014 - Virginie Korte-van Hemel, Dutch politician (b. 1929) - 2014 - Edvard Grimstad, Norwegian politician (b. 1933) - 2014 - Tommy Lynn Sells, American serial killer (b. 1964) - 2015 - Nigel Boocock, British speedway rider (b. 1937) - 2015 - Shmuel Wosner, Austrian-Israeli rabbi (b. 1913) - 2015 - Sarah Brady, American gun control campaigner (b. 1942) - 2015 - Kayahan, Turkish pop singer (b. 1949) - 2015 - Robert Rietti, British-Italian actor (b. 1923) - 2015 - Vivian Nathan, American actress (b. 1916) - 2015 - Bob Burns, American drummer (Lynyrd Skynyrd) (b. 1950) - 2016 - Cesare Maldini, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1932) - 2016 - Joe Medicine Crow, American historian (b. 1913) - 2016 - Lars Gustafsson, Swedish writer (b. 1936) - 2016 - Martin Lampkin, British motorcycle rider (b. 1950) - 2016 - Lola Novakovic, Serbian singer (b. 1935) - 2016 - Erik Bauersfeld, American radio dramatist and voice actor (b. 1922) - 2016 - Don Francks, Canadian jazz singer and actor (b. 1932) - 2016 - Rowley Habib, New Zealand writer (b. 1933) - 2016 - Clarence Clifton Young, American politician (b. 1922) - 2016 - Jules Schelvis, Dutch historian and Holocaust survivor (b. 1921) - 2017 - John Chrispinsson, Swedish journalist (b. 1956) - 2017 - Akbarzhan Jalilov, Kyrgyz-born Russian terrorist (b. 1995) - 2017 - Roy Sievers, American baseball player (b. 1926) - 2017 - Michel Arrivé, French linguist and novelist (b. 1936) - 2017 - Stella Turk, British zoologist, naturalist and conservationist (b. 1925) - 2018 - Lill-Babs, Swedish singer (b. 1938) - 2018 - Nasim Najafi Aghdam, Iranian-American animal rights and internet personality (b. 1979) - 2018 - Arrigo Petacco, Italian journalist and writer (b. 1929) - 2018 - Jacques Tixier, French archaeologist and prehistorian - 2019 - Maurice Pon, French lyricist (b. 1921) - 2019 - Aleksey Buldakov, Russian actor (b. 1951) - 2019 - Gabriel Piroird, French bishop (b. 1932) - 2019 - Carmelita Pope, American actress (b. 1924) - -April 03" -5687,18479,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key,Key,"A key is an object used to open and close locks. Many things have locks, for example, doors. Keys are also used to turn on cars, machines and other things. - -A key is used by placing the key into the slot of the thing you want to unlock. - -A key that can open more than one lock (if each lock also has its own key) is called a master key or skeleton key. - -History - -The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, the capital of ancient Assyria. Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture or attachment, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out of drilled holes within the bolt, allowing it to move. When the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. - -The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock and key design in the Western world. The first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodorus of Samos in the 6th century BC. - -Affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure locked boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits: It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. - -Further reading - Phillips, Bill. (2005). The Complete Book of Locks and Locksmithing. McGraw-Hill. . - Alth, Max (1972). All About Locks and Locksmithing. Penguin. - Robinson, Robert L. (1973). Complete Course in Professional Locksmithing Nelson-Hall. - -Other websites - - Historical locks by Raine Borg and ASSA ABLOY - Picking Locks Popular Mechanics - -Basic English 850 words -Tools -Locks" -22100,83927,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALI%20PROJECT,ALI PROJECT,"ALI PROJECT is a Japanese musical group. The members of this group are Arika Takarano and Mikiya Katakura. They play an active role in Japanese animation. - -Other websites - -J-pop bands -Japanese pop music groups" -6285,20044,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1543,1543," - -Events -February 21 – Battle of Wayna Daga – A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. -May – Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium -July 12 – King Henry VIII of England marries Catherine Parr. It is the sixth of Henry's marriages and the third of Catherine's. Princess Elizabeth attends the wedding - August 5 – Turkish and French troops under Khair ed-Din Barbarossa occupy Nice -September-October – Landrecies in Picardy is besieged by forces under Emperor Charles V, but withdraw on the approach of the French army. - -Japanese receive first firearms from shipwrecked Portuguese -Native Americans in Spanish colonies are announced free against the wish of local settlers -Martin Luther publishes On the Jews and Their Lies. - -Births - January 18 – (baptized) – Alfonso Ferrabosco, Italian composer - January 31 – Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japanese shogun - February 15 – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine - February 16 – Kano Eitoku, Japanese painter - April 1 – François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, Constable of France - September 14 – Claudio Aquaviva, Italian Jesuit - -Deaths -January 2 – Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer -January 3 – Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Portuguese explorer -January 9 – Guillaume du Bellay, French diplomat and general -February 21 – Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, Imam of Adal (killed in battle) -May 24 – Nicolaus Copernicus, mathematician and astronomer -July 19 – Lady Mary Boleyn, mistress of Kings Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England -September 20 – Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland -November 29 – Hans Holbein the Younger, German artist, active in England" -9951,33999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exile%20on%20Main%20St.,Exile on Main St.,"Exile On Main St. was one of The Rolling Stones' albums. It was released in 1972 and includes the hit songs ""Happy"" and ""Tumbling Dice"". - -The Rolling Stones -1972 albums -Rock and roll albums -R&B albums -Blues albums -Soul albums -Country albums -Blues rock albums" -20616,79321,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachniodes,Arachniodes,"Arachniodes is a genus of fern in family Dryopteridaceae. It has the following species (but this list may not have all species): - Arachniodes squamulosa, R.C.Moran & B.Øllg. - -Pteridophyta" -10664,38024,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-5,Hi-5,"Hi-5 is an Australian television show for children that started in 1999. The members of Hi-5 are Nathan, Kellie, Charli, Tim and Kathleen. Hi-5 can also be known as a pop music group for young children. They sing songs, dance and act. Hi-5 have recently released an album called Boom Boom beat! The album has 20 tracks. Hi-5 is very popular with children but also with many other age groups. - -Overall, the show has been designed to have a very bright and happy feel to it. The show is aired once a week on Australian television. All the members of Hi-5 had been involved in television before the show had started. They had done commercials and small roles in other television shows. But Hi-5 has definitely been their most successful venture. They have won two Logie Awards (Awards that are voted by the Australian public) for Most Outstanding Children’s Program. - -Some of Hi-5’s songs: - -""Friends"" -""Rain Rain"" -""Three Wishes"" -""Celebrate"" -""Robot One"" -""Hi-5 theme song"" - -Australian television -Australian musical groups -Children's musical groups -Children's television series -1999 television series debuts -1999 establishments in Australia -English-language television programs" -20477,78657,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft%20water,Soft water,"Soft water is water which has relatively low concentration of calcium carbonate and other ions . It contains less than 85.5 parts per million of calcium carbonate. - -The water that lathers with soap easily is called or known as soft water. It describes type of water that contain few or no minerals like calcium (Ca) or magnesium (Mg) ions. The term is usually relative to hard water, which does contain significant amounts of such ions. - -Soft water mostly comes from peat or igneous rock sources, such as granite but may also come from sandstone sources, since those sedimentary rocks are usually low in calcium and magnesium. - -Hard water may be better for the heart than soft water. Its calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)ions may be a dietary supplement for some. - -The main disadvantage of hard water is it deposits calcium carbonate on pipes, especially hot water pipes. This is called ""scale formation"". It may cause blockage of pipes and reduce boiler efficiency. Also, soap and detergents work less well in hard water. These effects increase as hardness increases. - - Soften water - -References - -Water" -3407,10118,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah,Torah,"Torah () is a Hebrew word that means ""instructions"". When most people say the word Torah they either mean the whole Jewish Bible, the Tanakh, the first five books of the Bible, or all of the Jewish teaching in general. These five books are the beginning of both the Jewish and Christian bibles. They are - - Genesis (), - Exodus (), - Leviticus (), - Numbers () and - Deuteronomy (). - -Other names for this set of books are the ""Five Books of Moses,"" or ""Pentateuch"". - -Some people may use the word Torah as a name for all the main Jewish teachings. - -Each of the books in the Torah are separated into parts called ""Parshiyot."" Parsha is a Hebrew word meaning ""portion."" Every Shabbat one parsha is read in the synagogue, but sometimes two are read. This is so that all the parshiyot are finished every year, on the Jewish holiday of Simchat Torah. - -It is also known as the Five Book of Moses because Moses received these five books from God. - -Pentateuch -Pentateuch means the first five books of the Bible. These books are Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The word Pentateuch comes from two Greek words that mean ""five books"" or ""five scroll"" - -According to tradition, the books were written by the Israelite leader, Moses. The Pentateuch is often called the Five Books of Moses or the Torah. - -The Pentateuch tells the story from the Creation of the world to the death of Moses and the preparation of the Israelite's to enter the land of Canaan. The story is told in three parts. The first part (Genesis 1-11) is about the Creation and the beginning of human beings on earth. The second part (Genesis 12-50) are the stories of the ancestors of the Israelites, mainly Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. The third part, beginning with the book of Exodus, describes how the Israelite's left Egypt and the early history of the people of Israel as a nation. It also has many laws about how the Israelite's must build their society. Deuteronomy is mostly Moses's final speech to his people and a summary of the Pentateuch. - -Other websites - - - -Judaism -Bible versions" -2985,9407,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20German%20districts,List of German districts,"Germany is divided into 402 administrative districts. These consist of 295 rural districts (Landkreise), listed fully here, and 107 urban districts (Kreisfreie Städte / Stadtkreise) - cities which constitute a district in their own right. - -References - -Districts of Germany -Districts" -2751,8638,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle%20of%20Wight,Isle of Wight,"The Isle of Wight is an island county that is just off the south coast of England. It is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) by 20 kilometres (13 miles) in size. About one hundred and twenty thousand people live on the island. - -The Isle of Wight is known as a county. This means that it has a council of people who make decisions about some things that affect the people who live there. The county town of the island, which is the place where the council work, is called Newport. - -Tourism -Many people like to go on holiday on the island. There are many hotels and tourist attractions. Queen Victoria used to like to visit the Isle of Wight where she had a house called Osborne House. Tourism is the most important industry on the island. - -Nature -Over half of the island is officially designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is also widely recognised as the most important site in Europe for finding dinosaur remains. - - -Ceremonial counties of England -Unitary authorities" -21583,82387,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aya%20Matsuura,Aya Matsuura,"Aya Matsuura (松浦亜弥 Matsuura Aya, born June 25, 1986) is a Japanese singer, an idol, actress, and television performer. She is a member of Hello! Project of UP-FRONT AGENCY Co. Her nickname is ""Ayaya"". - -She was born and raised in Himeji, Hyōgo Prefecture. In 2000, she passed an audition (Morning Musume and Michiyo Heike Jr. Audition), and debuted as an actress in a short TV play. In 2001, she debuted as a solo singer. She did not joined in Morning Musume, but became one of the most famous members of Hello! Project. - -Discography - -Original albums - First KISS (2002-1-1) - T.W.O (2003-1-29) - ×3 (2004-1-1) - Double Rainbow (2007-10-10) - -Best albums - Matsuura Aya Best1 (2005-3-24) - Naked Songs (2006-11-29) - -Singles - ""Dokki Doki! Love Mail"" (ドッキドキ! Loveメール) (2001-4-11) - ""Tropical Koishiteru"" (トロピカ～ル恋して～る) (2001-6-13) - ""Love Namidairo"" (Love涙色) (2001-9-5) - ""100Kai no Kiss"" (100回のKiss) (2001-11-28) - ""Momoiro Kataomoi"" (♥ 桃色片思い ♥) (2002-2-6) - ""Yeah! Meccha Holiday"" (Yeah! めっちゃホリディ) (2002-5-29) - ""The Bigaku"" (The 美学) (2002-9-19) - ""Sōgen no Hito"" (草原の人) (2002-12-11) - ""Ne~e?"" (ね～え?) (2003-3-12) - ""Good Bye Natsuo"" (Good Bye 夏男) (2003-6-4) - ""The Last Night"" (2003-9-26) - ""Kiseki no Kaori Dance"" (奇跡の香りダンス) (2004-1-28) - ""Hyacinth"" (風信子 (ヒヤシンス)) (2004-3-10) - ""Your Song ~Seishun Sensei~"" (Your Song ~青春宣誓~) (2004-7-14) - ""Watarasebashi"" (渡良瀬橋) (2004-10-20) - ""Tensai! Let's Go Ayayamu"" (天才! Let's Go あややム) -Theme song of ""Hamtaro the Movie 4"" (2004-11-26) - ""Zutto Suki de Ii desu ka"" (ずっと 好きでいいですか) (2005-2-23) - ""Ki ga Tsukeba Anata"" (気がつけば あなた) (2005-9-21) - ""Suna wo Kamu you ni... Namida"" (砂を噛むように・・・Namida) (2006-2-1) - ""Egao"" (笑顔)'' (2007-8-29) - -References - -1986 births -Living people -Japanese singers -Japanese movie actors -J-pop -Actors from Hyōgo Prefecture" -24110,92993,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordvorpommern%20Rural%20District,Nordvorpommern Rural District,"Nordvorpommern (""North Western Pomerania"") is a former district in the northern part of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. It is on the coast of the Baltic Sea, and it surrounds the coastal city of Stralsund. - -Geography -On the coast is a long peninsula, called the Darß. Between the Darß and the mainland there is a very shallow lagoon. the lagoon and the peninsula are part of the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park. - -History -Until 1819 the area was controlled by Sweden. Then it became a part of Prussia. The modern district was made in 1994 by joining the three old districts of Grimmen, Ribnitz-Damgarten and Stralsund. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - - Official website - -Former rural districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania" -15129,57053,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Wedgwood%20IV,Thomas Wedgwood IV,"Thomas Wedgwood (1716-1773) was an English potter. He was a member of the Wedgwood family, who were very successful potters. He was the son of Thomas Wedgwood III and Mary Stringer and brother of Josiah Wedgwood. - -Thomas Wedgwood was married firstly to Isabell Beech. Their children were: -Thomas Wedgwood V - -1716 births -1773 deaths -Wedgwood, Thomas IV -Potters" -16635,63713,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican,Republican,"Republican could mean: - The form of government known as a republic - Groups wanting to abolish a monarchy, for example, the Australian Republican Movement and the British republican movement (see Republicanism) - A political party such as: - Republican Party (United States) sometimes referred to as the GOP (Grand Old Party) - Republican Party (France) - Republican Party (Liberia) - Republican Party (Malawi) part of the Mgwirizano Coalition - The Republicans (Germany) - Republican Party of São Paulo - Fianna Fáil in Ireland–also called the Republican Party - Vanuatu Republican Party - Supporters of Irish Republicanism - Institutions or supporters of particular historical republics, including: - the ancient Roman Republic - the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War - various French Republics, most notably the French First Republic established during the French Revolution - The Republican River of Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas, USA." -1276,4646,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat,Meat,"Meat is animal tissue used as food. Most often is used to describe skeletal muscle and fat that is found with it. Types of meat include beef and veal from cattle, pork, ham and bacon from pigs, mutton from sheep, venison from deer, fish, insects, and poultry from chickens, ducks and turkeys. The word meat is also used for sausages and for non-muscle organs which are used for food, for example liver, brain, and kidneys. - -In the meat processing industry, (in some countries) the word ""meat"" is to mean only the flesh of mammalian species such as pigs, cattle, etc. but does not include fish, insects and poultry. - -Animals such as members of the cat family that mainly eat animals are called carnivores. - -Health -Meat is an important part of the diet of many people because it has protein. Protein helps the growth and healing of a body and gives energy. Meat is a ""high-protein"" food, but costs more than other foods like bread and vegetables. Meat is also a source of B vitamins. People who cannot afford meat, or who do not like to eat it need to find other ways to get enough protein in their diet. Beans and certain nuts are also high in protein, but plant protein might not be as easy to absorb as animal protein. People that choose not to eat meat are called vegetarians, and those who do not eat any animal products are known as vegans. - -Red meat is darker-coloured meat (usually form mammals), different from white meat such as chicken or fish. There is a greater risk of diseases and parasites when eating raw meat, but there are some special dishes which are made from raw meat. Examples are steak tartare, sushi, oysters. The meat used in these dishes are usually of high quality. - -In religion -Due to religious dietary law, halal (حلال) meaning permissible in Arabic is used as a visual marker for Muslims on shops and on products. Likewise kosher for food sourced and prepared according to Jewish tradition. - -References - -Meat" -20578,79101,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesc%20F%C3%A0bregas,Cesc Fàbregas,"Cesc Fàbregas (born May 4, 1987) is a Spanish football player. He plays as a midfielder for Monaco in the Ligue 1. -Fàbregas started playing football at Barcelona. In 2003, when he was just 16 years old, he signed with Arsenal. -He was named as the new captain of Arsenal in November 2008, after William Gallas lost the captaincy. He also plays for the Spanish national team since he was 19. He signed for Chelsea FC in June 2014. - -Club career statistics - -|- -|2003/04||rowspan=""7""|Arsenal||rowspan=""7""|Premier League||0||0||0||0||3||1||0||0||3||1 -|- -|2004/05||33||2||6||0||1||0||5||1||45||3 -|- -|2005/06||35||3||0||0||1||0||13||1||49||4 -|- -|2006/07||38||2||2||0||4||0||10||2||54||4 -|- -|2007/08||32||7||2||0||1||0||10||6||45||13 -|- -|2008/09||22||3||1||0||0||0||10||0||33||3 -|- -|2009/10|||||||||||||||||||| -160||17||11||0||10||1||48||10||229||28 -160||17||11||0||10||1||48||10||229||28 -|} - -International career statistics - -References - -1987 births -Living people -Spanish footballers -Arsenal F.C. players -Chelsea F.C. players" -5757,18655,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montpelier%2C%20Vermont,"Montpelier, Vermont","Montpelier -is a city in the U.S. state of Vermont that serves as the state capital. It is also the shire town (county seat) of Washington County. As the capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the site of the Vermont State House, the seat of the legislative branch of Vermont government. The Vermont State House has a golden dome. The population was 7,855 at the 2010 census. By population, it is the smallest state capital in the United States. The Vermont History Museum and Vermont College of Fine Arts are in Montpelier. - -The state legislature made Montpelier the state capital in 1805. - -References - -Other websites - - City of Montpelier, Vermont - Kellogg-Hubbard Library - Central Vermont Chamber of Commerce - State of Vermont - -State capitals in the United States -Cities in Vermont -County seats in Vermont -1787 establishments in the United States -18th-century establishments in Vermont" -7719,25223,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20Tang%20of%20Shang%20of%20China,King Tang of Shang of China,"King Tang of Shang of China, in Chinese:""湯"", born Zi Lu, in Chinese:""子履"" (1617 BC - 1588 BC) was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. He fought Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty. - -He was the leader of his tribe, or group of people, for more than 17 years. While leader, he made many smart men officials to help fix his government. - -When he saw that the Xia Dynasty was starting to be weak, Tang started 16 wars fighting the Xia Dynasty, getting many lands. Tang finally defeated the dynasty in 1600bc. - -Many people of his country thought he was a good leader. He made taxes smaller and did not force his people to be soldiers for a long time. He affected many people from foreign places. - -1617 BC births -1588 BC deaths - -Kings of Shang Dynasty" -10815,38848,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chessmaster,Chessmaster,"Chessmaster is a series of chess-playing computer games. It is made by Ubisoft. It is the best-selling chess franchise in history, with more than five million games sold . The first version of the game, Chessmaster 2000, was released in 1986. This first version and the next one, Chessmaster 2100, were produced by the now-defunct Software Toolworks company. - -The Chessmaster chess engine is called ""The King"". It is written by Johan de Koning of the Netherlands. It was introduced in Chessmaster 4000. Earlier releases had a chess engine written by David Kittinger. One version of the game, Chessmaster 9000, defeated Larry Christiansen, a well-known American chess grandmaster and former multiple U.S. champion. - -Timeline -1986-88: The Chessmaster series started with Chessmaster 2000 by The Software Toolworks. It was published for Amiga, Apple II, Atari 8-bit, Atari ST, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC, MSX, Macintosh and DOS on a 3.5 disk in February of 1988. -1988: Chessmaster 2100 was published for the Apple IIGS. -1989: Chessmaster 2100 was published for DOS. -1990: The Chessmaster was published for the NES. -1991: The Chessmaster was published for the SNES. -1991: Chessmaster 3000 was published for DOS, Windows 3.x. -1993: Chessmaster 4000 Turbo was published for Windows 3.x. -1995: Chessmaster 4000 was published for Windows 95. -1995: Chessmaster 3D for PlayStation had the Chessmaster 4000 engine. -1996: Chessmaster 5000 was published for Windows 95. -1997: Chessmaster 5500 was published for Windows 95. -1998: Chessmaster 6000 was published for Windows 95 and Windows 98. -1999: Chessmaster 7000 was published for Windows 98 and Chessmaster II was published for PlayStation. -2000: Chessmaster 8000 was published for Windows 98. -2002: Chessmaster 9000 was published for Windows 98/ME/XP -2004: Chessmaster 10th Edition was published for Windows XP. -2007: The current version, Chessmaster XI, was released for PC (titled Chessmaster: Grandmaster Edition) and Nintendo DS (titled Chessmaster: The Art of Learning) on 30 October. - -References - -Other websites -chessmaster (2000) on chessgames -Chessmaster XI website -Chessmaster 9000 at Feral Interactive - -1986 video games -Amstrad CPC games -Apple II games -Commodore 64 games -DOS games -Game Boy games -Mobile games -Nintendo Entertainment System games -Nintendo DS games -PlayStation games -PlayStation 2 games -PlayStation Portable games -Super Nintendo Entertainment System games -Windows games -Xbox 360 Live Arcade games -Game Gear games -Ubisoft games" -18640,69942,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20code,Legal code,"A legal code is a written system of laws. To codify the law is to write it down in a systematic manner. - -Legal codes are typically written by legislatures. - -Law" -18677,70072,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A1b,Báb,"Siyyid `Alí Muḥammad (20 October 1819 – 9 July 1850) was a merchant from Shíráz, Iran who started a version of Shia Islam called Bábism. After he started the religion, he changed his name to Báb. People who believe in the Báb are called Bábís, and they believe that the Báb was a prophet. Bábís also believe that the Báb is the Qá'im that Shi'as believe will come in the future. - -The Báb wrote hundreds of letters and books teaching who he was and what the rules of his religion were. The Báb's new rules replaced the ""Sharia law"" or Muslim rules for his followers. Bábism became very large; over ten thousand people believed in the Báb. The Shi'a clergy, or leaders of Islam in Iran hated the Báb and tried to harm people who followed his religion. In 1850 a firing squad shot the Báb in Tabríz, Iran. - -The Báb had other names, for example the ""Primal Point"" and the ""Point of the Bayán."" - -The Báb told everyone that another prophet who was stronger and even more powerful was coming soon. People who follow the Bahá'í religion believe the Báb was talking about Bahá'u'lláh, who started the Bahá'í religion. - -Life - -Early life -The Báb was born on October 20, 1819, in Shiraz, Iran. His father was a merchant, and many people in the town knew him. Very soon after the Báb was born, his father died. The Báb's uncle Ḥájí Mírzá Siyyid `Alí was also a merchant, and he raised the Báb. - -When the Báb became an adult, he started working as a merchant with his uncle. In 1842 he married a woman named Khadíjih-Bagum. Together they had one son, who they named Aḥmad. Aḥmad was very sick and died when as a baby. Someone who lived at the same time as the Báb said he was very calm and quiet; they said the Báb only spoke who he had too, and did not even answer questions. The Báb was always thinking and praying. People said he was handsome, and had a thin beard. He always dressed in clean clothes, and wore a green scarf and a black turban, or wrap of cloth on his head. - -The Shaykhis -Shaykh Ahmad-i-Ahsa'i started a Shi'a Islam religious group in Persia in the 1790s. The member of the group, who were called Shaykhis, believes that god was sending a new messenger to earth very soon. They called the new messenger the Qá'im, or theMahdi. When Shaykh Ahmad died, Siyyid Kázim, who was from Rasht, Iran, became the new leader of the Shaykhis. Shaykh Ahmad lived was born in 1753 and he died in 1862. Siyyid Kázim was born in 1793 and he died in 1843. - -When the Báb went on a pilgrimage to Karbala and the places near it, he may have listened to Siyyid Kázim teach. Nobody knows for sure if he did or did not, because there are very few documents or records from that time. - -When Siyyid Kázim was dying, in December, he told all his followers—people who believe what he taught—that they should travel and try to find the new prophet from god. He called that prophet ""The Lord of the Age"", and told them that he would be discovered very soon. One of the people who believed Siyyid Kázim prayed and fasted, or stopped eating from dawn to dusk for forty days - his name was Mullá Ḥusayn. After that he travelled to Shiraz, and he met the Báb. - -Announcement to Mullá Ḥusayn -Mullá Ḥusayn got to Shiraz on May 23, 1844. A young man wearing a green turban greeted him after he had not been in Shiraz for very long. In Iran at that time, only people who were related to the prophet Muḥammad wore green turbans. Men who were related to the prophet Muḥammad were called Siyyids. The young man was the Báb, and he invited Mullá Ḥusayn to his home. - -The Báb asked Mullá Ḥusayn why he was in Shiraz, and Mullá Ḥusayn told him that he was searching for the new prophet, or Promised One. The Báb asked Mullá Ḥusayn how he would know who the prophet way. Mullá Ḥusayn told him that the prophet would come from a famous and good family, and would know many things without having to learn them, also that he would have no problems with his body. Then the Báb said that all of those things were true about himself. ""Behold, all these signs are manifest in me."" The Báb was saying that he was the new prophet Mullá Ḥusayn had been looking for. This shocked, or startled Mullá Ḥusayn. - -Mullá Ḥusayn had one more way to know who the new prophet was, and he had not told the Báb about. Siyyid Káẓim had told Mullá Ḥusayn that the new prophet would write a book explaining the Surih of Joseph. Siyyid Káẓim had also said that the new prophet would do this without anyone asking him to. After the Báb told Mullá Ḥusayn that he was the new prophet, he wrote a book about the Surih of Joseph. The Báb called that book the Qayyúmu'l-Asmá' - -After spending the night talking to the Báb Mullá Husayn said this. (The words below might be hard to read.) - -Letters of the Living -Mullá Ḥusayn was the Báb's first disciple. A student of a religious leader is called a disciple. In less than five months, seventeen more students of Siyyid Káẓim became disciples of the Báb. All of the new disciples started believing the Báb was a new manifestation, or prophet of god without anyone else's help. One of these new disciples was a woman. Her name was Zarrín Táj Baragháni, and she was a poet. Later she was given a new name,Ṭáhirih (the pure). Later people started calling the first eighteen disciples and the Báb the Letters of the Living. The Báb told the Letters of the Living that it was their job to tell people that he was the new prophet. - -The Báb said that the Letters of the Living were special. In Shi'a Islam there are fourteen special people, called the ""Infallibles"". Shi'as believe the ""Infallibles"" are always right. Muhammad, the twelve Imáms, and Fatimah, are the ""Infallibles"" in Shi'a Islam. Just like the ""Infallibles"", one of the letters of the Living was a woman, and one was a prophet. Nineteen was a special number in Bábism. The Letters of the Living were very much like the Twelve Apostles of Christ. - -References - -Bahá'í Faith -Religious leaders -Babism" -7702,25183,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bollywood,Bollywood,"Bollywood, an Indian Hollywood, refers to the Hindi language movie industry in India. - -The word is often used to describe Indian cinema as a whole, but more precisely it means Hindi language movies only. The term Bollywood combines Bombay (where most Hindi movies are made) and Hollywood (where most American movies are made). - -Bollywood makes many movies each year. Many Bollywood movies are called Masala movies. In Hindi, Masala means spice. These movies usually have higher levels of emotions, songs, revenge and differences between rich and poor in them. - -Languages used in Bollywood movies -The movies made in Bollywood are usually in Hindi and Urdu. Some are made in Marathi, which is the main and official language of the state of Maharashtra, where Bollywood is located. Some are also in English. Often, poetic Urdu words are used; see also Lollywood (Pakistan Cinema). - -The number of dialogues and songs in English has increased lately. There are movies now where parts of the dialogue are in English. There is also a growing number of movies which are in English. Some movies are also made in more than one language. This is either done with subtitles, or by using several soundtracks. - -What Bollywood movies are like -In general, Bollywood movies are like musicals. The audience expects to hear music. There are usually song-and-dance numbers as a part of the script. Often, the success of a movie depends on the quality of these musical numbers. Very often, the movie music is released before the movie. It helps make the audience bigger. - -A good entertainer is generally referred to as paisa vasool. This means money's worth. Songs and dances, love triangles, comedy and thrills are all mixed up. Such movies are called masala movies, after the Hindustani word for a spice mixture, masala. Like masalas, these movies are a mixture of many things. - -Bollywood movies are often longer than those made in Hollywood. A normal Bollywood movie is about 3 hours long. Bollywood movies are movies made for the masses. Other Indian movies are made inside or outside of the Bollywood tradition. They sometimes try to set higher standards. They often lose out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal. - -Bollywood plots are usually melodramatic. They often use common ideas such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, scheming villains, hookers with a heart of gold, long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences. - -Bollywood songs are called Hindi film songs or filmi songs. Most of the movies have songs in them. Bollywood songs along with dances are a characteristic part of Hindi cinema. They give these movies their popular appeal, cultural value and context. Songs are sung by playback singers which actors and actresses lip sync on screen. - -Change -Bollywood ways of doing things are changing, however. A large Indian diaspora in English-speaking countries, and increased Western influence at home, have moved Bollywood movies closer to movies made in Hollywood. Kisses in the movies are now allowed. Plots tend to show Westernised city people dating and dancing in discos instead of arranged marriages. - -Movie critic Lata Khubchandani writes,""..our earliest movies...(had) liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them. Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures."" -In 2001 five percent on Indian movies were shown in the United Kingdom which has a large Indian minority. - -The emergence of streaming media and OTT platforms has disrupted the Bollywood industry as well. With COVID-19 affecting the entertainment industry worldwide, focus has shifted in recent year from cinema to web series. A number of successful web series are produced in Bollywood and overall the trend is shifting from musical films to different genres. This has also given rise to a trend of method acting in Bollywood, which more and more young actors are now taking up. - -Related pages - Jollywood (Sanskrit cinema) - Lollywood (Pakistani cinema) - Mollywood (Malayalam cinema) - Tollywood (Telugu cinema) - Hollywood - -References - - -Hindi" -4290,13437,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Dakota,North Dakota,"North Dakota is a state in the United States. 672,591 people lived in North Dakota in the year 2010. The capital and seat of government is Bismarck and the largest city is Fargo. - -Geography -North Dakota is south of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, east of Montana, north of South Dakota, and west of Minnesota. Manitoba and Saskatchewan are provinces - part of Canada. Montana, South Dakota, and Minnesota are other states in the United States. - -Weather -North Dakota is not close to any big bodies of water (oceans or seas). Because of this, temperatures in North Dakota are very hot in the summer and very cold in the winter. In the summer, there are sometimes strong thunderstorms. These storms can have tornadoes and hail. - -History - -Before European people came, Native American people lived in the area now called North Dakota. One important tribe was the Mandan. - -North Dakota was one of the last US states to be settled. (To have people go there to make homes and live.) On November 2, 1889, North Dakota (and South Dakota) became part of the United States. - -Economy -Most of the economy is based on agriculture. The most important agricultural crops are durum, a type of wheat, which is grown all across the state. In the Red River Valley, there is more rain, and maize (corn) and sugar beets are grown as well. In the Badlands, there is less rain, and more cattle are raised than crops. - -North Dakota has the only bank in the United States that is owned by the state. The Bank of North Dakota is where all of the money from all government agencies is held. Most banks in the United States are guaranteed by the FDIC (acronym for Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.) The FDIC guarantees that people will not lose money if a bank fails. But the Bank of North Dakota is insured by the state of North Dakota. - -Related pages - Colleges and universities in North Dakota - List of counties in North Dakota - -References - - -1889 establishments in the United States" -8001,26636,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska%20plaice,Alaska plaice,"Alaska plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus) are salt water fish that live in the north Pacific Ocean. Like most flatfish, they live on the bottom of the continental shelf, up to 600 metres deep. Their geographical range is from the Gulf of Alaska in the east, to the Chukchi Sea in the north, to the Sea of Japan in the west. Alaska plaice feed mostly on polychaetes, but also eat amphipods and echiurans. - -Most commercial fisheries do not want to catch Alaska plaice; but many are caught by trawlers trying to catch other bottom fish. So many Alaska plaice get caught anyway that, for example, the 2005 total allowable catch in the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands management area (BSAI) was reached before the end of May of that year. - -Alaska plaice can live for up to 30 years, and grow to 60 centimetres (24 inches) long, but most that get caught are only seven or eight years old, and about 30 cm (12 in). - -Related pages -American plaice -European Plaice - -References -1998 Marine Fisheries Review article -Bulletin announcing reaching the total allowable catch of Alaska plaice for 2005 (National Marine Fisheries Service) - -Flatfish" -8676,29367,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail,Tail,"A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body. Most animals have tails, like cats, dogs, whales, fish, cheetahs, and monkeys. - -Basic English 850 words -Animal anatomy" -5861,18986,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-Life%202,Half-Life 2,"Half-Life 2 is a first person shooter video game created by the company Valve Corporation and released in 2004. This game is the sequel to the original Half-Life video game which came out in 1998. It is sold through the Steam platform also developed by Valve. It is also available in The Orange Box, along with Half-Life 2: Episode One and Half-Life 2: Episode Two (sequels to Half-Life 2), Portal, and Team Fortress 2. Half-Life 3 is currently in development. Half-Life 2 is based on a game engine called Source. There have been many other Source-based games, such as Portal, Team Fortress 2, Counter-Strike: Source, and Garry's Mod. - -Half-Life was a very popular video game, and Half-Life 2 was also very popular. Many reviewers believe Half-Life 2 is better than Half-Life and one of the best games ever made. It took six years to create Half-Life 2 (from 1998 to 2004). It was supposed to be released in 2003, but it was not ready. Many fans were very angry and said Valve lied to them. However, it did release the next year (2004). It had much better graphics than Half-Life. It also had more complicated non-player characters and more of a story. - -Plot and Characters -In Half-Life 2, the player is Gordon Freeman (the same character as in Half-Life). It begins about 20 years after the first Half-Life. The Combine, a group of evil aliens, took over Earth and made humans their slaves. Gordon Freeman wakes up on a train in a place named City 17. He finds the resistance, some humans who fight the Combine. In the game, he must help them and fight with them. The game ends with Gordon Freeman stopping Doctor Breen, the evil human who is helping the Combine. - -There are many important characters in this game other than Gordon Freeman. Some are Eli Vance, who worked at Black Mesa with Gordon Freeman before the Combine came. He is part of the resistance. Alyx Vance is Eli's daughter. She travels with Gordon in part of the game. Doctor Mossman also worked at Black Mesa. She works with the resistance, but is also a traitor who helps Doctor Breen. Barney Calhoun was a guard at Black Mesa. Now he leads the resistance. - -Other websites -Half-Life 2 official website -Steam website - -Shooter video games -2004 video games -Half-Life series" -2567,8152,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel,Tunnel,"A tunnel is an underground passage. Some tunnels are used for cars, and others are used for trains. Sometimes, a tunnel is used for movement of ships. Some tunnels are built for communication cables and some are built for electricity cables. Other tunnels are built for animals. - -Tunnels are dug in different kinds of grounds, from soft sand to hard rock. The way of digging is chosen by the type of ground. There are two additional ways of digging : quarry and 'cut and cover'. In quarry, the tunnel path is drilled in a horizontal way. -This system requires a deep tunnel that's built in a firm rock. In the 'cut and cover' system, a tunnel is dug in the ground and, afterwards, a roof is built above the tunnel. This system fits tunnels that are close to the ground like road tunnels and infrastructure. - -Building tunnels is a large civil engineering project that could cost very high sums of money. The planning and building of a long tunnel may take many years. - -The Channel Tunnel between France and England is one of the longest tunnels in the world. It is 50 kilometers long. The longest tunnel in the world, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, is being dug in Switzerland. - -Reasons to build a tunnel - A subway is based on a network of tunnels that are dug underground so the trains will not disturb and will not be disturbed by the local transport. - On the path of a railroad track or a road a tunnel is dug when the lane encounters an obstacle such as a mountain to avoid bypassing the obstacle. - A tunnel is built sometimes to overcome a water obstacle as a replacement for building a bridge above it. - A tunnel is built to connect between military posts so the movement between them will not be visible for the enemy. - A tunnel is built for infrastructure like electricity cables, water, communication and sewerage to avoid damage and disruption above ground. - Some tunnels are used by prisoners to escape jail. - Sometimes tunnels are used by criminals to do a bank robbery (e.g. in Brazil, Summer 2005). - -Cut-and-cover - -Cut-and-cover is a simple way of making hollow tunnels where a trench is hollowed out and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel. -Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunneling are available: - Bottom-up method: A trench is hollowed out, with ground support when needed, and the tunnel is built in it. In earliest days bricks were used. The trench is then carefully filled and the surface is reinstated. - Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are made from ground level by such methods as slurry walling or neighbouring bored piling. Only a hollowed out excavation is needed to construct the tunnel roof using beams or in situ concrete sitting on the walls. The surface is then remade except for access openings. This allows early recreation of roadways, services, and other surface features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is made. - -Notes - -Books - - Railway Tunnels in Queensland by Brian Webber, 1997, . - Sullivan, Walter. Progress In Technology Revives Interest In Great Tunnels, New York Times, 24 June 1986. Retrieved 15 August 2010." -4856,15300,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jellyfish,Jellyfish,"Jellyfish are animals of the phylum Cnidaria. They are a monophyletic clade, the Medusozoa. Most of them live in the oceans, in salt water, where they eat small sea animals like plankton and little fish, and float in the sea. Only a few jellyfish live in fresh water. - -They have soft bodies and long, stinging, venomous tentacles that they use to catch their prey, usually small plankton animals or small crustaceans or tiny fish. Some jellyfish hunt others by stinging cells called nematocysts. A jellyfish is 97% water. - -Most jellyfish have a bell-shaped body and long tentacles at the underside of the body. Tentacles are long ""arms"" with special stinging cells called nematocysts. They move by contracting their bodies, but they do not have much control over where they go: most of the time, they drift with the water current. The largest type of jellyfish is the Lion's mane jellyfish, which has tentacles that can be as long as 60 meters, but most jellyfish are much smaller. - -The Medusozoa are four classes of the Cnidaria: - Scyphozoa: the true jellyfish - Cubozoa: the box jellyfish - Staurozoan: the stalked jellyfish - Hydrozoa: the hydroids - -There are many types of jellyfish. The smallest jellyfish are just a few centimetres across. The largest jellyfish is the Lion's mane (Cyanea capillata), whose body can be over 3 feet (1 m) across, with much longer tentacles. Some jellyfish glow in the dark (this is called phosphorescence). Some of the most dangerous jelly fish include the box jelly (Genuses Chironex, Chiropsalmus and Carybdea) and the tiny, two-cm-across Irukandji jelly (Carukia barnesi); the venomous sting of these jellyfish can kill a person. - -Many animals eat jellyfish, including sea turtles and some fish (including the sun fish). Humans eat jellyfish too; especially in Asia jellyfish are considered a delicacy. Jellyfish spoil very quickly after they are caught. Sometimes they are dried to preserve them. There is a different process in which they are cleaned, which can take up to 40 days. They are often eaten in a kind of salad, with soy sauce or vinegar. - -Life cycle - -Most jellyfish undergo two distinct life history stages (body forms) during their life cycle. The first is the polypoid stage, when the animal takes the form of a small stalk with feeding tentacles. Very often, this polyp is attached to the sea floor, or to another hard surface; it rarely moves around. A polyp that lives that way is called sessile. In some cases, the polyp is free-floating. Polyps generally have a mouth surrounded by upward-facing tentacles. Polyps may be on their own or in groups, and some bud asexually, making more polyps. Most are very small, measured in millimeters. - -In the second stage, the tiny polyps asexually produce jellyfish, each of which is known as a medusa. Tiny jellyfish swim away from the polyp and then grow and feed in the plankton. Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually. Well-fed adult jellyfish spawn daily. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, so the entire population spawns at about the same time of day, often at either dusk or dawn. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the (unprotected) eggs are fertilized and mature into new organisms. - -Medusae have a radially symmetric, umbrella-shaped body called a bell, which is usually supplied with marginal tentacles that capture prey. A few species of jellyfish do not have the polyp portion of the life cycle, but go from jellyfish to the next generation of jellyfish through direct development of fertilized eggs. Jellyfish at the medusa stage usually lives only up to six months, after which it dies. - -Jellyfish eat plankton and small fish, which they catch using their venomous tentacles. Jellyfish may live in symbiosis with algae. The jellyfish transports them into sunlight and get nutrients from the algae's photosynthesis. Both forms of jelly fish have small tentacles with nematocysts (stinging cells) that sting and can hurt people on contact. - -Other facts -Medusozoans differ from anthozoans in having a medusa stage in their life cycle. Their mitochondrial DNA molecules are linear rather than circular as in anthozoans and almost all other animals. The cnidae, the explosive cells of the Cnidaria, are of a single type. There are nematocysts but no spirocysts or ptychocysts. - -A group of jellyfish is called a current; an occurrence of many jellyfish simultaneously is sometimes called a bloom. - -References" -7168,22708,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Ludlum,Robert Ludlum,"Robert Ludlum (May 25 1927 - March 12 2001) was an American writer. He is best known as the author of The Bourne Identity from 1980, which was made into a movie in 2001. - -Other websites - Official website of Robert Ludlum - - -1927 births -2001 deaths -Writers from New York City" -16817,64105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom,Russians in the United Kingdom,"There may be many as 300,000 Russians in the United Kingdom. About half of these were born in Russia. Some of the others are citizens of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania). Since they joined the EU in 2004, they are free to live in other EU countries, including the UK. There are many Russian language schools in London and the South East. These schools were founded by immigrants from Russia to the United Kingdom. They send their children to the schools so the children can learn about their parents' culture. - -Other websites -Russian shops in the United Kingdom -British Russian Society -Понаехали тут! (Ponaehali tut!) Forum -http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2007/02/12/russians_feature.shtml -http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1190191,00.html -Russian London -Gazeta.UK - -Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom" -13686,50640,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantation,Plantation,"A plantation is a large farm which is specialized on farming one type of crop. Plantations grow cash crops, mostly for export, and less for local use. Crops grown on plantations include banana, sugarcane, coffee, tea, cotton and tobacco. - -Some of the problems with plantations come from the fact that they are monocultures, that is there is only one kind of crop that is grown there. This makes them vulnerable to pests, for example. -Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire. They produced large quantities of wine and olive oil for export. Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the relative decline of subsistence farming. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time. Earlier forms of plantation agriculture were associated with large disparities of wealth and income, foreign ownership and political influence, and exploitative social systems such as indentured labor and slavery. - -Agriculture" -22596,85510,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Showa,Showa,"Shōwa may mean: - - Hirohito (1901–1989), the 124th Emperor of Japan, known posthumously as Emperor Shōwa - - Shōwa (Kamakura period), a Japanese era name (1312-1317) - Shōwa period, a Japanese era name (1926-1989) - -Other - Jōwa (Heian period), a Japanese era name (834-848) also romanized as Shōwa" -21244,81427,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Say%20My%20Name,Say My Name,"""Say My Name"" is a number-one single by American R&B group Destiny's Child for the Columbia Records label, released in early 2000. The single was the third of four singles from the group's 1999 album The Writing's On The Wall, and the most successful of the four. It is considered to be one of their signature songs. It won a Grammy and an MTV Video Music Award. - -Formats and remixes -Several remixes of ""Say My Name"" were issued alongside the original version. The two most notable alternate versions are a remix by Timbaland, which features different vocals and a guest appearance from Static of Playa; and the ""Nitro Remix"" (featuring Nitro and Chief, with production by Mista Maze), which uses the original vocals over a bass music-styled backing track. - -""Say My Name"" (Acapella) -""Say My Name"" (Daddy D Remix) -""Say My Name"" (Digital Black & Groove Club Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Dreem Teem Club Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Instrumental) -""Say My Name"" (Jazzy Bass Remix) -""Say My Name"" (Maurice's Bass 2000 Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Maurice's Millenium Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Maurice's Old Skool Dub Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Nitro Remix) (feat Nitro & Chief of Mob Playas) -""Say My Name"" (Radio Edit) -""Say My Name"" (Noodles Mix) -""Say My Name"" (Remix) (feat Kobe Bryant) -""Say My Name"" (Sidney's 2step RMX) -""Say My Name"" (Storm Mix By Tariq) -""Say My Name"" (Timbaland Remix) (feat Static) - -Chart performances - -Destiny's Child songs -2000 songs" -15333,58177,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Coast%20Guard,United States Coast Guard,"The United States Coast Guard is one of the 5 branches of the military of the United States. It is a part of the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Coast Guard's purpose is to protect the people, environment, industry and security of the United States on seas, lakes and rivers. To do this, the Coast Guard uses boats, ships, helicopters and airplanes to stop smuggling and other crime and terrorism, and to rescue ships and boats in danger. - -The Coast Guard traces its roots back to the United States Revenue Cutter Service, which was created by Congress on 4 August 1790. As such, the Coast Guard is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States. - -The modern United States Coast Guard was started on January 28, 1915. This is when the U. S. Congress ordered the United States Revenue Cutter Service and the United States Life-Saving Service to merge into a single service. The Coast Guard can become part of the Department of the Navy during war, but it is not now. It became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003. - -History -The U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (USRCS) was set up in 1790 when President George Washington signed an act allowing the building of 10 boats called ""cutters"". The service was first suggested in a letter by Alexander Hamilton as a way to collect tariffs which were being lost to smuggling. They were also tasked with making sure shipments of goods from the United States were getting through to markets in other countries. The first Coast Guard station was in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Until the re-establishment of the Navy in 1798, the Revenue Cutter Service was the only naval force of the early United States. - -The modern Coast Guard can be said to date to 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the U.S. Life-Saving Service when Congress formalized the existence of the new organization. In 1939, the Lighthouse Service was brought under the Coast Guard's purview. In 1942, the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation was transferred to the Coast Guard. -In 1967, the Coast Guard moved from the U.S. Department of the Treasury to the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation, an arrangement that lasted until it was placed under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003 as part of legislation designed to more efficiently protect American interests following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. - -In times of war, the Coast Guard or individual components of it can operate as a service of the Department of the Navy. This arrangement has a broad historical basis, as the Coast Guard has been involved in wars as diverse as the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, and the American Civil War, in which the cutter Harriet Lane fired the first naval shots attempting to relieve besieged Fort Sumter. The last time the Coast Guard operated as a whole within the Navy was in World War II. More often, military and combat units within the Coast Guard will operate under Navy or joint operational control while other Coast Guard units will remain under the Department of Homeland Security. - -Notes - -References - - -1790 establishments in the United States" -2438,7828,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/January%209,January 9," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to leave his capital city, Constantinople, and his general, Basiliscus, takes control of the Empire. - 681 - Twelfth Council of Toledo: King Erwig of the Visigoths begins a council in which he introduces different measures against Jews in Spain. - 1127 - Invading Jurchen soldiers from the Jin Dynasty besiege and sack Bianjing (Kaifeng), capital city of the Song Dynasty in China, abducting Emperor Qinzong of Song and others, ending the Northern Song Dynasty. - 1150 - China: Prince Hailing of Jin and other court officials murder Emperor Xizong of Jin. Hailing succeeds him as Emperor. - 1317 - King Philip V of France is crowned. - 1349 – The Jewish population of Basel, Switzerland, believed by the residents to be the cause of the ongoing bubonic plague, were rounded up and burned to death. - 1431 – Judges' investigations for the trial of Joan of Arc begin in Rouen, France, the seat of the English occupation government. - 1693 - An earthquake in Sicily kills around 60,000 people. - 1768 - In London, Philip Astley stages the first modern circus. - 1788 – Connecticut becomes the fifth state to be admitted to the United States. - 1793 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first person to fly in a balloon in the United States. - 1806 - A state funeral is held for Admiral Horatio Nelson at St. Paul's Cathedral in London. - 1816 - Humphrey Davy tests his safety lamp for miners at Hebburn Colliery in present-day Tyne and Wear in the Northeast of England. - 1822 - Pedro I of Brazil, then a Portuguese prince, decides to stay in Brazil against the orders of King Joao IV of Portugal - 1839 - The French Academy of the Sciences announces the Daguerreotype photography process. - 1857 - An earthquake estimated at magnitude 7.9 strikes Fort Tejon in California. - 1861 – Mississippi becomes the second state to secede from the Union before the outbreak of the American Civil War. - 1861 - American Civil War: The ""Star of the West"" incident occurs in Charleston, South Carolina - sometimes considered by historians to be the ""First Shots"" of the war. - 1863 - American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Hindman begins in Arkansas. - 1878 - Umberto I of Italy becomes King. - 1880 - The Great Gale of 1880 brings high winds and heavy snow to parts of Oregon and Washington. - 1882 – Oscar Wilde gives his first lecture on ""The English Renaissance of Art"" in New York City. - 1894 - The New England Telephone and Telegraph Company installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard in Lexington, Massachusetts. - 1900 - The Rome-based football club S.S. Lazio is founded. - -1901 2000 - 1903 - Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Marquess of Tennyson becomes the second Governor-General of Australia. - 1905 – According to the Julian Calendar which was used at the time, Russian workers stage a march on the Winter Palace that ends in the massacre by Tsarist troops known as Bloody Sunday, setting off the Russian Revolution of 1905. - 1909 - Ernest Shackleton, leading the Nimrod Expedition, is forced to turn back 180 kilometers (112 miles) from the South Pole, having travelled further south than anyone before him. - 1913 - Afonso Augusto da Costa becomes Prime Minister of Portugal. - 1914 - Bernardino Machado becomes Prime Minister of Portugal. - 1914 - The Phi Beta Sigma fraternity is founded. - 1916 - World War I: The Battle of Gallipoli ends in Ottoman Empire victory, after the evacuation of the last Allied forces. - 1917 – World War I: the Battle of Rafa occurs near the Egyptian border with Palestine. - 1918 - Battle of Bear Valley: Last battle of the American Indian Wars. - 1921 - Greco-Turkish War: The First Battle of Inonu, the first battle of the war, begins near Eskisehir, Anatolia. - 1923 - Juan de la Cierva makes the first autogyro flight. - 1927 - A fire at Laurier Palace movie theatre in Montreal kills 78 children. - 1938 - Paul of Greece marries Frederica of Hanover in Athens. - 1941 - World War II: First flight of an Avro Lancaster aircraft. - 1941 - World War II: The Greek Triton (Y-5) sinks the Italian submarine Neghelli in Otranto. - 1942 - Off Menorca, the passenger ship Lamoriciere sinks, killing 301 people. - 1945 – The United States invades Luzon in the Philippines. - 1951 – The United Nations headquarters opens in New York City. - 1954 - The temperature of -65.9 degrees Celsius, the coldest to be measured in Greenland, is recorded by a British expedition. - 1957 - Anthony Eden resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom following the Suez Crisis. - 1959 - The Vega de Tera reservoir dam breaks in Zamora Province in Spain, killing over 140 people. - 1960 - Construction of the Aswan Dam in Egypt begins. - 1964 – Several Panamanian youths try to raise the Panamanian flag on the U.S.-controlled Panama Canal Zone. This causes fighting between U.S. military and Panamanian civilians. - 1968 – The only known snowfall occurs in Mexico City, additional snow falls on January 10 and 11. - 1972 - The ship previously known as the HMS Queen Elizabeth burns in Hong Kong harbor, praobably as an act of arson, and sinks. - 1991 – The Soviets storm Vilnius to stop Lithuanian independence. - 1992 - The National Assembly of the Serb People in Bosnia and Herzegovina declares the creation of Republika Srpska, a new state within Yugoslavia. - 1996 - First Chechen War: Chechen separatists launch a raid against the helicopter airfield and a civilian hospital in the city of Kizlyar in neighbouring Dagestan. It turns into a massive hostage crisis. - -From 2001 - 2004 - An inflatable boat carrying illegal Albanian emigrants stalls near the Karaburun Peninsula while on the way to Brindisi, Italy. Exposure to the poor weather conditions kills 28 people. - 2005 – Elections are held to replace Yasser Arafat as head of the Palestine Liberation Organization. Mahmoud Abbas is elected. - 2005 - The Sudan People's Liberation Movement and the Government of Sudan sign the Comprehensive Peace Agreement to end the Second Sudanese Civil War. - 2006 – The Phantom of the Opera surpasses the record set by Cats for the title of longest running show on Broadway. - 2006 – The population of Iceland officially reaches 300,000. - 2007 - The first IPhone is revealed by then-Apple Inc. CEO Steve Jobs. - 2011 – South Sudan holds a referendum on independence from Sudan. A majority vote in favour of creating a new country, as South Sudan becomes independent six months later. - 2011 – Iran Air Flight 227 crashes near Orumiyel, northern Iran, killing 77 people. - 2015 - Aftermath of Charlie Hebdo shooting: The two attackers on the French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo two days earlier are killed following a siege north of Paris, while a gunmen holds several people hostage, killing four, at a Jewish supermarket in Paris, before being killed by police. - 2015 - Football: The 2015 AFC Asian Cup in Australia begins with the hosts defeating Kuwait 4-1 in the opening game. It is the first Asian Cup held outside Asia. - 2017 - Martin McGuinness resigns as Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland after a scandal over a renewable heat initiative involving First Minister Arlene Foster had made relations in the power-sharing government difficult. - 2018 - Australia's law allowing same-sex marriage enters into force. - 2018 - North Korea agrees to send a team to the 2018 Winter Paralympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea after talks between politicians from the two countries. - 2018 - Mudslides in southern California kill at least 20 people. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1475 – Crinitus, Italian humanist (d. 1507) - 1554 – Pope Gregory XV (d. 1623) - 1589 - Ivan Gundulic, Croatian poet (d. 1638) - 1590 - Simon Vouet, French painter (d. 1649) - 1624 – Empress Meisho of Japan (d. 1697) - 1674 - Reinhard Keiser, German opera composer (d. 1739) - 1715 - Robert-François Damiens, attempted assassin of Louis XV of France (d. 1757) - 1745 - Caleb Strong, 6th and 10th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1819) - 1753 - Luisa Todi, Portuguese singer (d. 1833) - 1757 - John Adair, Governor of Kentucky (d. 1810) - 1773 - Cassandra Austen, English painter (d. 1845) - 1778 - Hammamizade Ismail Dede Efendi, composer of Turkish classical music (d. 1846) - 1797 - Ferdinand von Wrangel, Baltic German naval officer and explorer (d. 1870) - 1806 - Augustus Bradford, Governor of Maryland (d. 1881) - 1818 - Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon, French sculptor and photographer (d. 1881) - 1819 - James Francis, Premier of Victoria (d. 1884) - 1829 - Thomas William Robertson, English playwright (d. 1871) - 1829 - Adolf Schlagintweit, German botanist and explorer (d. 1879) - 1832 - Felix-Gabriel Marchand, 11th Premier of Quebec (d. 1900) - 1835 – Iwasaki Yaturo, Japanese founder of Mitsubishi (d. 1885) - 1848 - Princess Frederica of Hanover (d. 1926) - 1849 - John Hartley, English tennis player (d. 1935) - 1854 – Lady Randolph Churchill, mother of Winston Churchill (d. 1921) - 1859 - Carrie Chapman Catt, American activist (d. 1947) - 1864 - Vladimir Steklov, Russian mathematician (d. 1926) - 1870 – Joseph B. Strauss, American civil engineer (d. 1938) - 1872 - Ivar Lykke, Prime Minister of Norway (d. 1949) - 1873 - Hayim Nahman Bialik, Ukrainian-Jewish writer and journalist (d. 1934) - 1875 - Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American socialite (d. 1942) - 1881 – Lascelles Abercrombie, British poet and critic (d. 1938) - 1881 - Giovanni Papini, Italian writer (d. 1956) - 1881 - Josef Ospelt, 1st Prime Minister of Liechtenstein (d. 1962) - 1885 - Charles Bacon, American athlete (d. 1968) - 1890 - Karel Capek, Czech writer (d. 1938) - 1890 – Kurt Tucholsky, German journalist and writer (d. 1935) - 1897 - Dwight H. Green, Governor of Illinois (d. 1958) - 1897 - Vladimir Paley, Russian poet (d. 1918) - 1898 – Gracie Fields, English performer (d. 1979) - 1900 – Maria of Romania, Queen Consort of Yugoslavia (d. 1961) - 1900 - Richard Haliburton, American adventurer (d. 1939) - -1901 1950 - 1901 – Ishman Bracey, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 1970) - 1901 - Chic Young, American cartoonist (d. 1973) - 1902 - Saint Josemaria Escriva, Spanish Catholic priest and founder of Opus Dei (d. 1975) - 1908 – Simone de Beauvoir, French writer (d. 1986) - 1909 – Anthony Mamo, 1st President of Malta (d. 2008) - 1911 - Gypsy Rose Lee, American entertainer (d. 1970) - 1912 - Ralph Tubbs, British architect (d. 1996) - 1913 – Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States (d. 1994) - 1914 - Kenny Clarke, American jazz musician (d. 1985) - 1915 - Anita Louise, American actress (d. 1970) - 1916 - Fernando Lamas, Argentine actor and movie producer (d. 1982) - 1916 - Peter Twinn, French mathematician and entomologist (d. 2004) - 1917 - Yngve A. A. Larsson, Swedish medicine professor and diabetologist (d. 2014) - 1920 - Hakim Said, Pakistani scholar and politician (d. 1998) - 1920 – Clive Dunn, British actor, comedian, and singer (d. 2012) - 1921 - Patricia Highsmith, American writer (d. 1995) - 1922 – Har Gobind Khorana, Indian biochemist (d. 2011) - 1922 – Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of Guinea (d. 1984) - 1924 – Sergei Parajanov, Armenian movie director (d. 1990) - 1925 - Lee Van Cleef, American actor (d. 1989) - 1927 - Rodolfo Walsh, Argentine writer (d. 1977) - 1928 - Domenico Modugno, Italian actor, singer and guitarist (d. 1994) - 1928 - Judith Krantz, American writer - 1929 – Heiner Müller, German dramatist (d. 1995) - 1929 - Brian Friel, Irish dramatist and short story writer (d. 2015) - 1929 – Dorothea Puente, American serial killer (d. 2011) - 1931 - Algis Budrys, Lithuanian-born American science fiction writer (d. 2008) - 1932 - Robert P. Casey, Governor of Pennsylvania (d. 2000) - 1934 - Mahendra Kapoor, Indian singer (d. 2008) - 1935 – Bob Denver, American actor (d. 2005) - 1935 - Brian Harradine, Australian politician (d. 2014) - 1939 – Susannah York, British actress (d. 2011) - 1940 - Ruth Dreifuss, Swiss politician - 1941 – Joan Baez, American singer and activist - 1941 - Robert D. Putnam, American political scientist - 1941 - Gilles Vaillancourt, Canadian politician - 1942 - Lee Kun-hee, South Korean businessman - 1942 - Keith Wright, Australian politician (d. 2015) - 1943 - Freddie Starr, English comedian - 1943 - Scott Walker, American singer and musician - 1944 – Jimmy Page, British musician and producer (Led Zeppelin) - 1944 - Massimiliano Fuksas, Italian architect, poet and painter - 1945 – Levon Ter-Petrossian, first President of Armenia - 1946 - Mogens Lykketoft, Danish politician - 1948 - Bill Cowsill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006) - 1948 – Cassie Gaines, American singer (Lynyrd Skynyrd) (d. 1977) - 1948 - Jan Tomaszewski, Polish footballer and politician - 1950 – Rio Reiser, German musician (d. 1996) - 1950 - Alec Jeffreys, British geneticist - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Crystal Gayle, American singer - 1951 - Michel Barnier, French politician - 1952 - Marek Belka, former Prime Minister of Poland - 1952 - Michael Capuano, American politician - 1953 - Javad Alizadeh, Iranian cartoonist - 1953 – Morris Gleitzman, English writer - 1953 - Bill Graves, former Governor of Kansas - 1954 - Philippa Gregory, English author - 1954 - Lance Hoppen, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans) - 1955 – J. K. Simmons, American actor - 1956 – Imelda Staunton, British actress - 1957 - Yury Bandazhevsky, Belarusian scientist - 1958 - Stephen Neale, British philosopher - 1958 – Mehmet Ali Agca, attempted assassin of Pope John Paul II - 1959 – Rigoberta Menchu, Guatemalan political activist, Nobel Peace Prize winner - 1961 – Al Jean, American television writer - 1962 - Matt Bevin, American politician, 42nd Governor of Kentucky - 1963 - Michael Everson, American linguist - 1964 - Stephen Sackur, British journalist - 1965 – Iain Dowie, British footballer and manager - 1965 – Haddaway, Trinidadian singer - 1965 – Joely Richardson, British actress - 1965 - Muggsy Bogues, American basketball player - 1965 - Farah Khan, Indian director, actress and choreographer - 1966 - Stephen Metcalfe, English politician - 1967 – Dave Matthews, Australian singer and musician - 1967 – Claudio Caniggia, Argentine footballer - 1967 - Gary Teichmann, South African rugby player - 1968 - Joey Lauren Adams, American actress - 1968 - Catalina Saavedra, Chilean actress - 1970 - Lara Fabian, Swiss singer - 1971 - Angie Martinez, American rapper, actress and television host - 1972 - Sarah Beeny, British television personality - 1973 - Angela Bettis, American actress, movie producer and director - 1974 - Farhan Akhtar, Indian actor, singer, director and producer - -From 1976 - 1976 - Radek Bonk, Czech ice hockey player - 1977 - Viktors Dobrecovs, Latvian footballer - 1978 – Gennaro Gattuso, Italian footballer - 1978 – AJ McLean, American singer (Backstreet Boys) - 1979 - Athanassios Prittas, Greek footballer - 1979 - Tomiko Van, Japanese singer - 1980 – Sergio Garcia, Spanish golfer - 1981 – Euzebiusz Smolarek, Polish footballer - 1982 – Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge - 1982 - Grétar Steinsson, Icelandic footballer - 1985 - Juanfran, Spanish footballer - 1986 - Amanda Mynhardt, South African netballer - 1987 – Paolo Nutini, Scottish singer-songwriter - 1987 - Bradley Davies, Welsh rugby player - 1987 - Rhys Priestland, Welsh rugby player - 1987 - Anna Tatangelo, Italian singer - 1987 - Lucas Leiva, Brazilian footballer - 1988 - Marc Crosas, Spanish footballer - 1989 - Michael Beasley, American basketball player - 1989 - Nina Dobrev, Bulgarian-Canadian actress - 1990 - Nam Ji-hyun, South Korean singer and actress - 1992 - Terrence Jones, American basketball player - 1993 - Ashley Argota, American actress - 1993 - Katarina Johnson-Thompson, English athlete - 1993 - Aminata Savadogo, Latvian singer and songwriter - 1995 - Nicola Peltz, American actress - Unknown year - Fang Bo, Chinese ping-pong player - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 1150 - Emperor Xizong of Jin (b. 1119) - 1282 - Abu 'Ulthman Sa'id ibn Hakam al Qurashi, ruler of Menorca (b. 1204) - 1283 - Wen Tianxiang, Chinese politician (b. 1236) - 1499 - John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1455) - 1514 – Anne, Queen of France (b. 1477) - 1562 - Amago Haruhisa, Japanese warlord (b. 1514) - 1799 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian scientist (b. 1718) - 1805 - Noble Wimberly Jones, American Continental Congressman (b. 1723) - 1848 – Caroline Herschel, German-born astronomer (b. 1750) - 1858 – Anson Jones, last President of Texas (b. 1798) - 1873 – Napoleon III of France (b. 1808) - 1876 – Samuel Gridley Howe, American abolitionist (b. 1801) - 1878 – Victor Emmanuel II of Italy (b. 1820) - -1901 2000 - 1908 – Wilhelm Busch, German painter (b. 1832) - 1911 - Edwin Arthur Jones, American composer (b. 1853) - 1911 - Edvard Rusjan, Slovenian flight pioneer (b. 1886) - 1918 - Charles-Emile Reynaud, French scientist and educator (b. 1844) - 1923 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand writer (b. 1888) - 1924 - Ponnambalam Arunachalam, Ceylonese politician (b. 1853) - 1927 - Houston Stewart Chamberlain, English-German author (b. 1855) - 1936 - John Gilbert, American actor (b. 1899) - 1939 - Johann Strauss III, Austrian conductor (b. 1886) - 1940 - J. C. W. Beckham, American politician, Governor of Kentucky (b. 1869) - 1941 - Dimitrios Golemis, Greek runner (b. 1874) - 1944 – Antanas Smetona, President of Lithuania (b. 1874) - 1945 - Jüri Uluots, Estonian journalist and politician (b. 1890) - 1961 – Emily Greene Balch, American writer, Nobel Peace Prize winner (b. 1867) - 1964 - Halide Edip Adivar, Turkish novelist, nationalist and activist (b. 1884) - 1975 - Pierre Fresnay, French actor (b. 1897) - 1975 - Piotr Novikov, Russian mathematician (b. 1901) - 1979 – Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian architect (b. 1891) - 1993 - Paul Hasluck, Governor-General of Australia (b. 1905) - 1993 - Mario Genta, Italian footballer (b. 1912) - 1995 – Souphanouvong, President of Laos (b. 1909) - 1997 – Edward Osobka-Morawski, Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1909) - 1998 – Kenichi Fukui, Japanese chemist (b. 1916) - 1998 - Michael Tippett, English composer (b. 1905) - 2000 - Nigel Tranter, Scottish historian and author (b. 1909) - -From 2001 - 2004 - Norberto Bobbio, Italian philosopher (b. 1909) - 2005 – Antonín Klimek, Czech historian (b. 1927) - 2007 - Jean-Pierre Vernant, French philosopher and historian (b. 1914) - 2009 – Dave Dee, British musician (b. 1943) - 2009 – René Herms, German athlete (b. 1982) - 2010 – Armand Razafindratandra, Malagasy cardinal (b. 1924) - 2011 – Peter Yates, British movie director (b. 1929) - 2012 – Malam Bacai Sanha, President of Guinea-Bissau (b. 1947) - 2012 - Mae Laborde, American actress (b. 1909) - 2013 - Rex Trailer, American television host, actor and singer (b. 1928) - 2013 - James M. Buchanan, American economist (b. 1919) - 2014 - Dale T. Mortensen, American economist (b. 1939) - 2014 - Amiri Baraka, American poet (b. 1934) - 2014 - Josep Maria Castellet, Catalan writer (b. 1926) - 2014 - Lorella De Luca, Italian actress (b. 1940) - 2014 - Cliff Carpenter, American actor (b. 1915) - 2015 - Jozef Oleksy, Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1946) - 2015 - Angelo Anquilletti, Italian footballer (b. 1943) - 2015 - Samuel Goldwyn, Jr., American movie producer (b. 1926) - 2015 - Frans Molenaar, Dutch fashion designer (b. 1940) - 2015 - Robert V. Keeley, American diplomat (b. 1929) - 2015 - Roy Tarpley, American basketball player (b. 1964) - 2015 - Popsy Dixon, American musician (b. 1942) - 2015 - Chuck Locke, American baseball player (b. 1932) - 2015 - Michel Jeury, French author (b. 1934) - 2015 - Perpetrators of the Charlie Hebdo shooting and related attacks: -Chérif Kouachi, French Islamic Jihadist (b. 1982) -Saïd Kouachi, French Islamic Jihadist (b. 1980) -Amedy Coulibaly, French Islamic Jihadist (b. 1982) - 2016 - Maria Teresa de Filippis, Italian racing driver (b. 1926) - 2016 - Lawrence H. Cohn, American surgeon (b. 1937) - 2016 - Hamada Emam, Egyptian footballer (b. 1947) - 2016 - Peter Gavin Hall, Australian mathematician (b. 1951) - 2016 - Ed Stewart, English broadcaster (b. 1941) - 2016 - Merab Chigoev, South Ossetian politician (b. 1950) - 2016 - Umberto Raho, Italian actor (b. 1922) - 2016 - Angus Scrimm, American actor (b. 1926) - 2016 - Zelimkhan Yaqub, Azerbaijani poet (b. 1950) - 2016 - John Harvard, Canadian politician (b. 1938) - 2017 - Zygmunt Bauman, Polish-British sociologist (b. 1925) - 2017 - Michael Chamberlain, New Zealand-Australian pastor (b. 1944) - 2017 - Ulf Dinkelspiel, Swedish politician (b. 1939) - 2017 - Ali Shariatmadari, Iranian politician and academic (b. 1923) - 2017 - Ugo Crescenzi, Italian politician (b. 1930) - 2017 - Bob McCullough, Australian sports administrator - 2017 - Warren Allen Smith, American activist and writer (b. 1921) - 2017 - Claude Steiner, French-born American psychologist and writer (b. 1935) - 2017 - Russell Trood, Australian politician and academic (b. 1948) - 2018 - Bob Bailey, American baseball player (b. 1942) - 2018 - Tommy Lawrence, Scottish footballer (b. 1940) - 2018 - Robert Minlos, Russian mathematician (b. 1931) - 2018 - Odvar Nordli, Prime minister of Norway (b. 1927) - 2018 - Mario Perniola, Italian philosopher (b. 1941) - 2018 - Ted Phillips, English footballer (b. 1933) - 2018 - Milton J. Rosenberg, American psychology professor and radio host (b. 1925) - -Observances - Martyrs' Day (Panama) - -January 09" -1916,6371,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor,Actor,"An actor is a person who acts, or has a role (a part) in a movie, television show, play, or radio show. Actors may be professional or not. Sometimes actors only sing or dance, or sometimes they only work on radio. A woman actor is actress, but the word ""actor"" is used for both men and women when referring to a group. Actors are also known as ‘thespians’ because of the first known Greek actor ‘Thespis’. - -History -The first time we know an actor worked was in 534 B.C. The changes in calendar between then and now make the year uncertain. This actor was called Thespis and he was Greek. The place where the play happened was called the Theatre Dionysus in Athens, and he won a competition. He was the first person to speak words as a character. This was a big change in storytelling. Before then, people sang and danced stories, but no one had been a person in the story. Today we call actors ""thespians"" because of Thespis. - -Women -In the past, the name ""actor"" was only for men. Women only began performing often in the 17th century. People called them ""actresses"". In the ancient world and in the Middle Ages, people thought it was bad (shameful) for a woman to act. - -Today, the word ""actor"" is for both men and women, because some people think the name ""actress"" is sexism/sexist. But people also use the word actress very often. - -Swapped Roles - -Actresses in Men's Roles -Women actors sometimes act the roles of young boys, because in some ways a woman is more similar to a boy than a man is. For example, a woman usually plays the role of Peter Pan. In pantomime, a sort of play for children (not the same as mime), the most important young man is also a woman. Opera has some ""pants roles"" which women traditionally sing. These women are usually mezzo-sopranos, which means they sing with a voice that is high but not very high. Examples are Hansel in , and Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro. - -Mary Pickford played the part of ""Little Lord Fauntleroy"" in the first film version of the book. Linda Hunt won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in The Year of Living Dangerously, in which she played the part of a man. - -In comic theatre and film, people often use a man for a woman's part, or a woman for a man's part - this has a long history. Most of Shakespeare's comedies have examples of this. Both Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams were in popular comedy films where they played most scenes as men in women's clothes, pretending to be women. - -Actors in Women's Roles -In the time of Shakespeare, and earlier, all roles in an English play were played by men, meaning even characters such as Juliet, Lady Macbeth, and Cleopatra were first played by men or boys. After the English Restoration women were allowed to perform on-stage. - -More recently, men have played female roles as a type of humor. Movies with this role reversal include Mrs. Doubtfire, Tootsie, Big Momma's House, Hairspray, and The Nutty Professor starring Eddie Murphy. - -Voice acting -Voice acting is a special type of acting. It is most commonly used in animation for both television and movies. Voice actors are the people who make the voices for the characters. They may be the narrator in non-animated works. - -Types -Actors working in theatre, film, and television have to learn different skills. Skills that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting. - -In theatre -To act on stage, actors need to learn the stage directions that appear in the script, such as ""Stage Left"" and ""Stage Right"". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as he or she stands on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions ""Upstage"" (away from the audience) and ""Downstage"" (towards the audience) - -Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is ""...where and how an actor moves on the stage during a play."" -Most scripts specify some blocking. The Director will also give instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop. - -Theatre actors need to learn stage combat, which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate ""hand-to-hand [fighting] or with sword[-fighting]."" Actors are coached by fight directors, who help them to learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions. - -In film - -D. W. Griffith first developed of acting that would ""suit the cinema rather than the theater."" He realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film. Griffith required his actors and actresses to go through weeks of film acting training. - -Film actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them. -Film actors need to learn to find and stay on their ""mark."" This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized. Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on screen tests. Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script. - -""Unlike the theater actor, who gets to develop a character during...a two- or three-hour performance, the film actor lacks continuity, forcing him or her to come to all the scenes (often shot in reverse order in which they'll ultimately appear) with a character already fully developed."" - -""Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater."" ""The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master: ...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the eyebrow to create a believable character."" Some theatre stars ""...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Olivier, Glenn Close, and Julie Andrews, for instance), others have not..."" - -In television -""On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into."" TV actors need to learn to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones). TV actors need to understand the concept of ""frame."" ""The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing."" - -References - - -Entertainment occupations" -16719,63884,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic%20Greeks,Pontic Greeks,"Pontic Greeks, Pontian Greeks, Pontians or Greeks of Pontus (, ) can refer to Greeks specifically from the area of Pontus in the region of the former Empire of Trebizond on the Black Sea coast of Eastern Turkey, or in other cases more generally all Greeks from the shores of the Black Sea or the Pontus. Greeks from Trabzon traditionally speak Pontic Greek. The terms Pontic and Pontian can be used interchangeably. - -Related pages - Pontic Greek genocide - -Greece" -20061,76791,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piraeus,Piraeus,"Piraeus is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens. - -The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011). - -Population - -Sister cities - Marseille, France - Worcester, Massachusetts, USA - Ostrava, Czech republic - Baltimore, Maryland, USA - Galaţi, Romania since 1985 - Varna, Bulgaria - Vilnius, Lithuania - -Famous residents - Polychronis Lembesis (1848-1913) painter - Ioannis Koutsis (18601953) painter - Gerasimos Vokos (1868-1927) journalist and writer - Alexandros Christofis (1875-1957) painter - Stylianos Miliadis (1881-1965) writer - Yiorgos Batis (1885-1967) rebetiko musician - Dimitris Pikionis (1887-1968) architect - Michalis Oikonomou (1888-1933) painter - Katina Paxinou (1900–1973) actress - Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972) musician and composer - Emmanuel Kriaras (1906) philologist and lexicographer - Yannis Tsarouchis (1910-1989) painter - Dimitrios Gavriilidis (1914) artist - Michalis Genitsaris (1917-2005) singer and composer - Andreas Krystallis (1919-1951) painter - Ektor Kaknavatos (1920) poet - Nicola Zaccaria (1923-2007) opera singer - Thanasis Veggos (1926) actor and film director - Andreas Mouratis (1926) footballer - John S. Romanides (1927-2001) priest and theologian - Archbishop Anastasios of Albania (1929) - Dimitris Papamichael (1931-2004) - Costas Simitis (1936) economist and politician, Prime Minister of Greece - Jannis Kounellis (1936) sculptor - Tolis Voskopoulos (1940) singer and actor - Thodoris Dritsas (1947) politician - George Dalaras (1949) singer - Yiannis Kyrastas (1952-2004) footballer and football manager - Eleftheria Arvanitaki (1956) singer - Mando (1966) singer - Grigoris Georgatos (1973) footballer - Spyros Paliouras (1957-1975) writer - Nikolaos Pavlopoulos (1909-1990) sculptor and writer - The Andrianopoulos brothers, founders of the Olympiacos sporting club - -Mayors of Piraeus - - Christos Agrapidis (1999-2006) - Panagiotis Fasoulas (2007- ) - -Universities and technological institutes - University of Piraeus - -References - -Other websites - - Municipality of Pireas - Piraeus Port Authority - The Marble Lion of Piraeus - -Settlements in Greece" -11150,40255,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Strauss%20II,Johann Strauss II,"Johann Strauss II (born Vienna, October 25 1825; died Vienna June 3 1899) was an Austrian composer, conductor and violinist. His father, also called Johann, was also a very famous composer, and is now known as Johann Strauss I (or Johann Strauss Sr) while his eldest son is called Johann Strauss II (or Johann Strauss Jr). Strauss became very famous for his waltzes. He was known as the “King of the Waltz”. His most famous one was called An der schönen, blauen Donau (known in English as The Blue Danube). - -Early life -His father wanted him to go in for banking, but the young Johann took violin lessons in secret from a man called Franz Amon who was the leader of his father’s orchestra. He continued his violin studies with Anton Kohlmann, a violinist who helped ballet dancers to learn the music they had to dance to. He was still only 18 when he got his own orchestra together and gave his own concert which included six of his own waltzes and some of his father’s. He was soon becoming more famous than his father. - -After his father died in 1849 the two orchestras joined into one and the young Johann was their conductor. He was given the title “k.k.Hofballmusikdirektor” (meaning; Musical Director of the Court Ball). He was always especially busy during Carnival time when there were lots of balls in Vienna. He toured most of Europe with his orchestra, even going to Russia where he conducted some music by Tchaikovsky. Johann Strauss II was becoming the “king of the waltz”, the most famous musician in Austria. - -Career -Johann Strauss II wrote two operas: Die Fledermaus (The Bat) and Zigeunerbaron (Gypsy Baron). They are full of fun: lively music and jokes which can sometimes be made different in each performance: the singers can put in their own jokes about modern times. Sometimes they are called operettas because they are so light-hearted. They are a mixture of Hungarian and Viennese atmosphere. - -Together with his brothers Josef and Eduard, Johann had complete control of the balls and concerts in the houses of the rich people in Vienna. Wherever he went he was surrounded by lots of admirers. His waltzes are still as popular as ever, and millions of people in different countries hear them on television on New Year's Day when they are played by the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra at their traditional New Year’s Day concert. - -References - -1825 births -1899 deaths -Austrian composers -Austrian conductors -Austrian violinists -Romantic composers" -8354,28139,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaliyah,Aaliyah,"Aaliyah Dana Haughton (January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American recording artist and actress. - -Aaliyah was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Detroit, Michigan. From her youth, she began to sing: she did singing competitions, castings and shows. Her career began in 1994 with the release of her first album Age Ain't Nothing But A Number. She continued going to the High School of the Performing Arts after this. - -In 1996, Aaliyah's second album, One in a Million. Aaliyah always wanted to act and she got the leading role in Romeo Must Die (2000). Then she starred in Queen of the Damned in 2002. - -In 2001, she returned to music with her third album called Aaliyah, She put a lot into it, as a singer and as an executive producer. She worked on it with her uncle. She died on August 25, 2001 in a plane crash in the Bahamas. She was going to be in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, but the filmmakers had to use another person after she died. - -Personal life -Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born in Brooklyn, New York. She was of African American descent, with Native American heritage from her grandmother. Her father was of Jamaican heritage. She was the second and younger child of Diane and Michael Haughton. Aaliyah was enrolled in voice lessons by her mother, and she would perform at weddings, church choir and charity events. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. She attended a Catholic school, Gesu Elementary, where she received a part in the stage play named Annie in first grade. From then on, she was determined to become an entertainer. - -Aaliyah's mother was a vocalist. Her uncle, Barry Hankerson, was an entertainment lawyer who had been married to Gladys Knight. As a child, Aaliyah traveled with Knight and worked with an agent in New York to audition for commercials and television programs, including Family Matters; she went on to appear on Star Search at the age of ten. She then auditioned for several record labels and appeared in concerts alongside Knight at age 11. - -Aaliyah attended the Detroit High School for the Performing Arts, where she majored in drama and graduated in 1997. Aaliyah began her acting career that same year. - -Career -After Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his label named Blackground Records when Aaliyah was 12 years old. She released her debut album Age Ain't Nothing but a Number in 1994. Rumors circulated that she and her mentor R. Kelly were not only romantically involved, but had also married. Aaliyah admitted to a friendship with R. Kelly, which had developed while recording Age Ain't Nothing but a Number. She said they would go out together and watch a movie or eat somewhere when they went on breaks from recording the album and said they were ""rather close"". She dismissed the rumors about her relationship with him as people taking it ""the wrong way."" -Jamie Foster Brown wrote about R. Kelly's recollection of the time he had spent working with Aaliyah, writing, ""R. Kelly told me that he and Aaliyah got together and it was just magic."" Brown reported hearing Aaliyah being a frequent guest at R. Kelly's home and walking his dog 12 Play. Along with this, he heard that she was pregnant. There were complaints about Aaliyah being in the studio recording with a bunch of older men. Aaliyah went on to admit that she had lied about her age in court documents and filed suit in Cook County to have the records erased since she was not old enough at the time (being fifteen when the marriage took place) to get married without having the go-ahead by her parents. Reports indicate that Aaliyah had a crush on R. Kelly at some point, but after the marriage was ended, she ceased professional and personal contact with him. - -Jomo Hankerson later said that Aaliyah was treated bad over the marriage and that she had a hard time getting her second album to have a producer because of what had happened between her and R. Kelly. With the exception of Sean Combs, he said, there were not too many producers seeking to work with her because people were upset with her, which he did not understand given her age at the time. After the marriage ended, she stopped answering questions about R. Kelly and would often change the subject whenever it was brought up. This was noted by several organizations that did interviews with her. Aaliyah indicated that she would never again work with R. Kelly during an interview with Christopher John Farley, who went on to write a biography of the singer titled Aaliyah: More Than a Woman. R. Kelly would go on to have more allegations about relationships with underage girls and the relationship with Aaliyah was brought up or mentioned most of the time as a starting point. He refused to discuss his relationship with her and explained his reason for doing this: """"Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that."" According to her mother Diane Haughton, everything ""that went wrong in her life"" began with her relationship with R. Kelly. The allegations were dismissed as having little effect on her image or career. - -In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records. She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, One in a Million. She developed friendships with the pair. Timbaland was in love with her, but did not act out on it due to her being years younger than him. Instead he wanted to be a bigger brother figure for her, similar to her own brother Rashad Haughton. However, he struggled with keeping his feelings at bay. During her last days, the pair had an argument and it would be the last time they would speak to each other, as he next learned that she had passed. - -She played as herself in the police drama television series New York Undercover. During this time, Aaliyah participated in the Children's Benefit Concert, a charity concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York. - -Aaliyah's first major movie role was in Romeo Must Die. Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. It grossed US$18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office. Aaliyah was scared about bad reviews so she did not look for them. She heard good things about her role in the movie, but there were critics that did not like her role because of her relationship with Jet Li's character not having any realism along with the rest of the movie. - -Before she died, she talked to the Isley Brothers about working together, having recorded one of their songs when she was younger during her tenure with Jive Records and was signed to appear in more movies. One of them was Honey, which came out in 2003 Some Kind of Blue, a romantic movie and Sparkle, a movie produced by Whitney Houston that was the remake of the 1976 film of the same name. Houston said after Aaliyah passed that she wanted to be in the movie. Studio officials from Warner Brothers said she and her mother read the script and Aaliyah was passionate about appearing in the movie. - -Talent -Aaliyah had a vocal range of a soprano. With the release of her first single ""Back & Forth"", Dimitri Ehrlich of Entertainment Weekly expressed that Aaliyah's ""silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige."" Aaliyah described her sound as ""street but sweet"", which featured her ""gentle"" vocals over a ""hard"" beat. Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics were described as in-depth. She incorporated R&B, pop and hip hop into her music. Her songs were often uptempo and melancholy, revolving around ""matters of the heart"". Her songs have been said to have ""crisp production"" and ""staccato arrangements"" that ""extend genre boundaries"" while containing ""old-school"" soul music. When she experimented with other genres, such as Latin pop and heavy metal, critics did not like the attempt. As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah acted more older, calling her progress a ""declaration of strength and independence"". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described her eponymous album, Aaliyah, as ""a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward"" and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed ""unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions"", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance. Others felt that she was ""satisfying rather than extraordinary"", stating that she added little to modern R&B. - -Death -On August 25, 2001, at 6:50 pm (EST), Aaliyah and various members of the record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402B (registration N8097W) at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, The Bahamas, to travel to the Opa-locka Airport in Florida, after they completed filming the music video for the single ""Rock the Boat"". They had a flight scheduled the following day, August 26, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States and made the decision to leave immediately. The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 in which they had originally flown. The whole party and all of the equipment were accommodated on board. As a result, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum takeoff weight by and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification. The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about from the runway. Aaliyah and the eight others on board, pilot Luis Morales III, hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, security guard Scott Gallin, video producer Douglas Kratz, stylist Christopher Maldonado, and Blackground Records employees Keith Wallace and Gina Smith, were all killed. - -According to findings from an inquest, conducted by the coroner's office in The Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from ""severe burns and a blow to the head"", in addition to severe shock and a weak heart. The coroner theorized that, even if Aaliyah had survived the crash, her recovery would have been virtually impossible given the severity of her injuries. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report stated that ""the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27 and then exploding in flames."" It indicated that the pilot was not approved to pilot the plane he was attempting to fly. Morales falsely obtained his Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, an autopsy performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system. The NTSB reported that the maximum allowed gross weight of the plane was ""substantially exceeded"" and that the center of gravity was positioned beyond its rear limit. John Frank of the Cessna Pilots Association stated that the plane was ""definitely overloaded"". - -The day of the crash was Morales' first official day with Blackhawk International Airways, an FAA Part 135 single-pilot operation. Morales was not registered with the FAA to fly for Blackhawk. As a result of the accident, Aaliyah's parents filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the company, which was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. Barry & Sons, Inc., a corporation formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize Aaliyah and to oversee the production and distribution of her records and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit in the New York Supreme Court against Instinct Productions LLC, the company that was hired in August 2001 to produce the music video for ""Rock the Boat"". The case was dismissed because of New York's wrongful death statute only permitting certain people to recover damages for wrongful death. - -Legacy - -Aaliyah's funeral was held on August 31, 2001, at the Saint Ignatius Loyola Church in Manhattan. Her body was set in a silver casket, which was carried in a glass hearse and was drawn by horse. An estimated 800 mourners were in attendance of the procession. Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim and Sean Combs. After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of Aaliyah's life. She was interred in a crypt in a private room in the Rosewood Mausoleum at the Ferncliff Cemetery. - -The week after Aaliyah's death, her third studio album, Aaliyah, rose from number 19 to number one on the Billboard 200. ""Rock the Boat"" was released as a posthumous single. The music video premiered on BET's Access Granted; it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show. The song peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number two on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It was also included on the Now That's What I Call Music! 8 compilation series; a portion of the album's profits was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund. The following two singles from Aaliyah, ""More than a Woman"" and ""I Care 4 U"", peaked within the top 25 of the Billboard Hot 100. The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.95 million copies in the United States. ""More than a Woman"" reached number one in the UK singles chart making Aaliyah the first deceased artist to reach number one in the UK single chart. ""More than a Woman"" was replaced by George Harrison's ""My Sweet Lord"" which is the only time in the UK singles chart history where a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one. - -She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for Aaliyah. Her second and final movie, Queen of the Damned, was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production. It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square, where millions of fans observed a moment of silence. Throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance. In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, I Care 4 U. A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the Billboard 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single, ""Miss You"", peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah. - -Aaliyah was signed to appear in several future movies, including Honey (recast to Jessica Alba). Some Kind of Blue and a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 movie Sparkle were canceled due to Aaliyah's death. Before her death, Aaliyah had filmed part of her role in The Matrix Reloaded and was scheduled to appear in The Matrix Revolutions as Zee. The role was later recast to Nona Gaye. Aaliyah's scenes were later included in the tribute section of the Matrix Ultimate Collection series. - -In 2005, Aaliyah's second compilation album, Ultimate Aaliyah was released in the UK by Blackground Records. Ultimate Aaliyah is a three disc set, which included a greatest hits audio CD and a DVD. Andy Kellman of Allmusic remarked ""Ultimate Aaliyah adequately represents the shortened career of a tremendous talent who benefited from some of the best songwriting and production work by Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and R. Kelly."" A documentary movie Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam was released in 2011., shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death. The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands. - -In 2012 music producer Jeffrey ""J-Dub"" Walker via twitter said ""Just got great news today; the smash unreleased song called ""Steady Ground"" I produced on #Aaliyah is gonna be on her upcoming album"". Walker co-wrote ""I Refuse"" and ""What if"" from Aaliyah's third self-titled album and produced the song ""Steady Ground"" for her 'One in a Million' album. This second proposed posthumous album would feature this song using demo vocals since Walker claims the originals were somehow lost by his sound engineer. However, Walker's original tweet announcing this event has since been removed, and Aaliyah's brother, via Twitter, has stated that ""no official album [is] being released and supported by the Haughton family."" - -Discography -Studio albums - Age Ain't Nothing But a Number (1994) - One in a Million (1996) - Aaliyah (2001) - -Compilation albums - I Care 4 U (2002) - Ultimate Aaliyah (2005) - -References - -1979 births -2001 deaths -Actors from Brooklyn -Actors from Detroit, Michigan -African American actors -African American musicians -American contemporary R&B singers -American movie actors -Atlantic Records artists -Aviation deaths -Musicians from Brooklyn -Singers from Detroit, Michigan -Singers from New York City" -6471,20438,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1730,1730," - -Events - Pope Clement XII elected - September 17 – Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed III (1703-1730) to Mahmud I (1730-1754) - Anna Ivanova (Anna I of Russia) became czarina" -24124,93039,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uecker-Randow%20Rural%20District,Uecker-Randow Rural District,"Uecker-Randow is a former district in the eastern part of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany. - -The district was created on 12 June 1994 by joining the old districts of Pasewalk, Ueckermünde and part of the district Strasburg. - -The district was merged on 4 September 2011 into Vorpommern-Greifswald. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - Official website - Regional Tourist Board Vorpommern - Ost|See|Land - Tourism Overview site - -Former rural districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania" -12948,47587,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant,Malignant,"In medicine, malignant is a clinical word that is used to describe an illness that kills a patient fast. A malignant tumor is a tumor that is able to invade nearby tissues and spread to tissues that are not nearby. Not all patients diagnosed with malignant tumors die, because of the improved treatments available. The actual prognosis depends on the type of tumor, its differentiation, and how bad the disease is. The term malignant is typically applied to neoplasms that show aggressive behavior characterized by local invasion or distant metastasis. - -Medicine" -3599,10931,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna%20%28entertainer%29,Madonna (entertainer),"Madonna Louise Ciccone, commonly known as Madonna (born August 16, 1958) is an American singer-songwriter, dancer, actress, author, director, philanthropist, businesswoman, record producer, film director, and humanitarian. Madonna was born in Bay City, Michigan, but she moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance. - -During her career, she has sold over 300 million records worldwide and is the top-selling female artist of all time. Some of her most famous albums are Like a Virgin, True Blue, Like a Prayer, Ray of Light and Confessions On a Dance-Floor. She has won seven Grammy awards. Madonna is considered the ""Queen Of Pop"" due to her extremely successful career on music and for being the most selling female singer in history. She has been in many movies; she received positive reviews for her role in Desperately Seeking Susan (1985). Her later movies received mixed reviews. She received critical acclaim and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for Evita (1996). She got harsh feedback for other performances. - -1983–89: Madonna, Like a Virgin, True Blue, and Like a Prayer -After the release of some dance hits she released her first album, Madonna, in 1983. The album was a great success. Her next album, Like a Virgin (1984), sold over 6 million copies in the United States only and overall 10 million copies worldwide. Her album True Blue has sold 25 million copies. Her album Like a Prayer caused controversy, as it had to do with Christianity but the album sold over 15 million records worldwide. During the 1980s, Madonna was a huge fashion icon and was an idol for millions of girls and boys. Songs like Like a Virgin, Material Girl, Into the Groove, Papa Don't Preach, Holiday, Lucky Star, La Isla Bonita, and Like a Prayer are believed to be classics. - -1990–99: The Immaculate Collection, Erotica, film success, Bedtime Stories, and Ray of Light -In 1990, she released her best selling greatest-hits album The Immaculate Collection which sold over 30 million copies, and this album became the most-sold greatest-hits album in music history. She released a book of naked pictures called SEX in that year. Her album Erotica was a big hit but was criticized by some, the album sold 5 million copies. Madonna starred in the film A League of Their Own, alongside American actor Tom Hanks and comedienne Rosie O'Donnell. In 1994, her album Bedtime Stories was released. She also performed in the movie Evita, which was very successful and released a soundtrack album of the same name. She also received the Golden Globe for Best Actress. Her 1998 album Ray of Light is considered to be a masterpiece and sold over 18 million copies worldwide. Some of her most famous and classic songs of the '90s are Vogue, This Used to Be My Playground, Erotica, Take a Bow, Don't Cry for Me Argentina, You Must Love Me, Frozen and Ray of Light. - -2000–10: Music, American Life, Confessions on a Dance Floor, and Hard Candy -In 2000, her album Music sold over 15 million copies worldwide, helped by the global hit song of the same name. Music became her twelfth number-one song on the Billboard Hot 100. She also released a successful greatest hits album titled GHV2. Madonna acted in the film The Next Best Thing, along with Swept Away, which got bad reviews. On October 22, 2002, a single called Die Another Day was released. The music video for the single was the second most expensive music video ever to make. The single reached number one in several countries. Her 2003 album, American Life, reached #1 in many countries but it was criticized by some, as it was against war in Iraq and sold 5 million copies. In 2005, her album Confessions on a Dance Floor, helped by the singles Hung Up and Sorry that reached #1 in 45 countries, sold 12 million copies. In 2008 she released her album Hard Candy which reached #1 in almost every country in the world and has sold over 4 million copies worldwide. The first single from the album, 4 Minutes, had Justin Timberlake singing in it. - -2011–present: W.E., MDNA, Rebel Heart, and Madame X -In 2011, W.E., the second movie directed by Madonna, was released. It got bad reviews. - -Madonna performed at the 46th Super Bowl on February 5, 2012. She released her twelfth album, MDNA, in April of that year. The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 album chart. Trinidadian-born American rapper Nicki Minaj was featured on the lead single, Give Me All Your Luvin''', which reached the top ten in the United States and reached number one in Canada. Minaj also raps on the album track I Don't Give A. - -Madonna's thirteenth studio album, Rebel Heart, was released in March 2015. It featured the singles Living For Love and Bitch I'm Madonna featuring frequent collaborator Nicki Minaj. The Rebel Heart World Tour made $169.8 million. - -Her fourteenth studio album, Madame X, was released on June 14, 2019, and became her ninth number-one album in the US. It featured collaborations with Maluma, Quavo, Swae Lee & Anitta. It has sold 90,000 copies in the US so far. She will be going on a theatre-only tour to promote it. - -Tours - -Her tours during the 80's (""Who's That Girl Tour,"" ""Blond Ambition Tour,"" etc.) were very successful. Her 1993 ""The Girlie Show Tour"" was very controversial—some thought of it as bad—but was a great success. The ""Drowned World Tour"" and the ""Re-Invention World Tour"" were the most successful tours of their years. The ""Confessions Tour"" was very successful and the ""Sticky & Sweet Tour,"" with over $408 million earned, became the most successful tour of all time for a solo artist. - The Virgin Tour (1985) (US only): the tour grossed $33 million. - Who's That Girl World Tour (1987): the tour grossed $25 million. - Blond Ambition Tour (1990): the tour grossed $60 million. - The Girlie Show World Tour (1993): the tour grossed $70 million. - Drowned World Tour (2001): the tour grossed $75 million. - Re-Invention World Tour (2004): the tour grossed $125 million. - Confessions Tour (2006): the tour grossed $194 million. - Sticky & Sweet Tour (2008-2009): the tour grossed $408 million. - MDNA Tour (2012): the tour grossed $302 million. - Rebel Heart Tour (2015)Madame X Tour (2019) - - Discography - - Madonna (1983): 10 million copies sold. - Like a Virgin (1984): 21 million copies sold. - True Blue (1986): 25 million copies sold. - Like a Prayer (1989): 15 million copies sold. - Erotica (1992): 5 million copies sold. - Bedtime Stories (1994): 7 million copies sold. - Ray of Light (1998): 18 million copies sold. - Music (2000): 15 million copies sold. - American Life (2003): 4 million copies sold. - Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005): 12 million copies sold. - Hard Candy (2008): 4 million copies sold. - MDNA (2012): 2 million copies sold. - Rebel Heart (2015) - Madame X (2019) - -Madonna has had 12 number-one songs on the Billboard Hot 100. They are: - Like a Virgin Crazy for You Live to Tell Papa Don't Preach Open Your Heart Who's That Girl? Like a Prayer Vogue Justify My Love This Used to Be My Playground Take a Bow Music'' - -Personal life -Madonna is the third of six siblings and was named after her mother, Madonna Fortin, who died of breast cancer when Madonna was only five years old. - -Both Madonna's marriages ended in divorce. She was married to Sean Penn from 1985 until 1989 and to Guy Ritchie from 2000 to 2008. She has a daughter, Lourdes (born 1996), and son, Rocco (born 2000). She adopted a Malawian son, David Banda, and a daughter, Mercy. - -In February 2017, it was announced that she had adopted two more Malawian children, twin girls Esther and Stella. - -References - -Actors from Michigan -American movie actors -American movie directors -American pop singers -American dance musicians -American singer-songwriters -Grammy Award winners - -Singers from Michigan -Writers from Michigan -1958 births -Living people" -17270,65393,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Clay,Henry Clay,"Henry Clay, Sr. (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852) was an American politician from Kentucky. He served in the House of Representatives (as Speaker), in the Senate, and was Secretary of State. He ran for President several times but never won. He wanted the United States to fight the British in the War of 1812. After years in the Democratic-Republican Party he started the Whig Party to oppose Andrew Jackson. - -He helped pass the famous compromises over slavery leading up the Civil War, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. He is considered to be one of the greatest Senators in United States history. - -Early life and education - -Childhood -Henry Clay was born on April 12, 1777, at the Clay farmhouse in Hanover County, Virginia, in a story-and-a-half frame house. It was an above-average home for a common Virginia planter of that time. At the time of his death, Clay's father owned more than 22 slaves, making him part of the planter class in Virginia (those men who owned 20 or more slaves). He also ate copious amounts of cabbage to survive the cold winter months. - -Henry was the seventh of nine children of the Reverend John Clay and Elizabeth Hudson Clay. His father, a Baptist minister nicknamed ""Sir John,"" died four years after his birth in 1781. The father left Henry and his brothers two slaves each, and his wife 18 slaves and of land. Henry Clay was a second cousin of Cassius Marcellus Clay, who became an abolitionist in Kentucky. - -The widow Elizabeth Clay married Capt. Henry Watkins, who was a loving stepfather. Henry Watkins then moved the family to Richmond, Virginia. Elizabeth had seven more children with Watkins, having sixteen. - -Education -His stepfather secured Clay employment in the office of the Virginia Court of Chancery, where he showed a skill for law. There he became friends with George Wythe. Wythe chose Clay as his secretary. After Clay was employed as Wythe's faculty for four years, the chancellor took an active interest in Clay's future; he arranged a position for him with the Virginia attorney general, Robert Brooke. Clay received no formal legal education but, as was customary at the time, ""read the law"" by working and studying with Wythe, Chancellor of the Commonwealth of Virginia (also a mentor to Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall, among others) and Brooke. Clay was admitted to practice law in 1797. - -Marriage and family -After starting his law career, on April 11, 1799, Clay married Lucretia Hart at the Hart home in Lexington, Kentucky. She was a sister to Captain Nathaniel G. S. Hart, who died in the Massacre of the River Raisin in the War of 1812. - -Clay and his wife had eleven children (six daughters and five sons): Henrietta (1800–1801), Theodore (1802–1870), Thomas (1803–1871), Susan (1805–1825), Anne (1807–1835), Lucretia (1809–1823), Henry, Jr. (1811–1847), Eliza (1813–1825), Laura (1815–1817), James Brown, (1817–1864), and John (1821–1887). - -Seven of Clay's children died before him and his wife. By 1835 all six daughters had died of many conditions, two when very young, two as children, the other two as young women: from whooping cough, yellow fever, and complications of childbirth. Henry Clay, Jr. was killed at the Battle of Buena Vista during the Mexican-American War. - -Lucretia Hart Clay died in 1864 at the age of 83. She is buried with her husband in Lexington Cemetery. Henry and Lucretia Clay were great-grandparents of the suffragette Madeline McDowell Breckinridge, a family member of John C. Breckinridge, who was Vice President of the United States during James Buchanan's presidency. - -References - -1777 births -1852 deaths -Democratic Republican party (US) politicians -National Republican party (US) politicians -Politicians from Virginia -Speakers of the United States House of Representatives -United States representatives from Kentucky -United States Secretaries of State -United States senators from Kentucky -Whig party (US) politicians -19th-century American politicians" -5534,18056,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold%20Poetsch,Leopold Poetsch,"Leopold Poetsch was a German antiSemitic professor and a high school teacher of Adolf Hitler who influenced the future leader's later views. - -Poetsch came from the southern German border area. There, political fights between Slavs and ethnic Germans angered him and made him one who was for the Pan-German movement. He started to teach in Maribor, Slovenia and later moved to Linz, Austria to teach history. - -Hitler was very interested in what Poetsch said. Poetsch hated the Habsburgs and argued that all ethnic Germans should be united by a single government. He said that the Aryan race was stronger, in better health, and more fit to rule than all other people. Poetsch said that Jews and Slavs were what he called ""inferior races"". (This view was held a lot in Germany after World War I.) - -Hitler began reading an anti-Semitic newspaper in his area. In his later years, Hitler spoke of Poetsch as a ""great man."" As dictator of Germany, Hitler tried to get all German-speaking people together and persecuted Slavs, Jews, Gypsies, and others. Hitler later tried to kill them all in the ""Final Solution."" - -References -Shirer, William L. Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon & Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0-671-72868-7 - -German people" -2844,9052,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton%20John,Elton John,"Sir Elton Hercules John (birth name Reginald Kenneth Dwight, born 25 March 1947 in Pinner, Middlesex, England), better known simply as Elton John, is an English singer, songwriter, pianist, and composer. He started his music career immediately after leaving school. Elton John was the biggest music star in the 1970s. - -Early life -Elton John was born in 55 Pinner Hill Road, Pinner, Middlesex. He was eldest child Stanley Dwight and Sheila Eileen. He was educated in Pinner. - -Career -John became famous in the early 1970s when he and lyricist Bernie Taupin wrote several songs which he performed and recorded. John became a huge star, not only for his musical abilities, but for his flamboyant stage personality. He composed several musicals. He also composed the music for the animated movies The Lion King (1994) and The Road to El Dorado (2000). He is active in charity work. In 1997, in honor of Diana, Princess of Wales, John co-wrote and released a version of his hit Candle in the Wind. That became the world's best-selling single of all time. It sold 37 million copies within two months. - -Outside of music, John has raised millions of pounds for people living with HIV and AIDS through the Elton John AIDS Foundation. - -Awards - -John has received the following awards. - -Academy Awards - 1995: Best Original Song for ""Can You Feel the Love Tonight"" from The Lion King - 2020: Best Original Song for “(I’m Gonna) Love Me Again” from Rocketman - -Grammy Awards - 1987: Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal for ""That's What Friends Are For"", performed by Dionne Warwick & Friends (award shared with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight & Stevie Wonder) - 1991: Best Instrumental Composition for ""Basque"", performed by James Galway - 1995: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for ""Can You Feel the Love Tonight"" - 1997: Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for ""Candle in the Wind 1997"" - 1999: Grammy Legend Award - 2001: Best Musical Show Album for Elton John & Tim Rice's Aida (award shared with Guy Babylon, Paul Bogaev & Chris Montan (producers), Tim Rice (lyricist) and the original Broadway cast with Heather Headley, Adam Pascal, and Sherie Rene Scott) - -Tony Awards - 2000: Best Original Musical Score for Aida - -Personal life -John has had treatment for alcoholism, drug abuse and bulimia nervosa. - -In 2005, John entered a civil partnership with David Furnish. They had been together for 12 years. On 21 December 2014, John and Furnish married. Guests at their wedding included English former footballer David Beckham along with his wife Victoria Beckham and their younger sons and their daughter. Their eldest son, who is also John's godson, was not present. - -Discography -Studio albums - -References - -1947 births -Brit Award winners -Commanders of the Order of the British Empire -Grammy Award winners -Living people -English LGBT people -English pianists -English rock musicians -English rock singers -English singer-songwriters -Gay men -LGBT musicians -Musicians from London -Musicians from Middlesex -Singers from London -Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters -Companions of Honour" -12323,45444,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary,Binary,"Binary is base 2 number system. It is base 2 because it uses two possible numbers: 0 and 1. Decimal, the system most of the world uses for daily life, is a base 10 system – it uses 10 characters (0–9). When binary numbers are written, a subscript ""(2)"" is added to distinguish them from the same number in base 10. - -Computers work in binary, because wires can store information in two different ways: by being powered, or not being powered. Sets of binary numbers can be used to represent any information, such as text, audio, or video. - -Number system - -When being introduced to binary numbers, it helps to go back and think about how base 10 or decimal numbers work. Consider the number 1101(10) (base 10). We identify this number as one-thousand, one-hundred, one because it has a 1 in the thousands place, a 1 in the hundreds place, and a 1 in the ones place. But since the places represent 8, 4, 2, and 1 in binary, instead of 1000, 100, 10, and 1, the value converted to decimal (base 10) would be 8 + 4 + 1 = 13(10). - -For another example, the binary number 101(2) is 5 in decimal. The bit on the right is 1 and has a value of 1 (2^0). The middle bit has a value of 2 (2^1 or just 2), but it is a 0, so it is not added. The bit on the left is 1 and has a value of 4 (2^2 or 2 * 2). The bits that are 1s have values of 1 and 4. 1 + 4 = 5. - -Computers -All computers use binary at the lowest level. Most hard memory, like compact discs and DVDs, use binary to represent large files. - -With computers, eight binary bits together is called a byte. The size of files is commonly measured in kilobytes or megabytes (sometimes in gigabytes). A kilobyte is 1000 bytes. A megabyte is 1000 kilobytes, a gigabyte is 1000 megabytes and a terabyte is 1000 gigabytes. Sometimes, it is easier to measure bytes in groups of 1024, since 1024 is a power of 2. There are 1024 bytes in a kibibyte, 1024 kibibytes in a mebibyte, and 1024 mebibytes in a gibibyte. - -Computer science -Mathematics -Encodings" -3631,11026,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum,Vacuum,"A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space. - -A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains. - -Common uses -A vacuum cleaner works by pumping away some of the air. The air and dirt in a room rush into the vacuum left behind, where the dirt is caught by a filter. -An automobile engine that burns fuel uses a vacuum to pull in air, which contains oxygen that allows the fuel to burn. -An incandescent lightbulb has a vacuum inside so the hot filament doesn't burn up. - -Industrial uses - -Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production. Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber. It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum. This is called ""hard vacuum"". Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum. - -Industrial vacuums are mainly used in: - Food industry - Electronics industry - Packaging - Manipulation - Coating and degasing - -Scientific experiments -Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react. - -Related pages -Nothing -Vacuum cleaner - -References - Industrial vacuum information - -Matter" -12876,47302,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium,Americium,"Americium is a chemical element. It is a radioactive metal. It has the chemical symbol Am. It has the atomic number 95. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the actinides. Americium is a transuranic element (Transuranic means after uranium. All the elements used after uranium are man-made). It is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. Americium has to be made. It has a silver color. Americium is made by bombarding a plutonium target with neutrons. - -It was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for America, like Francium was named for France. - -The longest half life of any type of americium is 7370 years. - -Uses -Americium is used in most smoke detectors. The level of radioactivity is not enough to cause cancer, so it is safe to for the people in an area where smoke detectors with americium are in use. - -Actinides -Chemical elements" -8059,26825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaya%20%28disambiguation%29,Gaya (disambiguation),"See also: Gaia - -Gaya may refer to: - - Gaya Confederacy, an ancient Korean league of chiefdoms. - Gaya, India, a city in Bihar state in India. - Gaya District, India - Gaya, Niger, a city in Niger. - Gaya (plant), a plant genus in the family Malvaceae." -6029,19408,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak%20Lawn%2C%20Illinois,"Oak Lawn, Illinois","Oak Lawn is a village in Cook County, Illinois, USA. It is a suburb of Chicago. - -Villages in Illinois -Suburbs of Chicago, Illinois -Settlements in Cook County, Illinois" -11685,42940,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandir,Mandir,"Hindu temple or Mandir is referred to a place where Hindus go to worship gods in the form of various deities. Many Hindu temples are filled with wooden and stone arts like pashupatinath temple. A mandir is a spiritual place for Hindus. It is the landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy were developed. as well as this the mandir has been recognised for - -It is believed that the Murtis are stone or wooden images of idols ceremonially infused with the divine presence of God. They worship with arts and other ceremonies. - -Purpose -Hindus believe that gods and goddesses will answer the prayers of the faithful and inspire spiritually. For them, the temple also acts as a contact between the gods and goddesses and the worshipers. They also believe that the gods and goddesses will grant their wishes and protect them from danger. - -Appearance -In Hinduism gods are represented in various forms. Sometimes gods or goddesses are represented in a human form like Shiva, Vishnu, Saraswati or Kali. Sometimes there are gods goddesses in human and animal fused form like Ganesh. Sometimes they are also represented in plants and non-living form like Tulsi and Shaligrams. Murtis are made according to the prescriptios of the ilpasastra, and then installed by priests through the prana pratishtha ceremony. Afterward the divine personality is believed to be present in the Murtis. - -Method -To show respect, Hindus give gifts and food to the murtis. They are treated with respect and worshipped everyday. If a temple is a family temple it is treated as part of the family. Some Hindus also offer a part of their daily food to the god or goddess. They are given clothes and are changed at certain times. When people.. - -Images of Mandirs - -References - -Hinduism" -8587,29122,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Given%20name,Given name,"A given name is a name given to a person at birth or baptism. Given names are referred as first names. It is different from a surname. A surname is the last name or family name. - -Example: A baby girl is born and someone decides to name her Hope. Hope is her given name. Someone can decide to give her a surname as it is commonly accepted for people to have a last name. When she grows up, she can pick her own given name or surname if she does not like the one that was picked for her. Family names are inherited and are not easily changed. - -In most Western countries the given name comes first (before the last name or family name). However, in many Eastern countries such as Japan and China it comes after the last name or family name, and occasionally also in Europe, e.g. in Hungarian. - -Christians often call their first name their ""Christian name"". - -Related pages - Personal name - Posthumous name - Regnal name - Indian Name" -4227,13256,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter,Carpenter,"A carpenter is a person who works with wood. They can make cabinets, build houses, or do other things with wood. - -Carpenters usually make very good foremen (people who watch over a job) on larger jobs as they deal with so much of the project from ground up. Carpenters are always adding to their tools and always learning how to use the new tools, materials, and ways of working with wood. - -Many carpenters will choose to focus their skills in one of two broad ranging categories. Rough carpenters will focus on building things that need to be simple and structural. This includes framing for houses, or crates for shipping. Finish carpenters will focus on things that are detailed and artistic. For example, they can be furniture builders, cabinet makers or toy makers. Wood carvers are sometimes counted as carpenters. - -Related pages - Cabinet making - -References - -Construction occupations" -7592,24560,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx%20and%20Engels%20Internet%20Archive,Marx and Engels Internet Archive,"The Marxists Internet Archive (also known as MIA or Marxists.org) is a volunteer-based non-profit organization that has an Internet archive of Marxist writers and other similar authors, socialists, and others on their website. - -The texts are available in many different languages. - -References - -Other websites - -Websites -Politics -Marxism -Non-profit organizations" -7662,25004,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharbal,Maharbal,"Maharbal was Hannibal's cavalry-leader during the Second Punic War. Many times he was important in Carthage's successes over Rome. In his Italian campaign, Hannibal always was able to have more cavalry than Rome, and so relied on them and Maharbal to give himself a big advantage. - -Maharbal is most famous for what he said to Hannibal after the Battle of Cannae. According to Livy, a Roman historian, the conversation went like this after Maharbal said he wanted to go with the army to Rome immediately: - -""I commend your zeal"", Hannibal said to Maharbal; ""but I need time to weigh the plan that you propose."" ""Assuredly"", Maharbal replied, ""no one man has been blessed with all God's gifts. You know, Hannibal, how to gain a victory; you do not know how to use it."" -Livy, The History of Rome 22.51 - -In Simple English: -""I like your enthusiasm"", Hannibal said to Maharbal; ""but I need time to think about what you want to do."" Maharbal said back, ""It is true that no one is perfect. You know how to win, Hannibal; you do not know what to do after."" - -Livy wrote this in Latin, so Maharbal's reply is often quoted in Latin, and is a famous phrase: ""Vincere scis, Hannibal; victoria uti nescis."" - -European people" -9397,32121,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbilisi,Tbilisi,"Tbilisi is the capital, and the largest city in Georgia. It was founded in the 5th century by the Georgian king, Vakhtang Gorgasali. According to legend, when he was hunting, he killed a pheasant which dropped into hot water. Gorgasali discovered there were a lot of hot springs in this place, which he called Tbilisi as tbili means hot in Georgian. - - -5th-century establishments in Europe" -7202,22893,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danielle%20Steel,Danielle Steel,"Danielle Fernande Schuelein-Steel (born August 14, 1947 in New York City) is an American writer. Steel was an only child. Her parents divorced when she was young. She was looked after by relatives and family employees in Paris and New York City. She was a lonely child and read a lot of books and poetry. - -1947 births -Living people -American novelists -New York University alumni -Writers from New York City" -24392,94037,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batuque,Batuque,"Batuque can mean: - Batuque (game), a game once played in Brazil - Batuque (religion), an Afro-Brazilian sect of Candomblé - Batuque (music), a type of music and associated dance form from Cape Verde" -1409,4973,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinal%20number,Ordinal number,"Ordinal numbers (or ordinals) are numbers that show something's order, for example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th. - -Suppose a person has four different T-shirts, and then lays them in front of the person, from left to right. - - At the far left, there is the red T-shirt. - Right of that is the blue one. - Then there is the yellow one. - And finally, at the far right is an orange T-shirt. - -If the person then starts counting the shirts from the left, he would first see the red shirt. So the red shirt is the first T-shirt. The blue shirt is the second T-shirt. The yellow shirt is the third one, and the orange T-shirt is the fourth one. - -The first, second, third, and fourth in this case are ordinal numbers. They result from the fact that the person has many objects, and they give them an order (hence 'ordinal'). The person then simply counts those objects, and gives the ordinal numbers to them. - -In set theory, ordinals are also ordinal numbers people use to order infinite sets. An example is the set (or for short), which is the set containing all natural numbers (including 0). This is the smallest ordinal number that is infinite, and there are many more (such as + 1). - -Related pages -Cardinal number -Names of ordinal numbers in English -Transfinite number - -References - -Number theory" -19165,72551,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inari%20%28mythology%29,Inari (mythology),"is the Japanese kami (spirit) of fertility, rice and agriculture. Inari is sometimes represented as a male, female or both. - -The traditional messengers of Inari are foxes. - -References - -Japanese deities" -12957,47612,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20Ng,Deep Ng,"Deep Ng (吳浩康; born 吳偉男 on 13 June 1983) is a Hong Kong singer and actor of the Emperor Entertainment Group. - -He was fined 5,000 USD because of keeping cocaine (an illegal drug). - -He was charged of beating Chim Chi Kin at the Boozeroo Pub in Tsim Sha Tsui on 11 July 2005. On November 21, 2005, the court ruled that he did not committed the crime, because what the victim said seemed not to match his own words. - -Deep also acted in movies like New Police Story. He is also famous for his number 1 hit song, Select the Breakup Day (擇日失戀). A new album, Nowhere (pronounced as Now-here), was sold in public in September 2005. This album was seen as a comeback for Deep after a number of bad news. He also had another new album, Documentary, in 2006. - -His albums -Deep EP (2003) -Deep In The Music EP (2004) -Deep: Inside (2005) -903 California Red: Eleven Fires Concert - Deep Ng (2005) -Nowhere (2005) -Documentary (2006) -3.D New Songs + Greatest Hits (2007) - -Other websites -Deep's Official Site -Deep Ng Interview -Deep Ng's Lyrics and Midi - -Actors from Hong Kong -Singers from Hong Kong -1983 births -Living people" -22127,84008,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogo%2C%20Cape%20Verde,"Fogo, Cape Verde","Fogo (Portuguese for ""fire"") is a volcanic island in the Sotavento group of Cape Verde. It is the most prominent of the group, rising to nearly 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above sea level at Pico do Fogo. - -Islands of Cape Verde" -12963,47620,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1040,1040," - -Events - March War of Independence of Western Xia occurred. - June 17 – Harthacanute lands at Sandwich and reclaims the English Throne. - August 15 – King Duncan I is killed in battle against his first cousin and rival Macbeth. The latter succeeds him as Scottish Monarch. - The oldest brewery still active is founded at Weihenstephan. - Seljuk Turks defeat the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan. - -Births - February 22 – Rashi, French rabbi and commentator (d. 1105) - June 27 – King Ladislaus I of Hungary (d. 1095) - -Deaths - March 17 – Harold Harefoot, King of England - August 15 – King Duncan I of Scotland (b. 1001) - October 1 – Alan III, Duke of Brittany (poisoned) (b. 997) - -Related pages - For the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) form, see Form 1040." -21165,81081,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laufenburg%20%28district%29,Laufenburg (district),"Laufenburg is a district of the canton of Aargau, Switzerland. The capital is the town of Laufenburg. - -It contains the following municipalities: - -Districts of Aargau" -3941,12209,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses%20S.%20Grant,Ulysses S. Grant,"Ulysses S. Grant (April 27, 1822–July 23, 1885), born Hiram Ulysses Grant, was an American general who helped the Union Army of the United States win the American Civil War. He later became the 18th president of the United States (1869-1877). - -Early life - -Hiram Ulysses Grant was born on April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. He was the oldest of six children born to Jesse and Hannah Grant. Jesse Grant was a tanner. It was hard work, but he made a good living off of it. Young Grant worked for his father in the tannery but hated the work. He went to local schools. In 1838 he attended the Presbyterian Academy in Ripley, Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He was not the best student though he was good at math. When he graduated, he was placed in the infantry. - -Education and Influence -When Grant arrived at West Point and discovered that the academy had him registered under the wrong name as ""Ulysses S. Grant"". He was told that it didn't matter what he or his parents thought his name was, the official government application said his name was ""Ulysses S."" and that application could not be changed. If ""Hiram Ulysses Grant"" wanted to attend West Point, he would have to change his name. - -Pre-presidency -Before becoming the president, Grant was an officer in the Union Army (North). He fought in the Mexican War and became a general at the start of the American Civil War. He served as head of the Army of Tennessee and won victories at Shiloh, Vicksburg, and Chattanooga. He became the top general in the Union Army from 1864 to 1865, and fought several battles against Robert E. Lee. - -Since he was able to do well fighting in the American Civil War, he gained popularity which helped him to become the candidate for president of the Republican party. The Republicans were then the strongest party. Even though he was a respected general and supported civil rights for African Americans, historians criticize his presidency because he appointed his friends into high political positions and tolerated their corruption (even though Grant himself was innocent). Grant was the youngest president, only 46 years old, and the first to have both his parents attend his inauguration. He was also the first elected because of African American voters, who could vote then, although there was a big fight about it, which ended with many Black voters losing the right to vote. In his election, he won about 500,000 votes from African Americans, while the majority of white voters supported the Democratic candidate, who was called Horatio Seymour. Grant supported the right of Black men to vote because of this, but also because he thought it was right. - -Presidency - -Second term (1873–1877) - -In 1872, Republican reformers split the party and nominated Horace Greeley to be president. The Democratic Party also nominated him. Greeley wanted Civil Service reform and amnesty for all former Confederates. Grant won the election by a landslide. - -Very soon into Grant's second term the Panic of 1873 started a depression in the United States that spread to Europe. In 1873, Republicans in Congress were caught in a bribery scandal by newspapers. They had collected large bribes to give large federal grants to the railroads. The bribes had taken place before Grant was president, but the news came out during his presidency making it seem even more corrupt. Also in 1873, Grant signed a bill that gave himself and congressmen a pay raise. The press attacked him for it calling it a money grab. Republicans were getting a bad reputation in the press. Mid-term, the Democrats won a majority of votes in the House. They started a number of congregational investigations. Grant's Secretary of the Treasury had to resign after being caught in a fraud scheme involving taxpayer kickbacks. - -The Whiskey Ring was the largest scandal and involved widespread fraud. Grant had appointed an army friend John MacDonald as an Internal Revenue Service supervisor for the St. Louis area. In return for bribes, whisky distillers paid taxes only on a small portion of the whiskey they produced. They were cheating the U.S. government out of millions of dollars a year. MacDonald kept some of the money while some of it went to the Republican Party. The Whiskey Ring was paying some officials a regular salary to keep them from talking. Benjamin Bristow, the Secretary of the Treasury at the time, had no idea this was going on. Each time he sent inspectors on a raid to check out suspected cheaters, their records were always in good order. Bristow had no idea someone in his office was telling them in advance who was to be inspected. Meanwhile, Grant accepted expensive gifts from MacDonald not suspecting he was running a fraud scheme. MacDonald even told his friends in St. Louis that Grant was in on the scheme. In 1875, MacDonald and more than 350 distillers and government officials were indicted. This included Grant's personal secretary Orville Babcock. He was the one keeping ring members informed of any inspections. At his trial, witnesses lied and even President Grant wrote a letter stating Babcock was of good character. As a result, Babcock was exonerated of the charges, but the scandal prevented him from going back to his job in Washington. Of those accused, 60 paid fines while MacDonald and two others went to prison. The Whiskey Ring proved to most Americans that Grant's administration was filled with corruption. - -Later life and death - -After his presidency, Grant was suffering from throat cancer. He made a long trip to Europe and tried to become president again in 1880. Nobody had been elected three times before and it was seen as wrong by many because George Washington had refused to. In the end, the Republican party agreed to nominate (propose) congressman James Garfield instead. But Grant kept many supporters in the party. One of them shot Garfield the same year, and killed him. Grant never became president again, however, and only one man has been elected three or more times, Franklin Roosevelt. Grant was the first one to try, however. - -Despite the problems during his second term, Grant was immensely popular, much like a modern-day movie star, and wrote a book about his life that sold millions of copies. He died three days after he finished writing it. He is buried with his wife Julia in Grant's Tomb, New York City, New York. - -References - -1822 births -1885 deaths -Deaths from throat cancer - -American abolitionists -American Civil War generals -US Republican Party politicians -Politicians from Ohio -Politicians from Illinois -Military people from Illinois -19th-century American politicians" -22896,86872,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor%20%28disambiguation%29,Tor (disambiguation),"Tor may refer to: -Tor, a piece of land made of stone. -Tor (software), a computer software." -6289,20057,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20licence,Software licence,"A software licence (or software license in United States English) is a kind of licence that is used to set rules about how a piece of software can or cannot be used. After getting the software by either downloading it or buying it, you need to agree with the licence in order to use it. The licence is chosen or created by the software developer/creator or software publisher. Many licences answer questions such as ""can I use this software commercially/to make money?"", or ""can I give this software to other people?"", or in general, ""in what ways am I allowed/permitted to use this software?"". - -One kind of software licence, an end user licence agreement, or ""EULA"", is very specific/descriptive about the things that you can or cannot do with the software, and oftentimes establishes/defines the rights of the software developer over the user. Most EULAs are written by the specific software developer and are not shared like other software licences. - -Another type of software licence is an open source distribution licence. These licences let software developers choose what people can and cannot do with the code of the software. There are many licences freely available which allow you to do this, such as the MIT Licence, which allows for the software to be used by any person for any reason/purpose. The GNU General Public Licence, often abbreviated/shortened as GPL is a licence which makes all copies of the software free and open source. Therefore, GPL cannot be included in any part of proprietary/closed software because it does not follow the rules of the licence. The Apache Licence is more definitive and specific, but is more common with larger companies, such as Google, but is still considered a free software licence. Creative Commons is a popular licence used by people who want to give something out for free without taking as much credit. Creative Commons is very open, and is even used by Wikipedia for its pages and other content. - -List -Affero General Public License -Apache License -BSD licence -General Public License -Lesser General Public License -MIT License -Mozilla Public License -PHP License -Zlib License - - -Copyright" -5602,18258,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus%2C%20Texas,"Venus, Texas","Venus, Texas is a town in the United States. Around 2,960 people lived there (about 1,981 males and 979 females) in 2010. - -References - -Cities in Texas" -21227,81309,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izanagi,Izanagi,"is a deity who was a child of the seven divine generations in Japanese mythology and Shintoism, and is also referred to in the roughly translated Kojiki as ""male who invites"", or Izanagi-no-mikoto. - -He and his wife Izanami created many islands, deities, and forefathers of Japan. When Izanami died while giving birth to a child, Izanagi tried (but failed) to retrieve her from Yomi (the underworld). In the cleansing rite after his return, he created Amaterasu (the sun goddess) from his left eye, Tsukuyomi (the moon god) from his right eye, and Susanoo (tempest or storm god) from his nose. -When Izanagi looks at his wife in Yomi, he sees her monstrous and hellish state and she is ashamed and angry. She chases him in order to kill him. She fails, but promises to kill a thousand of his people every day. Izanagi says that he will create a thousand and five hundred every day. - -Japanese deities -Creation myths" -16763,63959,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakima%2C%20Washington,"Yakima, Washington","Yakima is a city in the state of Washington. - -References - -Other websites -Official City of Yakima website - -Cities in Washington (U.S. state) -County seats in Washington -Yakima County, Washington" -4566,14264,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC%20Comics,DC Comics,"DC Comics, Inc. is an American comic book company. It is the publishing unit of DC Entertainment, a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc., which itself is owned by Time Warner. Its first well-known comics were such as Action Comics, Detective Comics and All Star Comics. They were essential in introducing three well known superheroes: Superman (1938), Batman (1939), and Wonder Woman (1941). Its top rival is Marvel Comics. DC Comics is one of the largest and oldest American comic book companies, which is best well known for making ""superhero"" comic books. DC Comics is very famous in the modern art subject Graphics. - -The company features some of the most iconic superheroes such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, the Flash, Aquaman, Cyborg, Martian Manhunter, Green Arrow, Supergirl, Batgirl, Robin, Nightwing, Black Canary, Hawkman, Hawkgirl, Static, Zatanna, and Shazam. - -Most of their characters take place within the fictional DC Universe (DCU) and features some of the most famous and recognizable teams including the Justice League, the Justice Society of America, the Green Lantern Corps., the Gotham City Sirens, the Birds of Prey, the Young Justice, the Suicide Squad, and the Teen Titans. - -The universe also features a wide variety of well-known fictional supervillains such as Lex Luthor, the Joker, Darkseid, Harley Quinn, General Zod, the Penguin, Brainiac, Catwoman, Doomsday, Bane, Ares, Ra's al Ghul, Maxwell Lord, Deathstroke, the Cheetah, Sinestro, Black Manta, the Reverse-Flash, and Black Adam. - -History -What is known today as DC Comics was founded in 1934 by publishing entrepreneur Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson under the name of ""National Allied Publications"". DC was formed by the merging of ""National Allied Publications"" and ""Detective Comics Inc"", as well as the affiliated ""All-American Publications"". Despite being officially known as ""National Comics"", the comic covers carried a ""DC"" logo and were referred to as a result of its nickname: ""DC Comics"". People had nicknamed it ""DC"" because of one its most popular comic series; Detective Comics and thus was born one of the world's most recognizable comic book brandings along with rivals Marvel publishing. - -The company did not officially change its name to DC Comics however, until 1977 during the presidency of Jenette Kahn. - -DC Comics has its current official headquarters at 1700 Broadway, 7th, New York, New York. Random House distributes DC Comics' books to the bookstore market, while Diamond Comics Distributors supplies the comics shop specialty market. - -Golden Age -National Allied Publications' first comic was New Fun: The Big Comic Magazine #1 which was released in the February of 1935. It hit off, and was surprisingly popular. Later that year, a second title was released: New Comics #1. The size and length New Comics #1 became the archetype for many comics afterwards, and it became the longest running comic series of all time. - -In 1938, National launched Action Comics, which featured the brand new character from regular contributors Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, Superman. Originally dismissed as ""silly"" by editorial, reports soon came back noting the popularity and sales increase resulting from the Superman feature. Superman quickly became a sensation and before long, dozens of imitations from both National and other publishing houses appeared almost overnight. Writer Bill Finger and his artist employer Bob Kane soon submitted Batman to appear in Detective Comics and before long, and his artist H.G. Peter and William Moulton Marston feature best submitted Wonder Woman to appear in All Star Comics. The featuring superheroes Superman and Batman, and an entire Justice Society of America had been formed including properties such as The Flash, Green Lantern, The Sandman, Wonder Woman, Hawkman and The Spectre, to name a few, many of whom were either created or written by the prolific Gardner Fox. - -With the establishment of DC as one of the major comic book companies and with many of the most marketable names in the early years of comics, it is sometimes considered the main company that other companies had to compete with. Companies tried different approaches, One that succeeded and often outsold DC for instance was Fawcett Publications who had a character who some consider similar to Superman who was an all-powerful hero with a supporting ""family"" known as Captain Marvel and the Marvel Family, whereas other companies such as Charlton Comics created entire new worlds preventing DC from attacking them with lawsuits. Further along in the Silver Age many of these companies failed or like Fawcett were sued out of existence. Thus although they had once been competitors, many of the soon public domain properties of Fawcett and Charlton were eventually revived and trademarked and seemingly taken under DC's control. - -Silver and Bronze Age -During the post-War years, the popularity of superheroes had declined almost completely, though DC and other publishers were still going strong moving into other genres such as funny animals, romance, Sci-Fi, Westerns and horror. Major characters such as Batman, Wonder Woman and Superman has managed to remain in publication and by the mid-1950s the superhero was again due for a comeback. Showcase #4 in 1956 introduced readers to Barry Allen, the all-new Flash re-imagined with a sleeker design and steeped much heavier in science fiction (and the older Golden Age heroes being relegated to existing on Earth Two). Characters such as The Atom, Green Lantern and the JSA, now reinvented as the Justice League of America soon followed and a new superhero boom was kicked off. - -During this time, The Comics Code Authority has also come into play, which drastically subdued the content available in the comic book medium. Many of the stories during the period moved away from more controversial horror or violent themes. - -With the reinvigoration of Marvel in the 1960s under the leadership of Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, DC found itself a new and more potent competitor. Marvel succeeded by breaking what had become by then generic archetypes of superheroes by introducing characters which were younger and more flawed (and thus appeared more human and appealed to a younger crowd in a more direct manner.) After falling behind Marvel in sales, DC was finally forced to adopt much of the same system which Marvel had, by introducing such young teams as the Teen Titans to compete with the X-Men. - -Modern Age and Crisis On Infinite Earths -In 1985, DC Comics decided its 50 years of continuity and numerous alternative Earths had become too messy and was in need of new blank slate. DC penned one of the first major comic book crossovers that incorporated almost every DC title and character ever published by the company. The series ended with multiple Earths being erased and merging into to one unified Earth. Following this, Batman, Superman and Wonder Woman were given new leases of life thanks to big name creators such as John Byrne, Frank Miller and George Perez that redefined the elderly heroes for a new generation. - -During this same period, the comic audience has begun to grow up and the direct market for comic stores had opened allowing a wider variety of publications to be experimented with. One such experiment involved bringing in British writer Alan Moore to pen the low selling Saga of the Swamp Thing series. What resulted was style of comic book not experienced before by mainstream readers in its literary and story driven complexity and execution. Before long, other writers from across the pond such as Neil Gaiman, Peter Milligan and Grant Morrison were recruited to revamp obscure properties and tell new and interesting stories with an older audience in mind. 1986 saw the release of two seminal works from DC Comics, Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns and Alan Moore's Watchmen that reached unprecedented levels of critical acclaim and outside media attention. By the 90's DC and the entire comic book industry experienced a boom in mature comics aimed at older audiences and simultaneously witnessed a collector's boom that increased sales but almost caused the industry to collapse soon after. - -In 1993, senior editor Karen Berger convinced DC to make her own imprint for mature readers named Vertigo, similar to DC imprints Piranha Press and Paradox Press as well as Marvel's Epic Comics. Using popular titles such as Animal Man, Swamp Thing, Hellblazer, The Sandman and Shade, The Changing Man as its blueprint along side new creator owned material, DC/Vertigo became a hub for intelligent and acclaimed comic books. While rival Marvel Comics continued to dominate the publishing arena with their exceedingly popular properties, DC/Vertigo became the destination for literary and inventive titles during the period. - -In 1999, DC purchased Jim Lee's WildStorm Productions, formerly one of the founding studios of Image. The line of WildStorm comics and properties came under DC's control though the line continued to be published on the West Coast away from DC editorial until 2010. - -DC Comics series -The three most original highest-grossing and longest-running series includes Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman. - -Superman - Action Comics - Superman - -Batman - Detective Comics - Batman - -Wonder Woman - All Star Comics - Sensation Comics - Wonder Woman - -All Star DC Comics -In 2000 Marvel Comics started an imprint called ultimate marvel in which the characters' origin is changed and modernized. This eventually led DC to starting an imprint of their own in 2005, thus All Star was born. - -Both All-Star series are in their own continuity, except All-Star Batman and Robin which was part of Earth-31. - -All-Star Batman -All-Star Batman was an ongoing series that premiered on August 2016 as part of the DC Rebirth relaunch, and ran for 14 issues until October 2017. The creative team consisted of writer Scott Snyder and multiple artists, mainly John Romita Jr.. Despite the title, the series told stories that were set in the mainstream DC Universe continuity. - -All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder -All-Star Batman started in 2005 and was written by Frank Miller and Penciled by Jim Lee. This was the first series in the All Star imprint and opened to mainly negative reviews but had high sales. The series was released in a sporadic schedule. The series only reached 10 issues (2008) 2 issues before the intended end of the series. - -All-Star Superman -All-Star Superman started in 2006 and was written by Grant Morrison and Penciled by Frank Quitley. This was the second series under the All Star imprint, the first being All-Star Batman and Robin. The series opened to mainly good reviews and went on to win the Eisner Award for best new series in 2006 and best ongoing series in 2007 and 2009. Like All-Star Batman the series was also released in a sporadic schedule. The series ended with issue 12. The series overall has widely considered to be one of the best Superman stories of all time. - -All Star Wonder Woman -All Star Wonder Woman started in 2006 and was written by Adam Hughes from San Diego Con 2006. - -The New 52 -In 2011, after a period of declining comic sales, DC announced they were cancelling all the main titles and starting over with all New 52's as part of a relaunch. In charge of the relaunch is Geoff Johns and Jim Lee. The relaunch started with the release of Justice League #1 on August 31st. this was done partially to revitalize the company and to de-age the characters and thus make them more dynamic. On January 12, 2012, it was announced that there would be a second wave of the new 52 where six titles would be getting canceled with another six to replace them, though the plan to stay at 52 ongoing monthlies seems to be consistent. DC also released a Third wave in September 2012, one year after the relaunch in September 2011. One book in the Third Wave, Talon, starring Calvin Rose was the first solo book for a character who was introduced in the New 52. The Fourth wave started in January 2013 and ended in March 2013, meaning that it was the first wave not to come out in a single month. The Fifth Wave consisted of titles such as the Movement, the Green Team and Superman Unchained. - -The New 52 had proved to be so successful with critics, fans and commercially that Marvel the main competitor of DC decided to do a relaunch of their own called ""Marvel NOW!"" in late 2012. - -Relocating from Manhattan to Burbank -In 2015, DC Entertainment moved their entire operations from their Manhattan headquarters in New York City to their new home in Burbank, California. DC's digital and administrative departments had already been relocated to Burbank beginning in 2010. The new office is only a few blocks from their corporate parent company, Warner Bros. Studios. - -DC Imprints and Sub-Imprints - -Active - - Vertigo (1993-) - MAD/ MAD Magazine (Acquired by Warner in the 60's, integrated with DC Comics around 2001.) - -Defunct - - WildStorm (1999-2010)* - CMX (2004-2010) - Homage Comics - Cliffhanger - America's Best Comics (1999-2010) - - Helix (1996-1998) - Tangent Comics (1997-2008) - Paradox Press (1993-2001) - Piranha Press (1989-1994) - Humanoids (2004) - 2000AD (Reprints from Rebellion's 2000 AD line) - Milestone (Owned by Milestone Media) - Impact! - Focus - Minx (2007-2008) - Zuda (2007-2010) - -*the imprint was founded in 1992 but as part of the Image conglomerate and only moved to DC in 1999. - -Other media -Over the years, DC Comics' parent company Warner Bros. (with a few exceptions) has produced a variety of feature films based on DC Comics properties for cinematic release, including TV shows, action figures, and video games which have made them even more popular. - -References - - -Comic books -1934 establishments in the United States -is:DC Comics" -10960,39447,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm%20Fraser,Malcolm Fraser,"John Malcolm Fraser AC, CH, GCL, PC (21 May 1930 – 20 March 2015) was an Australian politician. He served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Australia from 11 November 1975 through 11 November 1983. He was also leader of the Liberal Party from 1975 to 1983. - -Before being prime minister, Fraser was a member of the Australian Parliament from 1955 through 1983. He served as Minister of Defence from 1966 to 1968 and again from 1969 to 1971 and Minister for Education and Science from 1968 to 1969 and again from 1971 to 1972. - -Early life -Fraser was born in Toorak, Victoria. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford. He married Tamie Beggs in 1956. - -Prime Minister (1975-1983) -As leader of the Liberal Party, he became Prime Minister in November, 1975 when Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Gough Whitlam. At this point he was only temporary Prime Minister. He won the election held in December, 1975. He won two more elections in 1977 and 1980 before losing to Bob Hawke in 1983. Fraser married Tamara (Tamie) Beggs in 1956 and the couple have remained married ever since. - -His government stopped some of the changes made by the Whitlam government. They also reduced government spending to stop money becoming less valuable. He also supported efforts to abolish racism in South Africa, the boycott of the Moscow Olympics and more immigration from Asian countries. - -He has criticised the prime ministership of John Howard who had been his Treasurer from 1977 to 1983. - -Death -On 20 March 2015, his office announced that Fraser had died in the early hours of the morning, noting that he had suffered a brief illness in Melbourne, Victoria, aged 84. - -More reading - Ayres, Philip (1987), Malcolm Fraser, a Biography, Heinemann, Richmond, Victoria. - Kelly, Paul (2000), Malcolm Fraser, in Michelle Grattan (ed.), Australian Prime Ministers, New Holland, Sydney, New South Wales. - Kerr, John (1978), Matters for Judgment. An Autobiography, Macmillan, South Melbourne, Victoria. - Lopez, Mark (2000),The Origins of Multiculturalism in Australian Politics 1945–1975, Melbourne University Press, Carlton South, Victoria. - -References - -Other websites - -Malcolm Fraser– Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia -Australian Biography– Malcolm Fraser An extensive 1994 interview with Fraser - -The Malcolm Fraser Collection at the University of Melbourne Archives - Malcolm Fraser at the National Film and Sound Archive - -Calvinists -Companions of Honour -Disease-related deaths in Victoria (Australia) -Government ministers of Australia -Leaders of the Opposition (Australia) -Liberal Party of Australia politicians -Politicians from Melbourne -Prime Ministers of Australia -Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom -Republicans -1930 births -2015 deaths -Companions of the Order of Australia" -18415,69099,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/College%20of%20Arms,College of Arms,"The College of Arms, in London is one of the few remaining government heraldic authorities in Europe. It was founded in 1484 by King Richard III, and its job is to control heraldry and grant new armorial bearings, sometime called coats of arms. - -The college is run by the Kings of Arms, heralds and pursuivants who handle heraldic affairs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland on behalf of the Queen. (Scotland has its own heraldic authority: Lord Lyon King of Arms and his office.) - -The college also grants arms to citizens of other Commonwealth countries that do not have their own heralds. (Canadians use Canadian Heraldic Authority and South Africans have the Bureau of Heraldry) - -As well as designing and granting new arms, the College tries to answer many requests from people trying to prove that they are descended from an armigerous (arms-bearing) person; a person descended in the male line (or through heraldic heiresses) from an armiger may be reissued that ancestor's arms. Special marks called difference marks can be added make the coat of arms different from the arms of their cousins. The college is involved in genealogy and have many pedigrees (family trees) in their records. Anyone may register a pedigree with the college, where they are carefully checked and need official proofs before being altered. - -Heralds were originally messengers. Officers of the College of Arms still sometimes read Royal proclamations in public, for example at the accession of a new sovereign. - -They also help plan state ceremonies, such as coronations, the introduction of new peers into the House of Lords, and the ceremonies of orders of chivalry. - -For these public appearances, the officers of the college wear costume showing their place in the Royal Household, either simple red livery or the herald's traditional colourful outfit of a tabard emblazoned with his master's arms (in this case the royal arms). - -The College of Arms is on Queen Victoria Street in the City of London, not far to the south of St. Paul's Cathedral. The site was given to the college when it was re-formed by Philip and Mary I in 1555, and the present 17th century building dates from after the Great Fire of London in 1666. - -The College of Arms was featured in the 1969 James Bond movie On Her Majesty's Secret Service where James Bond visits his friend Sir Hillary Bray who permits Bond to impersonate him so he can spy on Blofeld's base. Bray gives Bond information on Blofeld's ancestor Count Balthazzar de Bleuchamp. Bond is shown his own coat of arms with the family motto: ""the world is not enough"" (this was used for the title of the 19th Bond movie The World Is Not Enough). - -The officers - -The Earl Marshal, a hereditary office held by the Duke of Norfolk, oversees the College, but he is not a member. He must give his written consent, called a warrant, before any new coat of arms can be issued. The Earl Marshal's court (called the Court of Chivalry) can hear cases about using coats arms, but the court has not sat since 1954. Usually the Earl Marshal usually leaves affairs to the professional heralds of the College. - -There are, three levels of officers of arms: Kings of Arms, Heralds, and Pursuivants. The officers of arms occupy posts bearing traditional titles: - Kings of Arms: - Garter Principal King of Arms, the senior King of Arms (his title mentions the Order of the Garter) - Clarenceux King of Arms, whose ""province"" is the part of England south of the River Trent - Norroy and Ulster King of Arms, whose ""province"" is the part of England north of the River Trent (Norroy) and Northern Ireland (Ulster) - Heralds, whose titles are mention places or peerage titles historically associated with the monarchy: - Chester Herald of Arms in Ordinary - Lancaster Herald of Arms in Ordinary - Richmond Herald of Arms in Ordinary - Somerset Herald of Arms in Ordinary - Windsor Herald of Arms in Ordinary - York Herald of Arms in Ordinary - Pursuivants, whose titles are various heraldic badges associated with the monarchy: - Bluemantle Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary - Portcullis Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary - Rouge Croix Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary - Rouge Dragon Pursuivant of Arms in Ordinary - -The officers of arms earn money from their own private practices in heraldry and genealogy. They get only nominal salaries as officers of the College. These salaries were set centuries ago and reflect the living costs of the day. William IV reduced them to the old level in the 1830s. The amounts are listed below, and is not taxed: - £49.07 a year for the Garter Principal King of Arms, - £20.25 a year for the other ""provincial"" Kings of Arms, - £17.80 a year for the Heralds, and - £13.95 a year for the Pursuivants. - -Any letters, telephone calls or visitors to the college not for a specific officer of arms are seen by the ""officer in waiting"". All members of the college serve as officer in waiting on rotation. - -""Heralds Extraordinary"" are appointed to take part in special ceremonial occasions or to help the Earl Marshal personally; they are not members of the college. Among the extraordinary heralds have been — - Arundel Herald of Arms Extraordinary - Beaumont Herald of Arms Extraordinary - Maltravers Herald of Arms Extraordinary - Norfolk Herald of Arms Extraordinary - Surrey Herald of Arms Extraordinary - Fitzalan Pursuivant of Arms Extraordinary -These are all names related to the Earl Marshal and - Wales Herald of Arms Extraordinary - -The New Zealand Herald Extraordinary is not a member of the college but it is a permanent post created to oversee heraldry in New Zealand; he works together with the college to grant new arms for people and bodies in that country (where he himself lives and works). - -Grants and descent of arms -The Kings of Arms grant coats of arms by letters patent. Before they can even consider the granting of arms, an application, (called a memorial) must be made to the Earl Marshal, and a fee paid. - -The Kings of Arms are authorised in their ""patents of appointment"" (the letter giving them their job) to grant coats of arms to ""eminent men"". Originally this meant someone who was rich or had social status. By 1530, the heralds wanted successful candidates for a grant of arms to have £300 or rent from land of £10 a year. Since the heralds get fees for granting arms, they have always been generous when deciding who should be allowed a coat of arms. In 1616, Ralphe Brooke, York Herald, tricked the Garter King of Arms into granting a coat of arms to the common hangman for a fee of 22 shillings (£1-20p). - -This is why the Earl Marshal's permission to grant a coat of arms is needed. - the Earl Marshal acts for the Queen to approve candidates for coats of arms. - the Kings of Arms act for the Queen to grant coats of arms. - -There are no fixed rules about granting modern coats of arms. If a herald is approached and does not consider that the application has merit, he may tactfully suggest to the applicant that he or she should not proceed. If it does proceed, its success or otherwise will depend on the approval of the Earl Marshal, who may apply his own standards. Peter Gwynn-Jones has recently written that - -The coat of arms, or a differenced version of them using marks of cadency, can be used by all of the legitimate children of an individual and such children and their descendants may bear the arms (or a differenced version of them) from the moment of birth: they do not have to wait for the death of the previous generation. The College of Arms does not need to approve the use of the arms in each generation: the original grant of arms is the only authority required. Although daughters and sons inherit the right to bear arms for themselves personally, the right passes only through the male line: hence, a son transmits the arms to his children, but a daughter, can use them herself, but her children cannot. A partial exception to this rule is the case of a woman who has no brothers, or whose brothers have no children; such a woman is called a heraldic heiress and may transmit the arms to her children as a quartering with their father's arms, and to their descendents. - -The costs involved are quite substantial. The applicant does not buy a coat of arms: the arms themselves are freely given, but fees must be paid to the heralds and artists involved as professionals, and to support the buildings and other running costs of the College. Aside from the heralds' traditional nominal salaries, given above, the College of Arms is not financed by the taxpayer. - -Name changes -The College of Arms is also responsible for recording the changes of names. In order to change one's name, one must apply for a deed poll to be entered on the College's registers and published in the London Gazette. - -When a Royal Licence is granted for a transfer of arms, the change of the surname may be permitted by the Licence itself, so there is no need of a deed poll. - -Related pages - Officer of Arms - -References - Gwynn-Jones, P. Ll. (1998) The Art of Heraldry : origins, symbols, designs, London : Parkgate, - -Other websites - The College of Arms - -Heraldry -1484 establishments -British monarchy -15th-century establishments in England" -10852,39027,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text,Text,"Text may mean: - -Writing - a piece of writing - Textual criticism, the study of changes in books or manuscripts. -Text message - -Books - a book, a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers. - a textbook, a book used for the study of a subject. People use a textbook to learn facts and methods about a certain subject. - Subtext - e-text or e-book - -Unit Of Study - hermeneutics - philology, the study of language in historical writings - literary theory, anything with a semiotic component - cultural studies, the unit of discourse - -Computing - character (computing) or string data, as opposed to binary data - a text segment of a program in memory - Plaintext, the information which the sender want to transmit to the receiver(s) - Text-based, comprised of characters - Boilerplate text - -Other - TEXT, an avant-garde band - -Related pages - Letter" -3989,12329,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf,Wolf,"The wolf (Canis lupus) is a mammal of the order Carnivora. It is sometimes called timber wolf or grey wolf. - -It is the ancestor of the domestic dog. A recent study found that the domestic dog is descended from wolves tamed less than 16,300 years ago south of the Yangtze River in China. - -There are many different wolf subspecies, such as the Arctic wolf. Some subspecies are listed on the endangered species list, but overall, Canis lupus is IUCN graded as 'least concern'. - -Appearance -Adult wolves are usually in length from nose to tail depending on the subspecies. Wolves living in the far north tend to be larger than those living further south. As adults they may weigh typically between . The heaviest wolf recorded weighed . - -The wolf has a long muzzle, short ears, long legs, and a long bushy tail. - -Wolves usually measure at the shoulder. Wolves have fur made up of two layers. The top layer is resistant to dirt, and the under-layer is water resistant. The color of their fur can be any combination of grey, white, taupe, brown, and black. - -Life -Wolves live in groups called ""packs"". They are pack hunters. The members of the pack are usually family members, often just the parents and offspring. Wolves that are not family may join if they do not have a pack of their own. Packs are usually up to 12 wolves, but they can be as small as two or as large as 25. The leaders are called the parent (breeding) male and the parent (breeding) female. Their territory is marked by scent and howling; they will fight any intruders. Young wolves are called 'pups' or 'whelps'. Adult females usually give birth to five or six pups in a litter. - -Wolves make a noise called a howl. They howl to communicate with each other from long distances and to mark the edges of their territory. Wolves have a complicated body language. - -Wolves can run very fast and far. A wolf can run in a day. - -Grey wolves can live six to eight years in the wild. They can live in captivity for up to 17 years. - -Diet -Wolves are carnivores and eat mostly medium to large size hoofed animals (unguligrades), but they will also eat rodents, insectivores and foxes. Some wolves have been seen eating salmon, seals, beached whales, lizards, snakes and birds. They also eat moose, bison, deer and other large animals. -Wolves usually stalk old or sick animals, but they do not always catch what they stalk. They may go days without food. Sometimes only one out of twelve hunts are successful. But the way they eat stays the same. The alpha male and female feed first. Then the other members feed. Sometimes (especially if the prey they have killed is large) wolves may store food and come back that day to feed on it. Wolves have very sharp teeth which helps them tear large chunks of meat from a dead animal. They will eat up to 2/7 their body weight. Wolves will also swallow food and then bring it back up for pups to eat. - -Habitat - -Wolves are found in Europe, Asia and North America. They can live in forests, deserts, mountains, tundra, grasslands and sometimes around towns and cities. - -Arctic wolf -The Arctic wolf may be a subspecies of the grey wolf. They live in the Canadian part of the Arctic Circle, as well as Greenland and Iceland. - -The habitat of Arctic wolves is very hostile. Not much is known about their lifestyle. They are more friendly than other wolves, but they can still be very aggressive. - -Their winter fur is highly resistant to the cold. Wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail. Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur, and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it. Since about 1930, the skull of many Arctic wolves has become smaller. This might be because of hybridization between wolves and dogs. They are tall when they're adults. Adult arctic wolves weigh about . Arctic wolves live in a group of 7-20 wolves. They may live up to 5–10 years in the wild. They can live for 14 years if they are well cared for in a zoo. - -Wolves and humans -Even though many people think that wolves are terrible, mean creatures, they are actually much gentler than many people imagine. The main reason wolves become violent is because they may be sick or to protect other wolves in the pack. Many people around the world, especially in Canada and Alaska, have huskies for pets: they are a close relative of the wolf. - -A few years ago wolves were put back into Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming to breed, because they were becoming endangered. The wolves have been very successful in the park. There had been no wolves there for a long time, because of hunting and poisoned water. Many people were not happy about this because they were afraid that the wolves would eat the sheep and cows near the park. However, wolves only eat livestock when they can not find wild prey. - -Extinction in Britain -Wolves in Britain were all killed after centuries of hunting. The last wolves survived in the Scottish Highlands. There is a legend that the last one was killed there in 1743 by a character called MacQueen. - -Within the past ten years, there have been studies that are in favour of allowing new wolves to come and live in the English countryside and Scottish Highlands again. One study was in 2007. Researchers from Norway, Britain, and Imperial College London decided that wolves would help add back plants and birds that now are eaten by deer. The wolves would keep the deer population lower. People were generally positive, but farmers living in rural areas wanted to be paid for livestock that were killed by the wolves. - -In popular culture -Many folktales such as Little Red Riding Hood and Three Little Pigs have wolves in them. -Minecraft has wolves which can be tamed. - -References - -Other websites - -Wolves -Mammals of North America" -89,168,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet,Comet,"A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as ""dirty snowballs"". They are very different from asteroids. The orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night. - -They have long ""tails"", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind. -The hard centre of the comet is the nucleus. It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us. - -Periodic comets visit again and again. Non-periodic or single-apparition comets visit only once. - -Comets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object. - -Famous comets - -Halley's -Hale-Bopp -Shoemaker-Levy 9 -Ikeya seki - -History of comets -For thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon. - -Edmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him. - -Isaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. - -In later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter. - -All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space. - -In modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them. - -Related pages -List of comets - -Other websites -Are Comets Made of Antimatter?" -14967,56405,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%20current,Direct current,"Direct current (DC or ""continuous current"") is the flow of electricity in a single direction, from the negative to the positive terminals (potential, poles). - -The direct current always flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from the alternating current (AC). Direct current used to be called ""Galvanic current"". - -Batteries are some of the main sources of direct current (DC), but many other sources also exist such as bridge rectifiers in power supply, solar panels, etc. - -Typically, the current goes through a conductor and other things that can carry DC. DC is also sent through a vacuum as in electron beams or ion beams. - -The first commercial electric power transmission was developed by Thomas Edison in the late nineteenth century using direct current. Today nearly all electric power distribution uses alternating current because of the advantages with transformers and transmission. High-voltage direct current is often used for transporting electricity to places far away. - -For applications requiring direct current, the alternating current is typically distributed to a substation and then converted to direct current. - -Long after the usage of direct current had been established, physicists realized that the current was made of negative electric charges, the electrons, and that the actual flow was from the negative to the positive pole (and so-called ""holes"" flow in the opposite direction), but by convention, the usage of the term was never changed. - -Related pages - Electric current - Alternating current - Railway electrification system - -Other websites - AC/DC: What's the Difference?. Edison's Miracle of Light, American Experience. (PBS) - -Electricity" -9632,32852,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undernet,Undernet,"Undernet is an Internet Relay Chat network that was made in 1992. It has many channels, but there are few limits to what kind of channels can be made. - -Internet Relay Chat" -23335,89537,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detention,Detention,"A detention can be: - - Detention (2003 movie) - Detention (school), a punishment used in schools -Detention (Cold Case Episode), Episode 58 (Series 3 Episode 12) of CBS TV Drama Cold Case. - Detention (band), a band from New Jersey - Detention basin, an artificial flow control structure that is used to contain flood water for a limited period of a time - Detention (TV series) - Detention (imprisonment), imprisonment of somebody guilty or suspected of a crime - Immigration detention, imprisonment of unauthorised person entering a country" -2098,7177,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948,1948," - -Events - January 1 – Nationalisation of UK railways to form British Railways. Arab militants lay siege to the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. First day of the Italian republican constitution. - January 4 – Burma gains its independence from the United Kingdom. - January 5 – Warner Brothers shows the first color newsreel (Tournament of Roses Parade and the Rose Bowl). - January 17 – Truce between nationalist Indonesian and Dutch troops in Java - January 26 – Teigin poison case – Man masquerading as a doctor poisons 12 out of 15 bank employees of the Tokyo branch of Imperial Bank and takes the money; artist Sadamichi Hirasawa is later sentenced for the crime. - January 30 – Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is murdered by a Hindu extremist. - January 30 – 1948 Winter Olympics open in St. Moritz, Switzerland. - February 1 – Soviet Union begins to jam Voice of America broadcasts. - February 4 – Ceylon (later renamed Sri Lanka) becomes independent within the British Commonwealth. King George VI becomes King of Ceylon. - February 18 – Éamon de Valera, head of government since 1932, loses power to an opposition coalition. John A. Costello is appointed Taoiseach of Éire (formerly called the Irish Free State) by President O'Kelly. - February 24 – The Communist Party seizes control of Czechoslovakia. - Works begins on the Crazy Horse Memorial. - May 13 – First Kashmir War between India and Pakistan - April-May – Israel's independence day. - -Births - January 9 - Asztalos Lajos, Hungarian politician and priest - January 14 – Carl Weathers, actor - January 14 – T-Bone Burnett, producer, musician - January 16 – John Carpenter, director - January 24 – Elliot Abrams, deputy national security adviser - February 5 – Barbara Hershey, actress - February 19 - Tony Iommi, English guitarist (Black Sabbath) - February 20 – Jennifer O'Neill, actress - March 6 - Stephen Schwartz, American lyricist - March 12 - James Taylor, American folk guitarist - March 22 – Andrew Lloyd Webber - March 26 - Fodor Cseh, Hungarian politician and Shepherds - March 26 - Steven Tyler, American singer (Aerosmith) - May 5 - Bill Ward, English drummer (Black Sabbath) - May 12 – Ivan Kral, Czech-American musician - May 13 – Leon Coetzee, loverboy and attorney - May 26 - Stevie Nicks, American singer (Fleetwood Mac) - May 31 - John Bonham, English drummer (Led Zeppelin) (d. 1980) - June 22 – Todd Rundgren, singer, songwriter, producer - July 4 - Jeremy Spencer, English guitarist (Fleetwood Mac) - July 8 - Raffi, Canadian children’s musician - July 21 - Cat Stevens, English folk musician - July 23 - John Hall, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans) - July 30 – Jean Reno, actor - August 5 - David Hungate, American bass guitarist (Toto) - August 6 - Alan Howarth, American sound designer - August 20 - Robert Plant, English singer (Led Zeppelin) - August 30 – Victor Skumin, professor, philosopher, writer. - September 20 - Chuck Panozzo, American bass guitarist (Styx) - September 20 - John Panozzo, American drummer (Styx) (d. 1996) - September 26 - Olivia Newton-John, Australian entertainer - September 29 – Theo Jörgensmann, German jazz clarinet player - October 9 – Jackson Browne, songwriter - October 17 – Margot Kidder, Canadian actress - October 25 – Diana Burrell, English composer - November 6 - Glenn Frey, American singer-songwriter and musician (Eagles) (d. 2016) - November 28 – Agnieszka Holland, Polish director and script writer - December 3 – Ozzy Osbourne, singer/songwriter (Black Sabbath) - December 10 - Abu Abbas, terrorist - December 22 - Rick Nielsen, American guitarist (Cheap Trick) - December 27 – Gérard Depardieu, French actor - -Deaths - January 21 – Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, composer - January 30 – Mohandas Gandhi, Leader of Indian Non-Violent Independence movement (assassinated) - January 30 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers, co-inventor of the airplane - February 2 – Bevil Rudd, South African athlete - February 11 – Sergey Eisenstein, movie director - March 6 – Ross Lockridge, Jr., novelist - March 10 – Zelda Fitzgerald (Mrs. F. Scott Fitzgerald) - March 10 – Jan Masaryk, Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia - March 31 – Egon Erwin Kisch, journalist and writer - April 9 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian politician (b. 1903) - April 17 – Suzuki Kantaro, Japanese admiral and prime minister - May 15 – Father Edward J. Flanagan, priest, founder of Boys Town - May 28 – Unity Mitford, British friend of Hitler - June 25 – William C. Lee, Maj, General United States Army (b. 1895) - July 23 – David Wark Griffith, movie director - August 12 – Harry Brearley, inventor of stainless steel - August 16 – Babe Ruth, Baseball Hall of Famer - September 11 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, first Governor-General and founder of Pakistan. - October 24 – Franz Lehár, composer - November 28 – D.D. Sheehan first independent Labour MP. in Ireland - December 23 – Kenji Doihara, Koki Hirota, Seishiro Itagaki, Heitarō Kimura, Iwane Matsui, Akira Mutō, and Hideki Tōjō, Japanese war leaders (hanged) - December 31 – Sir Malcolm Campbell, land and water racer (b. 1885) - -Movies Released - Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein - Scott of the Antarctic - -New Books - Ape and Essence – Aldous Huxley - Catalina – W. Somerset Maugham - Concluding – Henry Green - Cry, the Beloved Country – Alan Paton - The Foundling – Georgette Heyer - The Golden Warrior – Hope Muntz - Guard of Honor – James Gould Cozzens - The Heart of the Matter – Graham Greene - The Hearth and the Eagle – Anya Seton - The House of Sleep – Anna Kavan - Ides of March – Thornton Wilder - John Aubrey and His Friends – Anthony Powell - Joseph and His Brothers – Thomas Mann - Last Of The Conquerors – William Gardner Smith - The Living Is Easy – Dorothy West - The Mask of Circe – C. L. Moore - Melissa (novel) – Taylor Caldwell - My Glorious Brothers – Howard Fast - The Naked and the Dead – Norman Mailer - Parris Mitchell of King's Row – Henry Bellamann - Raintree County – Ross Lockridge, Jr. - Seraph On The Sewanee – Zora Neale Hurston - Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose – Dr. Seuss - The Twenty-One Balloons – William Pène du Bois - The White Goddess – Robert Graves - The World is Not Enough – Zoe B. Oldenbourg - The Young Lions – Irwin Shaw - -Hit Songs - ""Buttons and Bows"" – Dinah Shore - ""Confess"" – Doris Day & Buddy Clark - ""Confess"" – Patti Page (the first multi-tracked song) - ""Deck Of Cards"" – Phil Harris - ""Don't Have To Tell Nobody"" – Frankie Laine - ""Gloria"" – The Mills Brothers - ""I Love You So Much (It Hurts Me)"" – The Mills Brothers - ""I'm Looking Over a Four-Leaf Clover"" – Frankie Laine - ""I'm Looking Over a Four-Leaf Clover"" – Art Mooney - ""I'm My Own Grandpa"" – Guy Lombardo & The Guy Lombardo Trio - ""Is It True What They Say About Dixie"" – Al Jolson & The Mills Brothers - ""It's Magic"" – Doris Day - ""Little White Lies"" – Dick Haymes & The Four Hits And A Miss - ""Love Somebody"" – Doris Day & Buddy Clark - ""Mañana"" – Peggy Lee - ""Monday Again"" – Frankie Laine - ""My Happiness"" – The Pied Pipers - ""My Happiness"" – Jon and Sondra Steele - ""Nature Boy"" – Nat King Cole - ""Nature Boy"" – Sarah Vaughan - ""On A Slow Boat To China"" – Kay Kyser, Harry Babbitt & Gloria Wood - ""Red River Valley"" – Jo Stafford - ""Red Roses For A Blue Lady"" – Vaughn Monroe - ""Rosetta"" – Frankie Laine - ""So Tired"" – Russ Morgan - ""Someday You'll Want Me To Want You"" – Vaughn Monroe - ""The Things We Did Last Summer"" – Georgia Gibbs - ""A Tree In the Meadow"" – Margaret Whiting - ""Twelfth Street Rag"" – Pee Wee Hunt - ""Underneath the Arches"" – Andrews Sisters - ""What Could Be Sweeter"" – Frankie Laine - ""Wrap Your Troubles In Dreams"" – Georgia Gibbs - ""Woody Woodpecker"" – Kay Kyser - ""You Call Everybody Darlin'"" – Al Trace - ""You Can't Be True, Dear"" – Ken Griffin" -3237,9926,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/November%205,November 5," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1138 - Ly Anh Tong becomes Emperor of Vietnam at the age of two years, starting a 37-year reign. - 1530 - The St. Felix's Flood destroys the city of Reimerswaal in the Netherlands. - 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the English Parliament fails. Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators are arrested, ending the plot led by Robert Catesby. - 1688 – Glorious Revolution begins: William of Orange lands at Brixham. James II of England is prevented from meeting him in battle because many of his officers and men desert to the other side. - 1743 - Coordinated scientific observations of the planet Mercury are organised by Joseph-Nicolas Delisle. - 1757 - Seven Years' War: Frederick the Great defeats the allied armies of France and the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Rossbach. - 1811 - Priest José Matías Delgado begins El Salvador's 1811 independence campaign. - 1831 - Nat Turner, American slave rebellion leader, is tried, convicted and sentenced to death in Virginia. - 1838 - The Federal Republic of Central America begins to dissolve when Nicaragua breaks away. - 1844 - James K. Polk is elected President of the United States. - 1854 - Crimean War: The Battle of Inkerman takes place. - 1862 - American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln removes George B. McClellan as commander of the Union army for the second, and final, time. - 1872 – Susan B. Anthony defies the ban on female suffrage (voting), by voting in the United States Presidential election; In the election, Ulysses S. Grant is elected to a second term. - 1895 - George B. Selden is granted the first US patent for an automobile. - -1901 2000 - 1911 - After declaring war on the Ottoman Empire on September 29, Italy takes control of Tripoli and Cyrenaica in present-day Libya. - 1912 – Woodrow Wilson is elected President of the United States. William Taft, in finishing third (behind Theodore Roosevelt running for the Progressive Party), scores the worst-ever result of a US President seeking re-election. - 1913 - Otto of Bavaria is deposed by his cousin, the Prince-Regent, who becomes Ludwig III of Bavaria. - 1914 - World War I: France and the British Empire declare war on the Ottoman Empire. - 1916 – The Kingdom of Poland is proclaimed. - 1917 – The provisional government of Estonia is overthrown, in the run-up to the October Revolution in Russia, which is so named because of the Julian Calendar in use in Russia at the time. - 1940 – Franklin D. Roosevelt is elected to serve a record third term as President of the United States. - 1942 – World War II: The United Kingdom wins the Second Battle of El Alamein in Egypt. - 1943 - World War II: Bombing of the Vatican. - 1945 – Colombia joins the UN. - 1967 – A train crash at Hither Green, in Southeast London, kills 49 people. - 1968 – Richard Nixon is elected President of the United States, over Hubert H. Humphrey. - 1970 - Vietnam War: The US Military Assistance command in Vietnam reports the lowest weekly American soldier death toll in five years, at 24. - 1982 - The Itaipu Dam is opened on the border between Brazil and Paraguay. São Paulo is among the places that it supplies electricity to. - 1987 – Anti-Apartheid activist Govan Mbeki is released after 24 years in prison. - 1990 – Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the far-right Kach movement, is shot dead after giving a speech in a New York City hotel. - 1994 – President Ronald Reagan announces that he has Alzheimer's disease in order to raise public awareness of the disease. - 1994 - George Foreman wins the Heavyweight World Boxing Title, 20 years after his win in the Rumble in the Jungle in 1974. - 1995 - André Dallaire attempts to kill Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien. - 1996 – Sardar Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari dismisses Benazir Bhutto's government, and dissolves Pakistan's National Assembly. - 1996 – Flooding is caused in thinly-inhabited parts of Iceland, after the volcano under the Grimsvotn ice cap erupts. - 1996 – Bill Clinton is elected to serve a second term as President of the United States, defeating Senator Bob Dole. - -From 2001 - 2003 - Green River Killer Gary Ridgway pleaded guilty to 48 counts of murder. - 2006 – Saddam Hussein is found guilty of crimes against humanity. He is sentenced to death. - 2007 - China's first lunar satellite, Chang'e 1, goes into orbit around the Moon. - 2009 – United States Army Major Nidal Malik Hasan goes on a shooting rampage, killing 13, and wounding 30 people at Fort Hood, Texas. It is the worst mass shooting ever to take place at a US military base. - 2013 - The Indian Mars Orbiter Mission (Magalyaan) is successfully launched by the ISRO. - 2013 - US Elections: Democrat Bill de Blasio is elected Mayor of New York City over Joseph Lhota; Democrat Terry McAuliffe is elected Governor of Virginia over Ken Cuccinelli; Republican Chris Christie is re-elected Governor of New Jersey over Barbara Buono. - 2017 - Sutherland Springs church shooting: 26 people are killed in a shooting in at a Baptist church in Sutherland Springs, Texas. - 2017 - Paradise Papers: The Süddeutsche Zeitung publishes 13.4 million documents leaked from offshore firm Appleby, revealing business dealings (including controversial tax arrangements) of celebrities, politicians (and their close associates), major companies and business leaders. The documents are shared with the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. - -Births - -Up to 1800 - 1271 – Mahmud Ghazan, Mongol ruler (d. 1304) - 1494 – Hans Sachs, German meistersinger (d. 1576) - 1549 - Philippe de Mornay, French writer (d. 1623) - 1592 - Charles Chauncy, English-born President of Harvard College (d. 1672) - 1607 - Anna Maria von Schurman, Dutch-German polymath (d. 1678) - 1613 - Isaac de Benserade, French poet (d. 1691) - 1615 – Ibrahim I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1648) - 1666 - Attilio Ariosti, Italian composer (d. 1729) - 1667 - Christoph Ludwig Agricola, German painter (d. 1719) - 1701 - Pietro Longhi, Venetian painter (d. 1785) - 1705 - Louis-Gabriel Guillemain, French composer and violinist (d. 1770) - 1739 - Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglington, Scottish peer, composer and politician (d. 1819) - 1754 - Alejandro Malaspina, Italian-Spanish admiral and nobleman (d. 1809) - 1779 - Washington Allston, American painter and writer (d. 1843) - 1787 - John Richardson, Scottish naval surgeon, naturalist and Arctic explorer (d. 1865) - -1801 1900 - 1810 - Alphonso Taft, United States Attorney General, father of William Howard Taft (d. 1891) - 1818 - Benjamin Franklin Butler, 33rd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1893) - 1851 – Charles Dupuy, Prime Minister of France (d. 1923) - 1854 – Paul Sabatier, French chemist (d. 1941) - 1855 - Léon Teisserenc de Bort, French meteorologist (d. 1913) - 1855 - Eugene V. Debs, American socialist leader (d. 1926) - 1857 – Ida Tarbell, American journalist (d. 1944) - 1864 - Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh, English-Scottish artist and designer (d. 1933) - 1870 - Chittaranjan Das, Indian politician (d. 1925) - 1873 - Edwin Flack, Australian tennis player (d. 1935) - 1878 - Kuzma Petrov-Vadkin, Russian painter (d. 1939) - 1885 – Will Durant, American historian (d. 1981) - 1887 – Paul Wittgenstein, Austrian pianist (d. 1961) - 1889 - Andrejs Kapmals, Latvian runner (d. 1994) - 1890 - Jan Zrzavy, Czech painter (d. 1977) - 1891 - Greasy Neale, American football coach and baseball player (d. 1973) - 1892 - John Alcock, British pilot (d. 1919) - 1892 - J. B. S. Haldane, Scottish geneticist (d. 1964) - 1893 - Raymond Loewy, French-American industrial designer (d. 1986) - 1895 – Walter Gieseking, German pianist (d. 1956) - 1900 - Martin Dies, Jr., American politician (d. 1972) - -1901 1950 - 1904 - Alfredo Brilhante da Costa, Brazilian footballer (d. 1980) - 1905 – John Whedon, American screenwriter (d. 1991) - 1906 – Fred Whipple, American astronomer (d. 2004) - 1911 - Marie Osborne, American actress (d. 2010) - 1911 – Roy Rogers, American actor (d. 1998) - 1913 – Vivien Leigh, English actress (d. 1967) - 1914 - Emmanuel Nsubuga, Archbishop of Kampala (d. 1991) - 1916 - Willoughby Gray, English actor (d. 1993) - 1917 – Jacqueline Auriol, French pilot (d. 2000) - 1917 - Banarsi Das Gupta, Indian politician, 4th Chief Minister of Haryana (d. 2007) - 1920 – Douglass North, American economist (d. 2015) - 1920 - John H. Land, American politician, Mayor of Apopka, Florida (d. 2014) - 1921 - Georges Cziffra, Hungarian pianist (d. 2004) - 1921 - Princess Fawzia Fuad of Egypt, Queen of Iran (d. 2013) - 1922 - Cecil H. Underwood, 25th Governor of West Virginia (d. 2008) - 1923 – Rudolf Augstein, German publisher (Der Spiegel magazine) (d. 2002) - 1926 - John Berger, English art critic, novelist, painter and poet (d. 2017) - 1929 - Lennart Johansson, Swedish football official, former UEFA President - 1930 - Clifford Irving, American author (d. 2017) - 1930 - Hans Mommsen, German historian (d. 2015) - 1931 – Charles Taylor, Canadian philosopher - 1931 – Ike Turner, American musician (d. 2007) - 1931 - Geoffrey Bolton, Australian historian (d. 2015) - 1934 - Victor Argo, American actor (d. 2004) - 1935 – Lester Piggott, British jockey - 1936 – Uwe Seeler, German footballer - 1938 – Joe Dassin, American singer (d. 1980) - 1938 – César Luis Menotti, Argentine footballer - 1938 - Jim Steranko, American graphic artist - 1939 - Lobsang Tenzin, 5th Prime Minister of the Tibetan government-in-exile - 1940 – Anthony Rolfe Johnson, British tenor (d. 2010) - 1940 – Elke Sommer, German actress - 1940 – Ted Kulongoski, American politician and former Governor of Oregon - 1941 – Art Garfunkel, American musician - 1941 - Yoshiyuki Tomino, Japanese animator, director and screenwriter - 1942 - Pierangelo Bertoli, Italian singer-songwriter (d. 2002) - 1943 – Sam Shepard, American actor, writer and playwright (d. 2017) - 1946 - Gram Parsons, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1973) - 1947 - Peter Noone, British singer - 1947 - Franco Trappoli, Italian politician - 1948 – Bob Barr, American politician - 1948 – William Daniel Phillips, American physicist - 1948 - Bernard-Henri Lévy, French writer - 1950 – Thorbjorn Jagland, Norwegian politician - -1951 1975 - 1951 - Tony Evers, American politician, elected 66th Governor of Wisconsin - 1952 – Oleg Blokhin, Ukrainian footballer - 1952 - Bill Walton, American basketball player - 1953 - Joyce Maynard, American author - 1954 - Alejandro Sabella, Argentine footballer and coach - 1954 - Jeffrey Sachs, American economist - 1955 - Bernard Chazelle, French computer scientist - 1955 - Kris Jenner, American television personality - 1957 - Kellen Winslow, American football player - 1957 - Jon-Erik Hexum, American model and actor (d. 1984) - 1958 - Don Falcone, American musician and producer - 1958 - Mo Gaffney, American actress and comedienne - 1958 - Robert Patrick, American actor - 1959 – Bryan Adams, Canadian singer and songwriter - 1960 – Tilda Swinton, British actress - 1961 - Alan G. Poindexter, American astronaut (d. 2012) - 1962 - Turid Birkeland, Norwegian politician (d. 2015) - 1963 - Hans Gillhaus, Dutch footballer - 1963 - Andrea McArdle, American actress - 1963 – Jean-Pierre Papin, French footballer - 1963 – Tatum O'Neal, American actress - 1964 – Abedi Pele, Ghanaian footballer - 1964 - Famke Janssen, Dutch actress, director, producer, screenwriter and model - 1966 - Georgia Apostolou, Greek actress - 1966 - Nayim, Spanish footballer - 1967 - Judy Reyes, American actress - 1968 - Sam Rockwell, American actor - 1969 - Pat Kilbane, American actor and comedian - 1970 – Tamzin Outhwaite, British actress - 1970 - Shaun Murphy, Irish-Australian footballer - 1971 - Chris Addison, English comedian - 1971 - Jonny Greenwood, English musician (Radiohead) - 1971 - Dana Jacobson, American sportscaster - 1971 - Sergei Berezin, Russian ice hockey player - 1973 – Alexei Yashin, Russian ice hockey player - 1973 - Johnny Damon, American baseball player - 1973 - Danniella Westbrook, British actress - 1974 – Ryan Adams, American singer - 1974 – Dado Prso, Croatian footballer - 1974 - Chris Sununu, American politician, 82nd Governor of New Hampshire - 1975 - Lisa Scott-Lee, Welsh singer-songwriter (Steps) - -From 1976 - 1976 - Claudia Llosa, Peruvian movie director - 1977 - Yonas Kifle, Eritrean runner - 1977 - Brittney Skye, American pornographic actress - 1978 - Bubba Watson, American golfer - 1978 - Xavier Tondo, Spanish cyclist (d. 2011) - 1979 - Keith McLeod, American basketball player - 1979 - David Suazo, Honduran footballer - 1979 - Michalis Hatzigiannis, Greek-Cypriot songwriter and singer - 1979 – Patrick Owomoyela, German footballer - 1980 – Christoph Metzelder, German footballer - 1980 - Eva González, Spanish model and beauty queen - 1980 - Andrei Korobeinik, Estonian computer programmer, businessman and politician - 1981 - Ksenia Sobchak, Russian television personality and politician - 1982 - Rob Swire, Australian singer, musician and record producer - 1983 - Alexa Chung, British television presenter and former fashion model - 1983 – Mike Hanke, German footballer - 1983 - Andrew Hayden-Smith, English actor - 1984 - Nikolay Zherdev, Ukrainian-Russian ice hockey player - 1986 – BoA, South Korean singer - 1986 – Kasper Schmeichel, Danish footballer - 1986 - Nodiko Tatishvili, Georgian singer - 1986 - Ian Mahinmi, American basketball player - 1987 - O. J. Mayo, American basketball player - 1987 – Kevin Jonas, American musician (The Jonas Brothers) - 1988 - Bailey Jay, American pornographic actress - 1988 - Virat Kohli, Indian cricketer - 1992 - Odell Beckham Jr., American football player - 1992 - Marco Verratti, Italian footballer - 1994 - AJ Pritchard, English dancer and choreographer - -Deaths - -Up to 1950 - 1370 – Casimir III the Great, King of Poland (b. 1310) - 1515 - Mariotto Albertinelli, Italian painter (b. 1476) - 1714 - Bernardino Ramazzani, Italian physician (b. 1633) - 1758 – Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (b. 1686) - 1807 – Angelica Kauffman, Swiss-Austrian painter (b. 1741) - 1828 – Maria Fyodorovna of Russia (b. 1759) - 1876 - Theodor von Heuglin, German explorer and ornithologist (b. 1824) - 1879 – James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831) - 1930 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist (b. 1858) - 1933 - Texas Guinan, American saloon keeper, actress and musician (b. 1884) - 1933 - Walther von Dyck, German mathematician (b. 1856) - 1937 - Hadji Ali, vaudeville performance artist (b. between 1887 and 1892) - 1942 - George M. Cohan, American musician, actor, writer and composer (b. 1878) - 1944 – Alexis Carrel, French surgeon, won the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1873) - -1951 2000 - 1955 – Maurice Utrillo, French artist (b. 1883) - 1956 – Art Tatum, American jazz musician (b. 1909) - 1960 – Johnny Horton, American country singer (b. 1925) - 1975 - Annette Kellerman, Australian swimmer (b. 1887) - 1975 – Edward Lawrie Tatum, American geneticist (b. 1909) - 1977 – René Goscinny, French comic book writer (b. 1926) - 1977 - Guy Lombardo, Canadian conductor (b. 1902) - 1979 - Al Capp, American cartoonist (b. 1909) - 1981 - Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa Lama, Tibetan religious figure (b. 1924) - 1985 - Spencer W. Kimball, American religious figure (b. 1895) - 1986 - Bobby Nunn, American singer (b. 1925) - 1987 - Eamonn Andrews, Irish radio and TV host (b. 1922) - 1989 – Vladimir Horowitz, Russian-born pianist (b. 1903) - 1990 – Meir Kahane, rabbi (b. 1932) - 1991 – Robert Maxwell, Slovakian-born media tycoon (b. 1923) - 1991 - Fred MacMurray, American actor (b. 1908) - 1992 - Adile Ayda, Turkish diplomat (b. 1912) - 1997 – Isaiah Berlin, Latvian philosopher and educator (b. 1909) - 2000 - Jimmie Davis, American country music singer and politician (b. 1899) - -From 2001 - 2001 - Gholam Reza Azhari, Prime Minister of Iran - 2002 - Billy Guy, American singer (b. 1925) - 2003 – Bob Hatfield, American singer (The Righteous Brothers) (b. 1940) - 2006 – Bülent Ecevit, Turkish politician (b. 1925) - 2006 – Pietro Rava, Italian footballer (b. 1916) - 2007 – Nils Liedholm, Swedish footballer (b. 1922) - 2010 – Jill Clayburgh, American actress (b. 1944) - 2010 - Shirley Verrett, American opera singer (b. 1931) - 2012 - Elliott Carter, American composer (b. 1908) - 2014 - Manitas de Plata, French flamenco guitarist (b. 1921) - 2014 - Lane Evans, American politician (b. 1951) - 2014 - Alexei Devotchenko, Russian actor and activist (b. 1965) - 2015 - Nora Brockstedt, Norwegian singer (b. 1923) - 2015 - George Barris, American automobile designer (b. 1925) - 2015 - Hans Mommsen, German historian (b. 1930) - 2015 - Czeslaw Kiszczak, former Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1925) - 2017 - Nancy Friday, American author (b. 1933) - 2017 - Devin Patrick Kelley, American mass shooter (b. 1991) - 2017 - Robert Knight, American singer (b. 1973) - 2017 - Dionatan Teixeira, Brazilian footballer (b. 1992) - 2017 - Mansour bin Muqrin, Saudi businessman and politician (b. 1973 - 2017 - Lothar Thoms, German track cyclist (b. 1956) - 2018 - Keith Christiansen, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1944) - 2018 - Héctor Ferrer, Puerto Rican politician (b. 1970) - 2019 - Omero Antonutti, Italian actor (b. 1935) - 2019 - Ernest J. Gaines, American author (b. 1933) - -Holidays - Guy Fawkes Night in Britain, Canada and New Zealand - -November 05" -21628,82438,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%20Formula%20One%20season,1970 Formula One season,"The 1970 Formula One season crowned as champion Jochen Rindt. - -Season review - -1970 Drivers Championship final standings - -Formula One seasons -1970 in sports" -9721,33161,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma,Magma,"Magma is the melted rock under the ground. - -There are different types of magma. One is called felsic magma. Felsic magma is thick and has silica minerals. It mostly makes light-coloured rocks. Another type is called mafic magma, which is runny and has less silica. It usually makes dark-coloured rocks. Magmas can be intermediate between both types. - -Magma may become solid by cooling slowly below the surface. This makes ""plutonic"" rocks such as granite. When magma comes out from the ground in a volcano it is called lava. Lava cools quickly, and forms other kinds of rock such as basalt. - -Magma is produced by melting of the Earth's mantle or the crust. It happens at tectonic settings, such as subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. - -Melted material from the mantle and crust moves up through the crust and collects in magma chambers. - -When they come up through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano and come out as lava. But they may solidify underground to form an intrusion. Intrusions eventually cool down and become igneous dikes or sills. - -The study of magma is usually done in lava flows. However, magma was found under the ground three times in geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland and once in Hawaii. - -References - -Other websites - -Volcanology" -9888,33829,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni%20Islam,Sunni Islam,"Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam. They are the branch of Islam that came through the Rashidun Empire, which started with Abu Bakr and ended by Ali ibn Abi Talib. Sunni beliefs are based on the Qu'ran and the Kutub al-Sittah. Sunnis make up around 90% of all Muslims. With approximately 1.8 billion followers, it is the largest religious denomination of any religion in the world. Catholicism is the second-largest. There are four sub-groups within Sunni Islam; Malikis, Hanafis, Hanbalis and Shafi'is. - -Adherents of Sunni Islam are Sunnis or Sunnites. The word Sunni comes from the word sunna (), which means the tradition of the prophet of Islam, Muhammad. Sunnis are also called ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah (), which means people of tradition and congregation; this means that the Sunnis are united. - -Related pages - Shia Islam - Sunnah - -References - -1 - -Other websites - -Islamic denominations -Muslims" -23512,90573,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieter%20Brueghel%20the%20Elder,Pieter Brueghel the Elder,"Pieter Brueghel the Elder (c. 1525 – 9 September 1569) was a Dutch or Flemish Renaissance painter and printmaker. He is known for his landscapes and peasant scenes. He is nicknamed 'Peasant Bruegel' to distinguish him from other members of the Brueghel family. But he is the most famous of them and therefore in most of the cases when someone speaks of ""Brueghel"" he thinks of him. From 1559 he dropped the 'h' from his name and started signing his paintings as Bruegel. - -Life -There are records that he was born in Breda, Netherlands, but it is uncertain whether the Dutch town of Breda or the Belgian town of Bree, called Breda in Latin, is meant. He was the son of a peasant living in the village of Breughel. - -Style -In Bruegel's later years he painted in a simpler style than the Italian art in his time. The most obvious influence on his art is the older Dutch master Hieronymus Bosch. - -Themes -Bruegel specialized in landscapes populated by peasants. He is often credited as being the first Western painter to paint landscapes for their own sake. - -He showed the rituals of village life—including agriculture, hunts, meals, festivals, dances, and games. These show the folk culture of 16th century life. - -Some of his Paintings - -Winter Landscape with a Bird Trap, 1565, Bruxelles, Koninklijke Musea voor Schone Kunsten van Belgie, inv. 8724 - The Peasant and the Nest Robber, 1568, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna - The Three Soldiers, 1568, Frick Collection, New York City - Conversion Of Paul, 1567, Kunsthistorishes Museum, Vienna - The Storm at Sea, an unfinished work, probably Bruegel's last painting. - -Other websites - - Biography at the Web Gallery of Art - Pieter Bruegel the Elder at Olga's Gallery - Pieter Bruegel the Elder in the ""A World History of Art"" - Complete list of paintings. Includes all of the 100 proverbs from the painting, with explanation (in French). - www.all-art.org/early_renaissance About Pieter Brueghel the Elder - Timken Museum of Art's ""Parable of the Sower"" by Pieter Bruegel the Elder - -1520s births -1569 deaths -Flemish painters -Dutch painters" -21453,82070,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Peter%27s%20Basilica,St. Peter's Basilica,"St. Peter's Basilica, which is called ""Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano"" in Italian, is a large church in the Vatican City, in Rome, Italy. It is often called “the greatest church in Christendom"". In Catholic tradition, St. Peter's Basilica is believed to be the burial place of Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. It is believed that Saint Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. - -Although the Bible does not say that the apostle Peter went to Rome, other Roman Christians who were alive in the 1st century AD have written about him. Catholics believe that after Peter was killed, his body was buried in a cemetery where the basilica now stands. A tomb has been found below the altar of the basilica, and there were some bones, but no-one can say for certain if they are the bones of St. Peter. - -A church was built here in the 4th century AD. The building that stands here now was begun on April 18, 1506 and was finished in 1626. Many Popes have been buried there. Although many people think St. Peter's is a cathedral, it is not, because it does not have a bishop. The pope is the Bishop of Rome, and although he usually uses St. Peter's as his main church, because he lives in the Vatican, his bishop's throne is in a different church, the cathedral of Saint John Lateran. Large important churches like St. Peter's are often called basilicas. There are four ancient basilicas in Rome that were begun by the Emperor Constantine soon after he made Christianity the legal religion of the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD (300s). The basilicas are St. Peter's Basilica, St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls. - -St. Peter's is famous for many reasons: - The pope, who lives at the Vatican, often says mass at St. Peter's. - Many people go there on pilgrimage. - It is said to be the greatest work of architecture of its age. - It has works by many famous artists including Michelangelo and Bernini. - St. Peter's is probably the largest Christian church in the world. It covers an area of 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres) and can hold over 60,000 people. - -History - -Burial place of St. Peter -One of the books of the Bible, called the Acts of the Apostles, tells what happened to the disciples of Jesus after he was put to death by crucifixion in the 1st century AD. One of his twelve disciples became the leader. His name was Simon Peter and he was a fisherman from Galilee. Peter became one of the most important people in starting the Christian Church. Another important disciple was Paul of Tarsus, who travelled to many places and wrote lots of letters to teach and to encourage people in the new Christian groups that began to spring up in many different parts of the Roman Empire. St. Paul travelled to Rome. It is believed that St. Peter also travelled to Rome and that both Paul and Peter were put to death there as Christian martyrs. St. Paul was beheaded with a sword. Peter was crucified up-side-down. It is believed that the body of St. Peter was buried in a cemetery near the Via Cornelia, a road leading out of the city, on the hill called Vaticanus. Peter's grave was marked, by a red rock, the symbol of his name. The place where Peter died was marked, in the 1400s, by a little round temple called the ""Tempietto"" designed by Bramante. - -St. Peter is very important in Roman Catholic tradition because Peter is believed to have been the head of the Christian Church in Rome, and so he was the first bishop. The Gospel of Matthew (chapter 16, verse 18) tells that Jesus said these words to Peter: -""And I also say this to you, that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church."" - -The name Peter means a ""rock"". The Roman Catholic Church believes that Jesus made Peter the head of the Christian Church, and so all the Bishops of Rome (the Popes) must be the leaders of the Christian Church throughout the whole world. The Protestant and Orthodox churches believe that Jesus was speaking about the important words Peter had just said: ""You are the Christ and the Son of the Living God"" (Matthew 16:16), and that this Confession of Faith is the rock that the Christian Church is built on. - -On December 23, 1950, while making his Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced that Saint Peter's tomb had been discovered. Archaeologists had been searching for ten years in a place under the basilica that had been covered up for about a thousand years. They had found part of a small building dating from soon after St. Peter's death, and some bones, but no-one could be sure if they were the bones of St. Peter. - -Old St. Peter's -St. Peter's Basilica, as it stand today, was begun in 1506. The first basilica, which is now called ""Old St. Peter's Basilica"" was begun by the Emperor Constantine between 326 and 333 AD. This was a big wide church in the shape of a Latin Cross, over 103.6 metres (350 feet) long. The central part called the ""nave"" had two aisles on either side, separated by rows of talls Roman columns. In front of the main entrance was large courtyard with a covered walkway all around. This church had been built over a small ""shrine"" (little chapel) believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. The old basilica contained a very large number of tombs and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century. - -The plan to rebuild -By the end of the 15th century (1400s), the old basilica was falling to pieces. Pope Nicholas V, (1447–55), was worried about it and got two architects, Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino, to make plans to restore it or build a new one. But Pope Nicholas had so many political problems that when he died, very little of the work had been done. -In 1505, Pope Julius II decided to demolish (pull down) the old St. Peter's and build a basilica that would be the grandest church in the world and make Rome (and himself) famous. He held a competition and invited lots of artists and architects to draw designs. A plan was selected and the build was begun, but Pope Julius did not get his new basilica. In fact, it was not finished for 120 years. The planning and construction (or ""building work"") lasted through the reigns of 21 popes and 8 architects. - -Architecture - -One plan after another -The changing plans for St. Peter's. The architectural terms are explained in the article. - -Bramante -When Pope Julius decided to build the ""grandest church in Christendom"" the design by Donato Bramante was chosen, and Pope Julius laid the foundation stone in 1506. Bramante's plan was in the shape of an enormous Greek Cross, which means that it had four arms all of equal length, and a large dome at the middle. For the next hundred years, the groundplan got changed backwards and forwards between a ""Greek Cross"" like Bramante's plan and a ""Latin Cross"" like the old basilica, but one thing never changed, and that was the idea of having an enormous dome at the place where the two arms crossed. - -At that time, there were only three very large domes in the whole world. One was far away in Constantinople on the church of Hagia Sophia and not many people in Italy had seen it. The other two domes were both very well known. One was the dome on the temple to the Ancient Roman gods, called the Pantheon. The other dome was built in the early 15th century (1400s) on Florence Cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi. The dome of the Pantheon is 43.3 metres (142.06 ft) across and the dome of Florence Cathedral is about 42.1 metres (138 ft), but is much taller. Bramante's plan for the dome of St. Peter's was for it to be about as wide as the dome of Florence, and even taller. - -No architect with any sense would try to design a dome without first checking out how these other two domes were made. Bramante checked them out. He discovered that the dome of the Pantheon, which had been standing for nearly 1500 years, was made of concrete. So that the concrete wouldn't be too heavy, it was mixed with pumice stone which comes out of a volcano and is full of gas holes so it is very light weight. Bramante learned how to make concrete like the Ancient Romans. - -Bramante's dome was to be like the one on the Pantheon. But there was one very big difference between the Pantheon dome and Bramante's design. The Pantheon's dome stands on a round wall like a drum, with only one doorway in it, but Bramante's dome was designed to stand on a drum, which was standing high up on four wide arches. The aches rested on four enormous piers (pillars of stone). He had got this idea from Florence Cathedral which had an enormous dome resting on eight big piers. Another idea that Bramante got from Florence Cathedral was the design for the little stone tower which sits on top of the dome and is called the lantern. - -Raphael, Peruzzi and Sangallo the Younger -When Pope Julius died in 1513, the next pope, Leo X, called in three architects, Giuliano da Sangallo, Fra Giocondo and Raphael. Sangallo and Fr Giocondo both died in 1515. Raphael made a big change to the plan. Instead of having a Greek Cross, he decided to change the plan to a Latin Cross, which had a long nave and aisles like the old basilica. - -Raphael also died, in his mid-30s, in 1520, before any important changes could be made to the building. The next architect was Peruzzi who like some of the ideas that Raphael had, but did not like the Latin Cross plan. Peruzzi went back to Bramante's Greek Cross plan. But there were so many arguments in the church that the building stopped completely. Then in 1527 Rome was invaded by Emperor Charles V. Peruzzi died in 1536 without his plan being built. The only main parts of the building which had been constructed were Bramante's four big piers to hold the dome. - -Antonio da Sangallo (known as ""Sangallo the Younger"") looked at all the different plans by Peruzzi, Raphael and Bramante. He put some of their ideas together in a design that had a very short nave, (not a long one like Raphael's design) and had a big porch at the front. He changed Bramante's dome to be much stronger and also much more decorated. The main new idea that he added were 16 stone ribs to strengthen the dome. This idea came from Florence Cathedral which had eight stone ribs. But Sangallo's plan never got built, either. The main job that he did was to strengthen Bramante's piers which had begun to crack. - -Michelangelo - -On January 1st, 1547 in the reign of Pope Paul III, Michelangelo, who was already over 70, became the architect of St. Peter's. He is the main designer of the building as it stands today. Michelangelo died before the job was finished, but by that time, he had got the construction up to a point where other people could get it finished. Michelangelo had already done a lot of work for the popes, carving figures for the tomb of Pope Julius II, painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, which took five years, and the enormous fresco the ""Last Judgement"" on the wall of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo found the popes and the cardinals very difficult to work with. When Pope Paul asked him to be the new architect for St. Peter's, Michelangelo did not want the job. In fact, Pope Paul did not really want Michelangelo. But his first choice, Giulio Romano, died suddenly. Michelangelo told the pope that he would only do the job, if he could do it in whatever way he thought was best. - -Michelangelo wrote: -""I am only doing this for the love of God and to honour of the Apostle."" - -When Michelangelo took over a building site in 1547, the nave of the old basilica was still standing and in use. There were four of the most enormous piers in the world standing where the western part of the old basilica had been. The building work had stopped for so long that weeds and bushes were growing out between the stones of the unfinished building as if it was a cliff. Michelangelo looked at all the plans that had been drawn by some of the greatest architects and engineers of the 16th century. He knew he could do whatever he liked but he had respect for the other designers, especially Bramante. He knew that he was expected to make a design that would be the symbol of the city of Rome, in the same way as Brunelleschi's dome was the symbol of Florence where Michelangelo had lived as a young man. He went back to the Greek Cross idea and re-drew Bramante's plan, making every part of it much stronger and simpler. It had to be strong enough to support the tallest dome in the world. - -Michelangelo was a sculptor. When he was going to carve something, he would start by making a clay model. Michelangelo could imagine the building like a lump of clay. What if the building could be pushed and pulled and squeezed? If you could squeeze the corners in, then other bits would bulge out. If you could put your hands around the whole building and squeeze it, then the dome would bulge upwards. The idea of imagining buildings as bendy and bulgy was a completely new one. But other artists like Gianlorenzo Bernini looked at what Michelangelo did at St. Peter's and used this clever new idea in their own work. This is called the Baroque style. - -As it stands today, the Greek Cross part of the basilica is Michelangelo's design and the nave, which was added later, is by Carlo Maderna. Comparing Michelangelo's plan with Raphael's plan shows that while the outside-line of Raphael's plan has clear square and round shapes, the outside-line in Michelangelo's plan has lots of changes of direction. That is the way it was built. All around the outside of the building are enormous ""pilasters"" (which are like giant columns stuck on the building). Almost every pilaster is set at a different angle to the next one as if the flat walls had been folded up. Right around the top of the building is a band called the ""cornice"". A ""cornice"" is usually quite flat, but because of all the changes of direction, this cornice ripples like a giant piece of ribbon, tied around the outside of the building. The art historian Helen Gardner wrote that it looked as of the whole building was being held together from top to bottom. - -The Dome of St. Peter's - -Michelangelo designed the dome again, using ideas from Bramante and Sangallo the Younger. Three important ideas came from the dome that Brunelleschi had built in Florence more than 100 years earlier. - Michelangelo designed a brick dome with stone ribs, like Sangallo's plan, not like the concrete dome planned by Bramante. - He designed the dome with two shells, instead of one. This was good for several reasons. A high dome looks good from the outside, but a lower dome looks better from the inside. The gap in between the domes has stairs so people can repair the dome. The space also helps to keep the inside shell dry so the decoration does not get damaged. - The third way that the dome of St. Peter's is like that of Florence Cathedral is that it rises up to a point on top like an egg. This means that the sides of the dome are steeper and do not push outward as much as a dome that is completely round. No-one knows exactly what shape Michelangelo wanted the dome to be, because he died before it was built. But there is some evidence. Firstly, there is a drawing by Michelangelo that shows the dome with an egg-shape. Secondly, there is a print by a different artist showing the dome with a round shape. The artist said that it was Michelangelo's design. Thirdly, there is a very large wooden model that Michelangelo had made, to show the building committee and the pope. The dome is more pointy than the print, but not as pointy as the drawing. - -When Michelangelo died in 1564, the walls were being built, the piers had been strengthened and everything was ready for the building of the dome. The Pope wanted Michelangelo's assistant Vignola to finish it, but he was not able to. After twenty years Pope Sixtus V gave the job to the architect Giacomo della Porta and the engineer Domenico Fontana. Giacomo Della Porta successfully built the dome. He made some changes to the design, like adding some lions' heads to the decoration because they were the symbol of Pope Sixtus' family. The main way that the dome is different from the wooden model is that it is much more pointy. - -Some writers believe that Michelangelo had changed his mind from his first plan, and did not want the pointy dome. They believe he wanted a round dome which would look more ""restful"". Other writers believe that Michelangelo wanted the pointed dome, not just because it was safer to build, but also because it looked more exciting, as if the building was pushing upwards. Pope Sixtus V lived just long enough to see the dome finished in 1590. His name is written in gold letters around the inside, just below the lantern. - -Pope Clement III, had a cross raised into place on top of the lantern. It took a whole day and everyone in Rome was given a holiday, and all the church-bells of the city were rung. In the arms of the cross are set two lead boxes, one containing a fragment of the True Cross and a bone of Saint Andrew and the other containing medals of the ""Holy Lamb"". - -The dome of St. Peter's rises to a height of 136.57 m (448.06 ft) from the floor of the basilica. It is the tallest dome in the world. Its inside diameter is 41.47 metres (136.06 ft), just slightly smaller than those of the Pantheon and the Florence Cathedral. - -Around the inside of the dome is written in letters 2 metres (6.5 ft) high: -TV ES PETRVS ET SVPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM ET TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI CAELORVM -(""...you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church ... and I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven...."" Vulgate, .) - -The change of plan - -In 1602 Pope Paul V put Carlo Maderna in charge of the building. On February 18 1606, workmen began to pull down the rest of the old basilica. Some people were very upset. The building committee felt guilty. They decided that the church was the wrong shape, and that they wanted a Latin Cross plan because it was the symbol of the death of Jesus. They wanted a nave which would cover all the Holy Ground where the old building had been. In 1607 Maderna's plans for the nave and the facade (the front) were accepted. For the inside, he used very large piers with pilasters like Michelangelo's, but he made a clear join between the two parts of the building. The building work began on May 7 1607 and 700 men were employed to do the work. In 1608, the facade was begun. In December 1614 the building was all finished except for the decorations on the ceiling. Early in 1615 the temporary wall between Michelangelo's building and the new nave was pulled down. All the mess was carted away, and the nave was ready for use by Palm Sunday. - -The façade was designed by Maderna. It is 114.69 metres (376.28 ft) wide and 45.55 metres (149.44 ft) high and is built of pale grey travertine stone, with a giant Corinthian columns and a central triangular pediment. Along the roof-line are statues of Christ, John the Baptist, and eleven of the apostles. - -Inside the main doors is a portico (a long hall) which runs across the front of the building and has five doors leading into the basilica. Its has a long curving roof decorated with gold. The light that comes through the doors shines on the beautifully patterned marble floor. At each end of the portico, set between columns, is a statue of a figure on horseback. They are Charlemagne sculpted by Cornacchini (18th century) to the south and Emperor Constantine by Bernini (1670) to the north. Maderna's last work at St. Peter's was to design a sunken crypt called the ""Confessio"" under the dome, where people can go to be nearer the burial place of the apostle. All around its marble handrail are 95 bronze lamps. - -Furnishing of St. Peters - -Pope Urban VIII and Bernini -As a young boy Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) visited St. Peter's and said that one day he wanted to build ""a mighty throne for the apostle"". His wish came true. As a young man, in 1626, Pope Urban VIII asked him to work as architect for the basilica. Bernini spent the next fifty years thinking of new and beautiful things to design. He is thought of as the greatest architect and sculptor of the Baroque period. - -Baldacchino and niches -Bernini's first work at St. Peter's was to design the ""baldacchino"" which is like a tent or ""pavilion"" above the High Altar. This amazing thing is 30 metres (98 ft) tall and is probably the largest piece of bronze in the world. It stands underneath the dome and has four huge bronze twisted columns decorated with olive leaves and bees, because bees were the symbol of Pope Urban. Pope Urban had a niece that he loved very much and he got Bernini to put her face and the face of her new-born baby boy on the columns as well. - -Bernini had a great idea for Bramante's great big piers. He had four hollow ""niches"" carved into them where four huge statues could stand. The basilica owns some precious relics: a piece of the True Cross of Jesus, a veil that a woman wiped the face of Jesus with, while he was carrying the cross, the spear that was used to pierce Jesus side, and the bones of St. Andrew, the brother of St. Peter. No-one knows for sure whether these things are real or not, but for hundreds of years they have been precious. Bernini's plan was the make four marble statues of the four Holy people: St. Helena who found the cross, St. Longinus who was the soldier with the spear, St Veronica who wiped Jesus' face and St. Andrew. (See below) - -Cattedra Petri and Chapel of the Sacrament -Bernini's next job was to make a special throne out of bronze, to hold an ancient wood and ivory throne that had been at the basilica for more than 500 years. It is called the Cattedra Petri or ""throne of St. Peter"". The bronze throne, with the old wooden throne inside it, is held up high at the end of the basilica, by four important saints who are called ""Doctors of the Church"" because they were all great writers and teachers. The statues are made of bronze. They are Saints Ambrose and Augustine for the Church of Rome and Saints Athanasius and John Chrysostum for the Orthodox Church. Above the chair is a window which is made not from glass but thin translucent stone called alabaster. The Dove of the Holy Spirit is in the middle of the window with rays of light spreading out into the basilica through a sculpture of golden clouds and angels. Bernini designed this to look like a window into Heaven. There was a great celebration when the chair was put in place on January 16, 1666. - -Bernini's last work for St. Peter's, 1676, was to decorate of the Chapel of the Sacrament. He designed a miniature version of Bramante's Tempietto, and made it in gilt bronze. On either side is an angel, one gazing in adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 in his 82nd year. - -St. Peter's Piazza -To the east of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro (St. Peter's Place). The piazza was designed by Bernini and built between 1656 and 1667. It was not an easy job because the designer had lots of things to think about. Firstly, many people complained that Maderna's facade on St. Peter's looked too wide, so Bernini wanted to make it look narrower, not wider. Secondly, in the old square left over from the Old St. Peter's, Pope Sixtus V had a monument set up. This monument was a precious Ancient Egyptian obelisk (which is like a tall column, but with four flat sides). From its base to the top of the cross (that the pope had put on top) it was 40 metres (131 ft) high, and had been brought to Rome in ancient times. The obelisk really should be at the center of the new square, but it was not in quite the right place, and was very difficult to move without breaking. The third problem was that Maderna had built a fountain to one side of the obelisk, and Bernini needed to make another fountain to match it, otherwise the design would look unbalanced. - -Bernini solved the problem by making two areas, instead of one huge one. The first area is an almost-square area right in front of the facade. It is cleverly designed with sloping sides that make the building look taller and not so wide. The second part of the piazza is oval. It has the obelisk at the center with two fountains on either side at the widest part. The two parts of the piazza are surrounded by a colonnade (covered walk-way) which is carried on tall columns. All around are large statues of saints which seem to look down on the thousands of visitors that come to the square every day. The colonnade is in two great arcs that seem to stretch out like loving arms, welcoming people to the Basilica. In recent times some buildings were demolished, making another square, to match the one near the piazza. - -The famous architectural historian, Sir Banister Fletcher, said that no other city in the world had given such a wonderful view to people visiting their main church. He said that no other architect except Bernini could have imagined such a noble design. He said it is the greatest entrance to the greatest Christian church in the whole world. - -Treasures -St. Peter's Basilica has many treasures. These include Christian relics, the tombs of popes and many other important people, famous artworks which are mostly sculpture and other interesting things. - -Notes - -References - Hintzen-Bohlen, Brigitte and Sorges, Jurgen. Rome and the Vatican City, Konemann, - Fletcher, Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method, first published 1896, current edition 2001, Elsevier Science & Technology - Hartt, Frederick. A History of Italian Renaissance Art. Thames and Hudson (1970) - Lees-Milne, James. Saint Peter's, Hamish Hamilton (1967). ISBN - Gardner, Helen. Art through the Ages, 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World, inc., - Goldscheider, Ludwig. Michelangelo, 1964, Phaidon, - Pevsner, Nikolaus An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, 1964, - Pinto, Pio V. The Pilgrim's Guide to Rome, Harper and Row, (1974), - -Other websites - - stpetersbasilica.org Largest online site for the Basilica - Fullscreen Virtual Tour by Virtualsweden - Google Maps Satellite image of the Basilica - St Peter’s Basilica and St Peter’s Tomb - Circus of Nero and the old and new Basilicas superimposed, showing the tomb of Peter - St. Peter's Basilica Photo Gallery 249 photos - St Peter's Basilica, Rome pictures and virtual reality movies - Basilica of St Peter, Rome by Activitaly - Catholic Encyclopedia Catholic Encyclopedia article - Vatican City, Piazza San Pietro VR panorama with map and compass effect by Tolomeus - The pipe organs of St Peter's Basilica - Vatican City, Piazza San Pietro QTVR panorama hi-res (15 Mb) by Tolomeus - St. Peter's Basilica Floor Plan - The Bells of St. Peter's Basilica at Vatican - -Renaissance -Churches in Italy -Roman Catholic churches -1620s establishments in Europe -Establishments in Italy -1626 establishments" -6704,21172,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20towns%20in%20Greenland,List of towns in Greenland,"This is a list of the towns in Greenland that have over 1,000 people living in them (the first name is in Greenlandic, the second is in Danish): - -Nuuk (Godthåb) Pop. 14.501 -Sisimiut (Holsteinsborg) Pop. 5.350 -Ilulissat (Jakobshavn) Pop. 4.533 -Qaqortoq (Julianehåb) Pop. 3.144 -Aasiaat Pop. 3.100 -Maniitsoq (Sukkertoppen) Pop. 2.859 -Tasiilaq (Amassalik) Pop. 1.848 -Paamiut (Frederikshåb) Pop. 1.817 -Narsaq Pop. 1.764 -Nanortalik Pop. 1.509 -Uumannaq Pop. 1.366 -Qasigiannguit Pop. 1.320 -Upernavik Pop. 1.178 - -Pop. stands for population. - -Greenland, towns" -2224,7446,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherwood%20Forest,Sherwood Forest,"Sherwood Forest is an ancient woodland near Nottingham, England. It is famous as the home of the mythical outlaw, Robin Hood and his men (and Maid Marian). Legend claims that they lived near the Major Oak. Its branches are now supported by props. - -Other websites - -Forests of England -Nottinghamshire" -20117,77050,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espresso,Espresso,"Espresso is a type of Italian coffee that is concentrated. In order to make espresso, coffee beans are powdered and hot water is added under high pressure. This is done using an espresso machine or a macchinetta. Usually, espresso is made using 7 grams of coffee beans. This gives espresso a very strong flavor. Because espresso is so strong, it is usually mixed with other coffee drinks in small amounts. - -Drinks that use espresso -There are many drinks that use espresso, such as latte, cappuccino, caffe mocha and caffe macchiato. - -Alternative spelling -It is sometimes spelled expresso, with an X. There is some debate as to whether this is an acceptable spelling. - -Related pages - Coffee - -Coffee -Italian food" -3940,12208,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD,MUD,"In terms of computer games, a MUD (short for Multi-User Dungeon, Multi-User Dimension or Multi-User Domain) is a multiplayer online game that is usually completely text-based. - -Types of video games -Video game genres" -5801,18805,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whip,Whip,"A whip is a long strand of leather or other fabric with a hard handle. When a person shakes a whip fast, it makes a loud ""crack"" sound, because it has broken the sound barrier. It is used for directing or hitting animals or people. - -Basic English 850 words -Tools" -6190,19831,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose,Glucose,"Glucose (C6H12O6 ) is a simple carbohydrate, or sugar. It is one of several kinds of sugars. It is important because cells in an organism use it as a source of energy. Turning glucose into energy is called cellular respiration, which is done inside the cells of a living organism. Excess glucose is converted to fats and are stored in adipose tissues. - -Glucose is made by plants in a process called photosynthesis. It can also be made by animals in their liver or kidneys. - -Having the right amount of glucose available in a person's body is important. Glucose is essential in the proper functioning of the brain. It can be measured with a simple blood test. People that do not have enough glucose have low blood sugar levels. This is a health condition called hypoglycemia. People with too much glucose have hyperglycemia. They might have a health condition called diabetes. - -Its chemical formula is C6H12O6. This means it has six carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms bonded together. - -How sugars work, and how glucose can be formed, was studied by a German chemist named Emil Fischer in the 1890s. His work earned him the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. - -Isomers - -There are two forms of glucose, the α- and β- forms. The only difference between them is the position of the hydroxyl group, above and below the plane of the ring of the molecule. - -For α-glucose, the hydroxyl (-OH) group is below the ring, while for β-glucose, the (-OH) group is above. - -References - -Carbohydrates" -24986,98251,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%20County%2C%20North%20Carolina,"Avery County, North Carolina","Avery County is a county in the U.S. state of North Carolina. In 2000, 17,167 people lived there. Its county seat is Newland. It is known for growing Fraser Fir Christmas trees. Avery County is part of the High Council of Governments. - -History -The county was made in 1911 from parts of Caldwell County, Mitchell County, and Watauga County. Avery County was the last county made in North Carolina. - -Bordering counties -These counties border, or connect to, Avery County: -Johnson County, Tennessee – north -Carter County, Tennessee – west -Caldwell County, North Carolina – southeast -Burke County, North Carolina – south -McDowell County, North Carolina – south -Mitchell County, North Carolina – west -Watauga County, North Carolina – north - -Cities and towns -These cities and towns are in Avery County: -Banner Elk -Beech Mountain -Crossnore -Elk Park -Grandfather -Linville -Minneapolis -Newland -Seven Devils -Sugar Mountain - -Other websites -Avery County government official website - -North Carolina counties -1911 establishments in the United States -20th-century establishments in North Carolina" -10025,34229,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bielsko-Bia%C5%82a,Bielsko-Biała,"Bielsko-Biała is a city in southern Poland with 180,000 inhabitants. Its size is 125km2. The city is in the Beskidy mountains. - -Related pages -Museum in Bielsko-Biała - -Cities in Poland" -12434,45849,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spruce%20%28disambiguation%29,Spruce (disambiguation),"Spruce are trees in the genus Picea. ""Spruce"" may also mean: - -Places: -Spruce, Wisconsin, United States of America -Spruce Township, Minnesota, United States of America - -People: -Richard Spruce, English botanist and explorer -Stuart Spruce, former rugby player for Bradford" -10538,37492,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-time,Space-time,"Space-time is a mathematical model that joins space and time into a single idea called a continuum. This four-dimensional continuum is known as Minkowski space. - -Combining these two ideas helped cosmology to understand how the universe works on the big level (e.g. galaxies) and small level (e.g. atoms). - -In non-relativistic classical mechanics, the use of Euclidean space instead of space-time is good, because time is treated as universal with a constant rate of passage which is independent of the state of motion of an observer. - -But in a relativistic universe, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space. This is because the observed rate at which time passes depends on an object's velocity relative to the observer. Also, the strength of any gravitational field slows the passage of time for an object as seen by an observer outside the field. - -Further aspects - - -Wherever matter exists, it bends the geometry of spacetime. This results in a curved shape of space-time which can be understood as gravity. The white lines on the picture on the right represent the effect of mass on space-time. - -In classical mechanics, the use of spacetime is optional, as time is independent of motion in the three dimensions of Euclidean space. However, when a body is moving at speeds close to the speed of light (relativistic speeds), time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space. Time, from the point of view of a stationary observer, depends on how close to the speed of light the object is moving. - -Historical origin -Many people link space-time with Albert Einstein, who proposed special relativity in 1905. However, it was Einstein's teacher, Hermann Minkowski, who suggested space-time, in a 1908 essay. -His concept of Minkowski space is the earliest treatment of space and time as two aspects of a unified whole, which is the essence of special relativity. He hoped this new idea would clarify the theory of special relativity. - -Minkowski spacetime is only accurate at describing constant velocity. It was Einstein, though, who discovered the curvature of space-time (gravity) in general relativity. In general relativity, Einstein generalized Minkowski space-time to include the effects of acceleration. Einstein discovered that the curvature in his 4-dimensional space-time representation was actually the cause of gravity. - -The 1926 thirteenth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica included an article by Einstein titled ""space-time"". - -Literary background -Edgar Allan Poe wrote an essay on cosmology titled Eureka (1848) which said that ""space and duration are one"". This is the first known instance of suggesting space and time to be different perceptions of one thing. Poe arrived at this conclusion after approximately 90 pages of reasoning but employed no mathematics. - -In 1895, H.G. Wells in his novel, The Time Machine, wrote, “There is no difference between Time and any of the three dimensions of Space except that our consciousness moves along it”. He added, “Scientific people…know very well that Time is only a kind of Space”. - -Spacetime in quantum mechanics -In general relativity, spacetime is thought of as smooth and continuous. However, in the theory of quantum mechanics, spacetime is not always continuous. - -Related pages - - Continuum (theory) - Dimension - Manifold - -References - - Lorentz H.A; Einstein, Albert; Minkowksi, Hermann and Weyl, Hermann 1952. The principle of relativity: a collection of original memoirs. Dover. -Lucas, John Randolph 1973. A treatise on time and space. London: Methuen. - -Relativity -Basic physics ideas" -9872,33776,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20%28rank%29,Private (rank),"A private is the lowest rank of the Army or Marines. The rank is earned after joining the service or graduating from a military camp. - -Army -Marines" -6308,20094,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omul,Omul,"The omul is a kind of fish. It belongs to the same family as the trout and the salmon. It only lives in Lake Baikal and the rivers around it (the Angara for example. It is very typical for that region of Siberia). - -Omul considered a food delicacy and can be eaten n many ways. Local people consume it boiled, fried smoked, and freshly salted. - -The Omul normally fished using seine nets and fishing nets, yet during early spring, it can be caught using a fishing road. - -References - -Bony fish -Siberia" -3568,10822,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangame,Fangame,"Fangames are computer games created by fans based on popular video games. They are often made using C++, The Games Factory, Multimedia Fusion Express, and GameMaker. But now with free versions available of powerful game development tools available, some fangames are made in either Unity or Unreal Engine. - -Other websites - The Click Wiki - information about Multimedia Fusion, The Games Factory. - -Types of video games" -3509,10523,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine,Maine,"Maine is the northeast-most state in the United States. The capital is Augusta, although the city of Portland, farther south, is the largest in the state. Maine became the 23rd state, on March 15, 1820. It was previously a part of Massachusetts. Commercial Fishing, including lobster trapping, is a traditional and still vital part of the coastal economy. Tourism is a large industry in southern Maine because of its many beaches and picturesque coastal villages. Southern Maine is the part of the state that has the most people. Many other areas, to the North, are far more rural. - -Geography -To the south and east is the Atlantic Ocean and to the north and northeast is New Brunswick, and the country of Canada. The Canadian province of Quebec is to the northwest. Maine is both the northernmost state in New England and the largest, accounting for nearly half the region's whole land area. Maine also has the distinction of being the only state to border just one other state (New Hampshire to the west). The municipalities of Eastport and Lubec are the easternmost city and town in the United States. Estcourt Station is Maine's northernmost point and also the northernmost point in the New England region of the United States. - -Maine's ""Moosehead Lake"" is the biggest lake that is completely in New England (Lake Champlain is located between Vermont and New York, which is not considered part of New England). A number of other Maine lakes, like as South Twin Lake, are said by Thoreau. Mount Katahdin is both the northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail, which to Springer Mountain, Georgia, and the southern of the new ""International Appalachian Trail"" which, when finished, will run to ""Belle Isle"", Newfoundland and Labrador. - -Maine is the only state that shares its borders with only one other American state since it only borders New Hampshire and Canada. - -Climate -Maine has a humid climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb), with warm (although mostly not hot), humid summers. Winters are cold and snowy all over the state, and are mostly more severe in the northern parts of Maine. Coastal areas are moderated somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean. Daytime highs are mostly in the 75–80 °F (24–27 °C) range all over the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s°F (around 15 °C). January temperatures range from highs near 32 °F (0 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows below 0 °F (−18 °C) in the far north. - -Maine is mostly safe from hurricanes and tropical storms. By the time they reach the state, many have become and few hurricanes have made landfall in Maine. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of the Rockies, with most of the state with less than 20 days of thunderstorms a year. Tornadoes are rare in Maine, about two per year, mostly happening in the southern part of the state. - -In January 2009, a new record low temperature for the state was set at −50 °F, tying the New England record. The state's record high temperature is 105 °F, set in July 1911. - -History - -Humans have lived in Maine for many thousands of years. The Penobscot, Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot Native American groups all lived there before Europeans found Maine. - -Early during the colonial time, Maine was part of Massachusetts. It became its own state in 1820, the 23rd state in the United States of America. Its northern border with Canada was set in 1842. - -Population - -As of 2008, Maine has an estimated population of 1,321,504, which is an increase of 6,520, or 0.5%, from the past year and an increase of 46,582, or 3.7%, since the year of 2000. This has a natural increase since the last census of 6,413 people (that is 71,276 births minus 64,863 deaths) and an increase because of ""net migration"" of 41,808 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States made a net increase of 5,004 people, and migration within the country made a net increase of 36,804 people. The population density of the state is 41.3 people per square mile. - -Economy - -The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maine's total gross state product for 2007 was $48 billion. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $33,991, 34th in the country. - -People in Maine produce agricultural goods like poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries (the state makes 25% of all blueberries in North America, making it the largest blueberry maker in the world), apples, maple syrup and maple sugar. Aroostook County is known for its potato crops. Commercial fishing, once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, mostly lobstering and groundfishing. Western Maine and springs are a big source of bottled water. Maine's company outputs make paper, lumber and wood products, electronic stuff, leather things, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and building remain key as well, with Bath Iron Works in Bath and Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery. Naval Air Station Brunswick is also in Maine, and serves as a large support base for the U.S. Navy. However, the BRAC campaign recommended Brunswick's closing, despite a new government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities. - -References - -Notes - -Related pages - - Colleges and universities in Maine - List of counties in Maine - List of rivers of Maine - - -1820 establishments in the United States" -8368,28175,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event%20Horizon,Event Horizon,"Event Horizon is a 1997 Anglo-American science fiction horror movie. -It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson. - -Synopsis -This movie is set in 2047. A spaceship is stuck near Neptune. Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died. When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves. It all looks very scary. Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension. It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares. - -Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream. She tells him to pull his eyes out. Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people. They send him out to space, but he does not die. People get very scared. Even after they kill Neill, they still see him. - -Other websites - - -1997 horror movies -1997 science fiction movies -1990s science fiction horror movies -1990s supernatural movies -American science fiction horror movies -American supernatural movies -British horror movies -British science fiction movies -English-language movies -Movies set in the future -Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson‏‎" -9412,32194,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o%20Pessoa,João Pessoa,"João Pessoa () is a Brazilian city, capital of the state of Paraíba. It has about 660,000 inhabitants and an area of 210.45 km². - -Sources - -Cities in Paraíba -Capitals of Brazilian states -1585 establishments -16th-century establishments in Brazil" -7199,22883,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyinmana,Pyinmana,"Pyinmana (, ; population: 100,000 (2006 estimate)) is a small town in Mandalay Division of Myanmar. The government in 2005 decided to move the capital city from Yangon to an area two miles (3.2 km) away west of Pyinmana on November 6, 2005, near the town, named Naypyidaw, which means Royal City. Pyinmana is approximately north of Yangon. - -Towns in Asia -Myanmar" -3480,10405,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela%20Merkel,Angela Merkel,"Angela Dorothea Merkel (born Angela Dorothea Kasner on 17 July 1954 in Hamburg) is a German politician, and was Chancellor of Germany from 22 November 2005 to 8 December 2021. - -She was born in Hamburg, at the time part of West Germany, and grew up in the former German Democratic Republic, where she lived until the reuniting of Germany in 1990. Merkel is now married to Joachim Sauer, a professor of chemistry. From 2000 to 2018, she was the chairperson (was in charge of) the German conservative party, the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU). - -Merkel became Germany's first female chancellor on 22 November 2005 in a coalition of the two biggest German political parties, the CDU/CSU and SPD. After the next election in 2009, she formed a coalition with the German liberal party FDP. After the 2013 and 2017 Federal Elections, she again emerged as chancellor of a coalition government. - -Her father was a Lutheran pastor and her mother was a school teacher. Before becoming a politician, she worked as a researcher in Physical Chemistry. In December 2015, she was named as Time magazine's Person of the Year. - -In October 2018, Merkel announced her permanent retirement from politics, as she said she would not seek reelection as leader of the CDU at the party convention in December 2018 and as Chancellor in 2021. After this, another female politician, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer, replaced her as CDU leader. - -References - - -1954 births -Living people -Chancellors of Germany -East German people -German chemists -German Lutherans -Government ministers of Germany -Former members of the German Bundestag -Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany -Politicians from Hamburg -Politicians of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany -Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients -Time People of the Year -Women politicians" -23403,89955,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele%20asteroid,Cybele asteroid,"The Cybele asteroids are a group of asteroids in the asteroid belt with an orbital radius usually between 3.27 AU and 3.7 AU, with an orbital eccentricity less than 0.3, and an inclination less than 25°." -10225,35437,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu,Ubuntu,"Ubuntu is a free operating system that uses the Linux kernel. The word ""ubuntu"" is an African word meaning ""humanity to others"". It is pronounced ""oo-boon-too"". - -It is one of the most popular Linux distributions and it is based on Debian Linux computer operating system. The goal with Ubuntu is to make it easy to use and install onto a computer. Ubuntu can be used on all types of personal computers (and even devices such as robots) including in Windows 10. Ubuntu is downloaded as a DVD, which is free to download on the Ubuntu website. It can be installed or tested by running the DVD. - -A new release of Ubuntu is released every six months, with long-term support (LTS) releases every two years. The latest release is 20.10 (""Groovy Gorilla""), while the most recent long-term support release (what most users may want to choose) is 20.04 LTS (""Focal Fossa""), which is supported until 2028. - -Started in 2004, Ubuntu has been developed by Canonical Ltd., a company owned by a rich South African man named Mark Shuttleworth. - -Packages and software support - -Ubuntu splits all software into four different categories to show differences in licensing and the amount of support available. They are: - -Free software here includes only software that meets the Ubuntu licensing requirements, which almost are the same as the Debian Free Software Guidelines. There is one difference for the Main category, however it has firmware and fonts which cannot be changed, but are included if Ubuntu will not work right. - -Non-free software is usually unsupported (Multiverse), but some exceptions (Restricted) are given for very important non-free software. Supported non-free software include device drivers that are needed to run Ubuntu on current hardware. The level of support in the Restricted category is less than that of Main, since the developers may not be able to get to the source code. It is wanted that Main and Restricted should contain all the software needed for a general-use Linux system. - -Besides the official repositories is Ubuntu Backports, which is an officially known project to backport newer software from later releases of Ubuntu. The repository is not comprehensive (meaning that it has parts missing from it); it is mostly made up of user-requested packages, which are accepted if they meet quality guidelines. - -Releases -Two new releases of Ubuntu are released each year, normally in April and October. - -The number of the Ubuntu release is 'X.YY', with 'X' being the year of release (minus 2000) and 'Y' being the month of release. For example, Ubuntu 4.10 was released in October (the tenth month of the year), 2004. The name of the release (for example, Breezy Badger) is an adjective (a describing word) followed by the name of an animal. - -LTS indicates Long Term Support. - -Very old (i.e. 32-bit i386) processors have been supported up to Ubuntu 18.04, but users ""will not be allowed to upgrade to Ubuntu 18.10 as dropping support for that architecture is being evaluated"". - -Package -Ubuntu's official software package repository includes, for example, UNetbootin. - -Variants - -Ubuntu is available in many different variants, e.g. because there are several options for which desktop environment to use. - -The official sister distributions which are fully supported by Canonical are: - - Ubuntu Kylin, an official derivative aimed at the Chinese market - Kubuntu, a desktop distribution using KDE rather than GNOME - Ubuntu Server Edition, which is mainly used on servers to provide services. This version only comes with a command line interface, but a graphical user interface can be installed. - Xubuntu, a ""lightweight"" distribution based on the Xfce desktop environment instead of GNOME, designed to run better on low-specification computers - Lubuntu, a desktop using the LXDE desktop environment - Ubuntu Budgie, a desktop using the Budgie desktop environment - Ubuntu MATE, a desktop using the MATE desktop environment - Ubuntu Studio, a multimedia-creation form of Ubuntu - Edubuntu, a distribution designed for classrooms using Unity - -Related pages - GNU/Linux - Debian - GNOME - List of Linux distributions - -References - -Other websites - - - Kubuntu – Ubuntu with KDE - Edubuntu – Ubuntu for children to learn with - Xubuntu – Ubuntu with Xfce - Ubuntu Guide (unofficial) – help manual, tips, FAQ, and software guide - - Run Ubuntu online - -Linux distributions -Debian-based Linux distributions" -12965,47629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement%20arcade,Amusement arcade,"An amusement arcade (also called a video arcade or just arcade) is a place where people play arcade games such as video games, pinball machines, and slot machines. - -The earliest amusement arcades were called ""penny arcades."" They were opened in the nineteenth century. Penny arcades had game machines called ""bagatelles"", which were like billiards and pinball. Penny arcades were popular at amusement parks and fairs until around the 1950s. Around this time, the penny arcades were often replaced by more modern games of chance and skill. An example of the new machines were shooting galleries. - -Videos were introduced in amusement arcades in the late 1970s. These were most popular during the early 1980s. Arcades became popular with young people. Many video arcades began closing in the late 1990s, as the technology of home video game consoles began to rival and eventually exceed that of arcade games. However, video arcades remained popular in Japan, where they are called game centers." -10472,37189,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weserstadion,Weserstadion,"The Weserstadion is a stadium in Bremen, Germany. It lies to the right side of the Weser, in the Pauliner Marsch, a flooding area in the quarter of Peterswerder. It is the homeground of the Werder Bremen football club. - -History -The Weser stadium was built in 1909 by Bremen's Allgemeiner Bremer Turn- und Sportverein as a sports field. After its first change in the year 1926, it was given the name ATSB Kampfbahn. Today's name, which goes back to the direct situation at the Weser river, exists since the year 1930. Since this time there also the sports association Werder Bremen makes its plays. At the beginning of the first season of the soccer Bundesliga in the year 1963 the stadium received its first roofed grandstand. In the following decades also the other grandstands were built and modernized gradually. 1992 for the first time in a stadium a VIP Loge was inserted. - -Bremen (city) -Football stadiums in Germany -Sport in Bremen (state)" -4291,13438,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT,LGBT,"LGBT is an initialism that means lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. It refers to the a community of people who are not heterosexual, which means to be attracted to the other gender, or cisgender, which means to identify as the gender you were born as. It has been taken up by many sexuality and gender identity-related community centers. - -History -Before the ""sexual revolution"" of the 1960s, there was no neutral word or group of words for people who were not heterosexual. - -The word ""homosexual"" started being used in America to describe sexual orientations that were not heterosexual. However, this word began to have bad connotations, as many people thought that it sounded like a condition or mental illness, and therefore the word ""homophile"" was used instead. After that, the word ""gay"" replaced the word ""homophile"" in the 1970s. - -As lesbians became more public about their sexuality in the 1970s, the group of words ""gay and lesbian"" was often used, and a phase of lesbian feminism started. This meant that certain lesbian feminist groups separated because did not have knowledge of if they should put feminism or gay rights first. - -Lesbian feminists viewed the separation between ""butch"" and ""femme"" in mainstream gay (male) culture of the time in the same way that they viewed the separation in society over gender roles between men and women. They saw these ideas as patriarchal and did not want to join the mainstream gay rights movement because of what they saw as the chauvinism of gay men, and refused to take up their cause. Many lesbians who were not lesbian feminists saw this as not giving help to the gay rights movement. - -This was followed by many bisexual and transgender people wanting to be seen as respected groups in the LGBT community. Before gender reassignment surgery was massively improved in later years, transgender people had a hard time being accepted. Still, they fought for their rights, and were greatly boosted when plastic surgery and hormone surgery helped them to be accepted as the gender they identify with. - -After the Stonewall riots, there was a change in points of view among the gay and lesbian community. Many gays and lesbians became less accepting of bisexual and transgender persons in general. Many gays and lesbians thought that transgender people were acting out stereotypes and that bisexuals were actually gay, but in too much fear to ""come out of the closet"". This separation still exists today, and it only became common to speak of all members of the LGBT community with equal respect in the trouble for LGBT rights in the late 1990s. - -Acceptance of LGBT people -Some people who are LGBT may not ""come out"", as they may be a target of discrimination or prejudice, such as homophobia or transphobia. Many countries have discriminatory laws against LGBT people, some even giving out the death penalty for being gay or bisexual. - -Different forms of the acronym - -Shortening of the term -When not including transgender persons in general, the acronym is sometimes shortened to just ""LGB"". - -Other letters - -Many other letters are added to the acronym, so much so that it has been described as an ""alphabet soup"" by some. A few of the other letters added are: - Queer or Questioning—added to the acronym to make it more inclusive. - Intersex—recorded use in the acronym since 1999. (This acronym is used in all parts of ""The Activist's Guide"" of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action.) - Asexual - Polyamorous or Pansexual— however, ""pansexual"" is often thought of as being a category of ""bisexuality"", as well as the terms ""omnisexual"" and ""fluid"". - Hijra—the acronym LGBTIH has seen use in India, in order to join the traditional Indian hijra third gender identity and the related subculture. - Non-binary - -Not everyone is in agreement what should or should not be covered in the acronym, or which order the letters should go in. - -Different terms -The group of words gender and sexual diversity (GSD) has been shown as a different option to LGBT by some, as it is seen as more inclusive and less limiting. - -SGL (same-gender loving) is sometimes used among gay male African Americans as a way of distinguishing themselves from what they think of as white LGBT groups of persons. - -MSM (men who have sex with men) is used to describe men who have sex with other men without having relation to their sexual orientation, often in a medical context. - -WSW (women who have sex with women) is the opposite of MSM. It includes all women who have sex with women. - -AMAB (assigned male at birth) is used to describe people who were assigned the male sex at birth. - -AFAB (assigned female at birth) is used to describe people who were assigned the female sex at birth. - -AIAB (assigned intersex at birth) is used to describe people who were assigned intersex at birth. -MOGAI (marginalized orientations and gender alignments or identities and intersex) is a term somebody can use instead of using the term LGBT. MOGAI treats the idea of gender modality as more important than these other words do. It is an umbrella term because it is about many different kinds of people: A gay man and a trans woman, for example, are both MOGAI. - -Related pages - Homosexuality - Bisexuality - Queer - Gay - Lesbian - LGBT community - Declaration of Montreal - -References - -Other websites - - GLBTQ  — Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, queer encyclopaedia - Directory of U.S. and international LGBT Community Centres - American Psychological Association's Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns Office" -15523,59166,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%20and%20Honour,Blood and Honour,"Blood and Honour is a Neo-Nazi music promotion network. The group organises concerts and distributes records by Rock Against Communism bands. Ian Stuart Donaldson, singer of the band Skrewdriver, was the founder of Blood and Honour. The name Blood and Honour is taken from the motto of the Hitler Youth, Blut und Ehre. - -Other websites - Blood & Honour International - Blood & Honour UK - Blood & Honour UK - Central Division - Blood & Honour Radio - Blood & Honour USA - Blood & Honour Australia - Blood & Honour Croatia - Blood & Honour Finland - Blood & Honour Greece - Blood & Honour Netherlands - Blood & Honour Hungary - Blood & Honour Vlaanderen - Blood & Honour Ukraine - -Rock Against Communism" -19520,74684,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmednagar,Ahmednagar,"Ahmednagar is a city of Ahmednagar District in the state of Maharashtra, India, on the left bank of the Sina river, about 120 kilometres northeast of Pune and 120 kilometres from Aurangabad. - -References - -Other websites - - - -Cities in India -Settlements in Maharashtra -1490 establishments -15th-century establishments in Asia" -20354,78287,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector%20graphics,Vector graphics,"Vector graphics (also called graphical modeling, or object-oriented graphics) is a type of computer graphics. Vector graphics uses geometrical objects, like points, lines, curves, and polygons to model the image. Mathematics can be used to describe the graphics. Most often vectors and matrices are used. The first major use of vector graphics was in the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment air defense system. - -The other way to model computer graphics is to use raster graphics. Raster graphics model images as a collection of pixels. Unlike raster images, vector-based images can be scaled indefinitely without loss of quality. Vector graphics are most often used for diagrams, and other things that can be described using simple shapes. Photographs are most often raster images. - -Related pages -Raster graphics - -Computer graphics -Vector graphics" -16371,62967,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1215,1215," - -Events - In England, Magna Carta is signed by King John." -9242,31744,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor%20of%20the%20Exchequer,Chancellor of the Exchequer,"The Chancellor of the Exchequer is the head of the government treasury and the chief executive of HM Treasury who is a high ranking minister in the government of the United Kingdom. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, sometimes shortened to The Chancellor, is responsible for Britain's money and economy. - -Other well-known Chancellors of the Exchequer include Robert Peel, Winston Churchill, Denis Healey, Geoffrey Howe and George Osborne. - -List of the Chancellors of the Exchequer - -Chancellors of the Exchequer of England - Sir John Baker (date is not known) - Sir Walter Mildmay (1559–1589) - Sir John Fortescue (1589–1603) - George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar (1603–1606) - Sir Julius Caesar (1606–1614) - Sir Fulke Greville (1614–1621) - Sir Richard Weston (1621–1628) - Edward Barrett, 1st Lord Barrett of Newburgh (1628–1629) - Francis Cottington, 1st Baron Cottington (1629–1642) - Sir John Culpepper (1642–1643) - Sir Edward Hyde (July 19, 1642 - 1646) - Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury (May 13, 1661 - November 22, 1672) - Sir John Duncombe (November 22, 1672 - May 2, 1676) - Sir John Ernle (May 2, 1676 - April 9, 1689) - Henry Booth, 2nd Baron Delamere (April 9, 1689 - March 18, 1690) - Richard Hampden (March 18, 1690 - May 10, 1694) - Charles Montagu (May 10, 1694 - June 2, 1699) - John Smith (June 2, 1699 - March 27, 1701) - Henry Boyle (March 27, 1701 - April 22, 1708) - -Chancellors of the Exchequer of Great Britain -Many Chancellors were also Prime Minister for some or all of the time they were Chancellor. These are shown with a * - John Smith (April 22, 1708 - August 11, 1710) - Robert Harley (August 11, 1710 - June 4, 1711) - Robert Benson (June 4, 1711 - August 21, 1713) - Sir William Wyndham (August 21, 1713 - October 13, 1714) - Sir Richard Onslow (October 13, 1714 - October 12, 1715) - Robert Walpole (October 12, 1715 - April 15, 1717) - James Stanhope, 1st Viscount Stanhope (April 15, 1717 - March 20, 1718) - John Aislabie (March 20, 1718 - January 23, 1721) (resigned) - Sir John Pratt (February 2, 1721 - April 3, 1721) - Sir Robert Walpole (April 3, 1721 - February 12, 1742)* - Samuel Sandys (February 12, 1742 - December 12, 1743) - Henry Pelham (December 12, 1743 - March 8, 1754)* - Sir William Lee (March 8, 1754 - April 6, 1754) - Henry Bilson Legge (April 6, 1754 - November 25, 1755) - Sir George Lyttelton (November 25, 1755 - November 16, 1756) - Henry Bilson Legge (November 16, 1756 - April 13, 1757) - William Murray, 1st Baron Mansfield (April 13, 1757 - July 2, 1757) - Henry Bilson Legge (July 2, 1757 - March 19, 1761) - William Wildman Barrington-Shute, 2nd Viscount Barrington (March 19, 1761 - May 29, 1762) - Sir Francis Dashwood (May 29, 1762 - April 16, 1763) - George Grenville (April 16, 1763 - July 16, 1765)* - William Dowdeswell (July 16, 1765 - August 2, 1766) - Charles Townshend (August 2, 1766 - September 4, 1767) (died in office) - Frederick North, Lord North (September 11, 1767 - March 27, 1782)* (From 1770) (resigned) - Lord John Cavendish (March 27, 1782 - July 10, 1782) - William Pitt (July 10, 1782 - March 31, 1783) (resigned) - Lord John Cavendish (April 2, 1783 - December 19, 1783) - William Pitt (December 19, 1783 - March 14, 1801)* - -Chancellors of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom - Henry Addington (March 14, 1801 - May 10, 1804)* - William Pitt (May 10, 1804 - January 23, 1806)* (died in office) - Lord Henry Petty (February 5, 1806 - March 26, 1807) - Spencer Perceval (March 26, 1807 - May 12, 1812)* (From 1809) (assassinated) - Nicholas Vansittart (May 12, 1812 - January 31, 1823) - Frederick John Robinson (January 31, 1823 - April 20, 1827) - George Canning (April 20, 1827 - August 8, 1827)* (died in office) - Charles Abbott, 1st Baron Tenterden (August 8, 1827 - September 3, 1827) - John Charles Herries (September 3, 1827 - January 26, 1828) - Henry Goulburn (January 26, 1828 - November 22, 1830) - John Charles Spencer, Viscount Althorp (November 22, 1830 - November 14, 1834) - Lord Denman served as Chancellor pro tem (November 15 1834 - December 15 1834) - Sir Robert Peel (December 2, 1834 - April 8, 1835)* - Thomas Spring Rice (April 18, 1835 - August 26, 1839) - Sir Francis Thornhill Baring (August 26, 1839 - August 30, 1841) - Henry Goulburn (September 3, 1841 - June 27, 1846) - Sir Charles Wood (July 6, 1846 - February 21, 1852) - Benjamin Disraeli (February 27, 1852 - December 17, 1852) - William Ewart Gladstone (December 28, 1852 - February 28, 1855) - Sir George Cornewall Lewis (February 28, 1855 - February 21, 1858) - Benjamin Disraeli (February 26, 1858 - June 11, 1859) - William Ewart Gladstone (June 18, 1859 - June 26, 1866) - Benjamin Disraeli (July 6, 1866 - February 29, 1868) - George Ward Hunt (February 29, 1868 - December 1, 1868) - Robert Lowe (December 9, 1868 - August 11, 1873) - William Ewart Gladstone (August 11, 1873 - February 17, 1874)* - Sir Stafford Henry Northcote (February 21, 1874 - April 21, 1880) - William Ewart Gladstone (April 28, 1880 - December 16, 1882)* - Hugh Childers (December 16, 1882 - June 9, 1885) - Sir Michael Hicks Beach (June 24, 1885 - January 28, 1886) - Sir William Vernon Harcourt (February 6, 1886 - July 20, 1886) - Lord Randolph Churchill (August 3, 1886 - December 22, 1886) (resigned) - George Joachim Goschen (January 14, 1887 - August 11, 1892) - Sir William Vernon Harcourt (August 18, 1892 - June 21, 1895) - Sir Michael Hicks Beach (June 29, 1895 - August 11, 1902) - Charles Thomson Ritchie (August 11, 1902 - October 9, 1903) - Austen Chamberlain (October 9, 1903 - December 4, 1905) - Herbert Henry Asquith (December 10, 1905 - April 12, 1908) - David Lloyd George (April 12, 1908 - May 25, 1915) - Reginald McKenna (May 25, 1915 - December 10, 1916) - Andrew Bonar Law (December 10, 1916 - January 10, 1919) - Austen Chamberlain (January 10, 1919 - April 1, 1921) - Sir Robert Stevenson Horne (April 1, 1921 - October 19, 1922) - Stanley Baldwin (October 27, 1922 - August 27, 1923)* (From May 22, 1923) - Neville Chamberlain (August 27, 1923 - January 22, 1924) - Philip Snowden (January 22, 1924 - November 3, 1924) - Winston Churchill (November 6, 1924 - June 4, 1929) - Philip Snowden (June 7, 1929 - November 5, 1931) - Neville Chamberlain (November 5, 1931 - May 28, 1937) - Sir John Allsebrooke Simon (May 28, 1937 - May 12, 1940) - Sir Kingsley Wood (May 12, 1940 - September 24, 1943) - Sir John Anderson (September 24, 1943 - July 26, 1945) - Hugh Dalton (July 27, 1945 - November 13, 1947) (resigned) - Sir Stafford Cripps (November 13, 1947 - October 19, 1950) - Hugh Gaitskell (October 19, 1950 - October 26, 1951) - Rab Butler (October 28, 1951 - December 20, 1955) - Harold Macmillan (December 20, 1955 - January 13, 1957) - Peter Thorneycroft (January 13, 1957 - January 6, 1958) (resigned) - Derick Heathcoat-Amory (January 6, 1958 - July 27, 1960) - Selwyn Lloyd (July 27, 1960 - July 13, 1962) - Reginald Maudling (July 13, 1962 - October 16, 1964) - James Callaghan (October 16, 1964 - November 30, 1967) - Roy Jenkins (November 30, 1967 - June 19, 1970) - Iain Macleod (June 20, 1970 - July 20, 1970) (died in office) - Anthony Barber (July 25, 1970 - March 4, 1974) - Denis Healey (March 5, 1974 - May 4, 1979) - Sir Geoffrey Howe (May 4, 1979 - June 11, 1983) - Nigel Lawson (June 11, 1983 - October 26, 1989) (resigned) - John Major (October 26, 1989 - November 28, 1990) - Norman Lamont (November 28, 1990 - May 27, 1993) - Kenneth Clarke (May 27, 1993 - May 2, 1997) - Gordon Brown (May 2, 1997 - June 27, 2007) - Alistair Darling (June 28, 2007 - 11 May 2010) - George Osborne (11 May 2010 - 13 July 2016) - Philip Hammond (13 July 2016 - 24 July 2019) -Sajid Javid (24 July 2019 - 13 February 2020) (resigned) -Rishi Sunak (13 February 2020 - present) - - -Politics of the United Kingdom -United Kingdom-related lists" -19957,76360,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight%20Hicks,Dwight Hicks,"Dwight Hicks was born April 5, 1956 in Mount Holly, New Jersey. He was a professional American football player. He played the defensive back position for the Toronto Argonauts in 1978. He also played in the National Football League (NFL) for the San Francisco 49ers from 1979 to 1985 and for the Indianapolis Colts in 1986. Before that, Dwight Hicks played for the University of Michigan. He is a four-time Pro Bowl selection from 1981 to 1984. He helped the 49ers to win 2 NFL Championships in Super Bowl XVI and Super Bowl XIX. - -Hicks led the NFL in interceptions in the 1981 season, and return yards. He went on to be very important in the Super Bowl. After the 49ers lost a fumble on the opening kickoff, the Cincinnati Bengals got the football to San Francisco 5-yard line. Hicks made an interception and stopped the Bengals from scoring. - -In Hicks eight NFL seasons, he had 32 interceptions, 602 interception return yards, 14 fumble recoveries, 112 fumble return yards, and 4 touchdowns. - -Hicks went on to become a popular character actor in movies such as The Rock, Jack, Armageddon, and In the Mix after his football career. He also made appearances on many television programs. Some shows that he appeared on include Nash Bridges, The Pretender, The Practice, The X-Files, ER and The O.C. - -Indianapolis Colts players -San Francisco 49ers players -American movie actors -Actors from New Jersey -Sportspeople from New Jersey -American television actors -1956 births -Living people" -22934,87068,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation,Permutation,"A permutation is a single way of arranging a group of objects. It is useful in mathematics. - -A permutation can be changed into another permutation by simply switching two or more of the objects. For example, the way four people can sit in a car is a permutation. If some of them chose different seats, then it would be a different permutation. - -Permutations without repetitions -The factorial has special application in defining the number of permutations in a set which does not include repetitions. The number n!, read ""n factorial"", is precisely the number of ways we can rearrange n things into a new order. For example, if we have three fruit: an orange, apple and pear, we can eat them in the order mentioned, or we can change them (for example, an apple, a pear then an orange). The exact number of permutations is then . The number gets extremely large as the number of items (n) goes up. - -In a similar manner, the number of arrangements of r items from n objects is considered a partial permutation. It is written as (which reads ""n permute r""), and is equal to the number (also written as ). - -Related pages - - Combination (mathematics) - Superpermutation - -References - -Mathematics" -4523,14167,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig,Pig,"Pigs or domestic pigs are mammals in the genus Sus. Pigs are in the Suidae family of even-toed ungulates. - -Related, but outside the genus, are the babirusa and the warthog. Pigs, like all suids, are native to the Old World. Baby pigs are called piglets or pups. Pigs are omnivores and are very social and intelligent animals. Its ancestor is the common Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). - -The pig has stout, barrel-shaped bodies, with short legs. - -The flesh of domestic pigs is eaten as food and is called pork. The Jewish and Muslim religions, and some Christian denominations, believe eating pork is wrong. Pig farmers take care that the animals do not get diseases or parasites which might harm humans. - -Domestic pigs come in different colours, shapes and sizes. They are usually pink, but little pigs kept as pets (pot-bellied pigs) are sometimes other colours. Pigs roll in mud to protect themselves from sunlight. Many people think that pigs are dirty and smell. In fact, they roll around in the mud to keep bugs and ticks away from their skin. This also helps to keep their skin moist and lower their body temperature on hot days. They are omnivores, which means that they eat both plants and animals. - -Pigs are intelligent animals. They are even able to learn how to play video games. -Pigs are commonly used as working animals. They are used to hunt for truffles, pull carts and sniff out landmines. Pig races exist. - -Care -Pigs need a warm, clean area under a roof to sleep, and they should not be crowded. They need to be checked for sickness regularly. Pigs need lots of water. Over half their body weight is made up of water. Pigs should be given all the feed they will eat, which is usually four to five pounds a day for adult pigs. Corn is a good food for pigs, but they should also have protein supplements as well. - -Pigs can be found throughout the world living on farms and in the wild, and they are also popular pets. Pigs are kept and slaughtered for their flesh, pork. - -References - -Pigs -Ungulates" -24019,92731,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohn%2C%20Schaffhausen,"Lohn, Schaffhausen","Lohn is a municipality in the canton of Schaffhausen in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Schaffhausen" -1148,4379,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20vegetables,List of vegetables,"Some vegetables which are botanically fruits (such as tomatoes) are considered to be vegetables in the culinary (eating) sense. This is why they appear in this article. For sources, see individual pages. - -artichoke -aubergine (eggplant)biologically a fruit but taxed as a vegetable - asparagus -legumes -alfalfa sprouts -azuki beans (or adzuki) -bean sprouts -black beans -black-eyed peas -borlotti bean -broad beans -chickpeas, garbanzos, or ceci beans -green beans -kidney beans -lentils -lima beans or butter bean -mung beans -navy beans -peanuts -pinto beans -runner beans -split peas -soy beans -peas -mange tout or snap peas -broccoflower (a hybrid) -broccoli (calabrese) -brussels sprouts -cabbage -kohlrabi -Savoy cabbage -red cabbage -cauliflower -celery -endive -fiddleheads -frisee -fennel -greens -bok choy -chard (beet greens) -collard greens -kale -mustard greens - -herbs -anise -basil -caraway -coriander -chamomile -daikon -dill -fennel -lavender -cymbopogon (also known as lemongrass) -marjoram -oregano -parsley -rosemary -thyme -lettuce -arugula -mushrooms (actually a fungus, not a plant) -nettles -New Zealand spinach -okra -onions -chives -garlic -leek -onion -shallot -scallion (spring onion UK, green onion US) -peppers (biologically berry, but taxed as vegetables) -bell pepper -chili pepper -jalapeño -habanero -paprika -tabasco pepper -cayenne pepper -radicchio -rhubarb -root vegetables -beetroot (UK) beet (US) -mangel-wurzel: a variety of beet used mostly as cattlefeed -carrot -celeriac -corms -eddoe -konjac -taro -water chestnut -ginger -parsnip -rutabaga -radish -wasabi -horseradish - daikon or white radish -tubers -jicama -jerusalem artichoke -potato -sweet potato -yam -turnip -salsify (Oyster Plant) -skirret -sweetcorn -topinambur -squashes (biologically fruits, but taxed as vegetables) -acorn squash -bitter melon -butternut squash -banana squash -courgette (UK), Zucchini (US) -cucumber (biologically fruits, but taxed as vegetables) -delicata -gem squash -hubbard squash -marrow (UK) Squash (US) - -spaghetti squash -zucchini -spinach -tat soi -tomato (biologically a fruit, but taxed as a vegetable.) -watercress - -References - -Other websites - Lists of vegetables -Vegetables Name List - -Food-related lists" -1851,6207,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana,Louisiana,"Louisiana () is a state in the Southern United States of America. It had a population of about 4,533,372 people in 2010. The state has a total area of about . Louisiana is the 25th largest state by population and the 31st largest state by area. Louisiana is also known by its nickname, The Pelican State. The land that would become Louisiana was bought in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Louisiana became a state on April 30, 1812. It was the 18th state to become part of the United States. The people who live in the state are known as Louisianans. The state's capital is Baton Rouge, and its largest city is New Orleans. - -Louisiana has coastal plains, marshs, and low ridges. All of the state is in the Sun Belt. Louisiana is in a sub tropical region, and has a diverse ecosystem. The climate of Louisiana Louisiana has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). It has long, hot, humid summers and short, mild winters. - -One third of the adults in Louisiana are obese. This is the highest rate in the United States. - -Louisiana was settled by France and the influence of French culture is still a big part of Louisiana today. The French Quarter in New Orleans is one of the best known attractions in the state. It is known today for its special culture, unique food, as well as the holiday Mardi Gras which is most famous in New Orleans. - -Louisiana was very badly damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Much of the New Orleans area lies below sea level making flooding a serious problem. - -Louisiana was first settled by Native Americans. Louisiana has a large Louisiana Creole population. Louisiana Creole people are a mixture of French, Native American and African American. - -Cities - -Louisiana contains 308 incorporated municipalities, consisting of four consolidated city-parishes, and 304 cities, towns, and villages. Louisiana's municipalities cover only 7.9% of the state's land mass but are home to 45.3% of its population. The majority of urban Louisianans live along the coast or in northern Louisiana. The oldest permanent settlement in the state is Nachitoches. Baton Rouge, the state capital, is the second-largest city in the state. The most populous city is New Orleans. As defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, Louisiana contains nine metropolitan statistical areas. Major areas include Greater New Orleans, Greater Baton Rouge, Lafayette, and Shreveport–Bossier City. - -Related pages - - Colleges and universities in Louisiana - List of parishes in Louisiana - List of rivers of Louisiana - -References - - -1812 establishments in the United States" -9604,32783,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa%20%28moon%29,Europa (moon),"Europa is a large moon of the planet Jupiter. It is a little smaller than Earth's Moon and it is the sixth-largest moon in the solar system. - -Europa's diameter is about 3000 kilometers. It probably has an iron core, and an atmosphere that's mostly oxygen. The surface is icy and very smooth. There are not a lot of craters, but there are some cracks and lines. Because the surface is so young and smooth, scientists believe that there is a liquid ocean under the surface, and that it is kept warm by tidal heating. In other words, Jupiter's strong gravitational pull on Europa makes it warm. - -The moon Europa was found by Simon Marius in December 1609. Galileo Galilei first saw the moon in January 1610 (he did not know Marius had found it). Simon Marius was the one who had the idea of the name 'Europa'. - -The moon Europa is named after a princess from Greek mythology who became the first queen of Crete. However, people usually called Europa 'Jupiter II' until the middle of the 20th century. - -References - -Notes - -Other websites - Europa - -Jupiter's moons" -22225,84272,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunzenschwil,Hunzenschwil,"Hunzenschwil is a municipality of the district of Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References -Municipalities of Aargau" -4203,13172,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20John%20XXIII,Pope John XXIII,"Saint Pope John XXIII (; ), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 - 3 June 1963), was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 262nd Pope from 1958 to 1963. - -Early life -Roncalli was born in Sotto il Monte Giovanni XXIII in northern Italy. - -Priest -In 1904 he was ordained as a priest in the Roman Church of Santa Maria. Later in 1905, the new Bishop of Bergamo, Giacomo Maria Radini Tedeschi, appointed Angelo his secretary. Angelo went with Bishop Giacomo to all his pastoral visits. Angelo also helped him with many other tasks like managing the diocesan bulletin, going on pilgrimages, and social works. Angelo did more than just that while in the seminary; using his very good preaching skills he taught history, patrology, and apologetics. It was in the seminary he met the two future saints that would affect his life dramatically. These two Saints were St. Charles Borromeo and St. Francis de Sales, who were both very good pastors in the same seminary, and had a kind of apprentice like relationship. Father Angelo was extremely devoted to Bishop Giacomo until his death in 1914. After Bishop Giacomo’s death, Father Angelo continued teaching in the seminary, but was dragged into World War I and served as a medical corps sergeant after the war started Italy’s first home for poor young students. His life after the war started changing dramatically, and he even got the attention of Pope Pius XI. - -Bishop -From 1925 to 1944, Roncalli was a papal representative in the Balkans and the Mideast. - -Pope Pius XI named him Apostolic Visitator in Bulgaria, which brought him to the episcopate with the titular Diocese of Areopolis. He chose a motto, Oboedientia et Pax, which was his motto for the rest of his life. - -Cardinal -Roncalli was Patriarch of Venice from 1953 to 1958. Venice is the see of a cardinal. - -Pope - -Cardinal Roncalli was elected pope on October 29, 1958. His coronation was televised in Europe, and filmed for viewing in other parts of the world. - -Pope John expanded the College of Cardinals by naming the first African Cardinal, the first Japanese Cardinal, the first Filipino Cardinal. and the first Venezuelan Cardinal. - -He was the first Pope to make an official visit to the President of the Italian Republic at the Quirinal Palace. - -Second Vatican Council -Pope John brought together the church's bishops and cardinals in a meeting called Vatican Council II. It was ended by the Pope's death. - -After his death -John XXIII is buried with other popes in a crypt below St. Peter's Basilica. According to the official news agency of the Soviet Union, the pope's reign ""was marked by fruitful activity for the sake of consolidating peace and peaceful cooperation among nations."" -On September 3, 2000, Pope John XXIII was beatified and given the title of ""Blessed John XXIII"". On April 27, 2014, Pope John XXIII was canonized by Pope Francis and declared a new Saint of the Catholic Church given the title of ""Saint John XXIII"" alongside Pope John Paul II now known as ""Saint John Paul II"". - -Related pages - List of popes - -References - -Other websites - - Vatican webpage, John XXIII biography - Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Paul IV - Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Roncalli - - - -1881 births -1963 deaths - -Italian popes -Beatified people -Time People of the Year -People from Lombardy" -15505,59114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran%20V%C3%ADa,Gran Vía,"The Gran Vía (The Great Way) is one of the most important shopping areas in Madrid, Spain. It also has hotels and large movie theaters. - -Many of the buildings on the Gran Vía are decorated with fancy sculptures. One of the more impressive buildings on the Gran Vía is the Edificio Metropolis. It was built in 1907 by Jules and Raymond Février. It has a statue of the winged Roman goddess, Victoria, on the top. Madrid's first skyscraper, Telefonica's Head Office, is also on the Gran Vía. - -The Gran Vía was planned in the 1850s. They did not start building the road until 1904 and finished it in 1929. People laughed at the plan because it took so long to get started. As a joke, they called it the 'gran vía' or 'great road'. - -Other websites -A View On Cities - Gran Via, Madrid - -Buildings and structures in Madrid" -16325,62782,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake%20River,Snake River,"The Snake River is a river in the U.S. states of Wyoming, Idaho, Washington and Oregon. It is a tributary of the Columbia River. The river rises in western Wyoming, and flows through the Snake River Plain in Idaho. It turns north, forming the border with Oregon and Idaho, and the border with Washington and Idaho. At Lewiston it turns west and flows through Washington to the Columbia River. - -The Shoshone and Nez Perce Indians lived on the Snake River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition was the first American expedition to sight the Snake River. The river later was part of the Oregon Trail. Many pioneers traveled down the river to settle in the fertile Willamette Valley in Oregon. - -There are fifteen dams on the Snake River. Some are for hydropower, some for irrigation, and some for navigation. - -Rivers of Washington (U.S. state) -Rivers of Oregon -Rivers of Wyoming -Rivers of Idaho" -3699,11201,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1873,1873,"1873 was a year in the 19th century. - -Events - February 11 – King Amadeus I of Spain abdicates. - Blue jeans patented. - -Births - Alexis Mérodack-Jeanneau – French painter (d. 1919)" -1318,4716,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef,Beef,"Beef is a type of meat that comes from cattle. Beef could also include meats from other bovines. There are different types of beef. Beef is popular in the United States. - -Types of beef - Ground beef - Steak - Corned beef - Steak rump -Beef can also be in different types of grading such as: - - Prime - Choice - Select - -Beef Companies - Yoshinoya" -14795,55763,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical%20grid,Electrical grid,"An electrical grid is a connection network of power generation, power transmission, power distribution and power load. The grid connects all of those parts in power systems to deliver power from the generators at the power station to the customers or load center which will use the electricity. - -Electricity" -7249,23067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Trafford,Old Trafford,"Old Trafford is a football stadium in Manchester in North West England. Its nickname is ""The Theatre of Dreams"". It is home to the club Manchester United F.C.. It is the biggest club stadium in Great Britain and second biggest stadium in Great Britain, with Wembley Stadium being the biggest. Old Trafford hosted most of England's home matches while Wembley was being built. It was built in 1910. It cost about £60,000,000 to build. - -1910 establishments in Europe -1910s establishments in England -Football stadiums in England -Sport in Manchester" -10294,35969,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bairiki,Bairiki,"Bairiki is a village and an island now part of South Tarawa, and one time is the center of government of Kiribati. One of three post offices on Tarawa is located at Bairiki. Bairiki Island is the most southern island on the atoll of Tarawa. About nine islands are larger than Bairiki. - -Bairiki includes the main administrative center of Kiribati, but the Parliament has since moved to Ambo, halfway between Bairiki and Bonriki. In the village there is a small port and near Bairiki is a center of the University of the South Pacific. - -Villages -Settlements in Kiribati - -et:Tarawa South#Bairiki -en:South Tarawa#Bairiki -gl:Tarawa Sur#Bairiki -no:South Tarawa#Bairiki" -9303,31908,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%20%C4%8Cech,Petr Čech,"Petr Čech (born 20 May 1982) is a retired Czech football player who is the technical and performance advisor as well as an emergency backup goalkeeper for Chelsea. He is thought by some players, journalists and managers as the greatest goalkeeper in the history of the Premier League and, by many, as the greatest goalkeeper to have played for Chelsea. Currently, he plays as a goaltender for the London based ice hockey club Guildford Phoenix. - -Čech was thought to be one of the best goalkeepers in the world. He had the record of the least losses in his first season playing for Chelsea and in the same season, he helped Chelsea to win the title of Premier League. He also helped Chelsea to win the same title the next year. - -His first club was in his native country of Czech Republic. He stayed there for two years before moving to Sparta Prague. He stayed there for one season. His first overseas club was Rennes of Ligue 1. He played there from 2002 to 2004 before moving to Chelsea. He became a Chelsea player in June 2004. After a very successful 11-year career at Chelsea, he joined Arsenal in June 2015. He retired after playing for four years with Arsenal in 2019. Afterwards, Čech re-joined Chelsea as their Technical and Sporting Director. - -He won many titles during his career which consists of: four English Premier League, five FA Cup, one UEFA Champions League and one UEFA Europa League title. Due to these achievements, he is also named amongst one of the most successful goalkeepers in football history. - -Personal life -Petr Čech was born as a triplet (due to which he had a weak skull) to father Václav Čech and mother Libuše Čechová. They were both retired athletes. - -In his childhood, he was an actor rather than an athlete and also played the role of Honza in the Czech TV series - The Territory of White Deer around 1991. He also had interest in ice hockey but his family could not afford the gear (equipment) required to play it, and hence he switched to football. At the start of his career, Čech played as a forward (left winger) but after suffering a leg fracture at the age of 10, he turned towards goalkeeping. - -In 2003 he married Martina Čechova, whom he met while he was in high school. Petr and Martina have two children named Adéla and Damián. Adéla was born in 2008 and Damián in 2009. - -Outside football, Čech has interests in Rock music, Ice Hockey, Gardening, Table Tennis, Tennis, Drumming, Acting etc. He has an account on YouTube through which he publishes videos of his drum covers of various rock songs from rock bands like Coldplay, Incubus, Foo Fighters, Radiohead etc. This led Čech to provide percussion for the Czech Republic's official Euro 2016 tournament anthem. Further, he has also released a charity single with Queen's drummer Roger Taylor for the Bob Wilson Foundation. On being quizzed later about how he learned drumming, Čech told that he learned it by playing Rock Band and Guitar Hero (video games) with his goalkeeping friend Carlo Cudicini, in an interview. He is, currently, a drummer for the London-based folk rock band Wills and the Willing. - -Club career statistics -Sources: - -International career statistics - -Source: -|- -|2002||7||0 -|- -|2003||8||0 -|- -|2004||13||0 -|- -|2005||10||0 -|- -|2006||10||0 -|- -|2007||8||0 -|- -|2008||9||0 -|- -|2009||7||0 -|- -|2010||6||0 -|- -|2011||10||0 -|- -|2012||10||0 -|- -|2013||8||0 -|- -|2014||6||0 -|- -|2015||6||0 -|- -|2016||6||0 -|- -!Total||124||0 -|} - -Records held -Čech holds many records, out of which the most notable ones are: - A national record for not having a goal scored against him in 855 minutes of game play. - English Premiership record of not having a goal scored against him in 1,025 minutes. (Edwin van der Sar later broke the record by not conceding a single goal for 1,032 minutes.) - 25 games without letting a goal be scored in Chelsea's 2004/05 title-winning season. - A record of the most number of games ever played for chelsea by a non-Englishman. - Least number of matches played to get 100 clean sheets in premier league. - Least number of matches played to get 200 clean sheets in premier league. - The most number of clean sheets (202) in premier league history. - The only goalkeeper to get 200 clean sheets in premier league. - The footballer to win the most number of Czech Footballer of the Year and Czech Golden Ball awards. - Has played the most number of matches in the history of Czech Republic. - Most number of clean sheets in a single season (Football season) and in first season in premier league. - The only goalkeeper to win Premier League Golden Gloves with two teams. - Winner of the golden gloves for the most number of times in premier league history. - 4th highest number of matches played by a goalkeeper in Champions League History. - A record of winning the premier League title 4 times, more than any other goalkeeper in Premier League history, except Peter Schmeichel. - He has done the second-most no. of saves (1136) among all the goalkeepers in the history of premier league. - Of all the goalkeepers who have made 500 or more saves, he has the best saves-to-shots ratio (the number of saves done per 100 shots) in premier league history. - He is the 6th highest appearance-maker in Chelsea history. - A record of having conceded the least no. of goals (15) in a season (2004/05) in Premier League history. - Most clean sheets at one club by any goalkeeper in premier league history. - Highest save percentage recorded in Champions League for a decade (2010-2019). - Highest minutes-goal conceded ratio in premier league history for any goalkeeper to have played 6000 or more minutes in the competition. - Highest minutes per goal conceded in a single season of premier league (242 minutes per goal in 2004/05 season). - Highest save percentage ever recorded in premier league for a single season (91% in 2007). - Joint most no. of premier league seasons finished with a save percentage of 80% or higher (5, tied with Edwin van der Sar). - Second highest no. of Best European Goalkeeper award wins (4, tied with Oliver Kahn) - 2nd most no. of penalty saves in Champions league history (5, behind only Iker Casillas). -The longest game time without conceding in Czech league (1025 min). -He has the 4th highest no. of clean sheets in European competitions history. -Third-most clean sheets (391) among all the goalkeepers since 2000. - -Awards and Titles - -Club - Premier League: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15 - FA Cup: 2006–07, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2011–12, 2016-17 - Football League Cup: 2004–05, 2006–07, 2007–08 (runner-up), 2014–15, 2017–18 (runner-up) - FA Community Shield: 2005, 2009, 2015, 2017 - UEFA Champions League: 2007–08 (runner-up), 2011–12 - UEFA Europa League: 2012–13, 2018–19 (runner-up) - FIFA Club World Cup: 2012 (runner-up) - -International - UEFA European Under-21 Championship: 2002 - -Individual - UEFA European Under-21 Championship Golden Player: 2002 - Czech First League Most clean Sheets: 2001–02 - Best Goalkeeper of French League: 2003–04 - UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2004 - Premier League Golden Glove: 2004–05, 2009–10, 2013–14, 2015–16 - PFA Team of the Year: 2004–05 Premier League, 2013–14 Premier League - Czech Footballer of the Year: 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016 - Golden Ball (Czech Republic): 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017 - IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper: 2005 - Best European Goalkeeper: 2005, 2007, 2008, 2012 - UEFA Club Football Awards Best Goalkeeper: 2005, 2007, 2008 - UEFA Team of the Year: 2005 - ESM Team of the Year: 2004–05, 2005–06 - Premier League Player of the Month: March 2007 - Chelsea Player of the Year: 2010–11 - FIFA FIFPro World XI 5th team: 2013 - National Ice Hockey League 2 South Player of the Month: January 2020 - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - - - Petr Čech profile - Petr Čech Official Youtube Channel - Petr Čech Official Twitter - Petr Čech Official Instagram - Petr Čech Official Facebook - -Association football goalkeepers -1982 births -Living people -Czech footballers -Chelsea F.C. players -Arsenal F.C. players -UEFA Euro 2004 players -UEFA Euro 2008 players -UEFA Euro 2012 players -UEFA Euro 2016 players -2006 FIFA World Cup players" -23344,89601,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronco%20sopra%20Ascona,Ronco sopra Ascona,"Ronco sopra Ascona is a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Ticino" -11163,40368,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trombone,Trombone,"The trombone is a brass horn musical instrument. It is similar to a large trumpet, except the player pushes and pulls on its slide to change the length of the tube. - -Together with vibrations from the player's lips, the trombone can play a wide range of notes. It sounds deeper than a trumpet and is usually said to be one of the bass clef instruments. Music is normally written in the bass clef, but some high parts can be written in tenor clef. Some players have the music transposed into the treble clef. The trombone is the loudest instrument in the symphony orchestra. - -A person who plays the trombone is called a trombonist. Some trombones have a valve which increases the range of available notes. The name trombone comes from the Italian language and means large trumpet. Trombones are nearly always made out of brass but can also be made out of plastic: the ""P-bone"". - -History -The forerunner to today's trombone was called the sackbut. It was first used in the 16th century during the Renaissance era of music. In the centuries that followed, the sackbut was gradually improved into today's trombone. Beethoven was the first composer to add trombones to the standard symphony orchestra. Many different types of music use the unique sound of the trombone to add color and depth. Trombones are used in orchestras, concert bands, marching bands, brass bands, big bands, swing bands, ska bands, and jazz ensembles. In the symphony orchestra, it is common to see trombones in a section of three: two tenors and a bass. In a standard big band, a four player section is more typical. This time with three tenors and one bass as the normal arrangement. - -In the hands of a skilled trombonist, the trombone is a very versatile instrument and can play many styles. The trombone can go from smooth, sweet jazz ballads and peaceful slow melodies such as Duke Ellington's ""Pyramid"", to fast and technical passages from pieces like ""Blue Bells of Scotland"" and ""Carnival of Venice"". - -Types - -There are a lot of types of trombones. Each one is for different playing ranges (how high or low you play). There are contrabass trombones, bass trombones, tenor bass trombones, tenor trombones, alto trombones, soprano trombones, and piccolo trombones. These are the different types of trombones, arranged according to general usage. - -The tenor trombone is the most popular trombone type in use today, and is usually what people mean when they say ""trombone"". It is usually the first instrument a new trombonist will play. It has a slide that is used to change notes and make music. People who play the tenor trombone usually play from bass clef but some very good players can play from treble clef. Better and more expensive tenor trombones have an F attachment. -The bass trombone is different from the tenor trombone because it has one or two triggers, and has a larger bell, which makes it sound better in lower octaves. Most bands have only one bass trombonist. Usually, if a song does not have a bass trombone part, the bass trombonist reads off the 3rd or 4th trombone part. -The alto trombone is a type of trombone that is somewhat higher sounding than a regular trombone. It is mostly used in orchestras where the highest part is sometimes easier to play on an alto trombone. However, it is not very common and most of the time, a tenor trombone plays the alto trombone part if one exists. -The contrabass trombone is the lowest-sounding trombone used in music today. It sometimes has a double slide, meaning that the slide tube wraps twice instead of once like on a tenor trombone. -The soprano trombone is a type of trombone that plays in the same range as a Bb trumpet. -The valve trombone is just a tenor trombone with a valve section. These valves work the same as those on a trumpet, euphonium, etc. - -Famous trombonists -Some famous trombonists include: - Edward ‘Kid’ Ory - Bill Watrous - Carl Fontana - Jim Robinson - Jack Teagarden - Al Grey - Glenn Miller - Tommy Dorsey - Pete Ramberg - Lawrence Brown - Curtis Fuller - Slide Hampton - Fred Wesley - Trombone Shorty -Martin Schippers - Christian Lindberg -Joseph Alessi -Christopher Bill -Wycliffe Gordon - -References - -Other websites - - International Trombone Association - Trombone Page of the World - TrombonesOnline - Trombone Portal and Trombonist Directory - British Trombone Society - Finnish Trombone and Tuba Association - Online Trombone Journal" -24164,93225,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulliken,Dulliken,"Dulliken is a municipality in the district Olten in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -17694,66927,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20calendar,Chinese calendar,"The Chinese calendar, also known as the ""agriculture calendar"" (農曆/农历), is a lunisolar calendar (yinyangli). It was used until 1912 when the Gregorian calendar was adopted. This is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes. It was developed in part from a lunar calendar (陰曆 yinli) and in part from a solar calendar (陽曆 yangli). - -History -The current version of the Chinese calendar was developed for the Chongzhen Emperor in the 17th century. It has - -Today in China the Gregorian calendar is used for most activities. At the same time, the Chinese calendar is still used for traditional Chinese holidays like Chinese New Year or Lunar New Year. - -Related pages - Sexagenary calendar - -References - -Other websites - Gregorian-Lunar Calendar Conversion Table - -Chinese culture -Calendars" -5304,17376,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20processing%20unit,Central processing unit,"A central processing unit (CPU) is an important part of every computer. The CPU sends signals to control the other parts of the computer, almost like how a brain controls a body. - -The CPU is an electronic machine that works on a list of computer things to do, called instructions. It reads the list of instructions and runs (executes) each one in order. A list of instructions that a CPU can run is a computer program. - -The clock rate, or speed of a CPU's internal parts, is measured in hertz (Hz). Modern processors often run so fast that gigahertz (GHz) is used instead. One GHz is 1,000,000,000 cycles per second. - -Most CPUs used in desktop (home) computers are microprocessors made by either Intel or Advanced Micro Devices (usually shortened to AMD). Some other companies that make CPUs are ARM (recently bought by Nvidia), IBM, and AMD under ATI Technologies, which is the leader right now. Most of their CPUs are used in embedded systems for more specialized things, like in mobile phones, cars, video game consoles, or in the military. - -Types of CPUs - -In the 20th century engineers invented many different computer architectures. Nowadays most desktop computers use either 32-bit CPUs or 64-bit CPUs. The instructions in a 32-bit CPU are good at handling data that is 32 bits in size (most instructions ""think"" in 32 bits in a 32-bit CPU). Likewise, a 64-bit CPU is good at handling data that is 64 bits in size (and often good at handling 32-bit data too). The size of data that a CPU handles best is often called the word size of the CPU. Many old CPUs from the 70s, 80s and early 90s (and many modern embedded systems) have an 8-bit or 16-bit word size. When CPUs were invented in the middle 20th century they had many different word sizes. Some had different word sizes for instructions and data. The less popular word sizes later stopped being used. - -Most CPUs are microprocessors. This means that the CPU is just a single chip. Some chips with microprocessors inside them also contain other components, and are complete single-chip ""computers"". This is called a microcontroller. - -Registers -When the CPU runs a computer program, it needs somewhere to store the data that the instructions operate on (the data that they read and write). This storage is called a register. A CPU usually has many registers. Registers must be very fast to access (to read and write). Therefore, they are part of the CPU chip itself. - -Memory -Storing all data in registers would make most CPUs too complicated (and very expensive). Therefore, registers usually only store the data that the CPU is working on ""right now"". The rest of the data used by the program is stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). Except in microcontrollers, RAM is usually stored outside the CPU in separate chips. - -When the CPU wants to read or write data in RAM, it outputs an address to that data. Each byte in RAM has a memory address. The size of addresses is often the same as the word size: A 32-bit CPU uses 32-bit addresses, etc. However, smaller CPUs, like 8-bit CPUs, often use addresses that are larger than the word size. Otherwise the maximum program length would be too short. - -Because the size of addresses is limited, the maximum amount of memory is also limited. 32-bit processors can usually only handle up to 4 GB of RAM. This is the number of different bytes that can be selected using a 32-bit address (each bit can have two values—0 and 1—and 232 bytes is 4 GB). A 64-bit processor might be able to handle up to 16 EB of RAM (16 exabytes, around 16 billion GB, or 16 billion billion bytes). The operating system may limit it to using smaller amounts. - -The information that is stored in RAM is usually volatile. This means that it will disappear if the computer is turned off. - -Cache -On modern computers, RAM is much slower than registers, so accessing RAM slows down programs. To speed up memory accesses, a faster type of memory called a cache is often put between the RAM and the main parts of the CPU. The cache is usually a part of the CPU chip itself, and is much more expensive per byte than RAM. The cache stores the same data as RAM, but is usually much smaller. Therefore, all the data used by the program might not fit in the cache. The cache tries to store data that is likely to be used a lot. Examples include recently used data and data close in memory to recently used data. - -Often it makes sense to have a ""cache for the cache"", just as it makes sense to have a cache for RAM. In multi-level caching, there are many caches, called the L1 cache, the L2 cache, and so on. The L1 cache is the fastest (and most expensive per byte) cache and is ""closest"" to the CPU. The L2 cache is one step away and is slower than the L1 cache, etc. The L1 cache can often be viewed as a cache for the L2 cache, etc. - -Buses -Computer buses are the wires used by the CPU to communicate with RAM and other components in the computer. Almost all CPUs have at least a data bus - used to read and write data - and an address bus - used to output addresses. Other buses inside the CPU carry data to different parts of the CPU. - -Instruction sets -An instruction set (also called an ISA - Instruction Set Architecture) is a language understood directly by a particular CPU. These languages are also called machine code or binary. They say how you tell the CPU to do different things, like loading data from memory into a register, or adding the values from two registers. Each instruction in an instruction set has an encoding, which is how the instruction is written as a sequence of bits. - -Programs written in programming languages like C and C++ can't be run directly by the CPU. They must be translated into machine code before the CPU can run them. A compiler is a computer program that does this translation. - -Machine code is just a sequence of 0s and 1s, which makes it difficult for humans to read it. To make it more readable, machine code programs are usually written in assembly language. Assembly language uses text instead of 0s and 1s: You might write ""LD A,0"" to load the value 0 into register A for example. A program that translates assembly language into machine code is called an assembler. - -Functionality -Here are some of the basic things a CPU can do: - - Read data from memory and write data to memory. - Add one number to another number. - Test to see if one number is bigger than another number. - Move a number from one place to another (for example, from one register to another, or between a register and memory). - Jump to another place in the instruction list, but only if some test is true (for example, only if one number is bigger than another). - -Even very complicated programs can be made by combining many simple instructions like these. This is possible because each instruction takes a very short time to happen. Many CPUs today can do more than 1 billion (1,000,000,000) instructions in a single second. In general, the more a CPU can do in a given time, the faster it is. One way to measure a processor's speed is MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second). Flops (Floating-point operations per second) and CPU clock speed (usually measured in gigahertz) are also ways to measure how much work a processor can do in a certain time. - -A CPU is built out of logic gates; it has no moving parts. The CPU of a computer is connected electronically to other parts of the computer, like the video card, or the BIOS. A computer program can control these peripherals by reading or writing numbers to special places in the computer's memory. - -Instruction pipelines -Each instruction executed by a CPU is usually done in many steps. For example, the steps to run an instruction ""INC A"" (increase the value stored in register A by one) on a simple CPU could be this: - Read the instruction from memory, - decode the instruction (figure out what the instruction does), and - add one to register A. - -Different parts of the CPU do these different things. Often it is possible to run some steps from different instructions at the same time, which makes the CPU faster. For example, we can read an instruction from memory at the same time that we decode another instruction, since those steps use different modules. This can be thought of as having many instructions ""inside the pipeline"" at once. In the best case, all of the modules are working on different instructions at once, but this is not always possible. - -Memory management units (MMUs) and virtual memory -Modern CPUs often use a memory management unit (MMU). An MMU is a component that translates addresses from the CPU to (usually) different RAM addresses. When using an MMU, the addresses used in a program are (usually) not the ""real"" addresses where the data is stored. This is called virtual (the opposite of ""real"") memory. A few of the reasons why it is good to have an MMU are listed below: - An MMU can ""hide"" the memory of other programs from a program. This is done by not translating any addresses to the ""hidden"" addresses while the program is running. This is good because it means that programs can't read and modify the memory of other programs, which improves security and stability. (Programs can't ""spy"" on each other, or ""step on each other's toes"".) - Many MMUs can make some parts of memory non-writeable, non-readable, or non-executable (meaning code stored in that part of memory can't be run). This can be good for stability reasons and security reasons, as well as for other reasons. - MMUs allow different programs to have different ""views"" of memory. This is handy in many different situations. For example, it will always be possible to have the ""main"" code of a program at the same (virtual) address without colliding with other programs. It is also handy when there are many different pieces of code (from libraries) that are shared between programs. - MMUs allow code from libraries to appear at different addresses every time a program is run. This is good because not knowing where things are in memory often makes it harder for hackers to make programs do bad things. This is called address space randomization. - Advanced programs and operating systems can use tricks with MMUs to avoid having to copy data between different places in memory. - -Multiple cores -Multi-core processors became much more common in the early 21st century. This means that they have many processors built on to the same chip so that they can run many instructions at once. Some processors may have up to sixty-four cores, like the upcoming AMD Epyc ""Milan"" series. Even processors for consumers have many cores, such as the 16-core AMD Ryzen 9 5950x. - -Multithreading -Some processors have a technology known as multithreading. This is the task of running more than one ""thread"" of instructions in an operating system. Many modern processors use this to boost performance with heavy multi-threaded programs, such as benchmark programs. - -Manufacturers -The following companies make computer CPUs: - ARM - Intel - Advanced Micro Devices - MCST - SRISA - Sun Microsystems - -Further information - Microprocessor - ALU - Execution unit - Floating point unit - Intel - AMD - -References - -Other websites - Central processing unit at Citizendium - -Microprocessor design" -23545,90754,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehan%20Alain,Jehan Alain,"Jehan Alain (born Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Paris, 3 February, 1911; died near Saumur, 20 June 1940) was a French organist and composer. He learned to play the organ at home on an organ that his father had built. In his short life he composed many works. His most famous organ pieces are Trois Danses (Three Dances) and a brilliant piece called Litanies. - -Alain was killed fighting in World War II. - -His youngest sister, Marie-Claire Alain, is an internationally-famous organist and has made several complete recordings of her brother's organ works. - -1911 births -1940 deaths -20th-century French composers" -3282,9971,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2017,August 17," - -Events - -Up to 1900 -310 Pope Eusebius is banished by Emperor Maxentius to Sicily, where he dies. -682 Pope Leo II is elected. -986 A Byzantine army is destroyed at the pass of Trajan by Bulgarians. -1386 Karl Topia, ruler of the Princedom of Albania, creates an alliance with the Republic of Venice. -1424 Hundred Years' War: Battle of Verneuil - English victory over the French. -1498 Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, becomes the first cardinal to-date to resign from his post. -1560 Protestantism becomes the official religion of Scotland. -1585 Eighty Years' War: Siege of Antwerp - Antwerp is captured by Spanish forces under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, who orders Protestants to leave the city. -1668 A magnitude 8.0 earthquake kills around 8,000 people in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire. -1740 Pope Benedict XIV is elected. -1771 Edinburgh botanist James Robertson makes the first recorded successful climb of Ben Nevis, the highest point in both Scotland and the whole of the present-day United Kingdom. -1786 Frederick II of Prussia dies, having been a very influential leader in Prussia. His son, Frederick William II of Prussia, succeeds him. -1807 Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat leaves New York City for Albany on the Hudson River. -1862 American Indian Wars: The Dakota War of 1862 begins in Minnesota. -1864 American Civil War: Battle of Gainesville - Confederate forces defeat Union forces near Gainesville, Florida. -1896 Bridget Driscoll becomes the first-recorded person to be killed in an automobile accident when she is run over in the grounds of London's Crystal Palace by a Benz car. - -1901 2000 -1908 Fantasmagorie, the first animated cartoon, created by Emil Cohl is shown in Paris. -1914 The first pilots are trained for the Royal Australian Air Force. -1915 A category 4 hurricane hits Galveston, Texas. -1918 Bolshevik revolutionary leader Moises Uritsky is assassinated. -1942 World War II: The first US bombing raid in Europe takes place. -1943 World War II: The US Seventh Army under George S. Patton and the British 8th Army under field marshal Bernard Montgomery enter Messina, Sicily, completing the allied conquest of Sicily. -1945 Indonesia declares independence from the Netherlands. The Netherlands only recognize Indonesian independence in 1949. -1947 The Radcliffe Line is set to mark the border between India and Pakistan. -1959 Quake Lake in Yellowstone National Park is formed by a magnitude 7.5 earthquake centred near Hebgen Lake, Montana. -1960 Gabon becomes independent from France. -1962 East German border guards kill 18-year-old Peter Fechter. -1969 Hurricane Camille kills 243 people in the Southern United States. -1970 The Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 is sent to the planet Venus. -1977 Soviet nuclear icebreaker Arktika becomes the first vessel to cross the North Pole overwater. -1978 US balloonists, Ben Abruzzo, Larry Newman and Max Anderson, become the first people to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a hot-air balloon. -1982 The first CDs are released to the public in Germany. -1987 At age 18, Steffi Graf becomes women's singles Number One in tennis. She goes on to hold this position for 377 weeks. -1987 Adolf Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, dies aged 93, as the last prisoner at Spandau Prison. -1988 Pakistani President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq is killed in a plane crash near Bahawalpur, Punjab. -1996 Claudie André-Deshays becomes the first Frenchwoman in space. -1998 US President Bill Clinton admits an ""improper physical relationship"" with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. -1999 A magnitude 7.4 earthquake hits İzmit in northwestern Turkey, killing more than 17,000 people, and injuring around 44,000. - -From 2001 -2002 The water levels of the River Elbe reach their highest-recorded level. The city of Dresden is among the places flooded. -2004 New state symbols are adopted by Serbia. -2005 The first forced evacuation of settlers as part of the Israeli unilateral disengagement plan begins. -2005 Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at around 300 locations in 63 out of 64 districts in Bangladesh. -2008 Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win 8 individual gold medals at a single Olympic Games. -2009 An accident occurs at the Sayano-Shushenskaya dam in Khakassia, Russia, killing 75 people and shutting down the hydroelectric power station. -2015 A bomb explodes at the Ratchaprasong Intersection near the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, killing 23 people and injuring over 100. -2017 2017 Barcelona attack: A vehicle is driven at people on the street Las Ramblas in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, killing 13 people. -2019 A bomb attack on a wedding party in Kabul, Afghanistan, kills at least 63 people and wounds 180. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1465 Philibert I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1482) - 1473 Richard, Duke of York, one of the Princes in the Tower (d. 1483?) - 1556 Alexander Briant, English martyr and saint (d. 1581) - 1586 Johann Andreas Valentinus Andreae, German theologian, writer and mathematician (d. 1654) - 1601 Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician (d. 1665) - 1603 Lennart Torstensson, Swedish field marshal and military officer (d. 1651) - 1629 John III of Poland (d. 1696) - 1686 Nicola Porpora, Italian composer and teacher (d. 1768) - 1699 Bernard Jussieu, French naturalist (d. 1777) - 1735 Tobias Furneaux, British explorer (d. 1781) - 1755 Thomas Stothard, British painter (d. 1834) - 1761 William Carey, English botanist and missionary (d. 1824) - 1768 Louis Charles Antoine Desaix, French general (d. 1800) - 1786 Davy Crockett, American frontiersman, soldier (d. 1836) - 1786 Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, mother of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom (d. 1861) - 1798 Thomas Hodgkin, English physician (d. 1866) - 1799 Robert von Mohl, German jurist (d. 1875) - 1800 Charles Rogier, 4th, 10th and 13th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1885) - 1801 Fredrika Bremer, Swedish writer (d. 1865) - 1828 Jules Bernard Luys, French neurologist (d. 1897) - 1844 Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1913) - 1863 Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and photographer (d. 1924) - 1866 Julia Marlowe, née Sarah Frost, Shakespearean actress (d. 1950) - 1870 Liberato Marcial Rojas, President of Paraguay (d. 1922) - 1877 Ralph McKittrick, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1923) - 1877 Princess Mathilde of Bavaria (d. 1906) - 1887 Marcus Garvey, Jamaican-born American black leader (d. 1940) - 1887 Emperor Karl of Austria (d. 1922) - 1887 Samuel Stritch, American cardinal (d. 1958) - 1890 Harry Hopkins, American politician (d. 1946) - 1890 Stefan Bastyr, Polish aviator (d. 1920) - 1893 Mae West, American actress and playwright (d. 1980) - 1893 Walter Noddack, German chemist (d. 1960) - 1894 Otto Suhr, German politician (d. 1957) - 1896 Johannes Kleiman, Dutch helper of Anne Frank (d. 1959) - -1901 1950 - 1901 Hedin Bru, Faroese writer (d. 1987) - 1904 Leopold Nowak, Austrian musicologist (d. 1991) - 1906 Marcelo Caetano, Portuguese politician (d. 1980) - 1907 Gustav Schwarzenegger, Austrian police chief and postal inspector, father of Arnold Schwarzenegger (d. 1972) - 1909 Larry Clinton, American trumpeter and bandleader (d. 1985) - 1910 Erkki Aaltonen, Finnish composer (d. 1990) - 1911 Mikhail Botvinnik, world chess champion (d. 1995) - 1911 Martin Sandberger, German military officer (d. 2010) - 1913 Mark Felt, American agent, 'Deep Throat' in the Watergate scandal (d. 2008) - 1913 Rudy York, American Major League Baseball All-Star (d. 1970) - 1913 Oscar Alfredo Galvez, Argentine racing driver (d. 1989) - 1914 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr., son of Franklin D. Roosevelt (d. 1988) - 1919 Georgia Gibbs, American singer (d. 2006) - 1920 Maureen O'Hara, Irish-American actress (d. 2015) - 1922 Frederick B. Dent, American politician - 1923 Larry Rivers, American artist, musician, filmmaker and actor (d. 2002) - 1926 George Melly, British singer (d. 2007) - 1926 Jiang Zemin, former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China - 1926 Jean Poiret, French actor, director and screenwriter (d. 1992) - 1929 Francis Gary Powers, American U-2 pilot (d. 1977) - 1929 Jimmy Donley, American singer-songwriter (d. 1963) - 1930 Glenn Corbett, actor (d. 1993) - 1930 Ted Hughes, English poet (d. 1998) - 1932 V. S. Naipaul, Trinidad and Tobago-born writer (d. 2018) - 1932 Jean-Jacques Sempe, French cartoonist - 1933 Tom Courtney, American athlete - 1933 Gene Kranz, American NASA flight director and manager - 1934 Carin Mannheimer, Swedish writer (d. 2014) - 1936 Margaret Hamilton, American computer scientist - 1937 Ronnie Butler, Bahamian singer - 1938 Theodoros Pangalos, Greek politician - 1939 Luther Allison, American blues musician, guitarist (d. 1997) - 1940 Eduardo Mignona, Argentine director (d. 2006) - 1941 Lothar Bisky, German politician (d. 2013) - 1941 Fritz Wepper, German actor - 1941 Ibrahim Babangida, Nigerian military leader - 1943 Robert De Niro, American actor - 1943 John Humphrys, British broadcaster - 1943 Yukio Kasaya, Japanese ski jumper - 1943 Dave ""Snaker"" Ray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist - 1944 Rexhep Meidani, former President of Albania - 1944 Bobby Murdoch, Scottish footballer (d. 2001) - 1946 Patrick Manning, former Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2016) - 1946 Angel Romero, Spanish guitarist and conductor - 1947 Mohamed Abdelaziz, Western Sahara politician (d. 2016) - 1948 Chico Maki, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2015) - 1949 Julian Fellowes, English actor, producer and director - 1949 Mitsunori Fujiguchi, Japanese footballer - 1949 Norm Coleman, American lawyer and politician - -1951 1975 - 1951 Robert Joy, Canadian actor - 1951 Alan Minter, boxer - 1951 Elba Ramalho, Brazilian singer-songwriter - 1952 Nelson Piquet, Brazilian racing driver - 1952 Mario Theissen, German Formula 1 team principal - 1952 Guillermo Vilas, Argentine tennis player - 1953 Herta Müller, Romanian-German writer, Nobel Prize winner - 1953 Kevin Rowland, British musician - 1954 Andrés Pastrana Arango, former President of Colombia - 1956 Fabio Armiliato, Italian tenor - 1957 Robin Cousins, British figure skater - 1958 Michael Brooks, American basketball player - 1958 Belinda Carlisle, American singer, guitarist - 1958 Kirk Stevens, Canadian snooker player - 1958 Fred Goodwin, Scottish banker, former head of the Royal Bank of Scotland - 1959 Jonathan Franzen, American writer - 1959 David Koresh, American cult leader (d. 1993) - 1960 Sean Penn, American actor, director - 1962 Gilby Clarke, American musician (Guns N'Roses) - 1963 Maritza Marbén, Cuban discus thrower - 1963 Shankar, Indian director and producer - 1964 Colin James, American blues musician - 1965 Sergio Vargas, Chilean footballer - 1966 Rodney Mullen, American skateboarder - 1968 Helen McCrory, British actress - 1968 Ed McCaffrey, American football player - 1968 Anthony E. Zuiker, American television producer - 1968 Andriy Kuzmenko, Ukrainian singer, writer, presenter, producer and actor (d. 2015) - 1968 Andrew Koenig, American actor (d. 2010) - 1969 Christian Laettner, American basketball player - 1969 Donnie Wahlberg, American actor and singer - 1970 Jim Courier, American tennis player - 1970 Rupert Degas, Australian voice actor - 1971 Uhm Jung-hwa, South Korean singer and actress - 1971 Jorge Posada, American Major League Baseball All-Star - 1972 Habibul Bashar, Bangladeshi cricketer - 1974 Tomomi Kahala, Japanese singer - -From 1976 - 1976 Serhiy Zakarlyuka, Ukrainian footballer (d. 2014) - 1977 William Gallas, French footballer - 1977 Thierry Henry, French footballer - 1977 Tarja Turunen, Finnish lead singer of Nightwish - 1977 Mike Lewis, Welsh guitarist - 1977 Claire Richards, English singer (Steps) - 1980 Jan Kromkamp, Dutch footballer - 1980 Lene Marlin, Norwegian singer - 1980 Daniel Güiza, Spanish footballer - 1982 Phil Jagielka, English footballer - 1982 Karim Ziani, French-Algerian footballer - 1982 Mark Salling, American actor (d. 2018) - 1983 Dustin Pedroia, American baseball player - 1984 Dee Brown, American basketball player - 1985 Troy Brouwer, Canadian ice hockey player - 1986 Marcus Berg, Swedish footballer - 1986 Denis Kornilov, Russian ski jumper - 1986 Rudy Gay, American basketball player - 1989 Rachel Corsie, Scottish footballer - 1989 Elena Hight, American snowboarder - 1990 Rachel Hurd-Wood, English actress - 1991 Austin Butler, American actor - 1993 Cinta Laura, Indonesian actress and singer - 1993 Sarah Sjöström, Swedish swimmer - 1994 Taissa Farmiga, American actress - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 1153 Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne, son of King Stephen of England (b. 1130) - 1304 Emperor Go-Fukakusa of Japan (b. 1243) - 1324 Irene of Brunswick, Empress of Constantinople (b. 1293) - 1338 Nitta Yoshisada, Japanese samurai (b. 1301) - 1510 Edmund Dudley, English statesman (b. 1462) - 1657 Robert Blake, English admiral (b. 1599) - 1673 Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1641) - 1769 Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and writer (b. 1703) - 1785 Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of Connecticut (b. 1710) - 1786 Frederick II of Prussia (b. 1712) - 1838 Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian poet (b. 1749) - 1850 Jose de San Martin, Argentine revolutionary (b. 1778) - 1870 Perucho Figueredo, Cuban poet, musician and freedom fighter (b. 1818) - 1880 Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist (b. 1810) - 1886 Alexander Butlerov, Russian chemist (b. 1828) - 1896 Bridget Driscoll, English automobile accident victim (b. 1851) - 1897 William Jervois, British Governor-General of New Zealand (b. 1821) - 1898 Carl Zeller, Austrian jurist and composer (b. 1842) - 1900 Raimundo Andueza Palacio, 24th President of Venezuela (b. 1846) - -1901 2000 - 1903 Hans Gude, Norwegian painter (b. 1825) - 1918 Moisei Uritsky, Russian revolutionary (b. 1873) - 1925 Ioan Slavici, Romanian journalist (b. 1848) - 1935 Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American writer and feminist (b. 1860) - 1935 Adam Gunn, American athlete (b. 1860) - 1939 Wojciech Korfanty, Polish journalist and politician (b. 1873) - 1942 Herman Auerbach, Polish mathematician (b. 1901) - 1954 Billy Murray, American singer (b. 1877) - 1962 Peter Fechter, shooting victim at the Berlin Wall (b. 1944) - 1969 Otto Stern, German physicist (b. 1888) - 1969 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, German architect (b. 1886) - 1971 Maedayama Eigoro, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1914) - 1973 Conrad Aiken, American author and poet (b. 1889) - 1974 Aldo Palozzeschi, Italian poet and writer (b. 1885) - 1979 Vivian Vance, American actress (b. 1909) - 1979 John C. Allen, American rollercoaster designer (b. 1907) - 1983 Ira Gershwin, American lyricist (b. 1896) - 1987 Rudolf Hess, Nazi leader (b. 1894) - 1988 Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, President of Pakistan (b. 1924) - 1988 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr., son of Franklin D. Roosevelt (b. 1914) - 1990 Pearl Bailey, American singer and actress (b. 1918) - 1994 Luigi Chinetti, Italian-American racing driver (b. 1901) - 1995 Howard E. Koch, American screenwriter (b. 1902) - 1995 Ted Whitten, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1933) - 1998 Wladyslaw Komar, Polish athlete (b. 1940) - 1998 Tadeusz Slusarski, Polish athlete (b. 1950) - 1998 Tameo Ide, Japanese footballer (b. 1908) - 1999 Reiner Klimke, German equestrian (b. 1936) - -From 2001 - 2003 Mazen Dana, Palestinian journalist (b. 1962) - 2005 John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist (b. 1934) - 2006 Shamsur Rahman, Bangladeshi poet, columnist and writer (b. 1929) - 2007 Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (b. 1982) - 2010 Francesco Cossiga, 8th President of Italy (b. 1928) - 2011 Pierre Quinon, French pole vaulter (b. 1962) - 2013 Claus Jacobi, German journalist (b. 1927) - 2014 Wolfgang Leonhard, German political author and historian (b. 1921) - 2014 Sophie Masloff, American politician, 56th Mayor of Pittsburgh (b. 1917) - 2014 Pierre Vassiliu, French singer (b. 1937) - 2014 Ger van Elk, Dutch artist (b. 1941) - 2015 Eduardo Guerrero, Argentine rower (b. 1928) - 2015 László Paskai, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1927) - 2015 Arsen Dedic, Croatian poet (b. 1938) - 2015 Jacob Bekenstein, Mexican-Israeli theoretical physicist (b. 1947) - 2015 Yvonne Craig, American actress (b. 1937) - 2015 Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, German football executive (b. 1933) - 2016 Arthur Hiller, Canadian-American film director (b. 1923) - 2017 Sonny Landham, American actor and politician (b. 1941) - 2017 M. T. Liggett, American sculptor (b. 1930) - 2017 Sirkka Selja, Finnish poet (b. 1920) - 2017 Fadwa Soliman, Syrian actress and activist (b. 1970) - 2017 Mohamed Refaat El-Saeed, Egyptian politician and scholar (b. 1932) - 2018 Leonard Boswell, American politician (b. 1934) - 2018 Ezzatolah Entezami, Iranian actor (b. 1924) - 2018 David McReynolds, American political activist and politician (b. 1929) - 2018 Linton Freeman, American sociologist (b. 1927) - 2019 Cedric Benson, American football player (b. 1982) - 2019 Walter Buser, Swiss Federal Chancellor (b. 1926) - 2019 Jacques Diouf, Senegalese diplomat (b. 1938) - 2019 Donald A. B. Lindberg, American physician (b. 1933) - 2019 José A. Martínez Suárez, Argentine film director and screenwriter (b. 1925) - 2019 Bill McDonagh, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1928) - -Observances - Independence Day (Indonesia, Gabon) - -Days of the year" -7868,25812,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria,Mitochondria,"Mitochondria (sing. mitochondrion) are organelles, or parts of a eukaryote cell. They are in the cytoplasm, not the nucleus. - -They make most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that cells use as a source of energy. Their main job is to convert energy. They oxidise glucose to provide energy for the cell. The process makes ATP, and is called cellular respiration. This means mitochondria are known as ""the powerhouse of the cell"". - -In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signalling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell division cycle and cell growth. - -Structure -A mitochondrion contains two membranes. These are made of phospholipid double layers and proteins. The two membranes have different properties. Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct compartments within the mitochondrion. They are: - the outer mitochondrial membrane, - the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner membranes), - the inner mitochondrial membrane, - the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner membrane), and - the matrix (space within the inner membrane). Mitochondria are small, spherical or cylindrical organelles. Generally a mitochondrion is 2.8 microns long and about 0.5 microns wide. it is about 150 times smaller than the nucleus. There are about 100-150 mitochondria in each cell. - -Function -The mitochondria's main role in the cell is to take glucose and use the energy they stored in its chemical bonds to make ATP in a process called cellular respiration. There are 3 main steps to this process: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, and ATP Synthesis. This ATP is released from the mitochondrion, and broken down by the other organelles of the cell to power their own functions. - -DNA -It is thought that mitochondria were once independent bacteria, and became part of the eukaryotic cells by being engulfed, a process called endosymbiosis. - -Most of a cell's DNA is in the cell nucleus, but the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Also, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes. - -The shorthand for mitochondrial DNA is either mDNA or mtDNA. Both have been used by researchers. - -Inheritance -Mitochondria divide by binary fission similar to bacterial cell division. In single-celled eukaryotes, division of mitochondria is linked to cell division. This division must be controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion. In other eukaryotes (in humans for example), mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle. - -An individual's mitochondrial genes are not inherited by the same mechanism as nuclear genes. The mitochondria, and therefore the mitochondrial DNA, usually comes from the egg only. The sperm's mitochondria enter the egg, but are marked for later destruction. The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria, but it is these mitochondria that survive and divide to populate the cells of the adult organism. Mitochondria are, therefore, in most cases inherited down the female line, known as maternal inheritance. This mode is true for all animals, and most other organisms. However, mitochondria is inherited paternally in some conifers, though not in pines or yews. - -A single mitochondrion can contain 2–10 copies of its DNA. For this reason, mitochondrial DNA is thought to reproduce by binary fission, so producing exact copies. However, there is some evidence that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination. If recombination does not occur, the whole mitochondrial DNA sequence represents a single haploid genome, which makes it useful for studying the evolutionary history of populations. - -Population genetic studies -The near-absence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA makes it useful for population genetics and evolutionary biology. If all the mitochondrial DNA is inherited as a single haploid unit, the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be seen as a gene tree. Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations. The classic example of this is where the molecular clock can be used to give a date for the so-called mitochondrial Eve. This is often interpreted as strong support for the spread of modern humans out of Africa. Another human example is the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bones. The relatively large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans is evidence for a general lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically-modern humans. - -However, mitochondrial DNA only reflects the history of females in a population. It may not represent the history of the population as a whole. To some extent, paternal genetic sequences from the Y-chromosome can be used. In a broader sense, only studies that also include nuclear DNA can provide a comprehensive evolutionary history of a population. - -Related pages - Cellular respiration - Glycolysis - Krebs cycle - -References - -Organelles" -11899,43705,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellion,Rebellion,"A rebellion is when people refuse to obey orders and fight against authority. Those who do this are ""rebels"". They may be citizens of a country who try to take over the government by force because they do not trust the current system. Some rebels in history were slaves who fought back against their masters or against slavery in general. Leader of slave rebellions include Spartacus and Nat Turner. - -An example would be the Zhou dynasty in China who made the rulers of other Chinese states that they captured live with their own families in the Zhou capital, Anyang. However, they failed to stop rebellion this way because it brought together groups of lords who might rebel under their control. The Zhou dynasty declined because other lords that were ruling parts of China rebelled. - -Rebellion is a usual method of secession. - -Rebellion" -24426,94150,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism,Zionism,"Zionism is the nationalist movement to bring back an independent country for the Jewish people in part of the Land of Israel, the site of the first Jewish states. This movement resulted in the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. - -History -The word 'Zionism' comes from Zion, which means Jerusalem. Theodor Herzl started the modern Zionist movement. At the time, the Land of Israel was called Palestine. It was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. In 1917, the British made a statement called the Balfour Declaration. They agreed to support a Jewish homeland in Palestine. - -Many Evangelical Christians believe that the migration of Jews to Palestine is linked to the apocalypse and prophecy. - -Related pages - Religious Zionism - -References" -5918,19156,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquitaine,Aquitaine,"Aquitaine (Occitan: Aquitània; ; ) is a part of southwestern France. It was once an administrative region but is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. With over 41,000 square kilometers, it is one of the largest regions of mainland France (the largest of all French regions is French Guiana, in South America). - -Its capital was Bordeaux, the largest city. The French name of the people living in the region is Aquitain. - -The five departments in the region were Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques. - -Geography -The Aquitaine region was the third largest region of Metropolitan France, after Midi-Pyrénées and Rhône-Alpes. Its area was . It bordered with three French regions: Poitou-Charentes to the north, Limousin to the northeast and Midi-Pyrénées to the east. To the south is Spain (Aragon and Navarre) and to the west the Atlantic Ocean. The coast along the Atlantic Ocean, part of the Bay of Biscay, is called the Côte d'Argent (Silver Coast). - -The Greenwich Meridian passes through Aquitaine. - -Most of Aquitaine is in the Aquitanian basin, a relatively flat and geologically young landscape. High mountains are found only in the south of Aquitaine, in the Pyrenees mountain range. The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest point of Aquitaine; it is on the border with Spain. - -The main rivers of the region are the Garonne, that flows through the Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; the Dordogne, that flows through the Dordogne and Gironde departments; the Lot, that flows through the Lot-et-Garonne department; the Dropt, that flows through the Dordogne, Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour, that flows through the Landes department. - -The climate is mild - except in the high mountains - all year round. On the Atlantic coast, the annual average temperature is above 15 °C, in Bordeaux is about 14 °C and on the border of Limousin is still 11 °C. Rainfall is relatively high and is higher in the south of the region. - -History -In the Middle Ages Aquitaine was at times a kingdom and a duchy. Various wars made it larger and smaller. Aquitane came into the control of England when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. It remained in English control until 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years' War. - -Departments -The Aquitaine region is formed by five departments: - -Demographics -The Aquitaine region had a population, in 2012, of 3,285,970, for a population density of inhabitants/km2. - -The 10 most important cities in the department are: - -Gallery - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - Regional Council of Aquitain official website - Visit Aquitaine - Regional information and tourist attractions - Aquitaine: the cradle of humanity" -8635,29260,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerevan,Yerevan,"Yerevan () is the capital and largest city of Armenia. In 2004 about 1,088,300 people lived in Yerevan. Some people write Yerevan as Erevan. In past, Yerevan was called Erebuni or Erivan. - -It is on the Hrazdan River, and is the administrative, cultural, and industrial center of the country. - -The history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, with the founding of the Urartian fortress of Erebuni in 782 BC. Eventually, the letter ""b"" in the name Erebuni changed in the 5th or 4th century BC, becoming ""v"". - -Climate -The climate of Yerevan is continental, with dry, hot summers and cold, snowy and short winters. The temperature in August can reach 40°C (104°F), while January may be as cold as -15 °C (5 °F). The amount of precipitation is small, about 350 mm (14 in) per year. - -Culture -As a centre of Armenian culture, Yerevan is the site of Yerevan State University (1919), the Armenian Academy of Sciences, a historical museum, an opera house, a music conservatory and several technical institutes. The Matenadaran archives hold a rich collection of valuable ancient Armenian, Greek, Assyrian, Hebrew, Roman and Persian manuscripts. Yerevan has several large public libraries, a number of museums and theaters, botanical gardens and zoos. It is also at the heart of an extensive rail network and is a major trading centre for agricultural products. In addition, industries in the city produce metals, machine tools, electrical equipment, chemicals, textiles and food products. - -Two major tourist attractions are the Opera House, the ruins of an Urartu fortress and a Roman fortress. The Armenia Marriott Hotel is in the heart of the city at Republic Square (also known as Hraparak). - -Metro -The Yerevan Metro is a rapid transit system that serves the capital city. -Its interior resembles that of western former Soviet nations with chandeliers hanging -from the corridors. The metro stations had most of their names changed after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Independence of the Republic of Armenia. - -Economy - -Yerevan is Armenia's industrial, transportation, and cultural center. Manufactures include chemicals, primary metals, machinery, rubber products, plastics, textiles, and processed food. Not only is Yerevan the headquarters of major Armenian companies, but of international ones as well, as it's seen as an attractive outsourcing location for Western European, Russian and American multinationals. - -Development -Recently, Yerevan has been undergoing an ambitious redevelopment process in which old Soviet-style apartments and buildings are being demolished and replaced with modern buildings. However, this urban renewal plan has been met with opposition and ( ) criticism from some residents. - -References - -Sergey Vardanyan 1995. The capitals of Armenia. Apolo. -G. Zakoyan, M. Sivaslian, V. Navasardian 2001. My Yerevan. Acnalis. - -Other websites - - Yerevan Municipality webpage in Armenian and English - Yerevan.ru - The capital of Armenia online (Russian) - Erebuni History and excavation description, edited by Rick Ney - - Online News From Armenia. Edited by John Hughes. - Yerevan article on Armeniapedia - Yerevan article on Cilicia.com - Armenia Info Yerevan page - The Yerevan Metro system - Interactive CD - Yerevan Virtual - -Related pages - Blue Mosque, Yerevan - - -Capital cities in Asia -National capitals in Europe" -3745,11283,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthians,Corinthians,"Corinthians is the name of different things: - - Two books in the New Testament. They are letters by Saint Paul to the church at Corinth. They are called the First Epistle to the Corinthians and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. - -A Brazilian football team from São Paulo. It is very famous in Brazil and have the second biggest number of football supporters in this country." -19640,75257,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surf%27s%20Up%20%28movie%29,Surf's Up (movie),"Surf's Up is a 2007 American computer-animated movie made by Sony Pictures Animation. It stars Shia LaBeouf, Jeff Bridges, Zooey Deschanel, Jon Heder, Mario Cantone, James Woods, Rebecca Honig, Diedrich Bader, Rob Machado, Kelly Slater and Sal Masekela. The movie is a cartoon of surfing documentaries, like The Endless Summer and Riding Giants. Composed by Randy Newman. - -References - -2007 animated movies -American animated movies -Movies about animals -English-language movies -Movies directed by Chris Buck" -8813,29828,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thetis,Thetis,"In Greek mythology, Thetis (Greek: Θέτις) is a sea nymph, one of the fifty Nereids, the daughters of Nereus, the Old Man of the Sea, and Doris. Like other sea figures, Thetis bore the gift of prophecy as well as the ability to change her shape at will. She was married to the mortal hero Peleus, by whom she is the mother of Achilles. - -Other websites - -Nymphs" -18281,68665,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20Page/Sister%20projects,Main Page/Sister projects," -See the pages of the Wikimedia Foundation Governance wiki, too.Main Page templates" -11331,41143,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt%20evaporation%20pond,Salt evaporation pond,"A Salt evaporation pond (or saltern pond) is a man-made shallow pond. Usually it is located near the sea. The ponds can be filled with salt water. The water is then left to evaporate. The salt is left behind, and can be harvested. Such ponds also provide a habitat for several kinds of animals. Most of these animals are birds. - -The color tells how much salt there is left in the water. Green colors come from special algae. These algae are there in low to mid salinity ponds (ponds with little salt in the water). In middle to high salinity ponds, an alga called Dunaliella salina shifts the color to red. Millions of tiny brine shrimp create an orange cast in mid-salinity ponds. Other bacteria such as Stichococcus also contribute tints. These colors are especially interesting to airplane passengers or astronauts passing above due to their somewhat artistic formations of shape and color. - -Other websites - -NASA page on salt ponds -Information on the San Francisco Bay salt ponds -Interactive satellite view - -Geology -Ponds" -867,3625,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download,Download,"Download means getting information from another computer or server. The opposite of downloading is uploading, which is sending data to another computer. Usually we do not say ""download"" for a single web page (for example when you open this page on your computer). When we say we downloaded something, it is normally a bigger computer file, like data or a computer program. - -The word downloadable means the ability to get information or data from an owner for one's use. The source is expected to be authentic and have the right to send it. At the user's end, the downloaded information or data are to be used based on agreement notice. - -In the 21st century, it is very easy to download files or informations - legally or not - from the internet. - -Sideload -As most non-technical users use the word download to talk about any data transfer, the word ""sideload"" is sometimes used for local to local transfers as distinct from distant ones. - -Computer networking -Internet -Technology -Computer science" -5495,17922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akron%2C%20Ohio,"Akron, Ohio","Akron is a large city in the U.S. state of Ohio. It is found near the Ohio & Lake Erie canal. It is home to the U.S. rubber industry, including Goodyear tires. - -References - -Other websites - - City of Akron - Akron Wiki - - -County seats in Ohio -1825 establishments in the United States -1820s establishments in Ohio" -10350,36352,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Score,Score,"Score or scorer may refer to: - -Test score, the result of an exam or test - -Business - Score Digital, now part of Bauer Radio - Score Entertainment, a former American trading card design and manufacturing company - Score Media, a former Canadian media company - -Mathematics -Score (statistics), a quantity in statistics -Score, the number twenty (20); see also vigesimal -Raw score, an original datum that has not been transformed -Score test, a statistical test -Scorer's function, solutions to differential equations -Standard score, a quantity derived from the raw score - -Science and technology -Single colour reflectometry, an optical technique for monitoring biomolecular interactions - -Arts, entertainment, and media -Event score, written or printed instructions for a visual art performance -Musical score - -Movies - Score (1974 movie), an American adult movie - Score (2016 movie), a documentary movie - Score: A Hockey Musical, a 2010 Canadian musical movie - -Music - Movie score, original music written specifically to accompany a movie. - -Albums - Score (Randy Brecker album), 1969 - Score (Paul Haslinger album), 1999 - Score (Carol Lloyd album), 1979 - Score (Dream Theater album), 2006 - Score (2Cellos album), 2017 - -Periodicals - Score, a football comic which became Scorcher in 1971 - Score, a pornographic magazine by The Score Group - -Sports and games -Score (game), a number of points achieved in a game -Score (sport), a number of points achieved in a sporting event -Scoring (cricket) -Score bug, a graphic displayed on a screen during sports game broadcasts to display the current score and other statistics -Herb Score (1933–2008), baseball player" -11972,44009,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol%20Vorderman,Carol Vorderman,"Carol Jean Vorderman (born 24 December 1960) is a British television presenter. She was born in Bedford and raised in Prestatyn, North Wales. Her father was Dutch; her mother is Welsh. She studied engineering at Sidney Sussex College, University of Cambridge. She is best known for having picked the letters and numbers for the Channel 4 game show Countdown. She is a regular panellist on ITV1 talk show Loose Women. She was a contestant in the second series of Strictly Come Dancing in 2004. In 2013 she presented a series about cooking on ITV called Food Glorious Food. She has written books about detox diets. - -References - -Other websites - -British television presenters -British television talk show hosts -Channel 4 presenters -ITV presenters -People from Bedford -Strictly Come Dancing participants -1960 births -Living people" -9504,32543,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20White%20%28Yes%20drummer%29,Alan White (Yes drummer),"Alan White (born 14 June 1949) is an English musician, best known as the drummer from the band Yes. He also played on records by former Beatles John Lennon and George Harrison. - -Discography -Solo: -Ramshackled (1976) - -With White: -White (2006) - -With Yes: See infobox below - -With The Alan Price Set: -A Price on His Head (1967) -The Amazing Alan Price (EP), (1967) -This Price is Right, (1968) - -With John Lennon and The Plastic Ono Band: -John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band, 1970 -Live Peace in Toronto, September 13th 1969 -Imagine, (John Lennon, 1971) -Fly, (Yoko Ono, 1971) - -Guest appearances/sessions: -The Downbeats: ""My Bonnie"" (single) -The Blue Chips: ""I'm on the Right Side"" (single) -The Blue Chips: ""Some Kind of Loving"" (single) -The Blue Chips: ""Good Loving Never Hurts"" (single) -The Gamblers: ""Dr Goldfoot (and His Bikini Machine)"" (single) -Happy Magazine: ""Satisfied Street"" (single) -Happy Magazine: ""Who Belongs to You"" (single) -Johnny Almond Music Machine: Patent Pending (1969) -Johnny Almond: ""Solar Machine"" (single) (1969) -Doris Troy: You Tore Me Up Inside -Billy Preston: Encouraging Words (1969) -George Harrison: All Things Must Pass (2001) -Gary Wright: Extraction (1970) -Denny Laine and Balls: ""Fight for My Country"" (single) (1971) -Jesse Davis: Jesse Davis -Sky: Don't Hold Back (1971) -Brian Short: Anything for a Laugh (1971) -Donovan: ""The Music Makers"" (1973) -Chris Squire: Chris Squire's Swiss Choir (2007; re-release of ""Run with the Fox"") - -and work with Rick Wakeman, Steve Howe, Billy Sherwood, Esquire and The Syn - -1949 births -Living people -English drummers -English pop musicians" -9055,30985,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiosaur,Plesiosaur,"The plesiosaurs were an order of large, carnivorous marine reptiles. They flourished from 245 million years ago (mya) to 65 mya. - -In 1719, William Stukeley described the first partial skeleton of a plesiosaur. The great-grandfather of Charles Darwin, Robert Darwin of Elston told him about it. -Mary Anning was the first to discover a fairly complete plesiosaur. She found it on the 'Jurassic Coast' of Dorset, England in the winter of 1820/21. The fossil was missing its skull, but in 1823 she found another one, this time complete with its skull. The name Plesiosaurus was given to it by the Rev. William Conybeare. - -The earliest plesiosaur remains are from the Middle Triassic period,p128 and the group was important through the Jurassic and Cretaceous. They had two large pairs of paddles, short tails, short or long necks, and broad bodies. They died out at the K/T extinction event, 65 million years ago. - -Description -Plesiosaurs had many bones in their flippers, making them flexible. No modern animal has this four-paddle anatomy: modern turtles use their forelimbs for swimming. They were mainly piscivorous (fish-eaters). - -Pliosaurs -The pliosaurs were a group of mostly large submarine predators with short necks and large heads. Their sizes ranged from two to 15 metres, and they were predators of large fish and other reptiles. Their streamlined body shape suggests they swam and ate under water. - Liopleurodon. - -Long-necked plesiosaurs - -There were three families of long-necked plesiosaurs, who evidently had a different life-style from the pliosaurs. It was suggested by D.M.S. Watson that their method was as surface swimmers, darting down to snatch smaller fish which were feeding on plankton. It is hard to see the benefit of a long neck under water; aquatic mammals operating under water all have a streamlined torpedo-shape, as did pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs. All the longer-necked familiers were, from the setting of the teeth and jaws, eaters of small fish. However, some at least were bottom-feeders, consuming various prey. Digestion of shellfish was aided by gastroliths. - - Plesiosaurids: neck not so long as the other two families, and not so flexible: a more general all-round plesiosaur. Head of medium size, neck fairly thick and strong, up to 30 vertebrae. - Plesiosaurus - - Cryptoclidids: longer necks, with more than 30 vertebrae. - Cryptoclidus - - Elasmosaurids: very long necks; some later forms have as many as 76 cervical (neck) vertebrae and quite small skulls.p30 Watson and Alexander's ideas apply especially to this group. - Elasmosaurus - Thalassomedon - Mauisaurus, the longest plesiosaur ever found. - -Gastroliths - -Plesiosaurs have been found with fossils of belemnites (squid-like animals), and ammonites (giant nautilus-like molluscs) associated with their stomachs. But plesiosaurs could not crack shells. Instead, they probably swallowed them whole. In the belly of a plesiosaur were ""stomach stones"", which are called gastroliths. These stones moved around in the plesiosaur's stomach and cracked or crushed the shells of the animals it ate. One plesiosaur fossil found in South Dakota had 253 gatroliths weighing a total of 29 pounds. - -Live birth? -Live birth has been proved for ichthyosaurs, but is uncertain for plesiosaurs. - -References - -Plesiosaurs" -8194,27295,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes,Aristophanes,"Aristophanes (born around 450/445 BC – died around 385 BC) was a Greek writer who wrote 40 plays. However, only 11 of his plays survive in their entirety. He is famous for writing comedies. They were biting satires aimed at famous men of his day, and the all-too-human weaknesses of ordinary people. - -His most famous play, Lysistrata, is about a group of women who protest against a war by not having sexual intercourse with their husbands until the war is ended. - -Ancient Greek theatre was first presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia, dedicated to the god Dionysus. The interesting thing is that Aristophanes did not always win first prize. The plays which won ahead of his have been lost, so we cannot make any comparisons. - -A licence for slander -George Grote said of Aristophanes: -""Never probably will the full power of unshackled comedy be so exhibited again...the unsparing licence of attack upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens... and even upon the women of Athens"". -""[Athenians] bore with good-humoured indulgence the full outpouring of ridicule... upon those democratic institutions to which they were sincerely attached... The democracy was strong enough to tolerate unfriendly tongues either in earnest or in jest.p450/452 - -Surviving plays -The Acharnians (425 BC) Aristophanes shows he will not give in to political intimidation. The play is notable for absurd humour, and an imaginative appeal for an end to the Peloponnesian War -The Knights (424 BC) The play is a satire on the social and political life of Athens and a scurrilous attack on the pro-war populist Cleon. Cleon had prosecuted Aristophanes for slandering the city in an earlier play, The Babylonians (426 BC: it has not survived). Aristophanes had promised revenge in The Acharnians, and it was in The Knights that his revenge was taken. -The Clouds (original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419–416 BC survives) It pokes fun at Socrates and intellectual fashions in classical Athens. The first known ""comedy of ideas"". -The Wasps (422 BC) Aristophanes ridicules the law courts, which provided Cleon with his power-base:. Also has a young man vs old man theme which re-appears in several plays. -Peace (first version, 421 BC) just a few days before the end the ten year old Peloponnesian War. The play is notable for its celebration of a return to life in the countryside. But the ending is not happy for everyone. As in all Aristophanes' plays, the jokes are numerous, the action is wildly absurd and the satire is savage. Cleon, the pro-war populist leader of Athens, is once again a target, even though he had died in battle just a few months earlier. -The Birds (414 BC) A fantasy, remarkable for its mimicry of birds and for its songs. -Lysistrata (411 BC) The best-known of his plays, often produced in modern versions. The play is notable for being an early exposé of sexual relations in a male-dominated society. -Thesmophoriazusae (The Festival Women, first version, c. 410 BC) A parody of Athenian society, with a focus on the role of women in a male-dominated society, the vanity of poets such as Euripides and Agathon, and the shameless vulgarity of ordinary Athenians. -The Frogs (405 BC) A play on the theme “old ways good, new ways bad”. The Frogs tells the story of the god Dionysus, who travels to Hades with his slave Xanthias, who is smarter and braver than he is, to bring the playwright Euripides back from the dead. -Ecclesiazousae (The Assemblywomen, c. 392 BC) is similar in theme to Lysistrata. Much of the comedy comes from women involving themselves in politics. The play is much more infused with gender issues than Lysistrata. -Plutus (Wealth, second version, 388 BC) The play features an elderly Athenian citizen, Chremylos, and his slave. Chremylos presents himself and his family as virtuous but poor, and has gone to seek advice from an oracle. The advice he gets is to follow the first man he meets and take him home with him. That man turns out to be the god Plutus — who is, contrary to expectations, a blind beggar. After much argument, Plutus is convinced to enter Chremylus' house, where his sight is restored. The plot can be read as: wealth will now go only to those who deserve it in some way. - -Related pages -Theatre of Ancient Greece - -References - -Other websites -The Frogs at the Internet Classics archive (English version) - -5th-century BC births -4th-century BC deaths -Ancient Greek writers" -17396,66021,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic%20immunity,Diplomatic immunity,"Diplomatic immunity is a special law that covers people who work in embassies or consulates. The people are called diplomats. The diplomatic immunity means that although they live and work as a visitor inside a ""host country"", they are not ruled by the law of that country. They are only ruled by the law of their home country. - -A diplomat can work without interference from the police and government of the country where he/she works. Diplomatic immunity means that a diplomat can keep the secrets of his own country's government, without the government of the host country being able to find out about them. - -Police from the host country cannot arrest a diplomat, or search a diplomat's house or office. They cannot even give a diplomat's car a parking ticket without the permission of the diplomat's government. - -Honorary consuls only work part-time as diplomats, so only have diplomatic immunity when working as diplomats. Police may search their offices, but not the part where they keep their diplomatic work. - -Diplomacy - -cs:Imunita (právo)" -8475,28804,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome,Chromosome,"The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information. Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the mother; the other set from the father. Cytologists label chromosomes with numbers. - -Chromosomes are present in every cell nucleus with very few and special exceptions. This means they are found in all eukaryotes, since only eukaryotes have cell nuclei. When eukaryote cells divide, the chromosomes also divide. - -When a somatic (body) cell (such as a muscle cell) divides, the process is called mitosis. Before mitosis, the cell copies all the chromosomes and then it can divide. When they duplicate, chromosomes look like the letter ""X"". When they are doubled, the two halves are called chromatids (see diagram). The chromatids are joined at the centromere. - -There are 46 chromosomes in a human, 23 pairs. Everyone has a set of chromosomes from their father and a matching set from their mother. They include a pair of sex chromosomes. The mother's eggs always contain an X chromosome, while the father's sperm contains either a Y chromosome or an X chromosome. That determines the sex of the child. To produce sex cells (gametes), the stem cells go through a different division process called meiosis. This reduces the 23 pairs (diploid) to 23 singles (haploid). These, when combined by fertilisation, produce the new set of 23 pairs. - -Different animals have different numbers of chromosomes. If a person does not have the usual number of chromosomes, they may die or have one or more peculiarities. For example, they might get a genetic disorder like Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21) and Klinefelter syndrome (a male with two X chromosomes). Some genetic disorders are more common than others. - -Polytene chromosomes - -Polytene chromosomes are over-sized chromosomes which have developed from standard chromosomes. Specialized cells undergo repeated rounds of DNA replication without cell division (endomitosis). Polytene chromosomes form when multiple rounds of replication produce many sister chromatids that are stuck together in parallel. - -Polytene chromosomes are found in Drosophila species and in nonbiting midges. They also occur in arthropods of the class Collembola, Ciliate protozoa, early stages of mammalian embryos, and suspensor cells in plants. - -Polytene cells have a metabolic function. Multiple copies of genes allows a high level of gene expression. In Drosophila, for example, the chromosomes of the larval salivary glands undergo many rounds of endoreduplication. This produces large amounts of glue-like mucous (“glue”) before pupation. - -Chromosome puffs (seen in diagram) are diffused uncoiled regions of the polytene chromosome. They are sites of active transcription. - -Related pages -Karyotype -Cell division -Homologous chromosome -Mutation#Chromosome mutations -Genetics#Between Mendel and modern genetics - -References" -1159,4398,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20diseases,List of diseases,"This is a list of common, well-known or infamous diseases. This is neither complete nor authoritative. This is not intended to be a list of rare diseases, nor is it a list of mental disorders. - -This list includes both common names and technical names for diseases. This is deliberate; where multiple names are in common use for the same disease, all of those names should link to the main article for the disease - -A - Abscess -Acute Radiation Sickness - Alzheimer's disease - Anthrax - Appendicitis -Allergy - Arthritis - Aseptic meningitis - Asthma - Astigmatism - Atherosclerosis - -B - Bacterial meningitis - Beriberi - Black Death - Black Fungus - Botulism - Breast cancer - Bronchitis - Brucellosis - Bubonic plague - Bunion - Boil - -C - - Campylobacter infection - Cancer - Candidiasis -Carbon monoxide poisoning -Coeliac disease - Cerebral palsy - Chagas disease - Chickenpox - Chlamydia - Chlamydia trachomatis - Cholera - Chordoma - Chorea -Chronic fatigue syndrome - Circadian rhythm sleep disorder - Colitis - Common cold -Condyloma - Congestive heart disease - Coronary heart disease -COVID-19 - Cowpox - Crohn's Disease - Coronavirus - -D -Dengue Fever - Diabetes mellitus - Diphtheria - Dehydration -Dysentery - -E - Ear infection - Ebola - Encephalitis - Emphysema - Epilepsy - Erectile dysfunction - -F - Fibromyalgia - Foodborne illness - -G -Gangrene -Gastroenteritis -Genital herpes -GERD -Goitre -Gonorrhea - -H - Heart disease - Hepatitis A - Hepatitis B - Hepatitis C - Hepatitis D - Hepatitis E - Histiocytosis (childhood cancer) - HIV - Human papillomavirus - Huntington's disease - Hypermetropia - Hyperopia - Hyperthyroidism - Hypothyroid - Hypotonia - -I - Impetigo - Infertility - Influenza - Interstitial cystitis - - Iritis - Iron-deficiency anemia - Irritable bowel syndrome - Ignious Syndrome - Intestine ache - Intestine Gas - Intestine disease - Upset Intestine - -J - Jaundice - -K - Keloids - Kuru - Kwashiorkor - Kidney stone disease - -L - Laryngitis - Lead poisoning - Legionellosis - Leishmaniasis - Leprosy - Leptospirosis - Listeriosis - Leukemia - Lice - Loiasis - Lung cancer - Lupus erythematosus - Lyme disease - Lymphogranuloma venereum - Lymphoma - Limbtoosa - -M - Mad cow disease - Malaria - Marburg fever - Measles - Melanoma - Metastatic cancer - Meniere's disease - Meningitis - Migraine - Mononucleosis - Multiple myeloma - Multiple sclerosis - Mumps - Muscular dystrophy - Myasthenia gravis - Myelitis - Myoclonus - Myopia - Myxedema - Morquio Syndrome - Mattticular syndrome - Mononucleosis - -N - Neoplasm - Non-gonococcal urethritis - Necrotizing Fasciitis - Night blindness - -O - Obesity - Osteoarthritis - Osteoporosis - Otitis - -P - Palindromic rheumatism - Paratyphoid fever - Parkinson's disease - Pelvic inflammatory disease - Peritonitis - Periodontal disease - Pertussis - Phenylketonuria - Plague - Poliomyelitis - Porphyria - Progeria - Prostatitis - Psittacosis - Psoriasis - Pubic lice - Pulmonary embolism - Pilia - pneumonia - -Q - Q fever - Ques fever - -R - Rabies - Repetitive strain injury - Rheumatic fever - Rheumatic heart - Rheumatism - Rheumatoid arthritis - Rickets - Rift Valley fever - Rocky Mountain spotted fever - Rubella - -S - Salmonellosis - Scabies - Scarlet fever - Sciatica - Scleroderma - Scrapie - Scurvy - Sepsis - Septicemia - SARS - Shigellosis - Shin splints - Shingles - Sickle-cell anemia - Siderosis - SIDS - Silicosis - Smallpox - Stevens–Johnson syndrome - Stomach flu - Stomach ulcers - Strabismus - Strep throat - Streptococcal infection - Synovitis - Syphilis - Swine influenza - Stomach Gas - Stomach Ache - stomach Disease - Kids Stomach Ache - Upset Stomach - -T - Taeniasis - Tay-Sachs disease - Tennis elbow - Teratoma - Tetanus - Thalassaemia - Thrush - Thymoma - Tinnitus - Tonsillitis - Tooth decay - Toxic shock syndrome - Trichinosis - Trichomoniasis - Trisomy - Tuberculosis - Tularemia - Tungiasis - Typhoid fever - Typhus - Tumor - -U - Ulcerative colitis - Ulcers - Uremia - Urticaria - Uveitis -UTI'S - -V - Varicella - Varicose veins - Vasovagal syncope - Vitiligo - Von Hippel-Lindau disease - Viral fever - Viral meningitis - -W - Warkany syndrome - Warts - Watkins - -Y - Yellow fever - Yersiniosis - -Disease-related lists" -13203,48425,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirencester,Cirencester,"Cirencester is a town in Gloucestershire in England. People first moved there in Roman times. It currently has a population of 19,000. It is 93 miles west of London, and is between Swindon, Cheltenham and Gloucester. - -Towns in Gloucestershire" -16766,63965,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howl,Howl,"Howl may mean: - A sound made by an animal - ""Howl"" (poem), a poem by Allen Ginsberg - Howl (album), an album by Black Rebel Motorcycle Club. - The title character in the novel Howl's Moving Castle by Diana Wynne Jones - ""Howl"", a poem by Tristan Tzara" -19080,72119,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd%20Landis,Floyd Landis,"Floyd Landis (born October 14, 1975) is an American road racing cyclist, now best remembered because of the Tour de France 2006 doping scandal. He is a time-trial specialist and a strong climber. - -Landis turned professional in 1999 with the Mercury Cycling Team. He joined the US Postal Service team in 2002, and moved to the Phonak Hearing Systems team in 2005. - -Doping -Landis was fired from the Phonak team on 5 August 2006. The doping test after stage 17 of the 2006 Tour de France showed he had a very high testosterone/epitestosterone ratio. The rules say that for every one unit of one chemical he should have four unites of the other (a 4 to one (4:1) ratio). Landis's test showed a ratio of 11:1. - -Landis appealed to the USA Cycling and saying the tests were not done properly. USA Cycling asked three people from the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) to study Landis's claims. On 20 September 2007 that group voted 2 to 1 against him. Landis was stripped of his title as winner of the 2006 Tour de France by the UCI, and banned from professional racing for two years. - -Under UCI rules, the cyclist's national federation, in this case USA Cycling decides if the rules have been broken, but because of the science involved they asked the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) to help. - -Biography - -Floyd Landis was born in Farmersville, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. - -Landis was brought up a Mennonite, and rode his first races wearing sweatpants because his religion forbade wearing shorts; he won anyway. Landis' father, is a devout Mennonite, and tried to stop him from racing his bike by giving him extra chores. He had no time to train during the day, so he would sneak out of the house at night to train, sometimes at 1 or 2 a.m. and often in the freezing cold. His father, found that Floyd had been going out at night and often followed him at a distance to make sure he was not getting into trouble. Today, Floyd Landis's father is a supporter of his son and says he is one of Floyd's biggest fans. - -2006 Tour de France - -Before the 2006 Tour de Francemost people thought the winner would be either Ivan Basso or Jan Ullrich, who finished second and third respectively in the 2005 tour. Days before the race, the Operación Puerto doping case forced Basso and Ullrich to withdraw, and Landis became one of the favourites to win - -Hip ailment -Landis performance up to Stage 16 of the Tour de France and his comeback in Stage 17 is surprising because of his hip ailment, called osteonecrosis, which was revealed in an article in The New York Times during the 2006 Tour de France. This means he was in constant pain. - -Doping investigation - -On July 27, 2006 the Phonak Cycling Team said Floyd Landis had a urine test come back positive, having an unusually high ratio of the hormone testosterone to the hormone epitestosterone (T/E ratio) after Stage 17. Landis denied having doped. Phonak stated that he would be dismissed should the backup sample also test positive. It did, and Landis was suspended from professional cycling and dismissed from his team. Landis's personal physician later disclosed that the test had found a T/E ratio of 11:1 in Landis, far above the maximum allowable ratio of 4:1. - -The tests were done by French government's anti-doping clinical laboratory, the National Laboratory for Doping Detection (LNDD)which is part of the Ministry of Youth, Sport, and Social Life, and is and is accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).) - -Appeal -On May 14, 2007 a meeting began between the USADA and Landis about the doping allegations. On September 20, 2007, the arbitrators found Landis guilty of doping. - -As Landis forfeited his Tour title, the second place rider, Óscar Pereiro, became the race's official winner. Landis has also been banned from the sport for two years, dated retroactively to January 2007. - -Landis's former team, Phonak has already been disbanded - -The USADA had more B samples taken during the Tour de France 2006 examined. After Landis's attempts to prevent these tests had failed, traces of exogenous testosterone were found in several samples in a test of seven samples. These confirmation tests were done at the same French lab Landis's team was trying to discredit for the first positive results. - -Landis did race in France in 2007 so that the appeal could be decided in the United States first. If the raced in France they may start their own investigation because doping is illegal in France. - -Among Landis's lawyers are José Maria Buxeda of Spain and Howard L. Jacobs of the United States. Buxeda represented Spanish cyclist Roberto Heras when he was suspended for two years after testing positive for doping. Jacobs has also defended athletes accused of doping, such as cyclist Tyler Hamilton and sprinter Tim Montgomery. They are also representing Kazakh cyclist Alexandre Vinokourov who was accused of blood doping, kicked out of the 2007 Tour de France, and fired from his cycling team. - -Verdict -On September 20, 2007 Landis was found guilty of doping by a 2-1 vote of the hearing committee. The committee said that there were mistakes testing the sample so they will not say that there was a high amount of the natural chemical testosterone. But the committee did say was proof of artificial testosterone and that - -Landis does have the right to appeal the decision of the committee to the Court of Arbitration for Sport. - -Major results - -1999 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team - 2nd overall and 1 stage win – Cascade Classic - -2000 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team - Overall – Tour du Poitou-Charentes - -2001 - Mercury Pro Cycling Team - Boulevard Road Race - -2002 - U.S. Postal Service - 2nd overall – Dauphiné Libéré - 3rd stage, Tirreno-Adriatico - 61st overall – Tour de France - -2003 - U.S. Postal Service - 77th overall – Tour de France - -2004 - U.S. Postal Service - Overall – Volta ao Algarve - Stage 5 – Volta ao Algarve - Team time trial – Tour de France - Team time trial – Vuelta a España - 23rd overall – Tour de France - -2005 - Phonak Hearing Systems - 3rd overall and Stage 3 win – Tour de Georgia - 9th overall – Tour de France - -2006 - Phonak Hearing Systems - 1st, Profronde van Stiphout - Disqualified - Tour de France - Yellow jersey, General Classification leader during Stages 12, 13, 16 and 20. - 1st, Stage 17 (voted most combatative rider of the day) - 1st, USA Cycling National Racing Calendar series - 1st overall – Tour de Georgia - 1st, Stage 3 (ITT) – Tour de Georgia - 1st overall – Paris-Nice - 1st overall – Tour of California - 1st, Stage 3 (ITT) – Tour of California - -References - -Other websites - - Floyd Landis' Website - Sex, drugs and sports: Prostaglandins, epitestosterone and sexual development - Floyd Landis profile - Trust But Verify: News, Research and Commentary about the Floyd Landis doping allegations. - -1975 births -Living people -American cyclists -Doping cases in cycling -Sportspeople from Pennsylvania -Tour de France cyclists" -17221,65191,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys%20%28moon%29,Tethys (moon),"Tethys (pronounced TEE-this) is a large moon of the planet Saturn. - -Discovery -It was discovered by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684. It was one of the first Saturnian moons discovered. - -Physical characteristics - -Mass, density and volume -Tethys' mass is 617,551,805,221,061,000,000 kg, its density is 0.973 g/cm3 and its volume is 634,264,255 km3. - -Craters and valleys -It has a very large crater on its surface, called Odysseus. It is named after a Greek warrior king in Homer's two great works, The Iliad and The Odyssey. There is also a very long valley called Ithaca Chasma. It is 100 km wide and 2000 km long. - -Orbit and rotation -Tethys takes 45.3 hours to orbit (go around) Saturn and orbits Saturn 294,660 km away. Tethys is tidally locked in phase with its parent planet - one side always faces toward Saturn. - -References - -Saturn's moons" -16051,61634,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval%20Latin,Medieval Latin,"Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages. It was mostly used by scholars and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, and administration. - -Despite the clerical origin of many of its authors, Medieval Latin should not be confused with Ecclesiastical Latin. There is no real consensus on the exact tr that Late Latin ends and Medieval Latin begins. Some scholars have their surveys of it begin with the rise of early Christian Latin in the mid-4th century, but others have around the year 500. - -Important medieval Latin authors - -4th-5th centuries -Aetheria (fl. 385) -St Jerome (c. 347-420) - -6th-8th centuries -Gildas (d. c. 570) -Venantius Fortunatus (c. 530-c. 600) -Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594) -Isidore of Seville (c. 560-636) -Bede (c. 672-735) - -9th-10th centuries -Ratherius (890-974) -Thietmar of Merseburg (975-1018) - -Notes - -References -K. P. Harrington, J. Pucci, and A. G. Elliott, Medieval Latin (2nd ed.), (Univ. Chicago Pres, 1997) - -Other websites - Wright, Thomas, ed. A Selection of Latin Stories, from Manuscripts of the Thirteenth and Founteenth Centuries: A Contribution to the History of Fiction During the Middle Ages. (London: The Percy Society. 1842.) -Mental furniture from the philosophers, article on the influence of medieval Latin on modern technical vocabulary. - -Latin language" -9131,31310,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20of%20European%20Football%20Associations,Union of European Football Associations,"The Union of European Football Associations mostly called the UEFA, is the organization that controls European football (soccer) (often referred to as association football). The UEFA is one of 6 continental confederations of the FIFA. It is also the biggest one. The President of the UEFA is Florentino Pérez, who also works as the president of Real Madrid. - -Some members of the UEFA are partly or whole not part of the European continent (Israel, Turkey, Kazakhstan,Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Cyprus and Russia). There are members that do not represent sovereign states, such as the Faroe Islands, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. - -UEFA national teams have won 12 FIFA World Cups (Italy-4, Germany-4, France-2, England and Spain-one trophy each), and UEFA clubs have won 21 Intercontinental Cups and four FIFA Club World Cups. In women's, UEFA teams have won three FIFA Women's World Cups (Germany 2, Norway 1) and one Olympic gold medal (Norway). - -Members of UEFA - -Competitions - -International competitions -The main international competition is the UEFA European Football Championship. This competition started in 1958, with the first finals in 1960. It is held every four years. The last was 2016 in France. The title was won by Portugal for their first time ever. There were also European competitions at the Under-21, Under-19 and Under-17 levels. For women there was the UEFA Women's Championship. - -Club competitions -There are two main club competitions. The highest is the UEFA Champions League. It started in the 1992/93 season as follower of the UEFA Champion Cup. This competition was first held in 1956. The second is the UEFA Europa League. The league started in 1999 when the UEFA Cup and the Cup Winners' Cup merged. In women's football UEFA governs UEFA Women's Champions League for club teams. The competition was first held in 2009 (out of UEFA Women's Cup until 2009) - -Winner of the UEFA Champions League - 2017/18-Real Madrid - 2016/17-Real Madrid - 2015/16-Real Madrid - 2014/15-FC Barcelona - 2013/14-Real Madrid - 2012/13-Bayern Munich - 2011/12-Chelsea FC - 2010/11-FC Barcelona - 2009/10-Inter Milan - 2008/09-FC Barcelona - 2007/08-Manchester United - 2006/07-AC Milan - 2005/06-FC Barcelona - 2004/05-Liverpool FC - 2003/04-FC Porto - 2002/03-AC Milan - 2001/02-Real Madrid - 2000/01-Bayern Munich - 1999/00-Real Madrid - 1998/99-Manchester United - 1997/98-Real Madrid - 1996/97-Borussia Dortmund - 1995/96-Juventus - 1994/95-Ajax Amsterdam - 1993/94-AC Milan - 1992/93-Olympic Marseille -Since 1992 no winner of the Champions League was able to defend the title the next season. - -Winner of the UEFA Women's Champions League - 2009/10-1. FFC Turbine Potsdam (Germany) - 2010/11-Olympique Lyon (France) - -Related pages - European Football Champions - UEFA Champions League - FIFA - UEFA Europa League - -References - -Other websites - - UEFA homepage - - -1954 establishments in Europe" -14451,54417,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farschweiler,Farschweiler,"Farschweiler is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. As of 31 December 2018, 802 people lived there. - -Other websites - - Official website - -Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate -Trier-Saarburg" -10407,36806,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibibyte,Gibibyte,"A gibibyte (GiB) is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. One gibibyte holds 1024 mebibytes (MiB). Some people call this number of bytes a gigabyte. This would be considered the binary equivalent to the base-10 gigabyte, which consists of exactly one billion bytes. - -A gibibyte is equivalent to 2³⁰ bytes (1,073,741,824 bytes) while a gigabyte is 10⁹ bytes (1,000,000,000 or a billion bytes) - -1024 gibibytes make one tebibyte. - -Related pages - - Kibibyte - Mebibyte - Tebibyte - Pebibyte - -Computing measurement" -23915,92406,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich%20Sutermeister,Heinrich Sutermeister,"Heinrich Sutermeister (born Feuerthalen, 12 August, 1910 – died Vaux-sur-Morges, 16 March, 1995) was a Swiss composer. - -When he was young he was a student at the main music school in Munich, Germany, where the famous German composer Carl Orff was his teacher. Orff strongly influenced his music. Later he returned to Switzerland, where he lived as a composer. - -His most important works are Romeo und Julia and Die Schwarze Witwe (The Black Widow). Romeo und Julia has been played the first time in Dresden in 1940, under the famous conductor Karl Böhm. During the following years Sutermeister made operas for the radio and television. - -Works - Max und Moritz, ballet after Wilhelm Busch - Die schwarze Spinne, 'Funkoper' after Jeremias Gotthelf, 1936 - Romeo und Julia, opera after William Shakespeare, 1940 - Die Zauberinsel, opera after Shakespeare, 1942 - 1. Piano Concerto, 1943 - Niobe, 'Monodram', 1946 - Capriccio for unaccompanied Clarinet in A,1946 - Raskolnikoff, opera after Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1948 - Die Alpen, fantasy on Swiss folksongs, 1948 - Der rote Stiefel, opera, 1951 - 2. Piano Concerto, 1953 - Missa da Requiem, 1953 - 1. Cello Concerto, 1954-55 - Titus Feuerfuchs oder Die Liebe, Tücke und Perücke, opera, 1958 - 3. Piano Concerto, 1961-62 - Das Gespenst von Canterville, play with music for television after Oscar Wilde, 1962-63 - Poème funèbre - En mémoire de Paul Hindemith for string orchestra, 1965 - Omnia ad Unum, cantata, 1965-66 - Madame Bovary, opera after Gustave Flaubert, 1967 - 2. Cello Concerto, 1971 - Te Deum, 1975 - Clarinet Concerto, 1975-76 - Consolatio philosophiae, 'Scène dramatique', 1979 - -Other websites - Composers Schott-Music: Heinrich Sutermeister - -1910 births -1995 deaths - -Swiss composers -20th-century composers" -13708,50703,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20London,Greater London,"Greater London is an administrative district. It covers London, England. About 7.5 million people live there. - -It is also one of the regions of England used by the Government for various purposes, including administration and statistics. - -Greater London is a conurbation, a city made from merging many smaller villages, towns and cities into a larger one. ""London"" is technically only the City of London, one of London's 33 administrative districts. In order to avoid confusion, ""Greater London"" is often used to mean the whole modern urban area centred on the City of London, and not just the City of London itself. When most people say London, they are referring to Greater London. - -Local government in London -Ceremonial counties of England" -6920,21786,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miso,Miso,"Miso (味噌 or みそ) is a thick or solid paste. It is a traditional Japanese seasoning. - -Miso is similar to the Korean doenjang. It is made by fermenting soy beans with sea salt or salt and kōji. Kōji is the product of fermenting rice, barley, or soybeans with a mold culture, Kōji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae). Often, grains such as barley or rice, and sometimes other ingredients, are added. Miso is high in protein and rich in vitamins and minerals. Miso tastes salty and, depending on the grains used and fermentation time, may also be sweet. Miso is used to make miso soup. - -Miso is a very important part of Japanese food. There are different kinds of miso. Kome miso (米味噌) is made from rice and beans. Mame miso (豆味噌) is made from beans. Mugi miso (麦味噌) is made from barley and beans. Awase miso (合せ味噌) is a mix of these misos. - -History -Miso first came to Japan from China or the Korean peninsula. Ancient Chinese jan (醤) is the origin of miso. Jan is an ancient fermented seasoning. According to classical scholars, jan was called hishio or kuki in the Edo era. In China, jan was written about in the Shurai. - -Miso existed in the Jomon era in Japan. Jan is the Japanese original seasoning. In the Nara era, jan was found in Nishi city, Heiankyo. Miso was used for seasoning porridge made of rice and vegetables. In the Sengoku period, Miso was important to preserved food. - -Many Japanese used to make miso in their own homes. This was called Temae-miso. In the Muromachi era, it was used as a food preservative and as a seasoning. Miso was an important source of nutrients for soldiers. In the Edo era, industrial mass production method of miso began. Temae-miso became less common. ""Temae-miso"" nowadays also used when a person is proud of something. - -There are many different flavors of miso. It depends on regions. Shiromiso (白味噌) is popular in the western Kansai region, especially in Kyoto. Akamiso is popular in the eastern Kantō region or northern region. Shinshumiso (信州味噌) is generally popular after the second world war, because it is mass produced in factories and sold in supermarkets in over Japan. - -References -http://miso.or.jp/misoonline/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/miso-english-leaflet.pdf -Japan Federation of Miso Manufacturers Cooperatives - official site - -Japanese food" -3975,12307,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway%20track,Railway track,"A Railway track or railway line is a set of two parallel rows of long pieces of steel. - They are used by trains to transport people and things from one place to another. (In America, people say railroad as well as railway). Often, there is more than one set of tracks on the railway line. For example, trains go east on one track and west on the other one. - -The rails are supported by cross pieces set at regular intervals (called sleepers or ties), which spread the high pressure load imposed by the train wheels into the ground. They also maintain the rails at a fixed distance apart (called the gauge). Ties are usually made from either wood or concrete. These often rest on ballast, which is a name for very small pieces of broken up rock that are packed together and keep the railway tracks in place. Tracks are often made better by ballast tampers. - -The upper surfaces of the rails are inclined slightly towards each other, typically on a slope of 1/20, and the rims of the train wheels are angled in the same way (""coning""). This helps guide the vehicles of the train along the track. Each wheel also has a flange, which sticks out from one edge all the way around. This makes sure the train does not ""derail"" (come off the track) and helps guide the train on sharp curves. - -References - -Rail transport" -4110,12656,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910s,1910s,"The 1910s was the decade that started on January 1, 1910, and ended on December 31, 1919. - -Events - Balkan Wars - 1911-12: The Republic of China overthrew the Qing Dynsty. - 1912: The ship RMS Titanic strikes an iceberg in the North Atlantic, and sinks on its first voyage. - 1912: Olympic Games held in Stockholm, Sweden. - 1914–1918: World War I 15,000,000 people die - 1917: The October revolution in Russia. Communists get rid of the king (Tsar) - 1918–1919: Influenza (the spanish flu) spreads through Europe killing 25,000,000 to 50,000,000 people. - -World leaders - Prime Minister Andrew Fisher (Australia) - Prime Minister Joseph Cook (Australia) - Prime Minister Billy Hughes (Australia) - Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary) - Emperor Karl (Austria-Hungary) - Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden (Canada) - Emperor Henry Pu Yi of the Qing Dynasty (China) - Sun Yat-sen, President of the Republic of China - Yuan Shikai, President of the Republic of China and briefly Emperor. - Xu Shichang, President of the Republic of China - Emperor Wilhelm II (German Empire) - Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg (German Empire) - King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy) - Pope Pius X - Pope Benedict XV - Sultan Vahidettin (Ottoman Empire) - Ahmad Shah Qajar of Qajar dynasty (Persia) - Emperor Nicholas II (Russia) - Vladimir Lenin (Soviet Union) - King Alfonso XIII (Spain) - Prime Minister José Canalejas (Spain) - Prime Minister Eduardo Dato Iradier (Spain) - King George V (United Kingdom) - Prime Minister H. H. Asquith (United Kingdom) - Prime Minister David Lloyd George (United Kingdom) - President William Howard Taft (United States) - President Woodrow Wilson (United States) - -Births - 1911 – Ronald Reagan - 1912 – Alan Turing - 1912 – John Cage - 1912 – Pope John Paul I - 1913 – Richard Nixon - 1913 – Gerald Ford - 1914 – Richard Widmark - 1916 – Gregory Peck - 1918 – Nelson Mandela, South African prisoner of conscience and president - 1918 – Paul Harvey, American radio host - 1919 – Eva Perón - -Deaths - 1914 – Adlai E. Stevenson, American politician - 1914 – John Philip Holland, early submarine designer - 1919 – Emiliano Zapata" -15728,60232,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prize,Prize,"A prize is an award given to a person or a group of people to reward good work. - -Official prizes often include monetary rewards as well as the fame that comes with them. Some prizes are given out in famous ceremonies, such as the Oscars. - -Prizes are given for a number of reasons: as an honour for special persons, for exemplary behaviour and to provide incentives in competitions, etc. In general, prizes are regarded in a positive light, and their winners are admired. However, many prizes, especially the more famous ones, have often caused controversy and jealousy. - -Specific types of prizes include: - First prize, second prize, third prize etc. - Consolation prize: an award given to those who do not win an event but are deserving of recognition. - Booby prize: typically awarded as a joke to whoever finished last." -7232,23017,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brock%20%28Pok%C3%A9mon%29,Brock (Pokémon),"known by name as Takeshi in Japan, is a fictional character in the Pokémon series of video games, Manga, and television series. He is often seen traveling along with Ash Ketchum and Misty on their journeys. One of his gags is that he falls in love with every girl he sees (except for Jessie of Team Rocket). His nickname is ""The Rock-Solid Pokémon Trainer"" because he uses rock-type Pokémon. - -Anime -Brock appears in the first series of the anime. In his first appearance, he has many siblings and is in charge of them and cares for them since his mother Lola is away chasing dreams and his father Flint ran away from the family. After Flint comes back, Brock then picks up and his bags and travels with Ash and Misty throughout the Kanto series. He ends up leaving the group when they get to the Orange Islands to work with Professor Ivy. He later returns and travels with Ash throughout Johto, Hoenn, and Sinnoh. He uses rock-types Geodude and Onix, as well as others like Zubat. - -Video games -Brock appears in the games Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow, and the Red and Blue remakes FireRed and LeafGreen as the gym leader of Pewter City. He gives out the Boulder Badge and uses Rock-type Pokémon. He also appears in Gold, Silver, and Crystal and the Gold and Silver remakes HeartGold and SoulSilver as a gym leader the player can face when they get to the Kanto region. - -Pokémon characters -Anime characters" -1285,4656,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902,1902,"1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar. - -Events - July 11 – Arthur Balfour becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom - Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium - The Real Madrid football club starts in Spain - Statue of Boudica unveiled in Westminster, London - -Births - February 4 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (d. 1974) - February 27 – John Steinbeck, American writer (d. 1968) - July 10 – Kurt Alder, German chemist (d. 1958) - August 8 – Paul Dirac, English physicist (d. 1984) - September 21 – Ruhollah Khomeini, revolutionary leader (d. 1989) - November 9 - Anthony Asquith, British director (d. 1968) - December 5 – Strom Thurmond, American politician (d. 2003) - December 9 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (d. 1985) - -Deaths - April 30 - Swami Vivekananda - Indian social reformer (b. 1863) - December 14 – Julia Grant – former First Lady of the United States (b. 1826) - September 16 – Levi Strauss, American business person (b. 1829) - -Hits songs - ""The Entertainer"" m. Scott Joplin" -22678,85860,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait,Strait,"A strait is a narrow channel of water between two land areas. A strait connects two bodies of water. Straits often connect two seas. Many straits are economically and strategically important. Straits may be part of important shipping routes. So, someone who controls a strait can control the shipping. Wars have been fought to control them. Although rivers and canals often connect two large lakes or a lake and a sea, they are not straits. Straits are much larger and wider and do not have water running in a single direction. - -Well-known straits -Well-known straits in the world are: - Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which connect the Mediterranean and the Black Sea - Strait of Dover, between England and France, which connects the North Sea with the English Channel - Strait of Gibraltar, the only natural passage between the World Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea - Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, which connects the Pacific and Arctic Oceans - Strait of Magellan, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of Tierra del Fuego - Palk strait, between India and Sri Lanka, the location of Ram Sethu and rich in natural resources - Strait of Hormuz connecting the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea, through which Persian Gulf petroleum is shipped to the world - Strait of Malacca, which separates the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra, and connects the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. (It is one of the highest-volume shipping lanes in the world.) - Bass Strait, which is between mainland Australia and Tasmania, and connects the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. - Torres Strait which is between Australia and New Guinea. - Cook Strait, between New Zealand's North and South Islands, and connects the Tasman Sea and the South Pacific Ocean. - -Related pages - -Canal -Channel" -8647,29277,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaiah%20Berlin,Isaiah Berlin,"Sir Isaiah Berlin OM, FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a British philosopher. He was born in Riga, Latvia, which at the time was a part of the Russian Empire. He was Jewish, and was the first Jew to win the prize of a fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford University. - -Reputation -Isaiah Berlin was an important person of the 20th century. People see him as an important thinker of Liberalist ideas. He was made a member of the Order of Merit and was a professor at the University of Oxford. He made a distinction between positive liberty and negative liberty. His most famous work is probably Two Concepts of Liberty (where he introduced this distinction.) He died 5 November 1997. - -1909 births -1997 deaths -20th-century British philosophers -Jewish British academics -Jewish British scientists -Knights Bachelor -Latvian Jews -Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom -Order of Merit -People from Riga -Russian Jews -Latvian writers -Latvian scientists" -12150,44783,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel%20%28geometry%29,Parallel (geometry),"Parallel is a term in geometry and in everyday life that refers to a property of lines or planes. Parallel lines or planes are next to each other, but never touch each other. This means they never intersect at any point. If two lines and are parallel, then we describe this by writing . The slopes of parallel lines are always equal. - -Even if these two line segments were extended to infinity, there would never be a point of intersection between the two of them. In fact, two parallel lines in the two-dimensional plane are always a fixed distance apart. - -Construction - -Related pages - Non-Euclidean geometry - Parallelogram - Parallel postulate - Perpendicular - -References - -Geometry" -12248,45217,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Europe,Northern Europe,"Northern Europe is the northern part of the European continent. Most people see the following states as part of it: - The Nordic countries, including Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, as well as Åland, the Faroe Islands and occasionally Karelia and the Kola Peninsula. - Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands (but see also Western Europe) - The Baltic states, i.e. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania - Areas bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, e.g. north-western Russia, northern Poland (most often referred to as Eastern Europe), the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and northern Germany. - -Europe, the planet's 6th largest continent, includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies, islands and territories. - -Before the 19th century, the term 'Nordic' or 'Northern' was commonly used to mean Northern Europe in a sense that included the Nordic countries, European Russia, the Baltic countries (at that time Livonia and Courland) and Greenland. - -In earlier eras, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region (i.e. the Roman Empire), everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including Germany, the Low Countries, and Austria. In medieval times, the term (Ultima) Thule was used to mean a semi-mythical place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent. - -In a European Union context, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the UK, Ireland, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are often seen as belonging to a Northern group. - -References - -Regions of Europe" -21899,83438,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Butler%20Yeats,William Butler Yeats,"William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) was an Irish poet, dramatist and mystic. He was born in Dublin, Ireland on 13 June 1865. He spent most of his time in Sligo and some time in London. - -Yeats' early poetry drew heavily on myth and legend. His later work had more to do with contemporary issues. One of his famous poems is called ""Leda and the Swan"". - -With Lady Gregory and others, he was one of the people who founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre. - -He was also interested in Hermeticism and Theosophy. He was a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. - -Yeats won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1923. He died in Menton, France. - -References - -1865 births -1939 deaths -Irish poets -Royal Society of Literature -Writers from Dublin -Irish Nobel Prize winners" -4847,15290,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottuln,Nottuln,"Nottuln is a town in Coesfeld county, 20 km west of Münster, Germany. - -It consists of - Nottuln - Appelhülsen - Schapdetten - Darup - -History -A church was founded in 860 by Ludger Liudger, as well as the first monastery in Westphalia. -After a big fire 1748 it was built up by Johann Conrad Schlaun. -The county of Nottuln is at the A43 and a railway. - -References - -Other websites - -Coesfeld Rural District" -5434,17715,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Saratoga,Battle of Saratoga,"The Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point of the American Revolution. The battle was fought in late 1777. It was actually two engagements: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7). The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates. The British were led by General John Burgoyne. On October 17 Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers. The American victory helped convince France to come to the aid the Continental Army. It also helped them recognize the United States. - -Prelude -In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia. This would destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada. He split his force into two columns. One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley. They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix. The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort. The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort. St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario. Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers. He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British. - -Burgoyne made a proclamation to his Indians to go out and strike at the enemy. He added that women and children, or any who did not oppose them should not be killed. But men, women and children were killed. One famous incident upset all the colonists. A young woman named Jane McCrea was engaged to marry one of Burgoyne's young tory officers. Indians bringing her to Burgoyne fought over her, killed and scalped her. Burgoyne wouldn't punish the Indian who killed her. This proved he could not even protect friendly colonists. Newspapers in the colonies spread the story. As a result, a great many Americans who had been neutral took up arms against the British. The story even reached England. In the House of Commons Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies. - -Battle of Freeman's Farm -Howe had captured Philadelphia. But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne. On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga. He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm. This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers. This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces. Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties. He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans. - -Battle of Bemis Heights -Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7. But the Americans held out against him. A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga. This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties. The American losses were less than 150. Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army. On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire. Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender. But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer. The terms given by Gates were harsh. Finally Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered. - -British surrender -Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies. Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole. Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly. Each toasted the other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston. Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war. - -References - -Other websites - Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777 - The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles - -Battles of the American Revolutionary War -1777 in New York (state)" -11597,42307,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noodle,Noodle,"Noodles are thin strips of pasta which are made from dough. The dough for the noodles can be made in different ways: - Egg noodles are made of eggs and wheat flour. Asian egg noodles, Italian type pastas or Reshteh are made this way. - Wheat noodles- Mee pok, Lamian, Ramen, Udon, Champon, and Yakisoba-type noodles - Rice noodles - Asian bihun,Vietnamese Phở - Glass noodles are made of Mung bean or potato starch - Buckweat noodles - Japanese Soba - -Noodles are usually cooked in boiling water. Sometimes, after boiling, noodles are fried in a pan with other ingredients while being moved around in order to be mixed well, which is called stir frying. - -Kinds of noodles (especially in Japan) -Ramen -Udon -Spaghetti -Linguine -Soba -Somen -Tsukemen -Cup Noodle - -References" -13475,49553,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italia%20%28Roman%20province%29,Italia (Roman province),"Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. - -Italia was the home of the capital of the Roman Empire - Rome itself. - -Other websites -A poem by Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, at The Latin Library, describing the decadence of Italia and Rome around 410. - -Places of Ancient Rome" -6507,20516,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1772,1772," - -Events -King Gustav III of Sweden makes a new constitution in Sweden, and gains total power. -Marquis de Sade sentenced to death. - -Births -May 20-Sir William Congreve, English inventor. -August 24 – King William I of the Netherlands - -Deaths -March 29 – Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish thinker and mathematician" -22412,84863,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police%2C%20Poland,"Police, Poland","Police is a town in Poland in West Pomeranian Voivodeship. As of 2007, 34,220 people live there. The town is located on the river Oder, near the border with Germany. It is one of the largest sea ports in Poland. Police borders with Szczecin. In the Police area, there is another town called Nowe Warpno. - -Cities in Poland" -11284,40909,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Forsyth%20High%20School,West Forsyth High School,"West Forsyth High School is a high school in North Carolina. It has 1611 students. It is the third largest school in Forsyth County and the 53rd largest school in North Carolina. Its principal is Kurt Telford. It is under the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools' district. - -Buildings and structures in North Carolina -Schools in the United States" -5963,19254,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schindler%27s%20List,Schindler's List,"Schindler's List is a 1993 American movie set in World War II, and directed by Steven Spielberg. It is based on Schindler's Ark, a 1982 book by Thomas Keneally. The movie and the book owe their names to the list of over a thousand Jews who worked in the title character's factory. - -Plot -It is about businessman Oskar Schindler who saves thousands of Jews from being killed in the Holocaust by putting them to work in a factory. His list was the list of Jews he wanted to save. - -Cast - - Liam Neeson as Oskar Schindler - Ben Kingsley as Itzhak Stern - Ralph Fiennes as Amon Göth - Caroline Goodall as Emilie Schindler - Jonathan Sagall as Poldek Pfefferberg - Embeth Davidtz as Helen Hirsch - Małgorzata Gebel as Wiktoria Klonowska - Mark Ivanir as Marcel Goldberg - Beatrice Macola as Ingrid - Andrzej Seweryn as Julian Scherner - Friedrich von Thun as Rolf Czurda - Jerzy Nowak as Investor - Norbert Weisser as Albert Hujar - Anna Mucha as Danka Dresner - Adi Nitzan as Mila Pfefferberg - Piotr Polk as Leo Rosner - Rami Heuberger as Joseph Bau - Ezra Dagan as Rabbi Menasha Lewartow - Elina Löwensohn as Diana Reiter - Hans-Jörg Assmann as Julius Madritsch - Hans-Michael Rehberg as Rudolf Höß - Daniel Del Ponte as Josef Mengele - Oliwia Dąbrowska as the Girl in Red - -Awards -Schindler's List featured on a number of ""best of"" lists, including the TIME magazine's Top Hundred as selected by critics Richard Corliss and Richard Schickel, Time Out magazine's 100 Greatest Films Centenary Poll conducted in 1995, and Leonard Maltin's ""100 Must See Movies of the Century"". The Vatican named Schindler's List among the most important 45 movies ever made. A Channel 4 poll named Schindler's List the ninth greatest movie of all time, and it ranked fourth in their 2005 war movies poll. The movie was named the best of 1993 by critics such as James Berardinelli, Roger Ebert, and Gene Siskel. The movie was designated by the Library of Congress in 2004 and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Spielberg won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film for his work, and shared the Producers Guild of America Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture with co-producers Branko Lustig and Gerald R. Molen. Steven Zaillian won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. - -It was nominated for twelve Academy Awards, winning seven, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Original Score, and won numerous other awards, including seven BAFTAs and three Golden Globe Awards. The movie also won numerous other awards and nominations worldwide. - -Impact -Among others such as Citizen Kane and Sunset Boulevard, it has been called one of the greatest movies ever. In 1998, the American Film Institute selected it as the ninth most popular of all time in their 100 Years... 100 Movies list. - -In February 1997, NBC aired a version without cuts of the movie (in two parts), much to the upset of many viewers. It was the first time a television broadcast had ever received the TV-M rating (soon to be called TV-MA). - -References - -Other websites - - - Filmsite's review of the movie - Official site - -1982 books -1993 drama movies -1990s biographical movies -1990s war movies -American biographical movies -American drama movies -American war movies -BAFTA Award winning movies -Best Picture Oscar -German-language movies -Golden Globe Award winning movies -Movies based on books -Movies directed by Steven Spielberg -Movies set in the 1930s -Movies set in the 1940s -Kraków -Multilingual movies -United States National Film Registry movies -World War II movies -Universal Pictures movies" -14883,56067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastian%20Schweinsteiger,Bastian Schweinsteiger,"Bastian Schweinsteiger (born 1 August 1984, in Kolbermoor, Germany) is a German football player. He plays as midfielder for Chicago Fire and the Germany national team. He has a brother, Tobias, who is also a footballer and is playing for Unterhaching on loan in the third German league. As of 11 July 2015, Schweinsteiger was transferred under a disclosed fee to Manchester United after Bayern CEO Karl-Heinz Rummenigge announced the transfer in a press conference. Schweinsteiger has been in a relationship with Ana Ivanovic since September 2014. The couple married on 12 July 2016 in Venice. - -Career - -Club -Schweinsteiger signed with Bayern Munich as a youth team player on 1 July 1998 and soon was successful with the youth teams and the second team. He made his debut in the first team as substitute in an UEFA Championsleague match versus RC Lens in November 2002. onla a short time later he signed a professional contract for the first team. He shot his first Bayern goal against VfL Wolfsburg in September 2003. - -At the beginning of the 2005/06 season he was sent back to the second team but soon came back. Over the next three seasons, up until the end of 2007–08, Schweinsteiger made 135 appearances in all competitions for Bayern Munich (UEFA Champions League, Bundesliga and German Cup), scoring 10 goals. In December 2010, he prolonged his contract with Bayern until 2016. However, in July 2015 Schweinsteiger made a move to Manchester United. - -International -Schweinsteiger made his international debut in 2004 in a friendly against Hungary. Since that time he played regularly in the German football national team. He was member of the Euro 2004 and 2008 - and World Cup 2006, 2010 and 2014 squads. - -International goals - -Club career statistics - -1.Statistics includes DFL-Supercup. - -International career statistics - -|- -|2004||10||0 -|- -|2005||14||4 -|- -|2006||18||9 -|- -|2007||6||0 -|- -|2008||15||4 -|- -|2009||10||2 -|- -|2010||12||2 -|- -|2011||6||2 -|- -|2012||7||0 -|- -|2013||3||0 -|- -|2014||7||0 -|- -!Total||107||23 -|} - -Honours - -Club: Manchester United F.C -Bayern Munich Junior Team -Under 17 Bundesliga (1): 2001 -Under 19 Bundesliga (1): 2002 - -Bayern Munich II -Regionalliga Süd (1): 2004 - -Bayern Munich - Bundesliga (5): 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2011–12, 2012–13 - DFB-Pokal (5): 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10 - DFB-Ligapokal (2): 2004, 2007 - DFB-Supercup (1): 2010 - UEFA Champions League (1): 2012–13 - FIFA Club World Cup (1): 2013 - UEFA Super Cup (1): 2013 - -International -Germany - FIFA Confederations Cup Third Place: 2005 - FIFA World Cup Third Place: 2006 & 2010 - UEFA European Football Championship Runner-up: 2008 - -Individual - FIFA World Cup All Star Team: 2010 -Silbernes Lorbeerblatt (2): 2006, 2010 - -References - -1984 births -Living people -2006 FIFA World Cup players -2010 FIFA World Cup players -2014 FIFA World Cup players -German footballers -Manchester United F.C. players -Sportspeople from Bavaria -UEFA Euro 2004 players -UEFA Euro 2008 players -UEFA Euro 2012 players -UEFA Euro 2016 players" -856,3609,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information,Information,"The word ""information"" is used in many different ways. Originally, it comes from a word that meant to give a form to something. Information is something that people can learn, know about, or understand. For example, a newspaper contains information about the world. This article contains information about ""Information"". - -Information in computer science -People who use computers often use the words information and data in the same way. There are special fields of study called ""information science"", ""information technology"" (IT), and data science. - -In the 1970s and 1980s, some people gave a new, specific meaning to ""information"". At that time, the first computer databases were built. In computer science, data often means a kind of information that has not been checked. That means data has not been changed or fixed, and you may not be able to trust it. With the new meaning, information means data that has been checked and passed tests for what it must be. A person can trust that ""information"" is correct. - -Information can only be correct and good enough to trust if there are very good and complete ways to check the data (data checking, validation or verification) and decide it is good enough (acceptance process). A person must know rules were used to check the data or trust the person who checked the data. If a person cannot tell that this was done, the information still seems to be data for that person, so that person must check the data again, in that general view about data. - -The Information Age is a historic period. - -Other websites - -Theoretical computer science" -749,3351,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri%20River,Missouri River,"The Missouri River is a river in the western United States. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is longer than the Mississippi River. It is, in fact, the longest river in North America. - -Geography - -For most of its course, the Missouri flows across the Great Plains, one of the driest parts of North America. - -The source of the Missouri River is in the Rocky Mountains, in the state of Montana. The Missouri flows eastward, across Montana, south of the border with Canada. It enters the state of North Dakota and then it turns south. It flows through South Dakota. Then it flows past Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, and Kansas. - -Near the city of Kansas City, Missouri, the Missouri turns eastward into the state of Missouri. It flows eastward across the state of Missouri. It joins the Mississippi just north of the city of Saint Louis, Missouri. - -The Missouri has many important tributaries, including the Yellowstone River, the Platte River, and the Kansas River. - -History - -The Missouri was very important for the Native Americans who lived on the Great Plains. It was also very important in the history of the United States. The Missouri was used as the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1804-1806. In the 19th century, the Missouri was very important in the North American fur trade and for transportation of army troops and supplies as well as general transportation and trade as the West was settled. - -Nicknames - -The nickname of the Missouri is ""Big Muddy"", because it has a lot of silt. - -Rivers of Montana -Rivers of Missouri -Rivers of Iowa -Rivers of Kansas -Rivers of Nebraska -Rivers of South Dakota -Rivers of North Dakota" -5216,16868,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chino%20Hills%2C%20California,"Chino Hills, California","Chino Hills is a city in the U.S. state of California. It is in San Bernardino County. Almost 75,000 people live in Chino Hills. It is named for the hills that cover most of the city. - -Cities in California -Settlements in San Bernardino County, California" -21022,80702,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altnau,Altnau,"Altnau is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -11791,43248,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katie%20Leung,Katie Leung,"Katie Liu Leung (born 8 August 1987) is a Scottish actress. She is most famous for her role as Cho Chang in the Harry Potter series. She was born in Dundee, Scotland. - -Her parents, Peter and Kar Wai Li Leung, are Chinese immigrants. After her parents got divorced, she lived with her father in a £400,000 house in Motherwell, Scotland. Her two brothers and a younger sister, also lived with her. Her father owns a restaurant and a fast food business in Motherwell. Leung went to school at Hamilton College, a Scottish private school in Glasgow. She speaks fluent Cantonese and some Mandarin. - -Leung has been named as Scotland's most stylish female and as the hottest Scotswoman by The Scotsman. She has also been in Teen Vogue and in Evening Standard. - -Film & Television & Stage - -Achievements - -2008 - - Best Kiss Nominee 2008 MTV Movie Awards U.S. (alongside Daniel Radcliffe) - -2007 - - Scotland's Most Stylish Female - No. 80 on the Cosmogirl's Hot 100 List. - -2006 - - Outstanding Newcomer Award, Asian Excellence Awards (Top 4) - Young Scots Award (nominee) - -References - -1987 births -Living people -Scottish movie actors -Scottish television actors" -11302,40995,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem,Problem,"A problem is a situation preventing something from being achieved. The word comes from a Greek word meaning an ""obstacle"" (something that is in your way). Someone who has a problem must find a way of solving it. The means of solving a problem is called a ""solution"". - -Examples -""John has locked his car keys inside his car so that he cannot get at them. John has a problem"". - -Entertainment examples -Some problems are made up for fun. These are like puzzles. Some of them can be solved with logic, others can be solved by trial and error or by a heuristic. - -Mathematical examples -Here is an example of a mathematical problem: -""John is three times as old as Mary. In three years time he will be twice as old as Mary. How old are John and Mary?"" The answer to this problem is that John is 9 and Mary is 3. - -Children often like to give one another problems that can be solved by ""lateral thinking"". This means using the imagination rather than strict logic. Here is an example: - -""Peter, Ruth, Samuel and Jessica live in the same house. Peter and Ruth went out. When they returned they found Jessica lying dead, surrounded by glass. They were sure Samuel had done it. Why did they not call the police?"" The answer is: Samuel was the cat and Jessica was a goldfish. - -A well-known example of a problem that cannot be solved is that of squaring the circle – how to get a square that has the same area as a given circle, using geometry. - -Sources on problem solving -These are classic works on problem-solving: -Duncker, Karl 1945. On problem solving. APA Psychological Monographs 58. -Gordon, William J.J. 1961. Synectics: the development of creative capacity. New York: Harper. -Polya, George 1945. How to solve it: a new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University Press. -Wertheimer, Max 1959. Productive thinking. New York: Harper. New and expanded edition was 1945. -Simon, Herbert A. & Newell, Alan 1972. Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. - -Most of these deal with well-formulated problems. There are also a number of books on the psychology of thinking, which is obviously a large part of problem-solving: -Bolton, Neil 1972. The psychology of thinking. London: Methuen. -Wason P.C. & Johnson-Laird P.N. 1972. Psychology of reasoning: structure & content. London: Batsford. -Novick L.R. & Bassok M. 2005. Problem solving. In K.J. Holyoak & R.G. Morrison (eds) Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning. Chapter 14, pp. 321–349. Cambridge University Press. - -Related pages -Monty Hall problem – a problem about goats and a car in a game show, using probability. - -References - -Logic -Mathematics -Disability" -17814,67173,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backmasking,Backmasking,"Backmasking (also known wrongly as backward masking) is a recording technique. In backmasking, a sound or message is recorded backwards onto a track that is meant to be played forwards. It was made popular by The Beatles. Some people think that backmasking causes subliminal persuasion. - -References - -Other websites -Jeff Milner's Backmasking Page—a Flash player with forward and backward versions of songs claimed to contain backmasking; the focus of the Wall Street Journal article -Backmask Flash—flash clips of possible backmasked messages from Albino Blacksheep -TalkBackwards.com —allows uploaded music to be reversed -Hidden and Satanic Messages In Rock Music—1981 radio interview with Michael Mills -Excerpt with alleged backward messages by Led Zeppelin, The Beatles, Queen -""Backwards Messages in Rock Music—Revealed! "" podcast featuring The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, The Eagles, Rush, Jefferson Starship, Wings, Queen, Phil Collins, Britney Spears, Judas Priest, Pink Floyd, Iron Maiden, Electric Light Orchestra, Prince, and Information Society - -Music" -16386,63011,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimeter,Colorimeter,"A colorimeter is a device used for measuring colours, or colorimetry. It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution. It can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute. - -Different chemical substances absorb different wavelengths of light. When the concentration of the solute is higher, it absorbs more light in a specific wavelength. This is known as the Beer-Lambert law. - -Different parts -The most important parts of a colorimeter are: - a light source, which is usually an ordinary filament lamp - an aperture, which can be adjusted - a set of filters in different colors - a detector that measures the light which has passed through the solution - -Filters -Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light which the solution absorbs the most. This makes the colorimeter more accurate. Solutions are usually placed in glass or plastic cuvettes. The usual wavelengths used are between 400 and 700 nanometers. If it is necessary to use ultraviolet light (below 400 nanometers) then the lamp and filters must be changed. - -Output -The output of the colorimeter may be shown in graphs or tables, by an analogue or digital meter. The data may be printed on paper, or stored in a computer. The output may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity). The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light. A Transmittance-Absorbance conversion table may be seen here. - -Laboratory equipment" -13210,48484,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stillbirth,Stillbirth,"A stillbirth happens when a fetus (unborn baby) dies while still inside the mother or dies during delivery (childbirth). It is said that the delivered baby is stillborn. Stillbirth is different from a miscarriage because a stillbirth happens after the baby has been living inside its mother 20 to 24 weeks (depending on the country). It is called a miscarriage if the baby lived inside the mother for less time. - -Causes -The causes of many stillbirths are unknown, even when special tests are done to learn the cause. -nicotine, alcohol, or drugs taken by the mother during pregnancy -physical trauma -radiation poisoning -Rh disease -umbilical cord problems - -Occurrence -The number of stillbirths in the United States is about 1 in 115 births, which is about 26,000 a year, or one every 20 minutes. In developing countries, where medical care is not as advanced or good, the number of stillbirths is higher. - -In Australia, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the rate is about 1 in 200 babies. - -After stillbirth - -The death of the baby is usually treated like the death of an older baby. The family may have a funeral. The body of the dead baby can be buried or cremated (burned). In some places, there are special places for putting the bodies or the ashes of stillborn babies. - -The mother may be ill. Her body may be hurt from having the baby. - -Legal definitions of stillbirth - -United Kingdom -In the UK, any baby that leaves its mother's body after 24 weeks and does not show any signs of life is called a stillbirth. The mother or father must tell the government about the baby. A Stillbirth Certificate is given to the family. - -Australia -In Australia, any stillborn fetus that weighs more than 400 grams and lived in the mother for more than 20 weeks must be reported to the government. - -United States -The United States does not have a formal definition of stillborn babies. All pregnancies are legally called either: live birth, fetal death, or induced termination of pregnancy (abortion). The law does not have a difference between a stillbirth and a miscarriage. However, it is recommended to register infants who weighed over 350 grams or who lived over 19 weeks inside the mother before dying. - -Related pages -Fetus -Childbirth -Abortion - -Footnotes and references - -Pregnancy Institute founded by Dr. Jason H. Collins, OB/GYN specializes in umbilical cord research -March of Dimes: Quick reference and fact sheet -Investigating perinatal death: a review of the options when autopsy consent is refused. -Stillbirth at h2g2 - written by a bereaved mother - -Other websites -The Wisconsin Stillbirth Service Program (WiSSP), a branch of the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Clinical Genetics Center. One of the foremost authorities on the causes of stillbirth and responsible for many stillbirth evaluation protocols, including the widespread use of the Kleihauer-Betke test in deciding whether Rh disease is to blame for a stillbirth. - First-person story of one woman's journey through stillbirth - -Pregnancy and childbirth" -3267,9956,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%207,August 7," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 322 BC - Battle of Crammon between Athens and Macedon. - 461 - Roman Emperor Majorian is beheaded near the river Iria in northwestern Italy. - 626 - The Avar and Slav armies leave the Siege of Constantinople. - 768 - Pope Stephen III is elected. - 936 - Coronation of King Otto I of Germany. - 1316 - Pope John XXII is elected. - 1420 - Building of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, Italy begins. - 1461 - Ming Dynasty Chinese general Cao Qin stages a coup against the Tianshun Emperor. - 1588 - The English Navy defeats the Spanish Armada. - 1679 – The brigantine Le Griffon, which was commissioned by René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the southern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes of North America. - 1714 - Battle of Gangut: First important victory in the Russian Navy. - 1782 – George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic Purple Heart. - 1789 - The United States Department of War is established. - 1794 – Whiskey Rebellion begins: Farmers in the Monoghaela Valley of Pennsylvania rebel against the federal tax on liquor and distilled drinks. - 1819 – Simón Bolívar triumphed over Spain in the Battle of Boyacá. - 1858 - The first Australian rules football match is played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. - 1879 - Opening of the Poor Man's Palace in Manchester, England. - 1884 - Germany takes control of Southwest Africa, present-day Namibia. - 1888 - In the US, Theophilus Van Kannel is given a patent for the Revolving door. - -1901 2000 - 1909 - Alice Huyler Ramsey and three friends become the first women to make a transcontinental car journey, reaching San Francisco, California after setting off from New York City on June 9. - 1927 – Peace Bridge opens, between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York. - 1930 - The last confirmed lynchings of African Americans in the Northern United States take place in Marion, Indiana. - 1933 - Simele Massacre: Iraqi government forces slaughter over 3,000 Assyrians in the village of Simele. - 1942 – World War II: Battle of Guadalcanal begins - US Marines initiate the first American offensive of the war with a landing on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. - 1944 – IBM dedicates the first program-controlled calculator, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the Harvard Mark I). - 1947 – Thor Heyerdahl's balsa wood raft the Kon-Tiki, smashes into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands after a 101-day 7,000 km (4,300 mile) journey across the Pacific Ocean proving that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from South America. - 1953 – Ohio admitted to the union, retroactive to 1803 (this is disputed by some). - 1959 – Explorer program: The United States launches Explorer 6 from the Atlantic Missile Range in Cape Canaveral, Florida. - 1960 – Côte d'Ivoire becomes independent. - 1964 – Vietnam War: The United States Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving US President Lyndon B. Johnson broad war powers to deal with North Vietnamese attacks on American forces. - 1964 - Prometheus, a bristlecone pine and the oldest tree in the world, is cut down. - 1965 – Singapore is expelled and separated from the Federation of Malaysia. - 1967 – Vietnam War: The People's Republic of China agrees to give North Vietnam and undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grant. - 1971 - Apollo 15 returns to Earth after a mission to the Moon. - 1972 - Idi Amin gives all Asian people in Uganda 90 days to leave. - 1974 – French tight-rope walker Philippe Petit crosses from one tower to the other at New York City's World Trade Center. - 1976 – Viking program: Viking 2 enters into orbit around Mars. - 1978 – United States President Jimmy Carter declares a federal emergency at Love Canal. - 1981 – The Washington Star ceases all operations after 128 years of publication. - 1983 - The first World Athletics Championships begin in Helsinki, Finland. - 1985 – Takao Doi, Mamoru Mori, and Chiaki Mukai are chosen as Japan's first astronauts. - 1987 – American swimmer Lynne Cox crosses the so-called 'Ice Curtain' between Alaska (US), and the Soviet Union's far east. - 1989 – US Congressman Mickey Leland (D-TX), and 15 others die in a plane crash in Ethiopia. - 1990 – At 12:34:56 (both AM and PM) the time and date by British reckoning was 12:34:56 7/8/90. - 1990 - César Gaviria becomes President of Colombia. - 1994 - Ernesto Samper becomes President of Colombia. - 1997 – Fine Air Flight 101, a cargo flight from Miami to Santo Domingo crashes onto NW 72nd Ave near Miami International Airport, killing five people. - 1998 - Andrés Pastrana Arango becomes President of Colombia. - 1998 – 1998 U.S. embassy bombings: Bombing of the United States embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya kills 224 people and injures over 4,500. - 1999 - Southern Russia: Chechnya-based Islamic International Brigade invades nearby Dagestan. - 2000 - US Presidential candidate Al Gore chooses Joe Lieberman as his running mate. - 2000 - Saturn's moon Ymir is discovered. - -From 2001 - 2002 - Alvaro Uribe becomes President of Colombia. - 2005 - The biggest bank robbery in Brazilian history takes place when 150 million Real (equivalent of 52 million Euros) are stolen from a bank in Fortaleza in the northeast of the country. - 2007 - Barry Bonds of the San Francisco Giants breaks baseball great Hank Aaron's record by hitting his 756th home run. - 2008 – The Republic of Georgia carries out a military offensive in South Ossetia. - 2009 – Typhoon Morakot hits Taiwan. - 2010 - Juan Manuel Santos becomes President of Colombia. - 2012 - 3 gunmen kill 19 people in a church in Okene, Nigeria. - 2018 - US President Donald Trump imposes new sanctions (restrictions) on Iran. - 2018 - Ivan Duque becomes President of Colombia. - -Births - -Up to 1800 - 317 – Constantius II, Roman Emperor (d. 361) - 594 - Empress Kogyoku of Japan (d. 661) - 1282 - Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, daughter of Edward I of England (d. 1316) - 1400 – Guillaume Dufay, French composer (d. 1474) (some sources give August 5, 1397 birthdate) - 1533 – Alonso de Ercilla y Zuniga, Basque soldier and poet (d. 1595) - 1560 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian countess and serial killer (d. 1614) - 1574 - Robert Dudley, English writer (d. 1649) - 1598 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish poet (d. 1672) - 1649 - Archduke Charles Joseph of Austria (d. 1664) - 1726 - James Bowdoin, 2nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1790) - 1734 - Duchess Maria Anna Josepha of Bavaria (d. 1776) - 1742 - Nathanael Greene, American revolutionary general (d. 1786) - 1751 – Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange (d. 1820) - 1779 – Louis de Freycinet, French explorer (d. 1842) - 1779 – Carl Ritter, German geographer (d. 1859) - 1783 – Princess Amelia of the United Kingdom (d. 1810) - 1783 - John Heathcoat, English inventor (d. 1861) - -1801 1900 - 1804 - Johan Nicolai Madvig, Danish classical philologist and politician (d. 1886) - 1811 - Elias Loomis, American mathematician, astronomer and meteorologist (d. 1889) - 1819 - Ion Emanuel Florescu, Romanian general and politician (d. 1893) - 1832 - Max Lange, German chess player (d. 1899) - 1862 – Victoria of Baden, Queen of Sweden (d. 1931) - 1863 - Scipione Riva-Ricci, Italian physician (d. 1937) - 1867 – Emil Nolde, German painter (d. 1956) - 1868 - Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, Russian mathematician (d. 1931) - 1870 - Gustav Krupp, German industrialist and war criminal (d. 1950) - 1872 - Andries Cornelis Dirk de Graeff, Dutch politician (d. 1957) - 1876 – Mata Hari, Dutch dancer and spy (d. 1917) - 1876 - John August Anderson, American astronomer (d. 1959) - 1877 – Ulrich Salchow, Swedish figure skater (d. 1949) - 1878 - Maria Caspar-Filser, German artist (d. 1968) - 1883 - Joachim Ringelnatz, German writer and painter (d. 1934) - 1884 - Billie Burke, American actress (d. 1970) - 1890 - Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, American activist (d. 1964) - 1896 - Alberto Demicheli, Uruguayan politician (d. 1980) - 1900 - Alan Helffrich, American athlete (d. 1994) - -1901 1950 - 1901 - Ann Harding, American actress (d. 1981) - 1903 – Louis Leakey, British-Kenyan archaeologist (d. 1972) - 1904 – Ralph Bunche, American diplomat (d. 1971) - 1906 – Nelson Goodman, American philosopher (d. 1998) - 1907 - Albert Kotin, American abstract painter (d. 1980) - 1910 - Freddie Slack, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1965) - 1911 - Nicholas Ray, American movie director and writer (d. 1979) - 1912 – Vo Chi Cong, President of Vietnam (d. 2011) - 1913 - Alicia Penalba, Argentine sculptor, tapestry designer and weaver (d. 1982) - 1916 – Kermit Love, American puppeteer (d. 2008) - 1918 - Poni Adams, American actress (d. 2014) - 1921 - Manitas de Plata, French flamenco guitarist (d. 2014) - 1924 - Kenneth Kendall, English journalist (d. 2012) - 1925 - M. S. Swaminathan, Indian scientist - 1925 – Armand Razafindratandra, Malagasy cardinal (d. 2010) - 1926 - Stan Freberg, American actor, comedian and author (d. 2015) - 1927 - Edwin Edwards, 50th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2021) - 1927 - George Busbee, American politician, Governor of the State of Georgia (d. 2004) - 1927 - Rocky Bridges, American baseball player (d. 2015) - 1928 - Betsy Byars, American author - 1928 - James Randi, Canadian-American stage magician and scientific sceptic - 1929 - Jo Baer, American painter - 1929 - Don Larsen, American baseball player - 1930 - Veljo Tormis, Estonian composer (d. 2017) - 1932 – Abebe Bikila, Ethiopian runner (d. 1973) - 1932 – Edward Hardwicke, British actor (d. 2011) - 1932 - Rien Poortvliet, Dutch painter (d. 1995) - 1933 - Eddie Firmani, South African footballer and coach - 1933 - Elinor Ostrom, American economist (d. 2012) - 1933 - Jerry Pournelle, American science fiction author (d. 2017) - 1937 - Magic Slim, American blues musician (d. 2013) - 1940 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, Belgian politician, former Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014) - 1941 - Franco Columbu, Italian actor and bodybuilder - 1942 – Sigfried Held, German footballer - 1942 – B.J. Thomas, American singer - 1942 - Caetano Veloso, Brazilian musician - 1943 – Alain Corneau, French movie director (d. 2010) - 1944 - Robert Mueller, American FBI director - 1945 - Kenny Ireland, Scottish actor (d. 2014) - 1945 - Alan Page, American football player and judge - 1946 - John C. Mather, American physicist - 1947 - Sofia Rotaru, Soviet-Ukrainian singer - 1948 - Greg Chappell, Australian cricketer and coach - 1948 - Antonis Vardis, Greek composer and singer (d. 2014) - 1949 - Tim Renwick, British musician - 1949 - Walid Junblatt, Lebanese political leader - 1950 - Alan Keyes, American conservative political activist, pundit, author and diplomat - 1950 - Kessai Note, former President of the Marshall Islands - 1950 - Dave Wottle, American athlete - -1951 1975 - 1952 - Gary Schwartz, American actor, voice actor, author and teacher - 1952 - Caroline Aaron, American actress - 1955 - Vladimir Sorokin, Russian writer - 1955 - Greg Nickels, American politician, 51st Mayor of Seattle - 1955 - Diana Downs, American murderess - 1956 - Kent Rominger, American astronaut - 1957 - Alexander Dityatin, Soviet gymnast - 1958 – Bruce Dickinson, British singer (Iron Maiden) - 1958 – Alberto Salazar, American runner - 1960 – Jacquie O'Sullivan, British singer (Bananarama) - 1960 – David Duchovny, American actor - 1961 - Yelena Davydova, Soviet-Russian gymnast - 1961 - Brian Conley, English actor and singer - 1962 - Alain Robert, French daredevil - 1962 - Alison Brown, American musician, songwriter and producer - 1962 - Bruno Pelletier, Canadian singer - 1962 - Doon Mackichan, British comedienne and actress - 1963 - Harold Perrineau, American actor - 1966 – Jimmy Wales, American founder of Wikipedia - 1966 - Shobna Gulati, English actress - 1966 - Kristin Hersh, American singer-songwriter, musician and author - 1966 - David Cairns, Scottish politician (d. 2011) - 1967 - Evgeny Platov, Russian ice dancer - 1968 - Martin Max, German footballer - 1969 - Domino Harvey, English bounty hunter (d. 2005) - 1969 – Paul Lambert, Scottish footballer and coach - 1971 – Rachel York, American actress and singer - 1972 - Karen Disher, American film director - 1973 - Kevin Muscat, Australian footballer - 1973 – Zane Lowe, New Zealand disc jockey and television presenter - 1974 - Michael Shannon, American actor - 1975 – Charlize Theron, South African actress - 1975 - Edgar Renteria, Colombian baseball player - 1975 - Gaahl, Norwegian singer-songwriter - 1975 - Koray Candemir, Turkish singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer and actor - 1975 - David Hicks, Australian alleged terrorist - -From 1976 - 1976 - Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos, Greek footballer - 1977 - Charlotte Ronson, English fashion designer - 1977 - Samantha Ronson, English DJ and songwriter - 1978 - Mark McCammon, Barbadian footballer - 1979 - Eric Johnson, American actor - 1979 - Nenad Djordjevic, Serbian footballer - 1980 - Seiichiro Maki, Japanese footballer - 1980 - Shane Orio, Belizean footballer - 1982 - Yana Klochkova, Ukrainian swimmer - 1982 – Marco Melandri, Italian cyclist - 1982 - Abbie Cornish, American actress - 1983 - Brit Marling, American writer, producer, director and actress - 1984 - Yun Hyon-seok, South Korean activist (d. 2003) - 1985 - Rick Genest, Canadian fashion model and artist (d. 2018) - 1986 – Paul Biedermann, German swimmer - 1986 – Valter Birsa, Slovenian footballer - 1986 – Nancy Sumari, Tanzanian beauty queen - 1987 – Sidney Crosby, Canadian ice hockey player - 1988 - Melody Oliveria, American blogger - 1990 - Helen Flanagan, English actress - 1991 - Mitchell te Vrede, Dutch footballer - 1993 - Francesca Eastwood, American actress, model, television presenter and socialite - 1996 - Liam James, Canadian actor - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 461 – Majorian, Roman Emperor (assassinated) (b. 420) - 479 - Emperor Yuryaku of Japan - 1106 – Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1050) - 1385 - Joan of Kent (b. 1328) - 1485 - Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany (b. 1454) - 1616 - Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian architect (b. 1548) - 1635 – Friedrich von Spee, German writer (b. 1591) - 1661 - Jin Shengtan, Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. 1608) - 1809 - Jonathan Trumbull, Jr., Governor of Connecticut (b. 1740) - 1817 – Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, French industrialist (b. 1739) - 1821 - Caroline of Brunswick, Queen of the United Kingdom (b. 1768) - 1834 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, inventor of the Jacquard loom (b. 1752) - 1848 – Jöns Jakob Berzelius, Swedish chemist (b. 1779) - 1855 – Mariano Arista, President of Mexico (b. 1802) - 1864 - Li Xiucheng, Chinese general (b. 1823) - 1893 - Alfredo Catalani, Italian musician (b. 1854) - 1900 - Wilhelm Liebknecht, German political activist (b. 1826) - -1901 2000 - 1908 - Antonio Starabba, Italian politician (b. 1839) - 1912 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss hydrologist (born 1841) - 1917 - Edwin Harris Dunning, South African-English pilot and commander (b. 1891) - 1937 - Takeo Wakabayashi, Japanese footballer (b. 1907) - 1938 - Constantin Stanislavski, Russian theatre practitioner (b. 1863) - 1941 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian writer and poet (b. 1861) - 1945 - Yi Wu, Korean prince (b. 1912) - 1948 - Charles Bryant, American actor and movie director (b. 1879) - 1957 – Oliver Hardy, American radio and movie comedian, and actor (born 1892) - 1969 - Joseph Kosma, French composer (b. 1905) - 1972 – Asposia Manos, wife of King Alexander of Greece (b. 1896) - 1972 - Joi Lansing, American model, actress and singer (b. 1929) - 1974 - Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet (b. 1925) - 1981 - Gunnar Uusi, Estonian chess player (b. 1931) - 1987 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese President (b. 1900) - 1989 - Mickey Leland, American politician (b. 1944) - 1994 - Larry Martin, English actor (b. 1934) - 1995 – Brigid Brophy, British writer (b. 1929) - 1999 – Brion James, American actor (b. 1945) - -From 2001 - 2004 – Red Adair, American oil well firefighter (b. 1915) - 2005 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American news anchor (b. 1938) - 2007 - Angus Tait, New Zealand electronics innovator and businessman (b. 1929) - 2008 - Andrea Pininfarina, Italian engineer (b. 1957) - 2010 – Bruno Cremer, French actor (b. 1929) - 2011 – Hugh Carey, former Governor of New York (b. 1919) - 2011 - Mark Hatfield, former Governor of Oregon (b. 1922) - 2011 – Harri Holkeri, 57th Prime Minister of Finland (b. 1937) - 2011 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-born spy (b. 1912) - 2014 - Denys Williams, British-Barbadian judge, acting Governor-General of Barbados (b. 1929) - 2014 - Cristina Deutekom, Dutch opera singer (b. 1931) - 2014 - Perry Moss, American football coach (b. 1926) - 2014 - Claude Bertrand, Canadian neurosurgeon (b. 1917) - 2015 - Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian physician (b. 1914) - 2015 - Manuel Contreras, Chilean general, convicted of crimes against humanity (b. 1929) - 2015 - Terrence Evans, American actor (b. 1934) - 2016 - Gustavo Bueno, Spanish philosopher (b. 1924) - 2016 - Bryan Clauson, American racing driver (b. 1989) - 2017 - Don Baylor, American baseball player (b. 1949) - 2017 - Haruo Nakajima, Japanese actor (b. 1929) - 2017 - Sigmund Sobolewski, Polish activist and Holocaust survivor (b. 1923) - 2017 - Patsy Ticer, American politician (b. 1935) - 2018 - John Ciaccia, Italian-born Canadian politician (b. 1933) - 2018 - Arvonne Fraser, American women's rights activist (b. 1925) - 2018 - Gustavo Giagnoni, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1932) - 2018 - M. Karunanidhi, Indian politician and writer (b. 1924) - 2018 - Anton Lehmden, Austrian painter (b. 1929) - 2018 - Stan Mikita, Slovakian-born Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1940) - 2018 - Carlos Almenar Otero, Venezuelan tenor (b. 1926) - -Observances - Republic Day (Ivory Coast) - Youth Day (Kiribati) - Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia) - -August 07" -24171,93235,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etziken,Etziken,"Etziken is a municipality in the district Wasseramt in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -14692,55410,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism,Calvinism,"Calvinism belongs to the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. This tradition goes back to John Calvin and other theologians. - -Important Calvinists from Europe include: Martin Bucer, Heinrich Bullinger, Peter Martyr Vermigli, and Huldrych Zwingli, and from England, reformers Thomas Cranmer and John Jewel. Because John Calvin had great influence and played an important role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 17th century, the tradition generally became known as Calvinism. - -Today, this term also means the doctrines and practices of the Reformed churches, of which Calvin was an early leader, and the system is perhaps best known for its doctrines of predestination and total depravity. - -Historical background -John Calvin's international influence on the development of the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation began at the age of 25, when he started work on his first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1534 (published 1536). Alongside the work he contributed to confessional documents for use in churches, Calvin's beliefs and practices left a direct influence on Protestantism. He is only one of many people to influence the doctrines of the Reformed churches, but he eventually became one of the most prominent theologians. - -The rising importance of the Reformed churches, and of Calvin, happened in the second phase of the Protestant Reformation, when evangelical churches began to form, after Martin Luther, another important Reformer, was excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Calvin was a French exile in Geneva. He had signed the Lutheran Augsburg Confession in 1540, but his importance came from the Swiss Reformation. This was not Lutheran, but followed Huldrych Zwingli and then Calvin. - -True Calvinism (historical Calvinism) does not teach that God chooses who will be saved and who will not be saved. Instead, it teaches that for God's own glory, He recreates men with a new nature - a nature that loves God and hates sin - instead of men keeping their old nature, as if they kept their old nature, they would not want to follow God. Historical Calvinism also teaches that if God did not choose to save someone, there would be no-one to be saved. - -The spread of Calvinism -Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a reformed church to many parts of Europe. Calvinism became the theology of most Christians in Scotland (see John Knox), the Netherlands, and parts of Germany, and was influential in France, Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. Calvinism was popular as well for some time in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the synod of Uppsala in 1593. - -Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the Puritans and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York). Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners. - -Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th and 20th century missionaries; especially large are those in Korea and Nigeria. - -Resources - -John Wesley (2001). Calvinism Calmly Considered. -C. Gordon Olson (2002). Beyond Calvinism and Arminianism: An Inductive, Mediate Theology of Salvation. Global Gospel Publishers. - -Other websites - ""Calvinist Childrearing Methodology"" from A Study of the First Maternal Association of Utica, New York, 1824-1833 by Elizabeth Shanklin -""The Impact of Calvinism on Sixteenth Century Culture"" 1967 By Dr. W. Stanford Reid - -Calvinist websites -Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics - offers many materials from a Calvinist perspective. -Monergism - classic articles and resources; claims to have the largest collection of Reformed/Calvinist resources on the Internet. -Calvinism Index by Colin Maxwell - -Calvinism and other theological systems -What is Calvinism? - A Summary of the Presbyterian Religion. -Calvinism & Arminianism - a brief comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism from The Five Points of Calvinism - Defined, Defended, Documented by Steele - - -John Calvin -Christian movements and denominational families -Protestant Reformation" -19430,74084,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco%20Herrera%20the%20Younger,Francisco Herrera the Younger,"Francisco Herrera the Younger (Sevilla, 1622 - Madrid, 1685), was a Spanish Baroque painter and architect. - -1622 births -1685 deaths -Spanish painters -Spanish architects" -11589,42273,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbellaria,Turbellaria,"Turbellaria are a class of free-living flatworms. Most of them are carnivores. They actively search for food. Most of them are small, less than 60 cm in size. Almost all of them are aquatic. Some also live on land, in damp places. - -Flatworms - -th:พลานาเรีย" -8055,26816,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groucho%20Marx,Groucho Marx,"Julius Henry Marx or Groucho Marx (October 2, 1890 – August 19, 1977), was an American comedian. He was best known for work with his siblings in The Marx Brothers and then later on his own. He was also best known for portraying a fast-talking ""wise guy"" with bushy eyebrows, glasses, moustache and a cigar. - -1890 births -1977 deaths -Actors from New York City -American Jews -American movie actors -Comedians from New York City -Deaths from pneumonia -National Radio Hall of Fame inductees" -10902,39142,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20Broadcasting%20Union,European Broadcasting Union,"The European Broadcasting Union (EBU), known in French as L'Union Européenne de Radio-Télévision (UER), and unrelated to the European Union, was formed on 12 February 1950 by 23 broadcasting organizations from Europe and the Mediterranean at a conference in the coastal resort of Torquay in Devon, England. In 1993, the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT), an equivalent organisation of broadcasters from Central and Eastern Europe, was merged with the EBU. - -Members - -Full Members - The names of the broadcasting companies not in Roman script are either in English or French, the official languages of the EBU. - -Future & Potential EBU Members - Liechtenstein: currently Liechtenstein has no national television or radio station, but if they get one it will be possible for them to join the EBU (this technicality had affected them once before when they were not allowed to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest 1969) - Kosovo: RTK - currently an associate member - Syria: ORTAS (Organisme de la Radio-Télévision Arabe Syrienne) - currently an associate member only - Morocco: The second commercial channel of Morocco 2M TV have asked for membership to the EBU. It is still unknown if Morocco will participate in the Eurovision Song Contest or the Junior Eurovision Song Contest. - -Other websites - EBU Website - -References - -Television networks" -2230,7455,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953,1953,"1953 (MCMLIII) was . - -Events -January 20 - Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes the 34th President of the United States. -January 31 - In the night to February 1, a storm severely floods parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom. -May 29 – Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay become the first humans to reach the top of Mount Everest. -June 2 - Elizabeth II is crowned Queen of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms. -June 17 - Uprising in East Germany. -July 27 – Korean War ends -July 29 – the architect Piero Portaluppi and Gualtiero Galmanini begins in Milano the construction of the Palace d'Este, completed in 1936, a masterpiece of Italian Rationalism. -August 12 - 1953 Ionian earthquake struck the southern Ionian Islands in Greece -The Taito Corporation is founded in Japan - -Births -January 9 – Morris Gleitzman, English writer -January 18 - László Simion, Romanian politician Hungarian nationalities UDMR. -January 21 – Paul Allen, American entrepreneur -January 23 - Robin Zander, American singer (Cheap Trick) -January 24 - Matthew Wilder, American singer-songwriter -January 26 - Anders Fogh Rasmussen, former Prime Minister of Denmark and current NATO Secretary-General -February 8 - Mary Steenburgen, American actress -February 11 – Jeb Bush, American politician -February 11 - William Aviv, Jewish actor and politician -February 16 - Loran Bini, Kosovo Christian politician of Bosnian ethnicity -February 19 – Cristina Fernández, President of Argentina -February 25 – Levon Mkrtchyan, Armenian movie director -February 25 - Jose Maria Aznar, former Prime Minister of Spain -February 26 - Michael Bolton, American singer -February 27 - Ian Khama, President of Botswana -February 28 - Paul Krugman, American economist -March 3 - Zico, Brazilian footballer -March 16 – Richard Stallman, Computer programmer and political activist -March 26 – Lincoln Chafee, American politician -April 11 - Guy Verhofstadt, former Prime Minister of Belgium -April 11 - Andrew Wiles, British mathematician -April 20 - Sebastian Faulks, British writer -May 2 - Valery Gergiev, Russian conductor -May 6 – Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom -May 6 - Graeme Souness, Scottish footballer and manager -May 8 - Alex Van Halen, musician (Van Halen) -May 8 - Billy Burnette, American singer and guitarist (Fleetwood Mac) -May 14 - Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia -May 16 - Pierce Brosnan, Irish actor -May 19 - Victoria Wood, British actress and comedienne -May 24 - Alfred Molina, British actor -May 25 – Eve Ensler, American playwright -May 29 – Danny Elfman, American musician (Oingo Boingo) -June 1 - David Berkowitz, American serial killer -June 2 - Keith Allen, English actor and comedian -June 2 - Cornel West, American theologian and activist -June 4 – Linda Lingle, American politician -June 8 - Ivo Sanader, former Prime Minister of Croatia -June 15 - Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Communist Party and President of China -June 21 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani politician (d. 2007) -June 22 - Cyndi Lauper, American singer -July 1 - Jadranka Kosor, former Prime Minister of Croatia -July 11 - Leon Spinks, American boxer -July 21 - Jeff Fatt, Australian musician (The Wiggles) -July 29 – Geddy Lee, Canadian musician and singer (Rush) -July 31 – James Read, American actor -August 17 - Herta Mueller, German writer -August 27 – Alex Lifeson, Canadian musician (Rush) -September 2 – John Zorn, American musician -September 3 – Jean-Pierre Jeunet, French director -September 4 - Fatih Terim, Turkish football manager -September 11 - Tommy Shaw, American guitarist (Styx) -September 22 – Ségolène Royal, French politician -October 1 – Klaus Wowereit, German politician -November 14 – Dominique de Villepin, Premier of France -November 14 – Jos Oehlen, Dutch sculptor -November 16 - Griff Rhys-Jones, British actor, comedian and writer -November 26 - Hilary Benn, British politician -November 28 - Alistair Darling, British politician -December 6 - Geoff Hoon, British politician -December 8 - Kim Basinger, American actress -December 9 – John Malkovich, American actor and director -December 13 - Ben Bernanke, American chairman of the Federal Reserve -December 26 - Toomas Hendrik Ilves, President of Estonia -December 28 - Martha Wash, American singer (The Weather Girls) - -Deaths -January 1 – Hank Williams, American musician -January 28 – James Scullin, Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1876) -March 5 – Joseph Stalin, Soviet leader assassinated (b.1878) -March 5 – Sergei Prokofiev, Russian composer (b. 1891) -March 24 - Mary of Teck, Consort of George V of the United Kingdom (b. 1866) -September 28 - Edwin Hubble, American astronomer (b. 1891) -September 29 – Ernst Reuter, German politician (b. 1889) -October 9 – Jimmy Finlayson, Scottish-American actor (b. 1887) -November 9 – Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet (b. 1914) - -Hit Songs - ""Answer Me"" – David Whitfield - ""Answer Me"" – Frankie Laine - ""Broken Wings"" – The Stargazers - ""Don't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes"" – Perry Como - ""(How Much is) That Doggie in the Window?"" – Lita Rosa - ""(How Much is) That Doggie in the Window?"" – Patti Page - ""I Believe"" – Frankie Laine (The biggest song of the year) - ""I'm Walking Behind You"" – Eddie Fisher and Sally Sweetland - ""Let's Walk That A-Way"" – Johnnie Ray and Doris Day - ""Outside of Heaven"" – Eddie Fisher - ""She Wears Red Feathers"" – Guy Mitchell" -24288,93654,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand%20du%20Guesclin,Bertrand du Guesclin,"Bertrand du Guesclin (c. 1320 – 13 July 1380), was a French knight from Brittany who fought in the Hundred Years' War. He was Constable of France from 1370 to his death. He was important to the French successes in the war under Charles V of France. - -1320 births -1380 deaths - -Hundred Years' War -French people -Knights" -820,3515,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer,Fertilizer,"A fertilizer is a chemical that helps plants to grow. It is used to replace the mineral salts taken by plants or removed/washed away by rain. - -Common fertilizers: - - Ammonia - Manure (Animal waste) which was the first fertilizer. - Compost - Urea - -The important things in fertilizer are: - Nitrogen (N) - Phosphorus (P) - Potash (K) - -When fertilizers are offered for sale, the percentage of N, P, and K must be written on the bags or boxes, but for historcal reasons, P is shown as %P2O5 and K is shown as %K2O. - -E.g.:9-23-30 which means: 9% N, 23%P2O5 and 30%K2O. - -In Australia the pecent of elemental sulfur must also be shown. -In the UK, the elemental composition (in percentages) may also be shown alongside the mandatory traditional system, provided the numbers are put inside square brackets. - -Leafy plants need lots of N. Flowering plants need lots of P and K. - -A soil test can tell how much N, P, and K is needed. - -Related pages -Farming - -Agriculture" -24086,92919,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushuaia,Ushuaia,"Ushuaia is the capital city of the Argentine province of Tierra del Fuego. The climate is cool and wet. About 64,000 people live there. - -References - -Cities in Argentina -Capitals of Argentine provinces" -20168,77358,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric%20acid,Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid,"γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid, commonly shortened to GHB) is a chemical substance. Small quantities of it can be found in the central nervous system of many animals. It can also be discovered in wine, beef and small citrus fruits. - -In the central nervous system, GHB interacts with other neurotransmitters, such as gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA). - -Many countries have regulated it as an illegal drug, even though it can be used in medicine. It can be used as an anesthetic, and a sedative. In the past it has been used to treat insomnia and depression. It can also help people who have a problem with alcoholism or cataplexy. In patients with narcolepsy it has been used to treat sleepiness during the day. Athletes have used it to make their performance better. - -The drug has been used as a recreational drug. This is because it can make a person euphoric. Many countries have made it illegal if it is not used as medicine. Its most common name as an illegal drug is probably liquid Ecstasy. However, ecstasy is a different drug that is unrelated to GHB. - -GHB is naturally produced in the human body's cells. Its chemical structure is similar to that of ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate. As a supplement or drug, it is used most as a salt. GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation. Small amounts of the substance can be found in some beers and wines. - -GHB can cause 'GHB comas'. This is when people faint or become unconscious. This is what causes most deaths. - -Use as an illegal drug -GHB is a depressant of the central nervous system. Its effects have been described as similar to those of alcohol or ecstasy. People feel in a good mood. They also lower their inhibitions. If the dose is increased, the symptoms include nausea, drowsiness, breathing problems, amnesia, unconsciousness and death. The effect of GHB lasts between 1.5 and 3 hours, but may be longer. They can be longer if the drug is mixed with alcohol, or a large dosis was taken. - -Certain substances called ""pro-drugs"", are changed to GHB in the stomach. One such drug, is gamma-butyrolactone. Such products are also a problem. Lots of them are used in industrial processes. An example of this are paint strippers. What is fine for use in industry may be bad for humans. - -Some street names, especially when mixed with other substances such as amphetamines, can be Soap, Water, Salty water, Blue water, and Grievous Bodily Harm. - -References - -Drugs" -24564,95922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Rawlings,David Rawlings,"David Todd Rawlings is a United States guitarist. He is best known as the musical partner of bluegrass singer-songwriter Gillian Welch. Rawlings has also been a record producer, producing albums such as those by Welch and other artists like Old Crow Medicine Show. - -Year of birth missing (living people) -Living people -American guitarists -American singer-songwriters -American folk musicians -American bluegrass musicians -Singers from Rhode Island -Musicians from Rhode Island -Writers from Rhode Island" -18042,67874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow,Willow,"Willows are a family of trees and shrubs which may be called sallows or osiers. Their latin name is Salix. - -Willows have many differences in size and type of growth, but are very much alike in other respects. There are about 350 species of this plant, usually found on moist soils in cooler zones in the Northern Hemisphere. Many hybrids are known, both naturally occurring and in cultivation, because willows are very fertile between their own species. - -Willows have watery bark sap, charged with salicylic acid (defence against herbivory). They have soft, usually pliant (bendy), tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and are hard to kill. Roots readily sprout from aerial parts of the plant. - -Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants. The catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves. - -Pictures - -Other websites - Salix alba at plants for a future - Salix purpurea at plants for a future - 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica - Salix caroliniana images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu - Salix nigra images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu - Salix humboldtiana or Chilean willow images - -Trees -Malpighiales" -4400,13785,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice,Voice,"A voice is used when someone speaks or sings. The sound of their voice can be heard when they are speaking. The musical part of a song that is sung by a person using their voice is called vocals. Some people have no voice. This is muteness. - -Many terrestrial animals have a voice, especially those that are vertebrates. - -Basic English 850 words" -12020,44208,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20IV%20of%20England,Henry IV of England,"Henry IV (April 3 1367 – March 20 1413) was a King of England. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, which is why he was often called ""Henry Bolingbroke"". - -Rise to power -His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of King Edward III, and had a lot of power in the reign of King Richard II. - -Henry and Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk argued in 1398. King Richard ordered Henry to live outside England for ten years (with the approval of Henry's father, John of Gaunt) but Thomas de Mowbray was exiled from England for life. - -The next year John of Gaunt died, and Richard would not allow Henry to inherit Gaunt's land. Instead, Henry had to ask for the lands from Richard. - -Henry met with the exiled Thomas Arundel, former Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry and Arundel returned to England while Richard was on a military campaign in Ireland. - -With Arundel as his advisor, Henry Bolingbroke began a military campaign, took land from those who opposed him and ordering his soldiers to destroy much of Cheshire. - -Henry gained enough power and support to have himself declared King Henry IV. He sent King Richard to prison (who mysteriously died in prison) and by-passing Richard’s seven-year-old heir presumptive Edmund de Mortimer. - -Henry was crowned on 13 October 1399. It was the first time since the Norman Conquest in 1066 that the monarch made a public speech in English. Henry consulted with Parliament frequently, but was sometimes at odds with them, especially over religious matters. On Arundel's advice, Henry was the first English king to allow the burning of heretics, mainly to suppress the Lollard movement. - -1367 births -1413 deaths - -House of Lancaster -15th century in England" -24886,97646,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination,Combination,"Combination may mean: -in chess a sequence of forcing moves, usually involving a sacrifice. -in computer games it is called a combo. -in mathematics, combination is about finding the number of possibilities to pick a number of objects from a set. -in martial arts and combat sports it means a striking combination -in security, it is a list of numbers which opens a combination lock -in equestrian, a combination is several jumps one after the other -Combinations is the name of the band Eisley's second studio album -A motorcycle combination is also called a sidecar" -21665,82560,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glosa,Glosa,"Glosa is a term that was often used by Spanish musicians in the 16th century to mean: a piece of music which was similar to a set of variations. Composers at that time often wrote collections of glosas. The term is related to the word “gloss”. They were comparing it to gloss (ornamentation) that a poet might put on his poem. They were often on religious themes. - -Antonio de Cabezón was an important composer of glosas. - -Glosa was also used by Spanish musicians to mean: musical ornamentation. This is the meaning in the title of a famous book of music for viola da gamba and harpsichord by Diego Ortiz called Trattado de glosas (1553). - -Musical forms" -13683,50635,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Pitt%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Chatham,"William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham","William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (15 November 1708 – 11 May 1778) was a prime minister of Great Britain. He was appointed by King George III. - -His London house, in St. James's Square, is now the home of the international affairs think tank called Chatham House. - -In 1758, during the Seven Years' War, he came up with the strategy of blocking the St. Lawrence River so the French troops in Quebec and Montreal could not get more supplies. This weakened the French side, and helped to win the war. - -His son, William Pitt the Younger, was also a prime minister. - -References - -1708 births -1778 deaths -English Earls -Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies -People buried in Westminster Abbey -People from Westminster -Politicians from London -Whig party (UK) politicians -Prime Ministers of Great Britain" -21204,81152,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basadingen-Schlattingen,Basadingen-Schlattingen,"Basadingen-Schlattingen is a municipality of the district of Diessenhofen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - -Official website of Basadingen-Schlattingen - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -8733,29628,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Franconia%20Government%20Region,Upper Franconia Government Region,"Upper Franconia (, ; Main-Franconian: ) is a regierungsbezirk (administrative region) of the German state Bavaria. It has an area of 7,230 km² and about 1,200,000 people. It borders the German states of Sachsen and Thuringia, and also the Czech Republic. Bayreuth is its capital. - -Cities and districts - -Cities which are urban districts - -Coburg, -Bamberg, -Hof, -Bayreuth. - -Smaller cities - -Forchheim, -Kulmbach, -Lichtenfels, -Marktredwitz, -Neustadt bei Coburg -Kronach, -Rödental, -Wunsiedel, -Selb, -Münchberg, -Helmbrechts, -Rehau, -Stadtsteinach, -Bad Staffelstein, -Ebermannstadt, -Burgkunstadt - -Districts - -Coburg Rural District -Bamberg Rural District -Forchheim Rural District -Bayreuth Rural District -Lichtenfels Rural District -Kronach Rural District -Hof Rural District -Kulmbach Rural District -Wunsiedel i. Fichtelgebirge Rural District - -References" -3788,11354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem,Kanem,"Kanem () was one of fourteen prefectures of Chad. The capital of Kanem was Mao. Since 2002, Chad is divided into regions. - -Prefectures of Chad" -2405,7762,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Party%20%28series%29,Mario Party (series),"Mario Party is a series of video games made by Nintendo. The idea of each game is that Mario and his friends must travel across a game board and earn stars and coins. Each new game in the series contains new characters, playing boards, and mini-games. Every few turns, each character must participate in a mini-game. The winner generally gets 10 coins. - -Titles in the series - -Home console games - -Handheld games - -Playable characters -Mario -Luigi -Princess Peach -Yoshi -Wario -Donkey Kong -Princess Daisy -Waluigi -Toad -Boo -Koopa Kid -Toadette -Birdo -Dry Bones -Blooper -Hammer Bro -Shy Guy -Koopa -Kamek -Rosalina -Bowser Jr. -Spike -Diddy Kong -Bowser -Goomba -Monty Mole -Pom Pom - -References - - -Mario Party games" -4174,13033,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20%28band%29,Chicago (band),"Chicago is an American soft rock / jazz group, from Chicago, Illinois. They formed on February 15, 1967. They are one of the best selling American groups of all time, second only to the Beach Boys. Chicago has released at least 30 albums in their career. - -Discography - -Studio albums - -Chicago Transit Authority (1969) -Chicago (1970) -Chicago III (1971) -Chicago V (1972) -Chicago VI (1973) -Chicago VII (1974) -Chicago VIII (1975) -Chicago X (1976) -Chicago XI (1977) -Hot Streets (1978) -Chicago 13 (1979) -Chicago XIV (1980) -Chicago 16 (1982) -Chicago 17 (1984) -Chicago 18 (1986) -Chicago 19 (1988) -Twenty 1 (1991) -Night & Day Big Band (1995) -Chicago XXV: The Christmas Album (1998) -Chicago XXX (2006) -Chicago XXXII: Stone of Sisyphus (2008) -Chicago XXXIII: O Christmas Three (2011) -Chicago XXXV: The Nashville Sessions (2013) -Chicago XXXVI: Now (2014) -Chicago XXXVII: Chicago Christmas (2019) - -1967 establishments in the United States -1960s American music groups -1960s establishments in Illinois -1970s American music groups -1980s American music groups -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -American rock bands -Musical groups established in 1967 -Musical groups from Chicago -Warner Bros. Records artists" -8153,27114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio%20Wesleyan%20University,Ohio Wesleyan University,"Ohio Wesleyan University is a private university in Delaware, Ohio and a member of the Five Colleges of Ohio. Wesleyan was founded in September 1844. - -Colleges and universities in Ohio -Five Colleges of Ohio -Great Lakes Colleges Association -Oberlin Group of Libraries -1844 establishments in the United States -1840s establishments in Illinois" -20986,80617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Wikipedia,Italian Wikipedia,"The Italian Wikipedia (In Italian: Wikipedia in Italiano) is the Italian-language edition of Wikipedia. This edition was started in January, 2002 and has over articles. It is currently the 8th largest edition by article count. - -2011 mass blanking protest - -Volunteers on the Italian Wikipedia decided they did not like a proposed law before the Italian Parliament. The proposal was from October 4 to October 6 2011. During this time, all of the site's articles were hidden. Wikipedia's administrators blocked the website which was being debated at the time in the Chamber of Deputies of the Italian parliament. - -This was the first time that a Wikipedia had blanked all its content to protest. The Wikimedia Foundation released a statement on October 4. The Foundation Board officially supported the short closing of Italian Wikipedia. In October 2011, the manifesto, which replaced the Italian Wikipedia, had been viewed approximately 19 million times. On October 6, 2011, the website content was put back. Wikipedia added a banner across the top of each page explaining the reason for the protest. - -Italian newspaper Il Tempo journalist Alberto Di Majo described the closure of the Italian-language Wikipedia as an ""unexpected merit"" of the proposed law. Some people questioned whether a non-profit United States foundation should try to change laws written in Italy. - -References - -Other websites - - Italian Wikipedia main page - -Wikipedias" -6119,19613,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil%20Nadu,Tamil Nadu,"Tamil Nadu () is a state in India. The capital of this state is Chennai. Other large cities in Tamil Nadu include Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Thanjavur and Thoothukudi. Tamil is the language spoken in Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Indian Ocean to the south. A small part of Tamil Nadu borders the Arabian Sea to the west. It borders the Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The Tamilians are very proud of their language and heritage. In traditional Indian geography, it is part of the the South Indian zone. - -The current chief minister of the state is M. K. Stalin. He is the leader of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a political party. The leader of the opposition is Edappadi K. Palaniswami. He belongs to the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIDMK), another political party. These two Dravidian parties have been in power alternately in Tamil Nadu since 1967. - -The eastern and western tips of the state are defined by the Point Calimere and Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries while the southernmost tip is Kanniya Kumari (also called Cape Comorin) at the tip of the Indian peninsula. Tamil Nadu is the 11th largest state in India, with an area of 129,996 km2 and over 62 million people. The major river is Kaveri, which meets the needs of agriculture. Other important rivers include south Pennar, Palar, Vaigai, Tamira bharani, Manimuthar, Noyyal and Bhavani. Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state, is famed for its Dravidian-style Hindu temples. The three ancient Tamil empires of Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. - -Districts of Tamil Nadu - Chennai - Coimbatore - Salem - Sivaganga - Cuddalore - Thanjavur - Dharmapuri - Nilgiris - Dindigul - Theni - Erode - Ariyalur - Pudukkottai - Tiruppur - Thoothukudi - Kanchipuram - Chengalpattu - Kallakurichi - Tiruchirappalli - Kanyakumari - Tirunelveli - Tenkasi - Karur - Tiruvallur - Krishnagiri - Tiruvannamalai - Madurai - Thiruvarur - Nagapattinam - Vellore - Ranipet - Tirupathur - Namakkal - Viluppuram - Perambalur - Virudhunagar - Ramanathapuram - -Provincial symbols of Tamil Nadu - -References" -925,3777,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/North,North,"North is one of the 4 main directions on a compass. North is usually up on most maps. For Example: The United States is north of the Mexico, which is itself north of Brazil. The North Pole is the farthest north you can go. The North of the world is considered to be the top. - -Basic English 850 words -Compass directions - -da:Kompasretning#Nord" -5873,19020,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decatur%2C%20Illinois,"Decatur, Illinois","Decatur is a city in the American state of Illinois. In the 2000 census, there were more than 80,000 people living in it. Many people drive in and out of Decatur on Interstate 72. There is a shopping mall in nearby Forsyth, a suburb of Decatur. - -Decatur is the county seat of Macon County. Macon County was the home of the young Abraham Lincoln, later U.S. President, for a short time. The place where the Lincoln family built a log cabin and spent the winter of 1829-1830 is now a state park, the ""Lincoln Trail Homestead State Park."" - -Cities in Illinois -County seats in Illinois" -2586,8196,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia,Synesthesia,"Synesthesia, or synaesthesia, is a condition where the brain mixes up the senses. People who have synesthesia are called synesthetes. - -Synesthesia is usually inherited (called congenital synesthesia), but exactly how people inherit it is unknown. - -Synesthesia is sometimes reported by people using psychedelic drugs, after a stroke, or during an epileptic seizure. It is also reported to be a result of blindness or deafness. Synesthesia that comes from events unrelated to genes is called adventitious synesthesia. This synesthesia results from some drugs or a stroke but not blindness or deafness. It involves sound being linked to vision or touch being linked to hearing. - -Synesthesia was investigated a lot in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in the middle of the 20th century, it was less studied. Only recently has it been studied again in much detail. - -Some musicians and composers have a form of synesthesia that allows them to ""see"" music as colors or shapes. This is called chromethesia. Mozart is said to have had this form of synesthesia. He said that the key of D major had a warm ""orangey"" sound to it, while B-flat minor was blackish. A major was a rainbow of colors to him. This may explain why he wrote some of his music using different colors for different music notes, and why much of his music is in major keys. - -Another composer who had color-hearing was the Russian composer Alexander Scriabin. In 1907, he talked with another famous composer, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, who had synesthesia, and they both found that some musical notes made them think of certain colors. Scriabin worked with a man named Alexander Mozer who made a color organ. - -Experiences -The same type of synesthesia may have different effects (pronounced and less pronounced) on different people. - -Synesthetes often say that they did not know their experiences were unusual until they found out that other people did not have them. Others report feeling as if they had been keeping a secret their entire lives. Most synesthetes consider their experiences a gift—a ""hidden"" sense. Most synesthetes find out in their childhood that they have synethesia. Some learn to apply it in daily life and work. For example, they might use their gift to memorize names and telephone numbers or do mental arithmetic. Many people with synesthesia use their experiences to help them be more creative, for example, in making drawings and music. - -More than 60 types of synesthesia have been reported, but only a small number have been studied by scientists. -Some common types of synthesia include: -Grapheme–color synesthesia: Letters or numbers are seen to have colors of their own. -Ordinal linguistic personification: Numbers, days of the week, and months of the year are felt to have their own personalities. -Spatial-sequence: Numbers, months of the year, and/or days of the week are located in specific places in space. For example, 1980 may be ""farther away"" than 1990. Or a year may be seen three-dimensionally as a map. -Visual motion → sound synesthesia: Hearing sounds in response to seeing motion. - -References - -Sensory system -Perception" -13372,49041,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Carr,Alan Carr,"Alan Carr (born 14 June 1976) is an English television presenter and stand-up comedian. Carr was born in Weymouth, Dorset, and grew up in Northampton. He presented Channel 4's The Friday Night Project with Justin Lee Collins. Carr is openly gay. He hosts Alan Carr: Chatty Man. - -References - -Other websites - -Official site - -1976 births -Living people -British radio personalities -British stand-up comedians -British television talk show hosts -Channel 4 presenters -English comedians -English LGBT people -English movie actors -English television actors -English television presenters -English television writers -Gay men -LGBT actors -LGBT broadcasters -LGBT comedians -LGBT writers -People from Dorset -People from Northampton -Weymouth, Dorset" -13938,51555,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1375,1375,"1375 was a year in the 14th century. - -Events - The English, weakened by the plague, lose so much ground to the French that they agree to sign the Treaty of Bruges, leaving them with only the coastal towns of Calais, Bordeaux and Bayonne. - The Russian town of Kostroma is destroyed by the ushkuinik pirates from Novgorod. - October 24 – Death of Valdemar IV of Denmark. - Petru I succeeds his father, Costea, as ruler of Moldavia (now Moldova & eastern Romania). - The Mamluks from Egypt conquer the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Leo VI of Armenia is imprisoned for several years in Cairo until a ransom is paid by King John I of Castile. - Mujahid Shah succeeds his father, Mohammad Shah I, as Sultan of the Bahmanid Empire in Deccan, southern India. - Moscow & Tver sign a truce. Tver agrees to help Moscow fight the Blue Horde. - -Births - Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge (approximate date; d.1415) - Nicolas Grenon, French composer (approximate date; d. 1456) - Lan Kham Deng, King of Lan Xang 1416-1428 (d. 1428) - -Deaths - July 5 – Charles III of Alençon, French archbishop (b. 1337) - October 24 – King Valdemar IV of Denmark - December 21 – Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian writer (born 1313)" -21334,81717,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnosaur,Carnosaur,"Carnosaurs are a subgroup of the theropod dinosaurs. They are the clade Carnosauria. The term was once used very widely, but is now defined more narrowly. It is called by some authorities the Allosauroidea. - -The group includes some of the main carnivores of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, such as Allosaurus, Carcharodontosaurus and Neovenator. Modern cladistic analysis defines Carnosauria (or Allosauroidea) as those tetanurans which share a more recent common ancestor with Allosaurus than with modern birds. - -Carnosaurs are characterized by several features. Some features must have been adaptations to their large size, such as their open skull, made of struts rather than solid bone. They had -large eyes and a long, narrow skull. The femur (""thigh bone"") is usually larger than the tibia (""shin bone""). This suggests close-to action was controlled by sight. - -The legs are adapted for running, but not extremely so. They had strong arms, probably used to wrestle prey as the teeth bit in. The structure of an Allosaurus suggests a strongly-built general all-round predator. This is a different from a tyrannosaur like Albertosaurus, which was better adapted for running on open ground. Tyrannosaurs, with their small two-fingered hands, would use their heads for killing prey, and for head-butting rivals. - -The idea that the group became extinct at the end of the Jurassic is refuted. It is now known that the Neovenatorid clade survived until the end of the Mesozoic. This group (see cladogram below) included Aerosteon, Australovenator, Fukuiraptor and Neovenator. - -Classification -Infraorder Carnosauria -Erectopus -Fukuiraptor -Gasosaurus? -Monolophosaurus -Siamotyrannus -Superfamily Allosauroidea -Becklespinax? -Megaraptor? -Family Allosauridae -Allosaurus -Antrodemus -Epanterias -Saurophaganax -Family Carcharodontosauridae -Acrocanthosaurus? -Carcharodontosaurus -Neovenator -Subfamily Giganotosaurinae -Giganotosaurus -Mapusaurus -Tyrannotitan -Family Sinraptoridae -Metriacanthosaurus -Sinraptor -Yangchuanosaurus - -Cladogram -The cladogram presented here follows the 2010 analysis by Benson, Carrano and Brusatte. - -References" -2859,9090,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Watterson,Bill Watterson,"William B. Watterson II (born July 5, 1958) is an American artist and cartoonist. He is most famous for his comic strip, ""Calvin and Hobbes"" which was published between 1985 and 1995. He is a very private person and not much is publicly known about him. He also did not want people to sell things with the pictures of his characters on them, and the only things he allowed to be made using his characters were books with collections of Calvin and Hobbes strips. - -1958 births -Living people -American cartoonists -American comics artists" -3733,11266,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel,Gospel,"The word gospel came from the Old English word ""gōdspel"", which literally means ""good news"", since it narrates Jesus Christ's life and teaching to invite anyone to believe that he was born to save the world from sin and make humans truly know God as a Father. It includes the Death and Resurrection of Jesus. - -The Gospel was originally spoken, not written. - -Eventually gospel came to mean an ancient book about Jesus, especially one of the four books collected by the Church in the Bible. - -These books are the first part of the New Testament of the Bible, and are put in a group of this order: the Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel of Mark, the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John. - -Related pages -Gospel music - -References - -Other websites - -Christian theology" -18857,70859,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyria,Illyria,"Illyria (Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυρία, Illyría or Ἰλλυρίς, Illyrís) was an ancient region in the western part of today's Balkan Peninsula in modern-day Epirus, Greece. The people who lived there were called Illyrians and spoke the Illyrian languages. - -The Illyrians settled in the Balkans approximately around 2500 BC along with other Indo Europeans. - -The Illyrians became heavily romanised and a portion of them evolved into modern Albanians. - -Gallery - -Other websites - Illyria region in google map - -History of Greece" -1926,6413,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names%20of%20God%20in%20Judaism,Names of God in Judaism,"In Judaism, God is known by many names. The most important of these names is the Tetragrammaton, or ""Four-lettered word"": YHVH, YHWH, or י - ה וה. Jews are not allowed to say this name, and instead say Adonai. Even Adonai is only used by some Jews in prayer. Most Jews would refer to God as Hashem, or ""The Name"". Jews are not allowed to erase the Tetragrammaton, so they rarely write it down outside of their most holy books, such as the Torah. - -Other names include Elohim, El, Shaddai, Tzeva-ot, ‘Elyon, and Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh which are respectively pronounced by observant Jews as Elokim, Kayl, Shakkai, Tzeva-Kot. - -Certain names, such as Shalom, are pronounced as written, but when written one letter, in this case the last letter, is omitted. The last of the above ""other"" list is often said as Ek-yeh Asher Ek-yeh. - -Other Jewish names of (or references) to God include - Emet (Truth) - Tzur Yisrael (The Rock of Israel) - Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak, v'Elohei Yaacov (God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob) - Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am) - Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father, our King) - Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel) - Ha-Kadosh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Blessed be He) - Melech ha-Melachim (The King of Kings) - Makom (literally, ""the place""; meaning ""The Omnipresent"") - Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham) - Shalom: of Peace - YHWH-Jireh: The Lord will provide (Genesis 22:13, 14). - YHWH-Rapha: The Lord that healeth (Exodus 15:26). - YHWH-Nissi: The Lord our Banner (Exodus 17:8-15). - YHWH-Shalom: The Lord our Peace (Judges 6:24). - YHWH-Ra-ah: The Lord my Shepherd (Psalms 23:1). - YHWH-Tsidkenu: The Lord our Righteousness (Book of Jeremiah 23:6). - YHWH-Shammah: The Lord is present (Book of Ezekiel 48:35). - -Judaism" -23437,90154,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Andrew%20Kelly,Alex Andrew Kelly,"Alexander Andrew Kelly (born May 8, 1967) is an American from Darien, Connecticut, who was convicted of rape in 1997. He is an Irish American who is the middle of three children, having both an older and a younger brother. - -Crimes -Alex Kelly was charged with having done two aggravated assaults in Darien, Connecticut, in 1986. Before his trial was due to begin in 1987, Kelly fled the United States and spent the next seven years on the run, mostly in Europe. In 1995, Kelly gave him self up to the authorities in Switzerland and was extradited to the United States in order to stand trial on rape and kidnapping charges. Kelly faced two trials in 1997. After the first was declared a mistrial, the second resulted in his conviction for the first rape and a sentence of 16 years in prison. - -Release -In 2005, after having served eight years of his 16-year sentence, Kelly appeared before a Connecticut parole board; his bid for release was rejected. On November 23, 2007, Kelly was released from prison on ""good behavior"". He is now has to serve 10 years probation, perform 200 hours of community service, pay a $10,000 fine, and register with the Connecticut Sex Offender Registry. While in prison, Kelly claims that he earned a bachelor's degree in economics and third-world development. - -References - -Other websites -CNN article on Alex Kelly -Connecticut: Stamford: Rapist Won't Seek New Trial - -Crime in Connecticut -Connecticut Sex Offender Registry page - -1967 births -Living people -American rapists -People from Connecticut -Extradition" -20030,76697,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph%20Turpin,Randolph Turpin,"Randolph Adolphus ('Randy') Turpin (7 June 1928 – 17 May 1966) was an English boxer who was the middleweight champion of the world in 1951. - -Turpin was born in Leamington Spa to a white British mother and black Guyanan father. He became a professional boxer in 1946. In 1951, Sugar Ray Robinson traveled to England and gave Turpin an opportunity to fight for his middleweight championship. Turpin became only the second man to defeat Robinson when he won a fifteen-round decision. - -Robinson and Turpin had a rematch in September 1951 where Robinson regained the title by a tenth-round knockout. - -He stopped boxing in the mid-1960s. He lived in Leamington Spa with his wife and four daughters. On 17 May 1966 in Leamington Spa he shot one of his daughters (who survived), then shot himself dead. - -References - -Other websites -Boxing record -Tribute website - -1928 births -1966 deaths -Black British sportspeople -British boxers -British criminals -Criminals who committed suicide -Sportspeople from Warwickshire -Sportspeople who committed suicide -Suicides by firearm -Suicides in the United Kingdom" -16692,63822,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplus,Surplus,"Surplus is when there is more of something than is needed. Therefore: -If there is more budget than needed, there is a budget surplus. If there is too little, there is a budget deficit -If a business has more of a product available than its customers want to buy at a particular price, an economist would describe the situation by saying the supply is greater than the demand and there would be a ""surplus"" of the product at that particular price -In Marxian economics, there are surplus product and surplus value. - Surplus (movie), a 2003 Swedish documentary movie about consumerism" -4546,14199,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Orleans,New Orleans,"New Orleans is a city in the state of Louisiana in the United States. It is the largest city in Louisiana, and the 49th-largest city in the U.S. It is the capital of Orleans Parish. It was named in honour of the French Duke of Orléans (then Regent of France). - -History -The city began as the capital of Louisiana (New France), part of the first French colonial empire at the mouth of the Mississippi River. It became a territory of the United States when President Thomas Jefferson bought the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. It became one of the world's great seaports. All the land is low, originally just a short vertical distance above sea level. In the last three hundred years, the city has sunk slowly into the marshy soil. Large portions of New Orleans are now below sea level. A system of many pumps, dikes, sea walls, and levees were built. - -The Battle of New Orleans was fought here in 1815. The capture of New Orleans in 1863 was an important step in the defeat of the Confederacy in the American Civil War - -Over half of the grain that is sent by ship to other countries, comes first by barge through the Port of New Orleans. The grains are grown in the farming states bordering the Mississippi River, the Missouri River, and Ohio Rivers. Much of the crude oil that is made into gasoline and diesel fuel is brought to New Orleans for oil refinery and distribution to other parts of the United States by barge or oil pipeline. Also, there are many oil well platforms nearby, in the Gulf of Mexico. - -Hurricane Katrina - -On August 29, 2005, New Orleans was affected by Hurricane Katrina. The special systems built to protect the city failed in several ways. It is estimated that more than three quarters (3/4) of New Orleans was under water in early September of 2005. Sewer, phone, electric and fresh water systems failed. Many people drowned. Many homes were completely covered with water. Important records, some from the French period of the 18th century were destroyed. - -For years, many people believed that a flood in New Orleans would happen. A very serious flood happened several hundred miles upstream, on the Mississippi delta, when heavy rains fell in 1927. The hardships from that flood led many people to move away. Many moved to Chicago. - -After Hurricane Katrina, many people who lived in the flooded city moved to other places in the US. Many people were afraid to move back. Their jobs and homes were gone and their possessions were lost. The people who could move back spread to many other states. Texas received the most flood victims. Many volunteers and charities are helping the flood victims to relocate to new homes and, at the same time, repair homes and services in this city. Several years after Katrina, New Orleans still had much fewer people than it did before the hurricane. - -Culture -New Orleans has a large African American, Creole and French population. Voodoo, brought by African slaves, is practiced in the city. - -New Orleans is known for its French culture, French architecture, Creole and Cajun cuisine such as gumbo and jambalaya, and Mardi Gras. - -References - -Other websites - -1718 establishments -18th-century establishments in Louisiana -Louisiana - -Parish seats in Louisiana" -1256,4608,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamishibai,Kamishibai,"Kami-shibai (Japanese: 紙芝居) is a storytelling performance with picture cards, and is a traditional Japanese entertainment for children. In Japanese ""Kami"" means paper and ""shibai"" means drama or enternainment. The performer tells a story and shows pictures from scene to scene. Kami-shibai is a bidirectional media which is comprised of actions and reactions between a performer and audiences. With the spread of television, kami-shibai went out of date. - -The origins of kamishibai are not clear, but its roots can be taced back to various picture storytelling traditions in Japan such as etoki and emaki scrolls and other forms of visual storytelling which date back centuries. However, the form of Kamishibai that one thinks of today developed around 1929 and was quite popular in the 30s, and 40s, all but dying out with the introduction of television later in the 1950s. - -Typical kamishibai consists of a presenter who stands to the right of a small wooden box or stage that holds the 12-20 cards featuring the visuals that accompany each story. This miniature stage is attached to the storyteller’s bicycle. The presenter changes the card, varying the speed of the transition to match the flow of the story he is telling. - -References - -Japanese culture -Entertainment in Japan" -24871,97556,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression,Progression,"Progression can be any of the following: - -In mathematics: - Arithmetic progression - Geometric progression - -In music: - Chord progression, series of chords played in order - Backdoor progression - Omnibus progression - Ragtime progression, chord progression of ragtime - -In other fields: - Age progression - Color progression - Semantic progression, how words become other words" -12101,44584,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophylaxis,Prophylaxis,"Prophylaxis is a Greek word and concept. It means any action taken to guard or prevent beforehand. The corresponding adjective is prophylactic. - -Two parts -The concept of prophylaxis has two parts. First is forethought. A person has to realise the need first of all. Second is taking appropriate action. - -Any failure of prophylaxis is a failure at either stage 1 or stage 2. Successful prophylaxis means one has anticipated and avoided some undesirable outcome. - -Examples - -Preventative medicine -Prophylaxis is the central idea in preventative medicine. People usually think medical treatment helps sick people to get healthy. Prophylactic treatment is helpful in a different way. Primary prophylaxis tries to stop healthy people from getting sick. Secondary prophylaxis tries to stop people who are sick from getting worse. - -Birth control -Prophylaxis may also be used as a synonym for birth control. Condoms are prophylactic, because when used properly they can prevent pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. In the strict meaning and medical meaning of the word ""profylaxe"", it only means prevention of DISEASE, not of birth. For example, oral contraceptive is not a profylaxe, because it does not prevent disease. - -Related pages -Health care -Prophylaxis (chess) -Vaccine - -Medicine -Words" -622,3010,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda,Propaganda,"Propaganda is a form of communication to distribute information. It is always biased. The information is designed to make people feel a certain way or to believe a certain thing. The information is often political. - -It is hard to tell whether the information is true or false. Very often, the information is confusing and unfair. Propaganda does tend to make disputes last longer, and be more difficult to resolve. It can take the form of posters, TV advertisements, and radio announcements. - -The word 'propaganda' comes from Latin. At first, it meant 'ideas to be spread around'. But in the First World War, it came to mean political ideas that are supposed to be misleading. - -Propaganda is like advertising in some ways. For example, it uses the mass media to spread its ideas. But advertising is usually trying to sell something, whereas propaganda is about ideas. It is often political, and used by states or political parties, not private companies. - -Uses -Propaganda is often used during wars. There it can be very useful. Sometimes it keeps the people of a country happy telling them that their country is fighting well and telling them how important it is that the enemy is defeated. Sometimes it tries to make people hate the enemy. The information could tell people that the enemy is evil or make them seem not human. Sometimes a government gives propaganda to the enemy telling them that the war is going badly for them and that they should stop fighting. - -When a country is not at war, propaganda can still be used. The government may use propaganda to change what people think about a political situation. A group may try to change the way people act towards an issue. - -Propaganda under some countries, like dictatorships, is used along with censorship. While propaganda tries to give people false ideas, censorship forces the ones who disagree with propaganda to keep quiet. Then the propaganda can say everything, because nobody can question it in public. - -Propaganda is also used to win people by tricking them. Some people say that cults use propaganda to get people to join them. - -Examples of propaganda: - British propaganda against Germany in the First World War. - German propaganda against Poland to start the Second World War, see Attack on Sender Gleiwitz - Propaganda through mass media (print, radio and movies) was used by the Soviet Union from beginning to end. Some great artists, like Sergei Eisenstein and El Lissitzky, helped them do it. Many others, such as Solzhenitsyn, did not. - -History -Propaganda has been used in every known civilisation. It was used by Rameses II on his monuments in Ancient Egypt; it was used by Ancient Greek orators; it was used by Julius Caesar, and all Roman Emperors. The word itself is formed from propagate, meaning to multiply. - -Propaganda was carried much further by the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide of the Catholic Church. This committee, founded in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV, had action branches in most European countries. These were the local branches of the Inquisition, which sought out heretics. With torture and the threat of death by burning at the stake, they forced heretics to recant (to publicly withdraw their previous beliefs). The objective was to remove all challenges to the supremacy of the Church in matters of belief. The 1578 handbook for inquisitors noted ""Punishment does not take place primarily and for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit"". - -References - -Politics -Communication -Psychology" -24180,93254,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gretzenbach,Gretzenbach,"Gretzenbach is a municipality in the district Olten in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -8311,27990,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Oddie,Bill Oddie,"William Edgar (Bill) Oddie OBE (born 7 July 1941) is a British comedian, actor, writer and television personality. - -Oddie was born in Rochdale, Lancashire and grew up in Birmingham. He read English Literature at Pembroke College, Cambridge where he gained an MA. He is most famous for his birdwatching and conservation work. In the 1970s, he was a member of the BBC One television comedy series, The Goodies. Doctors found that his mother, Lilian, had schizophrenia. Oddie says that he does not remember her living at home because she spent a lot of her life in mental hospitals. - -Oddie has bipolar disorder. - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -1941 births -Living people -Actors from Birmingham -Actors from Lancashire -Alumni of the University of Cambridge -Comedians from Lancashire -English movie actors -English television actors -English television presenters -English television writers -People with bipolar disorder -People from Rochdale -Television personalities from Lancashire -Writers from Birmingham -Writers from Lancashire" -2801,8737,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962,1962,"1962 (MCMLXII) was . - -Events - March 16 – Walter Cronkite becomes lead anchor on the CBS Evening News. - August 6 – Jamaica becomes separate from the United Kingdom. - August 16 – The Beatles fire drummer Pete Best and replace him with Ringo Starr - Johnny Carson becomes host of The Tonight Show. - Punchy, the Hawaiian Punch mascot makes his debut. - Cuban Missile Crisis - -Births - January 7 – Abigail Johnson, American businesswoman - January 17 – Jim Carrey, Canadian actor and comedian - February 6 – Axl Rose, American singer (Guns N' Roses) - February 7 – Eddie Izzard, British actor and comedian - February 10 – Cliff Burton, American bassist and songwriter (d. 1986) - February 11 – Sheryl Crow, American singer - February 22 – Steve Irwin, Australian animal expert and television personality (The Crocodile Hunter) (d. 2006) - February 27 – Adam Baldwin, American actor - March 2 – Jon Bon Jovi, American singer, songwriter, and actor - March 4 – Lolo Ferrari, French actress (d. 2000) - March 7 – Taylor Dayne, American singer - March 21 – Rosie O'Donnell, American comedian, actress and talk show host - March 25 – Marcia Cross, American actress - April 23 – Hillel Slovak, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers) (d. 1988) - May 17 – Alan Johnston, British journalist - May 18 – Nanne Grönvall, Swedish singer - June 3 – Susannah Constantine, English television presenter - June 10 – Maxi Priest, English singer - June 11 – Jack Irons, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers) - June 19 – Paula Abdul, dancer and singer; American Idol judge - July 3 – Tom Cruise, American actor - July 31 – Wesley Snipes, American actor - August 20 – James Marsters, American actor - August 30 – Alexander Litvinenko, British citizen and ex-KGB (d. 2006) - September 17 – Baz Luhrmann, Australian movie director - October 2 – Jeff Bennett, American actor - October 16, Flea, American musician (Red Hot Chili Peppers) - October 17- Mike Judge, American animator and producer - October 19 – Evander Holyfield, American boxer - November 1 – Anthony Kiedis, American singer (Red Hot Chili Peppers) - November 11 – Demi Moore, American actress - November 19 – Jodie Foster, American actress and director - December 9 – Felicity Huffman, American actress - December 22 - Andres Cantor, Argentine/American sportscaster - Ralph Fiennes, English actor - -Deaths - April 10 – Stuart Sutcliffe, English musician (The Beatles) (b. 1940) - July 11 – Polly Adler, Russian writer (b. 1900) - August 5 – Marilyn Monroe, American actress (b. 1926) - August 9 – Hermann Hesse, German writer (b. 1877) - November 7- Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady of the United States, wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt (b. 1884) - November 18 – Niels Bohr, Danish physicist (b. 1885) - -Movies released - Girls! Girls! Girls! - In Search of the Castaways - To Kill a Mockingbird - The Manchurian Candidate - The Longest Day - That Touch of Mink - Lolita (1962 movie) - Lawrence of Arabia - -Hit songs -""Peppermint Twist"" – Joey Dee & the Starlighters -""The Twist"" – Chubby Checker -""Soldier Boy"" – The Shirelles -""V-A-C-A-T-I-O-N"" – Connie Francis -""Hey Baby"" – Bruce Channel -""The Loco-Motion"" – Little Eva -""Sherry"" – Frankie Valli & The Four Seasons -""Only Love Can Break a Heart"" – Gene Pitney -""The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance"" – Gene Pitney -""Break It To Me Gently"" – Brenda Lee -""All Alone Am I"" – Brenda Lee -""He's A Rebel"" – The Crystals -""Breaking Up Is Hard To Do"" – Neil Sedaka -""Any Day Now"" – Chuck Jackson -""Leah"" – Roy Orbison -""Dream Baby"" – Roy Orbison -""Fortune Teller"" – Bobby Curtola -""Duke Of Earl"" – Gene Chandler -""Telstar"" – The Tornadoes -""Johnny Angel"" – Shelley Fabares -""Go Away Little Girl"" – Steve Lawrence -""Don't Make Me Over"" – Dionne Warwick -""Big Girls Don't Cry"" – Frankie Valli & The Four Seasons -""Love Me Do"" – The Beatles -""Adios Amigo"" – Jim Reeves -""I'm Gonna Change Everything"" – Jim Reeves -""Wolverton Mountain"" – Claude King -""The Burning Of Atlanta"" – Claude King -""I Can't Stop Loving You"" – Ray Charles -""Let's Twist Again"" – Chubby Checker -""You Can't Judge A Book By The Cover"" – Bo Diddley - -New books - One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest by Ken Kesey" -19011,71665,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandy%20%28singer%29,Brandy (singer),"Brandy Rayana Norwood (born February 11, 1979), professionally known as Brandy, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer and actress. - -Brandy became famous as a teenager in the early 90s with the debut Brandy which received a platinum certification in the US. In 1997 she became the first African American in history to play the role of Cinderella in the movie with the same title. Her second album Never Say Never followed which sold over 16 million copies worldwide. A couple of highly successful singles was released from the record, including ""The Boy Is Mine"", a duet with Monica, which spent 13 weeks at number one on the US singles chart. In 1999 Brandy starred in the horror movie I Still Know What You Did Last Summer. Brandy earned the title ""Princess of R&B"" due to her success in the 1990s. She starred in the sitcom Moesha as the title character. - -Her third album Full Moon was released in 2002. The album went platinum a month after it's release. The follow-up titled Afrodisiac was released in 2004. Thereafter Brandy's career suffered from several setbacks, most notably the 2006 car accident where another driver was killed. The singer's sixth album is expected for release in 2012. - -To date Brandy has sold over 30 million records worldwide which makes her one of the best-selling female artists in music history. In 2010 she was ranked amongst the 50 most successful teenagers in American history. - -Brandy was a contestant in the late 2010 season of Dancing with the Stars. - -Discography - -Albums - 1994: Brandy - 1998: Never Say Never - 2002: Full Moon - 2004: Afrodisiac - 2008: Human - 2012: Two Eleven - 2020: B7 - -Additional releases - 1999: U Don't Know Me...Like U Used To (EP) - 2000: The Videos (Video DVD) - 2005: The Best of Brandy (Compilation album) - 2011: A Family Business (Album together with Ray J and Willie Norwood) - -References - -1979 births -Living people -Actors from Mississippi -African American actors -African-American singers -American movie actors -American R&B musicians -American singer-songwriters -American television actors -Brandy Norwood -Dancing with the Stars participants -Grammy Award winners -Singers from Mississippi" -14963,56400,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20energy,Solar energy,"Solar Energy - -Solar energy is the transformation of heat, the energy that comes from the sun. It has been used for thousands of years in many different ways by people all over the world. The oldest uses of solar energy is for heating, cooking, and drying. Today, it is also used to make electricity where other power supplies are not there, such as in places far away from where people live, and in outer space. - -It is becoming cheaper to make electricity from solar energy. Because the Sun always gives heat and light, solar energy can be considered a renewable energy and an alternative to non-renewable resources like coila and teal. - -Energy uses -Solar energy is used today in a number of ways: - As heat for making hot water, heating buildings and cooking - To generate electricity with solar cells or heat engines - To take the salt away from sea water. - To use sun rays for drying clothes and towels. -It is used by plants for the process of photosynthesis. - To use in cooking (Solar cookers). - -Energy from the Sun -After passing through the Earth's atmosphere, most of the Sun's energy is in the form of visible light and infrared light radiation. Plants convert the energy in sunlight into chemical energy (sugars and starches) through the process of photosynthesis. Humans regularly use this store of energy in various ways, as when they burn wood off fossil fuels, or when simply eating plants, fish and animals. - -Solar radiation reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere with the power of 1366 watts per square meter (W/m2). Since the Earth is round, the surface nearer its poles is angled away from the Sun and receives much less solar energy than the surface nearer the equator. - -At present, solar cell panels convert, at best, about 15% of the sunlight hitting them into electricity. -The dark disks in the third diagram on the right are imaginary examples of the amount of land that, if covered with 8% efficient solar panels, would produce slightly more energy in the form of electricity than the world needed in 2003. - -Types of technologies - -Many technologies have been developed to make use of solar radiation. Some of these technologies make direct use of the solar energy (e.g. to provide light, heat, etc.), while others produce electricity. - -Solar power plants -Solar power plants convert sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. - -Photovoltaics - -Concentrated solar thermal - -Rank - -Solar cooker - -Solar cooking uses the Sun as the source of energy instead of standard cooking fuels such as charcoal, coal or gas. Solar cookers are an inexpensive and environmentally sound alternative to traditional ovens. They are becoming widely used in areas of the developing world where deforestation is an issue, financial resources to purchase fuel are limited, and where open flames would pose a serious risk to people and the environment. Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate. They achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors to focus the rays of the sun. - -Solar heater - The Sun may be used to heat water instead of electricity or gas. There are two basic types of active solar heating systems based on the type of fluid — either liquid or air — that is heated in the solar energy collectors. (The collector is the device in which a fluid is heated by the Sun.) - -Liquid-based systems heat water or an antifreeze solution in a ""hydronic"" collector, whereas air-based systems heat air in an ""air collector."" Both air and liquid systems can supplement forced air systems. - -Solar cells - -Solar cells can be used to generate electricity from sunlight. It is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Sometimes the term solar cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the light source is unspecified. - -Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, consumer systems, e.g. handheld calculators or wrist watches, remote radiotelephones and water pumping applications. A large no. of solar cells are combined in an arrangement called solar cell panel that can deliver enough electricity for practical use. Electricity produced by solar panels can be stored in rechargeable solar batteries, which is then drawn upon when required. - -Related pages - List of renewable energy topics - -References - -Other websites - Solar Energy Industries Association is the national trade association for the US solar energy industry and has information on current commercial technologies and market developments. - Direct solar U.S. Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy - Thermal water splitting - U.S. Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Solar History Timeline - National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) - Solar energy in the News - ESTIF - European Solar Thermal Industry organization (statistics, market situation) - Solar perspectives in Italy - Information on the Italian Solar Market - Online article by scientist Jonathan G. Dorn, July 22-2008 The solar thermal power industry experienced a surge in 2007, with 100 megawatts of new capacity worldwide. - -Applications of solar energy Some different techniques to have to maximum utilization of the available solar power." -19022,71717,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Simpsons%20shorts,The Simpsons shorts,"The Simpsons shorts is a series of one-minute television shorts that ran on the variety show The Tracey Ullman Show for three seasons. The shorts were created by cartoonist Matt Groening. - -Season 1: 1987 - -Season 2: 1987-1988 - -Season 3: 1988-1989 - -Related pages - The Simpsons - The Tracey Ullman Show - -References - -The Simpsons" -15875,60848,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abidjan,Abidjan,"Abidjan is the largest city and former capital of Ivory Coast. It is the commercial and banking center of Ivory Coast as well as the de facto capital. Yamoussoukro is the official capital. The city is in Ébrié Lagoon. It is built on many peninsulas and islands which are connected by bridges. There are an estimated 4 to 5 million people living in the metropolitan area. - -History -The city grew after the construction of a new wharf in 1931. It was made the capital of the French colony in 1933. In 1983, Yamoussoukro was made the capital of the country, but most government offices and foreign embassies are still in Abidjan. - -References - -Other websites - Photos from Abidjan - Map of Abidjan - -Capital cities in Africa -Cities in Ivory Coast -1931 establishments -20th-century establishments in Africa" -21863,83307,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1176,1176," - -Events - January — Assize of Northampton. - May 22 — Murder tried but failed by the Hashshashin on Saladin near Aleppo. - Raynald of Chatillon released from prison in Aleppo. - May 29 — Frederick Barbarossa is beaten. - September 17 — Seljuk Turks beats Manuel I Comnenus at the Battle of Myriokephalon. - Cathedral of Sens makes the first ""clock"". - Construction begins on the London Bridge. - Aberdeen becomes a royal burgh. - The first recorded Welsh Eisteddfod is held by Rhys ap Gruffydd at Cardigan. - -Births - - Henry de Bohun, 1st Earl of Hereford (d. 1220) - Leopold VI of Austria (d. 1230) - William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury (around date; d. 1226) - Saint Sava, Serbian prince and archbishop (d. 1235) - Subutai, Mongol general, tried to bring together the Mongolia - -Deaths - April 20 — Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English soldier (b. 1130) - May 13 — Matthias I, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1119) - August 23 — Emperor Rokujo- of Japan (b. 1164) - October 25 — William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel, English politician (b. c. 1109) - Rosamund Clifford, mistress of Henry II of England (b. 1150) - Saint Galdino, Italian archdeacon" -21528,82281,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan%20Air%20Layer,Saharan Air Layer,"The Saharan Air Layer (SAL) is an intensely dry, warm and sometimes dust-laden layer of the atmosphere which often overlays the cooler, more-humid surface air of the Atlantic Ocean. In the Sahara Desert region of North Africa, where it originates, it is the prevalent atmosphere, extending from the surface upwards several kilometers. As it drives, or is driven, out over the ocean, it is lifted above the denser marine air. This arrangement is an inversion where the temperature increases with height. The boundary between the SAL and the marine layer suppresses or ""caps"" any convection originating in the marine layer. Since it is dry air, the lapse rate within the SAL itself is steep, that is, the temperature falls rapidly with height. - -Other websites - NOAA FAQ: Saharan Air Layer - Real Time SAL data - HA! Look at 2006! Where are the Hurricanes? - Research: Aerosols Slow Wind - -Meteorology -Winds" -8860,30005,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae,Reggae,"Reggae is a music genre that began in Jamaica in the late 1960s. Most music from Jamaica comes from the reggae style. - -The music has regular chops on the back beat (off-beat). These are called “skank”, and are played by a rhythm guitarist. The bass drum hits on the second and fourth beat of each measure (each bar). These are called the “drop”. Reggae bands also use a bass, a keyboard or organ, and horns. - -Reggae music is often used by Rastafarian groups. They are usually songs about religion, love and social problems. Bob Marley (1945-1981) was a famous reggae artist. - -Famous instruments in reggae music are drums, guitar, saxophone, trumpet and trombone. - -Reggae was started in 1960 but became famous in the 1970s. - -Reggae songs often have lots of backing singers. - -Rapper Snoop Dogg released an album of reggae music in 2013. - -Some recent songs, like Cheerleader and Rude are reggae. - -Reggae is related to ska and dancehall. - -References - - -Pop music" -13156,48216,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budgerigar,Budgerigar,"The budgerigar (nicknamed budgie) is a small parrot. It belongs to the family of old-world parrots and parakeets (Psittaculidae). Budgerigars are often called parakeets, especially in American English. The term Parakeet refers to many types of small parrots with long flat tails. The budgerigar is found in the drier parts of Australia. It has lived there for over 5 million years. It is commonly kept as a pet. Budgies are intelligent birds and can be taught to mimic human speech. - -Other websites - A True Ambassador: the Budgerigar Referenced article on budgerigars - List of Plants & Branches Hazardous to Birds Referenced list oriented toward pet birds - Budgies Information about the budgerigar as a pet supplies - -References - -Birds of Australia -Pets" -926,3779,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Portuguese%20football%20teams,List of Portuguese football teams,"These are some Portuguese football teams. - -Academica -Alverca -Amadora -Beira Mar -Belenenses -Benfica -Boavista -Braga -Gil Vicente -Guimaraes -Leiria -Maritimo -Moreirense -Nacional -Pacos Ferreira -FC Porto -Rio Ave -Sporting - -References -www.PortuGOAL.net The definitive Portuguese football site - -Lists of football teams - -ru:Список футбольных клубов Португалии" -22518,85132,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bissone,Bissone,"Bissone is a municipality of the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Ticino" -15578,59426,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andasol%20Solar%20Power%20Station,Andasol Solar Power Station,"Andasol Solar Power Station is a large solar thermal power plant, near Guadix in Andalusia, in the province of Granada, one of the sunniest regions in Spain. The plant will cost 310 million euros and is currently under construction. - -Andasol will have a generating capacity of 50 megawatts and liquid salt heat storage will allow for electricity to be generated for seven hours after the sun has gone down. Annual electricity production will be 179 gigawatt hours which will cover the electricity demands of 50,000 households or 200,000 people. - -Andasol should be completed in mid-2008 and a second plant, Andasol 2, is planned. - -Related pages - List of Solar thermal power stations - Renewable energy - Solar power in Spain - -References - -Other websites - Pictures - -Solar power plants -Buildings and structures in Spain -Andalusia -2009 establishments in Europe -2000s establishments in Spain" -1669,5637,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheddar%20cheese,Cheddar cheese,"Cheddar is a type of hard cheese made from cow's milk. It originally was produced in the English village of Cheddar, Somerset. Romans may have brought the recipe to Britain from the Cantal region of France. The first record of cheddar cheese dates back to the 12th century. In 1170, King Henry II bought at a farthing per pound. Charles I (1600–1649) also bought cheese from Somerset. Cheddar cheese traditionally had to be made within of Wells Cathedral. - -Cheddar cheese is different from other cheeses in how it is made. After the curds are heated, they are cut and stacked. The stacks are then turned periodically and re-stacked. This process is called cheddaring. Cheddar cheese is sometimes aged in caves for up to 30 months before it is ready to eat. - -Cheddar cheese is the most popular cheese in the United Kingdom. It accounts for 51 percent of the country's £1.9 billion annual cheese market. It is the second most popular cheese in the United States, behind mozzarella, with an average annual consumption of per person. The United States produced 3,233,380,000 lbs in 2010, and the UK 258,000 tonnes in 2008. The name ""cheddar cheese"" is widely used and has no protection within the European Union. Only cheddar produced from local milk within four counties of South West England may use the name ""West Country Farmhouse Cheddar."" - -Cheddar cheese may be used to make cheese on toast. - -References - -Cheeses" -20775,79887,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropical%20ridge,Subtropical ridge,"The subtropical ridge is a large belt of high pressure around 30ºN in the Northern Hemisphere and 30ºS in the Southern Hemisphere. It is characterized by mostly calm winds. Air flows out from its center toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere, creating both the trade winds and the westerlies. - -Other websites -Webster's Online Dictionary -Physical Geography - The Global Environment -Winds and the Global Circulation System - -Meteorology -Tropical cyclones" -24066,92855,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsthal,Balsthal,"Balsthal is a municipality in the district Thal in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -21415,81975,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20FIFA%20World%20Cup,1998 FIFA World Cup,"The 1998 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. 32 teams took part from many countries. France won the trophy after beating Brazil in the final 3-0. - -Participants - -Africa - (CMR) • Squad - (MAR) • Squad - (NGA) • Squad - (RSA) • Squad - (TUN) • Squad - -Asia - (IRN) • Squad - (JPN) • Squad - (KOR) • Squad - (KSA) • Squad - -Europe - (AUT) • Squad - (BEL) • Squad - (BUL) • Squad - (CRO) • Squad - (DEN) • Squad - (ENG) • Squad - (FRA) • Squad - (GER) • Squad - (ITA) • Squad - (NED) • Squad - (NOR) • Squad - (ROU) • Squad - (SCO) • Squad - (ESP) • Squad - (YUG) • Squad - -North and Central America - (JAM) • Squad - (MEX) • Squad - (USA) • Squad - -South America - (ARG) • Squad - (BRA) • Squad - (CHI) • Squad - (COL) • Squad - (PAR) • Squad - -Group Stage -A win would earn the team 3 points, a draw would earn them 1 point, and a loss earns them no points. - -Group A - -Group B - -Group C - -Group D - -Group E - -Group F - -Group G - -Group H - -Knockout stage - -Round of 16 - -Quarter-finals - -Semi-finals - -Third-place match - -Final - -Statistics - -Goalscorers -6 goals - Davor Šuker - -5 goals - Christian Vieri - Gabriel Batistuta - -4 goals - Marcelo Salas - Luis Hernández - Ronaldo - -3 goals - Thierry Henry - César Sampaio - Bebeto - Rivaldo - Jürgen Klinsmann - Oliver Bierhoff - Dennis Bergkamp - -2 goals - Ricardo Peláez - Marc Wilmots - Ariel Ortega - Roberto Baggio - Abdejalil Hadda - Salaheddine Bassir - Shaun Bartlett - Fernando Hierro - Fernando Morientes - Phillip Cocu - Ronald de Boer - Patrick Kluivert - Theodore Whitmore - Viorel Moldovan - Slobodan Komljenović - Alan Shearer - Michael Owen - Brian Laudrup - Lilian Thuram - Zinedine Zidane - Emmanuel Petit - Robert Prosinečki - -1 goal - John Collins - Craig Burley - Mustapha Hadji - Dan Eggen - Håvard Flo - Tore André Flo - Kjetil Rekdal - Luigi Di Biagio - Pierre Njanka - Patrick M'Boma - Toni Polster - Ivica Vastić - Andreas Herzog - Marc Rieper - Allan Nielsen - Michael Laudrup - Peter Møller - Ebbe Sand - Thomas Helveg - Martin Jørgensen - Christophe Dugarry - David Trezeguet - Bixente Lizarazu - Youri Djorkaeff - Laurent Blanc - Raúl - Luis Enrique - Kiko - Mutiu Adepoju - Sunday Oliseh - Victor Ikpeba - Wilson Oruma - Tijani Babangida - Ha Seok-Ju - Yoo Sang-chul - Alberto García Aspe - Cuauhtémoc Blanco - Siniša Mihajlović - Predrag Mijatović - Dragan Stojković - Mario Stanić - Robert Jarni - Goran Vlaović - Robbie Earle - Paul Scholes - Darren Anderton - David Beckham - Adrian Ilie - Dan Petrescu - Andreas Möller - Benni McCarthy - Marc Overmars - Pierre van Hooijdonk - Edgar Davids - Boudewijn Zenden - Hamid Estili - Mehdi Mahdavikia - Brian McBride - Léider Preciado - José Luis Sierra - Sami Al-Jaber - Yousuf Al-Thunayan - Celso Ayala - Miguel Ángel Benítez - José Cardozo - Emil Kostadinov - Luc Nilis - Mauricio Pineda - Javier Zanetti - Claudio López - Masashi Nakayama - Skander Souayah - -Own goals - Tom Boyd (against Brazil) - Youssef Chippo (against Norway) - Pierre Issa (against France) - Andoni Zubizarreta (against Nigeria) - Siniša Mihajlović (against Germany) - Georgi Bachev (against Spain) - -Players who were red-carded during the tournament - Ariel Ortega - Gert Verheyen - Anatoli Nankov - Raymond Kalla - Lauren - Rigobert Song - Miklos Molnar - Morten Wieghorst - David Beckham - Laurent Blanc - Marcel Desailly - Zinedine Zidane - Christian Wörns - Darryl Powell - Ha Seok-ju - Pável Pardo - Ramón Ramírez - Patrick Kluivert - Arthur Numan - Mohammed Al-Khilaiwi - Craig Burley - Alfred Phiri - -References - FIFA - -| - -FIFA World Cup tournaments -1998 in association football -1990s in France -1998 in Europe -Football in France" -13444,49425,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck%20Berry,Chuck Berry,"Charles Edward Anderson ""Chuck"" Berry (October 18, 1926 – March 18, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He is one of the original musicians who helped to create rock and roll. - -Career -In 1955 Berry met Muddy Waters who told him of a record company that would release his first song. In 1957 he joined the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and other popular musicians on a tour around the United States. Over the next few years he became more and more popular and had many popular songs on the radio. ""Maybellene"" (1955), ""Roll Over Beethoven"" (1956), ""Rock and Roll Music"" (1957) and ""Johnny B. Goode"" (1958) were massive hits. - -He has influenced many rock and pop musicians who came after him. Berry has influenced many music artists, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, and Bob Dylan. Berry tried to help an Apache waitress cross the US-Canadian border, but was caught by police and charged for prostitution. This dented his career: he served 18 months. When released, his first recording was ""Nadine"", (1964) also a huge hit. - -Berry was a favorite with The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Beach Boys, who adapted and recorded a number of his songs. - -In 1986 a documentary film, Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll, was made. It featured a celebration concert for Berry's sixtieth birthday, organized by Keith Richards. - -birth of death -Berry died at his home in Wentzville, Missouri on March 18, 2017 from a congestive heart failure, aged 90. - -Discography -Chuck Berry discography - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - - - -1926 births -2017 deaths -African American musicians -African-American singers -American criminals -American prisoners -American robbers -American rock guitarists -American rock singers -American singer-songwriters -Deaths from myocardial infarction -Singers from St. Louis, Missouri -Musicians from St. Louis, Missouri" -9508,32558,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Door%20god,Door god,"A door god is a painting pasted on a door. These were used by the Chinese as good luck. Door gods can be seen on temples - places of religion - and other buildings. There is a belief that door gods stop evil spirits from going into the building. - -Door gods are often in pairs, one for each side of the door. The first door gods may have been made for a Chinese Emperor, more than 1300 years ago. They showed his two best soldiers. - -Art -Luck -Chinese gods and goddesses -Taoism" -4570,14269,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil%20Collins,Phil Collins,"Philip David Charles ""Phil"" Collins (born 30 January 1951) is a British drummer, songwriter, actor and singer. He was born in Chiswick, Hounslow, Middlesex. He was the drummer and singer of the band Genesis. He is very well known for his career away from the band, as a solo artist. His most well known album is No Jacket Required, which has sold over ten million copies in the United States. One of his most well known songs is ""In the Air Tonight"", which had a long running false rumour that it was about a drowning that Collins had witnessed. Collins starred in the movie Buster (1988). His daughter Lily Collins is a famous actress. - -Collins won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for ""You'll Be in My Heart"" for the 1999 movie Tarzan. - -Discography - -Solo albums - Face Value (1981) - Hello, I Must Be Going! (1982) - No Jacket Required (1985) - ...But Seriously (1989) - Both Sides (1993) - Dance into the Light (1996) - Testify (2002) - Going Back (2010) - -Health -Collins suffered an injury in 2009. The surgery to correct the injury to his neck went wrong. Due to this, he has not been able to play drums. He has to use a cane while walking. He has to be seated in a chair when performing on stage. - -References - -Other websites - - - Phil Collins at Atlantic Records - - -1951 births -Living people -Actors from London -Actors from Middlesex -English movie actors -English rock drummers -English rock singers -English television actors -English voice actors -Genesis (band) -Musicians from London -Musicians from Middlesex -People from Chiswick - -Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters -Golden Globe Award winners -Atlantic Records artists" -3074,9626,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robber%20baron,Robber baron,"The term robber baron was first used in the 12th and 13th centuries to describe rich men who lived in large castles along major transportation rivers, like the Rhine in Europe. They would send ships out onto these rivers to stop anybody who was traveling through who did not know better and collect a tax from them on any money or goods on these ships. They were not officially allowed to collect these taxes. It was only the Holy Roman Emperor who could decide what taxes to be charged, how much and who could charge it. - -Second, it is a slang term used of certain rich and ruthless industrialists and bankers, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century U.S.A. - -History of Germany -People" -10801,38690,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition,Composition,"Composition means literally putting together. It may refer to: - -Composition (music), putting notes together to make a piece of music -Composition (visual arts), the way that colors or shapes are put together - Composition (language), in literature and rhetoric, producing a work for speech or written discourse" -24062,92849,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burg%C3%A4schisee,Burgäschisee,"Burgäschisee is a lake by Aeschi in Switzerland. It is on the border of the cantons of Berne and Solothurn. The lake has a surface area of . It is deep at its deepest point. - -Other websites - -Burgäschisee Tourist information - -Lakes of Bern -Canton of Solothurn" -2986,9409,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremen%20%28state%29,Bremen (state),"Bremen is the smallest state in Germany. It is a city-state with an area of . Bremen has a population of 664,000 people. - -The official name is ""Freie Hansestadt Bremen"". This is because Bremen used to be in the Hanseatic League which was a group of cities which did a lot of trading. Many goods were sent from the port of Bremen or bought from the port from other countries. ""Free"" means it was independent of the local dukes and princes. - -There are two cities that make up Bremen. These cities are Bremen and Bremerhaven. The local football club is named Werder Bremen. - -References - -Other websites - Official website" -3916,11675,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1581,1581," - -Events - January 16 – English Parliament outlaws Roman Catholicism - April 4 – After going around the world Sir Francis Drake is knighted by Elizabeth I. - July 26 – The Northern Netherlands becomes free from Spain in the Oath of Abjuration. - -Births - January 4 – James Ussher, Anglo-Irish priest and scholar - February 17 – Fausto Poli, Italian Catholic priest - March 16 – Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch historian - October 9 – Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac, French mathematician - October 21 – Domenico Zampieri, Italian painter - -Deaths - April 25 – Okabe Motonobu, Japanese warrior - May 31 – Jan Kostka, Polish noble - June 2 – James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, regent of Scotland - July 11 – Peder Skram, Danish senator and naval officer - July 22 – Richard Cox, English bishop - August 21 – Sakuma Nobumori, Japanese retainer and samurai - September 1 – Guru Ram Das, fourth Sikh Guru - September 30 – Hubert Languet, French diplomat and reformer - October 9 – Saint Louis Bertrand, Spanish missionary to Latin-America, patron saint of Colombia - October 23 – Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer - November 7 – Richard Davies, Welsh bishop and scholar" -14522,54726,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20James,Saint James,"Saint James could mean any of the following: - -People -Several men mentioned in the New Testament: -James, son of Zebedee, an apostle, brother of John the Apostle, venerated at Santiago de Compostela -James (son of Alphaeus), an apostle, brother of Matthew the Evangelist -James the Less, son of Clopas and Mary of Clopas, often identified with the son of Alphaeus -James the Just, the brother of Jesus, head of the early Christian Church in Jerusalem -James the Deacon, 7th century missionary to England -James the Confessor, Bishop of Catania in the 8th Century -Rebecca St. James, Christian pop and rock artist - -Places -In transportation, -Saint James station (disambiguation), several railway stations around the world - -In the United States: -St. James, Maryland -St. James, Minnesota -St. James, Missouri -St. James, New York -Saint James Parish, Louisiana -The St. James Theatre, on Broadway in New York City -St. James Court Art Show in Louisville, Kentucky -St. James Catholic Church in Vancouver, Washington -St. James Middle School, a school in Horry County in South Carolina -St. James High School, also a school in Horry County in South Carolina - -In the United Kingdom: -St. James's Palace, London -Court of St. James's, London -St. James's Park, London -St James' Park, Newcastle upon Tyne, home of football club Newcastle United. -St James Park, football stadium in Exeter -St. James' Church, Clitheroe -St James, County Antrim, Northern Ireland -St James's University Hospital, Leeds, a teaching hospital - -Other nations: -St James, Western Australia -Saint James Parish, Barbados -St. James (electoral district), defunct electoral district in Canada -Saint James Parish, Jamaica -Saint-James, France -St. James' School, Kolkata, India -Saint James Cavalier Centre for Creativity, Malta -St. James Theatre (Wellington), New Zealand -St James, Cape Town, South Africa -St James Power Station, Singapore" -22329,84548,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst%2C%20Wisconsin,"Amherst, Wisconsin","Amherst is a village in Portage County, Wisconsin, United States. The population is 1,035 people as of 2010. - -References - -Other websites - -Village of Amherst website -AmherstPublic Schools -Amherst Girl Scouts - -Villages in Wisconsin -Portage County, Wisconsin" -16395,63035,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limburg%20%28Belgium%29,Limburg (Belgium),"Limburg is the easternmost of the five provinces of modern Flanders, which is one of the three main political and cultural sub-divisions of modern Belgium. Its capital is Hasselt. - -Geography -Limburg is located west of the Meuse (Dutch Maas) river, upon which it borders the similarly named province Limburg of the Netherlands. It also borders on the Walloon province of Liège to the south, with which it also has historical ties. To the north and west are the old territories of the Duchy of Brabant, the Flemish provinces of Flemish Brabant and Antwerp to the west, and the Dutch province of North Brabant to the north. - -The province of Limburg has an area of with a population of and a density of inhabitants per km². The province is divided into three arrondissements (arrondissementen in Dutch) with 44 municipalities. Among these municipalities are the current capital Hasselt, the early medieval capital Borgloon, Genk, Diepenbeek (home to Hasselt University), and Tongeren, the only Roman city in the province and regarded as the oldest city of Belgium. - -The municipality of Voeren is geographically detached (an exclave) from Limburg and the rest of Flanders, with the Netherlands to the north and the Walloon province of Liège to the south. This municipality was established by the municipal reform of 1977. - -The highest point of the province, , is in the town of Remersdaal, Voeren municipality. - -The centre of Belgian Limburg is crossed east to west by the Demer river and the Albert Canal, which run similar paths. The Demer river's drainage basin covers most of the central and southern part of the province, except for the southeastern corner, where the Jeker (in French: (le) Geer) runs past Tongeren and into the Maas river (in French: (la) Meuse) at Maastricht. - -The eastern border of the province corresponds to the western side of the Maas, which originates in France. It's drainage basin includes not only the Jeker but most of the northern part of Belgian Limburg. - -Administrative divisions -The province of Limber is divided into 3 arrondissements (Hasselt, Maaseik and Tongeren) and a total of 44 municipalities. - -Population by arrondissement -Population on 1 January or on 1 July of each year. - -References - -Related pages - Limburg (Netherlands), a province in southeastern Netherlands. - -Other websites - - - Toerisme Limburg" -9357,32060,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth%20of%20Independent%20States,Commonwealth of Independent States,"The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is the confederation of countries that used to form the Soviet Union. On December 8, 1991, leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine met at the nature reserve called Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus. They discussed the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in place of the Soviet Union. They reached an agreement about many points and signed a document creating the CIS. One of these points stated that the alliance would be open to all the republics of the Soviet Union. Other nations with similar goals could also join the CIS. - -The Soviet Union had 15 republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. On 6th September 1991, the Soviet Union had recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Out of the remaining 12 republics, all (except Georgia) joined the CIS. Before joining the CIS, on 21st December 1991, leaders of these 11 countries had met in Kazakhstan to accept the original CIS agreement of 8th December 1991. Because Ukraine did not ratify the CIS agreement in the national parliament, it never became an official member of the CIS, but nevertheless participated as a de facto member. In December 1993, Georgia also joined the CIS. On 26th August 2006 Turkmenistan left the permanent membership, and became an associate member. On 15th August 2008 Georgia left the CIS membership, and Georgia's CIS membership officially ended on 17th August 2009. On 19 May 2018, Ukraine, which stopped participating in CIS in 2014 because of its conflict with Russia over Crimea and the Donbass, formally ended all participation in CIS. - -With the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet Union ceased to exist. It was the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Many consider that with CIS, Russia continues to have some control over the former republics of the Soviet Union. - -The CIS has its headquarters at Minsk, Belarus. An Executive Director heads the CIS. The CIS is not a successor country to the Soviet Union. The CIS is an organization or alliance of independent countries. It is more like the European Community. The member countries of the CIS had also signed many agreements for economic cooperation and defense cooperation. They have signed other agreements for cooperation in foreign policy and other matters. - -Other websites - http://cis.minsk.by Belarus - Commonwealth of Independent States - Citizendium - -1991 establishments -International organizations -Political organizations based in Europe -Soviet Union -Politics of Asia -Politics of Europe -Political organizations based in Asia" -16258,62507,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacostraca,Malacostraca,"The Malacostraca (Greek: ""soft shell"") are the largest subgroup of crustaceans. They include decapods (such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp), stomatopods (mantis shrimp) and krill. There are 22,000 members in this group. It represents two thirds of all crustacean species. The first malacostracans appeared in the Cambrian period. - -The classification of crustaceans is currently being debated. Some think Malacostraca is a class and others think it is a subclass. - -Morphology - -Malacostraca have heads with six segments. They have a pair of antennules and a pair of antennae. They also have mouthparts. There are appendages near the mouthparts, called maxillipeds. They have five pairs of walking legs. The first pair is formed like a pincer. There are eight thoracic segments. There are six abdominal segments. They are used for swimming. Members of Malacostraca have compound stalked or sessile eyes. They have a two-chambered stomach and a centralized nervous system. - -Classification - -Class Malacostraca Latreille, 1802 - Subclass Phyllocarida Packard, 1879 - †Order Archaeostraca - †Order Hoplostraca - †Order Canadaspidida - Order Leptostraca Claus, 1880 - Subclass Hoplocarida Calman, 1904 - Order Stomatopoda Latreille, 1817 (mantis shrimp) - Subclass Eumalacostraca Grobben, 1892 - Superorder Syncarida Packard, 1885 - †Order Palaeocaridacea - Order Bathynellacea Chappuis, 1915 - Order Anaspidacea Calman, 1904 - Superorder Peracarida Calman, 1904 - Order Spelaeogriphacea Gordon, 1957 - Order Thermosbaenacea Monod, 1927 - Order Lophogastrida Sars, 1870 - Order Mysida Haworth, 1825 - Order Mictacea Bowman, Garner, Hessler, Iliffe & Sanders, 1985 - Order Amphipoda Latreille, 1816 - Order Isopoda Latreille, 1817 (woodlice, slaters) - Order Tanaidacea Dana, 1849 - Order Cumacea Krøyer, 1846 - Superorder Eucarida Calman, 1904 - Order Euphausiacea Dana, 1852 - Order Amphionidacea Williamson, 1973 - Order Decapoda Latreille, 1802 (crabs, lobsters, shrimp)" -976,3874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation,Condensation,"Condensation is the process through which gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is an important part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation. - -Process -Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape. Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing. In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature). - -During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. - -Condensation is exothermic. This means that condensation makes the temperature go up. Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss. - -It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue. - -Related pages - Desalination - -References - -Other websites - International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security at SDSU - ScienceDirect - Heat transfer and evaporation in geothermal desalination units - -[[kinematics -]]" -17723,66990,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikoku%20%28dog%29,Shikoku (dog),"The Shikoku is a Japanese breed of dog. Other names for it is Tosa-ken. It is different from Tosa-touken. It looks like Japanese Wolf. It has a life span of ten to twelve years. - -Dog breeds" -12943,47569,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula%20Radcliffe,Paula Radcliffe,"Paula Jane Radcliffe MBE (born 17 December 1973) is a British long-distance runner. She is the current women's IAAF world record holder for the marathon with a time of 2:17:42 hours. She also ran the IAAF women's world best time of 2:15:25 hours. She is a three-time winner of the London Marathon, two-time New York Marathon champion, and won the 2002 Chicago Marathon. - -Radcliffe is a former world champion for the marathon, half marathon and cross country races. She has also been European champion over 10,000 metres on the track and over the cross country races. On the track, Radcliffe has also won the 10,000 metres silver medal at the 1999 World Athletics Championships and was the 2002 Commonwealth Games gold medalist over 5,000 metres. Radcliffe has won many awards including the BBC Sports Personality of the Year, Laureus World Comeback of the Year, IAAF World Athlete of the Year, AIMS World Athlete of the Year (three times) and a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). - -Radcliffe is an asthmatic sufferer who has voiced her opposition to the use of drugs in sport. She is married to her coach, Gary Lough, and has two children. Radcliffe is the great niece of Charlotte Radcliffe, who won an Olympic silver medal in the 1920 Games. - -Anti doping -Radcliffe has often made comments about drugs in sport. Radcliffe backed the IAAF after Olga Yegorova was caught using drugs. Radcliffe and team-mate Hayley Tullett caused trouble in the heats of the 5,000 metres at the 2001 World Athletics Championships. They held up a sign protesting against Yegorova. Yegorova had been caught using, EPO, but was allowed to race. The sign was made by Radcliffe's husband and said 'EPO Cheats Out'. It was taken off them by the stadium officials. But not before it was seen on television. Team mates Kathy Butler and Hayley Yelling also demonstrated in the final. They were seen wearing Radcliffe masks and held up signs, one of which said 'Free Paula'. Radcliffe said after the Championships that she would continue her fight against drugs in sport. Radcliffe wears a red ribbon when racing to show her support for blood testing as a method of catching drugs cheats. Radcliffe first wore the ribbon at the 1999 European Cup. This was encouraged by Blandine Bitzner-Ducret. At the end of 2001 Radcliffe was given the choice not to race against Yegorova in televised meetings in the United Kingdom. - -Suspicious blood levels -During Radcliffe's highly successful 2002 season, foreign media, were convinced that she was taking drugs. But Radcliffe asked UK Sport to reveal her drugs tests. They showed that she had been tested five times and on each occasion was clean. Radcliffe said she was unhappy with the whispers coming from French newspaper L'Equipe. She asked for the IAAF to conduct random blood and urine samples before the Chicago marathon. She also asked them to freeze the samples so when tougher testers are developed they can prove that she ran clean. One of her blood samples were deemed suspicious by a doping agency. Paula however said she was innocent and not a cheater. - -Personal life -Paula Radcliffe was born to Peter and Pat Radcliffe. She was born on the 17 December 1973 in Cheshire. Radcliffe is the great-niece of 1920 Olympic Silver medalist Charlotte Radcliffe. Radcliffe has a brother. Martin. He is two years younger than her. Radcliffe's family moved to Oakley, Bedfordshire when she was 11. Radcliffe achieved four A levels at grade A in French, German, Maths and General Studies, while at Sharnbrook Upper School in Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire. Radcliffe had a choice between Loughborough and Cambridge for University. She chose Loughborough. In 1996 she finished her degree a few months early so she could prepare for the Olympic Games. - -Radcliffe met her husband Gary Lough at Loughborough University. At University Radcliffe studied French, German and economics. She left university with a first-class honours degree in modern European studies. Lough and Radcliffe married in 2000. They have two children. In 2007 they had their first child, Isla. Their second child, Raphael, was born on 29 September 2010. But had to be resuscitated as he had his Umbilical cord wound round his neck. Radcliffe first said of wanting to start a family in. - -In the 2002 Queen's Birthday Honours, Radcliffe was awarded an MBE. In October she was given her MBE saying; ""It means a great deal to me, it's a great honour and it really tops off an amazing year. To come here and receive this and to meet the Queen at the end of it just finishes it off perfectly."" Radcliffe became the first Britain in 2006 to win the Abebe Bikila Award. At the end of 2010 Radcliffe was voted England Athletics athlete of the decade. - -References - -Bibliography - Paula: My Story So Far (Paula Radcliffe with David Walsh) - -Other websites - - - - Paula Radcliffe at Power of 10 - -1973 births -Living people -British female athletes -Commonwealth Games medallists -Members of the Order of the British Empire -Sportspeople from Bedfordshire -Sportspeople from Cheshire" -17759,67060,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer%20Tracy,Spencer Tracy,"Spencer Tracy (April 5, 1900 – June 10, 1967) was an American movie and stage actor who appeared in movies for thirty years. - -In 1999, the American Film Institute named Tracy among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking 9th on the list of 100. He was nominated for nine Academy Awards for Best Actor, and won it two times, in 1937 and 1938. Along with Tom Hanks, he is one of the only two actors to ever be given two Oscars in two consecutive years. He was a long-time live-in partner of famous actress Katharine Hepburn whilst remaining legally married to another woman until his death. He was diabetic and died of a heart attack. He was a devout Catholic. - -Movies -The Strong Arm (1930) -Taxi Talks (1930) -The Hard Guy (1930) -Up the River (1930) -Quick Millions (1931) -Six Cylinder Love (1931) -Goldie (1931) -She Wanted a Millionaire (1932) -Sky Devils (1932) -Disorderly Conduct (1932) -Young America (1932) -Society Girl (1932) -The Painted Woman (1932) -Me and My Gal (1932) -20,000 Years in Sing Sing (1932) -The Face in the Sky (1933) -Shanghai Madness (1933) -The Power and the Glory (1933) -Man's Castle (1933) -The Mad Game (1933) -The Show-Off (1934) -Looking for Trouble (1934) -Bottoms Up (1934) -Now I'll Tell (1934) -Marie Galante (1934) -It's a Small World (1935) -The Murder Man (1935) -Dante's Inferno (1935) -Whipsaw (1935) -Riffraff (1936) -Fury (1936) -San Francisco (1936) -Libeled Lady (1936) -They Gave Him a Gun (1937) -Captains Courageous (1937) -Big City (1937) -Mannequin (1938) -Test Pilot (1938) -Hollywood Goes to Town (1938) -Boys Town (1938) -For Auld Lang Syne: No. 4 (1939) -Hollywood Hobbies (1939) -Stanley and Livingstone (1939) -I Take This Woman (1940) -Young Tom Edison (1940) (cameo) -Northward, Ho! (1940) -Northwest Passage (1940) -Edison, the Man (1940) -Boom Town (1940) -Men of Boys Town (1941) -Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941) -Woman of the Year (1942) -Ring of Steel (1942) (narrator) -Tortilla Flat (1942) -Keeper of the Flame (1942) -His New World (1943) (documentary) (narrator) -A Guy Named Joe (1943) -The Seventh Cross (1944) -Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944) -Without Love (1945) -The Sea of Grass (1947) -Cass Timberlane (1947) -State of the Union (1948) -Edward, My Son (1949) -Adam's Rib (1949) -Malaya (1949) -Father of the Bride (1950) -For Defense for Freedom for Humanity (1951) -Father's Little Dividend (1951) -The People Against O'Hara (1951) -Pat and Mike (1952) -Plymouth Adventure (1952) -The Actress (1953) -Broken Lance (1954) -Bad Day at Black Rock (1955) -The Mountain (1956) -Pedobear z Krainy Gumisiów (1957) -The Old Man and the Sea (1958) -The Last Hurrah (1958) -Inherit the Wind (1960) -The Devil at 4 O'Clock (1961) -Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) -How the West Was Won (1962) (narrator) -It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963) -Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967) - -References - -Other websites - -Academy Award winning actors -Actors from Milwaukee, Wisconsin -American movie actors -American Roman Catholics -BAFTA Award winning actors -Deaths from myocardial infarction -Golden Globe Award winning actors -1900 births -1967 deaths" -14001,51865,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse%20function,Inverse function,"An inverse function is a concept of mathematics. A function will calculate some output , given some input . This is usually written . The inverse function does the reverse. Let's say is the inverse function of , then . Or otherwise put, . An inverse function to is usually called . It is not to be confused with , which is a reciprocal function. - -Examples -If over real , then - -To find the inverse function, swap the roles of and and solve for . For example, would turn to , and then . This shows that the inverse function of is . - -Not all functions have inverse functions: for example, function has none (because , and cannot be both 1 and -1), but every binary relation has its own inverse relation. - -In some cases, finding the inverse of a function can be very difficult to do. - -Related pages - Inverse element - Inverse triangle function - Inverse hyperbolic function - Invertible matrix - Reciprocal - -References - -Mathematics" -21957,83599,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel%20projection,Parallel projection,"In linear algebra and functional analysis, a projection is a linear transformation P from a vector space to itself such that P2 = P. Projections map the whole vector space to a subspace and leave the points in that subspace unchanged. - -Notes - -References - N. Dunford and J.T. Schwartz, Linear Operators, Part I: General Theory, Interscience, 1958. - Carl D. Meyer, Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2000. . - -Other websites - MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Projection Matrices at Google Video, from MIT OpenCourseWare - -Algebra" -21845,83208,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/HotJava,HotJava,"HotJava is a web browser from Sun Microsystems that can execute Java applets. It was the first browser to support Java applets, and is not available anymore and is not supported anymore. - -Other websites - HotJava Browser - HotJava @ Evolt - -Web browsers -Sun Microsystems" -18811,70690,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supabarn,Supabarn,"Supabarn is a small, cheap supermarket chain which started in Canberra with large shops across the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales in Australia. It was known as Supabarn Emporium in the early 2000s before becoming Supabarn Supermarkets in 2004. It sells traditional, wholefoods, and grocery and fresh food items. - -History -It was first opened in the Canberra Centre in 1991 and six more shops have been opened from that time onwards. Supabarn is one of Canberra's largest employers because it has 750 people in seven shops, with two in Sydney. - -In 2015, Coles bought some of its stores. - -Sections -Delicatessen: Cheeses, antipasto's, pates, dips and salads with a European style -Seafood: Fish, lobsters, oysters and prawns - all from HACCP approved suppliers -Produce: Fresh and dried fruit and vegetables -Butcher Shop: Meat and chickens -Bakery: Baked items like pies - prepared daily, cakes, pastries and breads -General Merchandise: Kitchenware, bakeware, glassware and other everyday items -Groceries: Normal, organic, gluten-free and gourmet items -Dairy & Frozen Foods: Milk, cheeses, yoghurts, fresh sauces, ready-to-eat meals, ice cream and other dairy and frozen food items -Liquor: Champagnes, wines, imported beers and spirits - -References - -Other websites -Supabarn Supermarkets -Bloomberg profile -Supermarkets of Australia -Canberra" -15829,60651,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkvang,Folkvang,"Folkvanger, in Norse mythology, is the goddess Freyja's place. Its name means ""Field of the Folk"". The ""folk"" here refers to men sent to battle. - -Norse mythology" -4163,12979,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th%20century,17th century,"The 17th century was the century from 1601 to 1700. - -Decades and years -Note: years before or after the 17th century are in italics." -2442,7835,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodgeball,Dodgeball,"Dodgeball is a sport played by throwing soft balls, or hard rubber balls, at people in a square court. The goal is to be the last one to be hit with the ball. Players may only throw balls at people who are not on their own team. If a player is hit by the ball,he or she should go to the outside of the court to the other team. From the outside, players throw the ball at players still on the inside. - -Dodgeball is often played in elementary schools in physical education classes. Many school children play this game. In recent years, many adults who played it as children have formed adult leagues and clubs. Also, some schools have banned it (this means that made it against the rules to play it), because players can get hurt when playing the game. Tournaments are sometimes held in schools. - -Dodgeball, because of its recent popularity, inspired a film Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story (2004) starring Ben Stiller and Vince Vaughn, and a game show, Extreme Dodgeball. - -Team sports" -2110,7220,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula,Formula,"In mathematics and science, a formula is a rule or statement written in algebraic symbols. The plural of formula can be written in two ways: formulae or formulas - the choice is based on personal preference. - -Formulas use letters instead of words. A simple example of a formula is y = x. If x=1, the formula y=x would make the statement that x is the same thing as y, therefore, y=1. - -In mathematics, a formula can also be an identity which equates two mathematical expressions together. Some key formulas under this category include the Pythagorean theorem, binomial theorem, Euler's formula and De Moivre's formula. The expression ""V=lwh"", which relates the volume V to the length l, width w and height h of a rectangular box, is another example of a formula in geometry. - -In science, one of the most well known formulas is the formula for energy, e = mc2, created by Albert Einstein. Here, e represents energy, m represents mass and c is the speed of light. Thus, energy = mass × speed of light 2. - -The formula e = mc2 is also an equation. Every equation is a formula, but not every formula is an equation. For instance, the formula x≡y (x ""is defined as"" y) is not an equation, because no ""="" sign is used. - -Related pages - - Inequality - -References - -Mathematics" -16147,61999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fresh%20Prince%20of%20Bel-Air,The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air,"The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air is an American television series. It is a sitcom that aired on NBC from September 10, 1990, to May 20, 1996 for six seasons. It is set in Bel Air, Los Angeles, and stars Will Smith as the ""Fresh Prince"". At the beginning he lives with his mother in poverty in Philadelphia. In the first episode he moves to Bel Air to live with his rich aunt, uncle and cousins. It was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards. The show was also successful outside of the United States, and was on the UK channel BBC2 from 1991 to 2004. - -Other websites - -1990 American television series debuts -1996 American television series endings -1990s American comedy television series -American sitcoms -NBC network shows -Television series about families -Television series set in Los Angeles -English-language television programs" -14964,56401,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics,Photovoltaics,"Photovoltaics (PVs) are arrays of cells containing a solar photovoltaic material that converts solar radiation or energy from the sun into direct current electricity. Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years, and costs have dropped. - -Solar photovoltaics are growing rapidly, from a small base, to a total global capacity of 130,000 MW at the end of 2013. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building. - -Panels -Photovoltaic solar panels come in many different voltages. The most common are 12 volts, 24 volts, and 48 volts. Like batteries, multiple solar panels can be connected together to produce higher voltages, for example, two 48 volt panels connected together would produce 96 volts. The inverter, batteries, and solar panels in a system are usually all of the same voltage. The advantage of a higher-voltage system is that thinner wire is used, which is less expensive and easier to pull through conduit. The disadvantage of a higher-voltage installation is that electric shock and arc flash become more of a hazard, so installations above 48 volts are usually only found in solar power plants or commercial buildings. - -A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, rechargeable batteries (for use at night), a charge controller (a device that prevents the batteries from over-charging), two GFCI circuit breakers (one before the inverter and one after), and interconnection wiring. There is sometimes also a transformer after the inverter, which can power 240 volt heavy appliances such as a clothes dryer or oven. The transformer is often part of the inverter and can't be seen. Everything past the inverter (or transformer if there is one) is set up like a normal utility-fed installation (breaker panel, lights, outlets, switches, etc.). If there is no transformer, only 120 volt devices may be used. Installations without a transformer must be labelled as such on the breaker panel to alert future electricians that 240 volt appliances can not be installed. Some installations have direct current (DC) lighting and possibly DC appliances. The advantage of this is that for DC loads, the losses in the inverter are avoided. These installations will have a separate DC breaker panel connected before the inverter. For safety reasons, DC wiring cannot be run in the same conduit as AC wiring, and DC outlets must not accept an AC plug and vice versa. - -World's Largest PV Power Stations (outdated) - -Solar Cells -A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that changes light energy into electricity. Photovoltaics are best known as a method for making electricity by using solar cells to change energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect was first noticed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839. Practically all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode. - -Solar cells can be used to power tools or to recharge a storage battery. The first actual request of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and other spacecrafts, but today the most photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected power creation. In this case a tool called an inverter is required to convert the direct current to alternating current. Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single cell can give off, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house or a power station the modules must be arranged in multiples as arrays. - -Notes - -Other websites - - How Stuff Works: Solar cells. - Energy Atlas of the West - World's largest photovoltaic power plants - Information pertaining to photovoltaic solar electricity in each of the IEA PVPS member countries - Photon Magazine International PV magazine - Renewable Energy World magazine - US Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy - http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/ - Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos - -Solar power -Electricity" -15725,60227,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuzcham%20Dherai,Kuzcham Dherai,"Kuzcham Dherai (also sometimes called Dherai, Dehrai or Derai) is a town in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. It is located on the bank of the river Swat and a couple of miles away from Swat Saidu Sharif airport. The population of Dherai is about 10,000 people. - -History -It is believed that Alexander the Great once passed through this area. - -Towns in Pakistan" -12238,45182,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction,Deconstruction,"Deconstruction is a way of understanding how something was created, usually things like art, books, poems and other writing. Deconstruction is breaking something down into smaller parts. Deconstruction looks at the smaller parts that were used to create an object. The smaller parts are usually ideas. - -Sometimes deconstruction looks at how an author can imply things he does not mean. It says that because words are not precise, we can never know what an author meant. - -Sometimes deconstruction looks at the things the author did not say because he made assumptions. - -One thing it pays attention to is how opposites work. (It calls them ""binary oppositions."") It says that two opposites like ""good"" and ""bad"" are not really different things. ""Good"" only makes sense when someone compares it to ""bad,"" and ""bad"" only makes sense when someone compares it to ""good."" And so even when someone talks about ""good,"" they are still talking about ""bad."" But this is just one thing it does. - -Because of things like this, deconstruction argues that books and poems never just mean what we think they mean at first. Other meanings are always there too, and the book or poem works because all of those meanings work together. The closer we look at the writing, the more we find about how it works, and how meaning works for all things. If we deconstructed everything, we might never be able to talk or write at all. But that does not mean deconstruction is useless. If we deconstruct some things, we can learn more about them and about how talking and writing work. - -Slippery Words -Words are made up of 'signifiers', or the sounds/spellings, and the 'signified', or the meaning and concepts they are talking about. However, the meaning of a word is naturally ambiguous; the word in itself and the meaning are not naturally linked. The word 'band' can refer to an elastic band, a pop music group, a gathering of brass musicians or a collection of people, each with separate connotations and mental images. This means it is the reader who will choose the meanings of words. In a similar way, reading is like trying to hold a wet fish, because there are a variety of meanings to each word. Jacques Derrida calls this ""slippage along the chain of signifiers."" - -The chain of signifiers is a long chain of words that are interrelated, for instance a chain might look like this: ""band, brass, copper, police."" This chain really has no end, because each word connects to many others, and the more slippery a word, the more words it relates to. - -Important people -Deconstructionists question language and meaning. Some people who were very close to Derrida are usually called deconstructionists. These people include Helene Cixous and Jean-Luc Nancy. If someone really deconstructed everything, he or she could not talk or think! Instead there are people who deconstruct things (books, poems, writing, words - in short, texts). Jacques Derrida began deconstructing things in the 1960s, but he was not the first. Martin Heidegger had talked about deconstruction in 1927 with Being and Time but he used the word ""destruktion"". Heidegger might even say that he got the idea from Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Other important people who talked about it include Paul de Man and Judith Butler. - -Literature" -3050,9567,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/December%202,December 2," - -Events - -Up to 1950 -1409 - The University of Leipzig opens. -1697 - The new St. Paul's Cathedral in London, designed by Christopher Wren, opens. -1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse on the English coast is destroyed by fire. -1763 - Dedication of the Touro Synagogue in Rhode Island. -1804 – At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of the French, the first French Emperor in a thousand years. -1805 – Napoleonic Wars: French troops under Napoleon defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force. -1823 – US President James Monroe delivers a speech establishing American neutrality in future European conflicts. -1845 – US President James K. Polk announces to Congress that the United States should aggressively expand into the West. -1848 - Franz Joseph I of Austria becomes Emperor. -1851 - French President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows the Second Republic. -1854 - Napoleon III crowns himself Emperor of France. -1859 - Militant abolitionist John Brown is hanged for the October 16 raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. -1867 – In a New York City theater, British writer Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States. -1879 - British passenger ship Borussia sinks in the North Atlantic Ocean, killing 169 people. -1899 - Philippine-American War: Battle of Tirad Pass. -1908 – Child Emperor Pu Yi ascends the Chinese throne at the age of two. -1917 - World War I: Russia and the Central Powers sign an armistice at Brest-Litovsk. -1927 - Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its automobile. -1930 – Great Depression: US President Herbert Hoover goes before the United States Congress and asks for a US$150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the economy. -1939 - LaGuardia Airport, belonging to New York City, opens. -1942 – Manhattan Project: A team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. -1943 – A Luftwaffe bombing raid on the harbour of Bari, Italy, sinks an American ship with a mustard gas stockpile. -1949 - Convention against human trafficking and prostitution is adopted by United Nations. - -1951 2000 -1954 – The United States Senate votes 65 to 22 to condemn Joseph McCarthy for ""conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute."" -1956 - Fidel Castro and 80 other members of the 26th July Movement start on their journey to start the Cuban Revolution, landing in Oriente province. -1959 - The Malpasset Dam breaks in Southern France, killing 421 people. -1961 – In a nationally-broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist-Leninist and that Cuba is going to adopt Communism. -1970 - The US Environmental Protection Agency begins operations. -1971 – Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, and Umm al-Quwain form the United Arab Emirates. Ras al-Khaimah joins in February 1972. -1972 – Gough Whitlam becomes Prime Minister of Australia. -1975 - The Communist political party Pathet Lao takes power in Laos, creating the Lao People's Democratic Republic, with Souphanouvong as its first leader. -1976 – Fidel Castro becomes President of Cuba replacing Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado. -1980 - El Salvador Civil War: Four American nuns and a churchwoman are murdered by military death squad. -1982 - At the University of Utah, Barney Clark becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart. -1988 – Benazir Bhutto becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan, making her the first woman to lead a mainly-Muslim country. -1990 – A coalition led by Chancellor Helmut Kohl wins the first free all-German elections since 1932. -1993 – Drug dealer Pablo Escobar is shot dead by Colombian police. -1999 – The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive. - -From 2001 -2001 – Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. -2004 - Typhoon Nanmadol kills about 1,000 people in the Philippines. -2008 – Somchai Wongsawat resigns as Prime Minister of Thailand. -2010 – Russia and Qatar are announced as hosts of the FIFA World Cup, for 2018 and 2022 respectively. -2019 - Climate change talks begin in Madrid. - -Births - -Up to 1900 -885 - Li Cunxu, Chinese Emperor of the Later Tang Dynasty (d. 926) -1578 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and music theorist (d. 1640) -1694 – William Shirley, colonial Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1771) -1710 - Bertinazzi, Italian actor and author (d. 1783) -1754 - William Cooper, American judge and politician (d. 1809) -1760 – John Breckinridge, American politician (d. 1806) -1760 - Joseph Graetz, German composer, organist and educator (d. 1826) -1810 - Henry Yesler, 7th Mayor of Seattle (d. 1892) -1825 – Emperor Pedro II of Brazil (d. 1891) -1827 - William Burges, English architect and designer (d. 1881) -1837 - Joseph Bell, Scottish surgeon, physician and forensics pioneer (d. 1911) -1846 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French statesman (d. 1904) -1859 – Georges Seurat, French painter (d. 1891) -1866 - Harry Burleigh, American composer (d. 1949) -1873 - Eduardo Schaerer, President of Paraguay (d. 1941) -1874 - Joseph Olivier, French rugby player (d. 1901) -1885 – George Richards Minot, American physician (d. 1950) -1891 – Otto Dix, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1969) -1891 - Charles H. Wesley, American historian and author (d. 1987) -1893 - Leo Ornstein, Russian-American pianist and composer (d. 2002) -1895 - Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967) -1897 – Hovhannes Bagramyan, Soviet politician (d. 1982) -1898 - Indra Lal Roy, Indian pilot (d. 1918) -1899 – John Barbirolli, English conductor (d. 1970) -1899 – John Cobb, British racing driver (d. 1952) - -1901 1950 -1901 – Raimundo Orsi, Argentine-Italian footballer (d. 1986) -1909 - Pietro Arcari, Italian footballer (d. 1988) -1909 - Marion Dönhoff, German journalist and Resistance activist (d. 2002) -1913 - Marc Platt, American ballet dancer, musical theatre performer and actor (d. 2014) -1914 – Ray Walston, American actor (d. 2001) -1915 – Prince Mikasa, Japanese royal (d. 2016) -1921 - Carlo Furno, Italian cardinal (d. 2015) -1923 – Maria Callas, Greek-American soprano (d. 1977) -1924 – Alexander Haig, American politician, United States Secretary of State (d. 2010) -1925 – Julie Harris, American actress (d. 2013) -1929 - Leon Litwack, American historian and author -1930 – Gary Becker, American economist (d. 2014) -1931 - Nigel Calder, English science writer (d. 2014) -1931 - Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist -1931 - Edwin Meese, 75th United States Attorney General -1933 - Mike Larrabee, American sprinter -1934 - Tarcisio Bertone, Italian cardinal and diplomat -1934 – Sissela Bok, Swedish philosopher and ethicist -1937 - Manohar Joshi, 15th Chief Minister of Maharashtra, India -1939 – Harry Reid, American politician (d. 2021) -1943 - Wayne Allard, American politician -1944 - Cathy Lee Crosby, American actress -1944 – Ibrahim Rugova, President of Kosovo (d. 2006) -1946 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer (d. 1997) -1947 - Andy Rouse, English racing driver -1947 – Rudolf Scharping, German politician -1948 – Antonin Manenka, Czechoslovakian footballer -1948 - Patricia Hewitt, British politician -1948 - Toninho Horta, Brazilian guitarist -1950 - Paul Watson, Canadian-American conservationist - -1951 1975 -1954 - Dan Butler, American actor -1956 - Steven Bauer, American actor -1957 - Dagfinn Hoybraten, Norwegian politician -1958 - Vladimir Parfenovich, Belarus canoe racer -1960 - Justus von Dohnanyi, German actor -1960 - Deb Haaland, American politician -1960 – Rick Savage, British musician (Def Leppard) -1962 - Kardam, Prince of Turnovo, Spanish-Bulgarian nobleman -1963 - Don Gaulthier, American actor -1963 - Brendan Coyle, British actor -1967 - Mary Creagh, British politician -1967 - Laurie Morgan, 1st Chief Minister of Guernsey -1968 – David Batty, English footballer -1968 – Nate Mendel, American musician (Foo Fighters) -1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress -1968 - Rena Sofer, American actress -1970 - Yang Hyuk-suk, South Korean singer-songwriter and producer -1971 – Francesco Toldo, Italian footballer -1971 - Mine Yoshizaki, Japanese illustrator -1972 – Sergei Zholtok, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004) -1973 – Monica Seles, Yugoslavian-born tennis player -1973 – Jan Ullrich, German cyclist - -From 1976 -1976 - Masafumi Gotch, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist -1978 – Maelle Ricker, Canadian snowboarder -1978 – Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer and songwriter -1978 – Chris Wolstenholme, English bassist (Muse) -1978 - Jarron Collins, American basketball player -1978 - Jason Collins, American basketball player -1979 - Sabina Babayeva, Azerbaijani singer -1979 – Yvonne Catterfeld, German singer and actress -1981 – Britney Spears, American singer -1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer -1983 – Aaron Rodgers, American football player -1983 - Daniela Ruah, Portuguese-American actress -1985 - Amaury Leveaux, French swimmer -1985 - Dorrell Wright, American basketball player -1986 - Adam le Fondre, English footballer -1987 - Teairra Mari, American singer-songwriter and actress -1988 - Soniya Mehra, Indian actress -1988 - Stephen McGinn, Scottish footballer -1989 - Cassie Steele, Canadian singer-songwriter -1989 - Richard Tait, Scottish footballer -1990 - Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer -1990 - Hikaru Yaotome, Japanese singer-songwriter -1990 - Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer -1991 - Brandon Knight, American basketball player -1991 - Charlie Puth, American singer and songwriter -1993 - Dylan McLaughlin, American actor -1994 - Cauley Woodrow, English footballer -1998 - Amber Montana, American actress -1998 - Juice Wrld, American rapper (d. 2019) - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 -1348 – Emperor Hanazano of Japan (b. 1297) -1463 - Albert IV, Archduke of Austria (b. 1418) -1469 – Piero di Cosimo de' Medici of Florence (b. 1416) -1547 – Hernán Cortés, Spanish explorer (b. 1485) -1594 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mapmaker (b. 1512) -1694 - Pierre Paul Puget, French painter, sculptor and architect (b. 1622) -1723 - Philippe II, Duke of Orleans, French nobleman (b. 1674) -1774 - Johann Friedrich Agricola, German composer and organist (b. 1720) -1794 – Johann Gottlob Leidenfrost, German physician and theologian (b. 1715) -1810 – Philipp Otto Runge, German painter (b. 1777) -1814 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher (b. 1740) -1815 – Jan Potocki, Polish writer and historian (b. 1761) -1844 - Eustachy Erazm-Sanguszko, Polish general and politician (b. 1768) -1849 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, Queen Consort of William IV of the United Kingdom (b. 1792) -1859 – John Brown, American abolitionist (b. 1800) -1863 – Jane Pierce, American First Lady, wife of Franklin Pierce (b. 1806) -1881 - Jenny von Westphalen, German writer, wife of Karl Marx (b. 1814) -1888 - Namik Kemal, Turkish poet (b. 1840) -1889 - Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general (b. 1825) - -1901 2000 -1918 - Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (b. 1868) -1943 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian writer and journalist (b. 1902) -1944 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian writer (b. 1876) -1944 - Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player (b. 1917) -1950 - Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist and composer (b. 1917) -1953 - Tran Kong Kim, Vietnamese scholar and politician (b. 1883) -1966 - Luitzen Egbertus Jon Brouwer, Dutch mathematician and philosopher (b. 1881) -1969 - Jose Maria Arguedas, Peruvian author, poet and anthropologist (b. 1911) -1969 - Kliment Voroshilov, Soviet politician (b. 1881) -1972 - Yip Man, Chinese martial artist (b. 1893) -1974 – Max Weber, Swiss politician (b. 1897) -1980 – Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Prime Minister of Pakistan (b. 1905) -1980 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-born French writer (b. 1914) -1982 – Marty Feldman, British-American actor and director (b. 1934) -1982 – Giovanni Ferrari, Italian footballer (b. 1907) -1985 – Philip Larkin, English poet (b. 1922) -1986 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-born actor and bandleader (b. 1917) -1986 - Lee Dorsey, American singer (b. 1924) -1987 – Luis Federico Leloir, French-Argentine chemist (b. 1906) -1987 - Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Belarussian physicist, astronomer and cosmologist (b. 1914) -1988 - Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1922) -1990 – Aaron Copland, American composer (b. 1900) -1993 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian druglord (b. 1949) -1995 - Robertson Davies, Canadian author (b. 1913) -1999 – Charlie Byrd, American jazz musician (b. 1925) - -From 2001 -2004 – Alicia Markova, British ballet dancer (b. 1910) -2005 – Kenneth Lee Boyd, American convicted murderer (b. 1948) -2009 – Eric Woolfson, British musician and producer (b. 1945) -2010 – Ron Santo, American baseball player (b. 1940) -2011 – Chiyono Hasegawa, Japanese supercentenarian (b. 1896) -2011 – Bill Tapia, American musician (b. 1908) -2012 - Ehsan Naraghi, Iranian sociologist and author (b. 1926) -2013 - Pedro Rocha, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1942) -2013 - William Allain, 58th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1928) -2013 - Christopher Evan Welch, American actor (b. 1965) -2013 - Vernon Shaw, President of Dominica (b. 1930) -2013 - Salim Kallas, Syrian actor and politician (b. 1936) -2013 - Brian Hitchen, English newspaper editor (b. 1936) -2014 - Bobby Keys, American saxophonist (b. 1943) -2014 - A. R. Antulay, Indian politician, Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1929) -2014 - Jean Beliveau, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1931) -2014 - Don Laws, American figure skater and coach (b. 1929) -2015 - Sandy Berger, American political consultant (b. 1945) -2015 - Gabriele Ferzetti, Italian actor (b. 1925) -2015 - George Sakato, American soldier (b. 1921) -2016 - Sammy Lee, American diver (b. 1920) -2016 - Gisela May, German actress (b. 1924) -2017 - Ulli Lommel, German actor and director (b. 1944) -2017 - Mundell Lowe, American jazz guitarist and composer (b. 1922) -2017 - Edwin Mosquera, Colombian weightlifter (b. 1985) -2017 - Ewald Schurer, German politician (b. 1954) -2017 - Nava Semel, Israeli author and playwright (b. 1954) -2018 - Séry Bailly, Ivorian writer and politician (b. 1948) -2018 - Ugo De Censi, Italian-Peruvian priest (b. 1924) -2018 - Paul Sherwen, English racing cyclist (b. 1956) -2019 - George Atkinson III, American football player (b. 1992) -2019 - Jimmy Cavallo, American rock music saxophonist (b. 1927) -2019 - D. C. Fontana, American television scriptwriter and story editor (b. 1939) -2019 - Francesco Janich, Italian footballer (b. 1937) -2019 - Robert K. Massie, American historian (b. 1929) - -Holidays and observances -Laos – National Day -United Arab Emirates – National Day (independence from Britain, 1971) - International Day for the Abolition of Slavery – United Nations - -December 02" -22298,84473,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6riken-Wildegg,Möriken-Wildegg,"Möriken-Wildegg is a municipality in Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Aargau" -15774,60389,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan%20fiction,Fan fiction,"Fan fiction or fanfiction (also known as fanfic) is a name for fiction created by fans instead of the original author. - -Fanfiction writers take fictional characters and settings from fictional (or sometimes historical) stories that were created by other people, and write original stories about them. People write fan fiction for many different book, television series, and movie fandoms. - -When fanfiction first began, it was often only published in fan magazines. Today fanfiction, like many fandom activities, can be usually found on the internet. This has created many fanfiction communities. People in these communities post their fanfiction and receive feedback (reviews) from other community members. - -There is also fan art (also called fanart), which is often drawings or other visual art based on a fandom. - -Related pages -Fandom -Fictional universe - -Other websites - -Fanfiction.net - -Fiction -Fandom" -19632,75214,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Need%20for%20Speed%3A%20Most%20Wanted,Need for Speed: Most Wanted,"Need For Speed Most Wanted is the 11th installment in the Need for Speed series. It is available for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, Xbox 360, GameBoy Advance, Nintendo DS and the GameCube. The game was first released on November 15, 2005. - -Another version called Need For Speed: Most Wanted: 5-1-0 was released for the PlayStation Portable. The game consists of the player racing to make their way up the Blacklist until they finally challenge the top racer, Razor. There are 15 blacklists (levels) you have to complete 1 - 15 blacklists to complete the game. - -2005 video games -Game Boy Advance games -Need for Speed games -Nintendo DS games -Nintendo GameCube games -PlayStation 2 games -Xbox games -Xbox 360 games" -11506,41819,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resuscitation,Resuscitation,"Resuscitation is a thing to do in a medical emergency. It is first aid which is given to a person who is unconscious, and where breathing or pulse can not be detected. It is done to make oxygen continues to reach the heart and the brain. That way, a doctor may be able to restart the heart, possibly without damaging the brain. - -The most common cause for a stopping heart is a heart attack. - -What to do -The person helping must: -Make sure there is no danger -Get to the patient. Talk to them, ask direct questions (Where are you hurt?), give direct commands (Open your eyes!). The person helping tells them what he or she is about to do (I am going to touch your shoulder). -Resuscitation is not needed if the patient responds. -Call for help - -Emergency medicine" -8528,28966,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Holm,Ian Holm,"Sir Ian Holm Cuthbert CBE (12 September 1931 – 19 June 2020), known professionally as Ian Holm was a retired English actor. - -Ian Holm was born at Goodmayes Hospital in Goodmayes, Essex, He was son of James Harvey Cuthbert and his wife Jean Wilson (née Holm), The hospital was his father working there . - -He married to four times, He had five children in his life. - -He died in a London hospital on 19 June 2020 from Parkinson's disease-related problems, at the age of 88. - -Movies - Alien (1979) - The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) - The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002) - The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) - Ratatouille (2007) - -References- - -Other websites -Sir Ian Holm (inoffiziell) - -1931 births -2020 deaths -Actors from Essex -BAFTA Award winners -Deaths from Parkinson's disease -English movie actors -English stage actors -English television actors -English voice actors -Tony Award winning actors" -24778,97058,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/900%20North%20Michigan,900 North Michigan,"900 North Michigan is a skyscraper in Chicago, United States. It is 265 meters (871 feet) tall and has 66 floors. It was built in 1989 and is one of the tallest buildings in the world - -Related pages - List of tallest buildings in Chicago - List of tallest buildings in the world - -Other websites - Emporis.com - 900 North Michigan -SkycraperPage.com – 311 South Wacker900 North Michigan - -Skyscrapers in Chicago -1989 establishments in Illinois" -8765,29723,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ujjain,Ujjain,"Ujjain is a city in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, India. Ujjain is a very old city, and one of the seven holy cities of the Hindus. It was an important city of Ancient India. An important Muslim pilgrimage destination, it is known for the Mahakaleshwar Temple, a towering structure with a distinctively ornate roof. Nearby, Bade Ganesh Temple houses a colorful statue of Ganesh, the elephant-headed Hindu deity. Harsiddhi Temple features a pair of tall dark pillars studded with lamps. - -Settlements in Madhya Pradesh -Cities in India" -14466,54472,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20coats%20of%20arms%20of%20the%20districts%20in%20Rhineland-Palatinate,List of coats of arms of the districts in Rhineland-Palatinate,"List of coats of arms of the 24 districts and the 12 urban districts in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany - -The State of Rhineland-Palatinate - -Districts - -Urban districts - -Germany-related lists -Rhineland-Palatinate -Coats of arms of Germany" -13662,50554,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton%20scattering,Compton scattering,"In physics, Compton scattering, or the Compton effect, is the name used for what happens to the energy (or frequency or wavelength) of an X-ray or gamma ray photon when it interacts with matter; the wavelength increases (or energy/frequency decreases) as it scatters off electrons. This scattering is one of the main things that happen when gamma rays meet matter. The Compton effect was studied by Arthur Holly Compton in 1923. - -References - -Wave physics" -21570,82370,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/AnCafe,AnCafe,"An Cafe (or Antic Cafe) is a Japanese pop/rock band formed in 2003 and signed to the independent label Loop Ash. They have been described as a visual kei band. As of 2007, the group has released two full-length albums, an EP and several singles. An Cafe recently received two new members, original guitarist Bou being replaced by Takuya and Yuuki joining on keyboard. - -Members - Miku – vocals - Takuya – guitar (since 2007) - Kanon – bass - Teruki – drums - Yuuki – keyboard (since 2007) - -Former members - Bou – guitar (2003–2007) - -Endorsements -An Cafe has been a long time supporter and endorser of popular Japanese fashion label Sex Pot Revenge, as they are frequently seen wearing clothing from that label. They have appeared on the cover of company's free magazine, V!nyl Syndicate. - -International recognition -An Cafe has gained moderate success in not only Japan, but Europe, mainland Asia (Korea, China) and the United States. - -Discography -Albums and EPs - Amedama Rock (February 23, 2005) - Shikisai Moment (November 9, 2005) - Magnya Carta (November 29, 2006) - Gokutama ROCK CAFE (April 9, 2008) -Singles - ""Candyholic"" (March 24, 2004) - ""√69"" (June 6, 2004) - ""Komou Cosmos"" (November 24, 2004) - ""Karakuri Hitei"" (March 30, 2005) - ""Tekesuta Kousen"" (July 20, 2005) - ""Escapism"" (August 24, 2005) - ""Merrymaking"" (September 21, 2005) - ""10’s Collection March"" (March 1, 2006) - ""Bonds ~Kizuna~"" (May 17, 2006) - ""Smile Ichiban Ii Onna "" (September 20, 2006) - ""Snow Scene"" (October 18, 2006) - ""Kakusei Heroism ~The Hero Without a Name~"" (August 22, 2007) - ""Ryuusei Rocket"" (November 7, 2007) - ""Cherry Saku Yuuki"" (February 28, 2008) - -References - -Other websites - Official website - Official blog - Official MySpace - -Japanese rock bands -Visual kei bands" -14945,56348,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logo%20%28programming%20language%29,Logo (programming language),"The article about graphical symbols is at Logo -Logo is a programming language that is easy to learn. It is used to teach students and children to program a computer. It was developed to process lists of words. It was like the language LISP. - -History -In 1967, the first Logo ran on a mainframe computer, a machine called a teletype was used to type in and printout the results. There was no screen. - -In 1969, it was used to control a Floor Turtle. Commands were added to send the turtle forwards and backwards, and to turn the turtle to left or right. This turtle had pen with different colors. When it moved, it left a trail on the floor. - -Versions -When a new version of Logo was developed to draw graphics on a screen, it used the same commands. This was called Turtle graphics. - -There are 170 versions of Logo. Many of them are open source and free. There are three Logo textbooks that can be downloaded free. Logo is usually an interpreted language. - -Examples - -Hello World -Load the Logo program. Type the next line in the command box. - - print [Hello World!] - -The computer replies. - - Hello World! - -Example Showing Graphics and Functional Programming -A spiral drawn using recursion. -Using the editor, type in this new definition. - to spiral :size - if :size > 30 [stop] ; a condition stop - fd :size rt 15 ; many lines of action - spiral :size *1.02 ; the tailend recursive call - end -Type this in the command box. - spiral 10 - -On the screen you will see. - -Other websites -Logo Programs -MSWLogo For Windows -FMSLogo For Windows -Berkeley Logo (UCBLogo) -Microworlds Microworlds, a commercial Logo for Mac and Windows -Elica a 3D Logo for Windows -Lhogho a Logo compiler for Linux and Windows - Surf Your Logo Code A modern web based Logo interpreter using HTML5 and JQuery. -MaLT (Machine Lab Turtlesphere) A web based 3D Logo application with the feature of dynamic manipulation (developed in HTML5 & three.js). - -Online books -A Logo Tutorial for the OLPC project -The Great Logo Adventure, Jim Muller A book for children. -Computer Science Logo Style, Brian Harvey, MIT Press (3 volumes) , , . Advanced books. - -References - -Programming languages" -9903,33888,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne,Lausanne,"Lausanne is a city in Switzerland. It has a population of about 140,000 people. The city is the capital of the district Lausanne. It is also the capital of the canton of Vaud. Lausanne is the fourth biggest city of Switzerland. The syndic of Lausanne (syndic is the French word for mayor in the canton of Vaud) is Grégoire Junod, from the Socialist Party, since 2016. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website" -20269,77861,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss%20P-40%20Warhawk,Curtiss P-40 Warhawk,"The Curtiss P-40 (also called the Tomahawk, Warhawk, and Kittyhawk) was a fighter aircraft that could also be used for attacking things on the ground. It was made by Curtiss. It first flew in 1938 and saw combat during World War II. It was not as fast high up as the German Luftwaffe fighters, but was used a lot in other places. It was used not only the United States Army Air Force, but also a mercenary air force called the ""Flying Tigers."" They put the mouth of a shark on their P-40s. It could fly to 360 miles per hour. In 1948, the United States Air Force stopped using it. - -References - -United States Army aircraft -Royal Air Force aircraft -Australian military aircraft -World War II American aircraft" -13789,51061,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20in%20movies,2006 in movies,"The following is an overview of events in 2006, including the highest-grossing movies, award ceremonies and festivals, a list of movies released and notable deaths. - -Highest-grossing movies - -Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest became the third movie in cinema history to gross over $1 billion and is the 24th highest-grossing movie of all time. - -Events - -Awards - -2006 wide-release movies - -January–March - -April–June - -July–September - -October–December - -Movies released in 2006 - - American movies - Argentine movies - Australian movies - Bengali movies - Bollywood movies - Brazilian movies - British movies - French movies - Hong Kong movies - Italian movies - Japanese movies - Mexican movies - Pakistani movies - Russian movies - South Korean movies - Spanish movies - Tamil movies - Telugu movies - -Notable deaths - -Movie debuts - Katie Cassidy – When a Stranger Calls - Rebecca Hall – Starter for 10 - Armie Hammer – Flicka - Jennifer Hudson – Dreamgirls - Rami Malek — Night at the Museum - Eddie Redmayne – Like Minds - Mia Wasikowska – Suburban Mayhem - -Notes - -References - Box Office Mojo movie release schedule. - -2006 movies" -19084,72136,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906%20Summer%20Olympics,1906 Summer Olympics,"The 1906 Summer Olympics, also called the 1906 Intercalated Games, were held in Athens, Greece. - -These games are not awarded the title of Olympiad because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads. Medals were given to the participants during these games, but the medals are not officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee. - -Participants nations -Athletes from 20 nations took part in the St. Louis games. - - - - - - - - Finland - - - - - - - - - - - Ottoman Empire - -Related pages - List of IOC country codes - -References - -Other websites - -Olympics -Summer Olympics in Europe -Summer Olympic 1906 -20th century in Greece" -7443,24057,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/40%20%28number%29,40 (number),"Forty is the number that is after thirty-nine and before forty-one. - -The prime factors of forty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 2 * 5 = 40) - -Forty is also the only number in the English language which is spelt in alphabetical order. - -The Bible -In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the number forty has special meaning. The Jews wandered in a desert for forty years, there was a forty-day and forty-night rainstorm, and other instances. - -Integers" -9451,32313,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o%20Bernardo%20do%20Campo,São Bernardo do Campo,"São Bernardo do Campo () is a Brazilian city in the ABC Region, state of São Paulo. Its population in 2003 was 745,161 inhabitants. Its area is 406 km². - -The city was founded in 1553, one of the first cities in Brazil. -São Bernardo do Campo is very known because of the automobiles industries that came in 1950s, like: Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler Chrysler and Ford. - -Other websites - Official site of São Bernardo do Campo - -Cities in São Paulo (state) -1550s establishments in South America -16th-century establishments in Brazil -1553 establishments" -18639,69941,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic%20anemia,Megaloblastic anemia,"Megaloblastic anemia is a kind of anemia. It can be caused by not having enough vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 or folic acid. - -Diseases" -22032,83822,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltenschwil,Waltenschwil,"Waltenschwil is a municipality of the district of Muri in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -19192,72659,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Kahn,Tony Kahn,"Tony Kahn is an American radiohost, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn. - -Early life -Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California. His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable. This happened during a time in American history known as the Red Scare. The Red Scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists. - -Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family. They went to Mexico during the 1950s. They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades. He then went to Columbia University where he got a masters degree -- an advanced academic degree or diploma -- in Slavic studies. - -Career -Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio. He produces and directs a radio show called Morning Stories for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts. He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's The World. On The World, Kahn is sometimes the host and sometimes a reporter. He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting. - -References - -American radio personalities -American journalists -Columbia University alumni -Writers from Los Angeles -Year of birth missing (living people) -Living people" -15684,60030,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlasee%20Solar%20Park,Erlasee Solar Park,"The Erlasee Solar Park is in one of the sunniest regions of Germany. On the former wine-producing Erlasee estate near Arnstein in Bavaria, in southern Germany, SOLON has constructed what is currently the largest tracking photovoltaic solar power station in the world with an output of 12 MW. Just under 1,500 ""SOLON-Movers"" modules convert sunlight into environmentally friendly power, generating as much as the average consumption of the nearby town of Arnstein. - -The solar power plant cost £35 million and covers 77 hectares of land. - -Related pages -Photovoltaics - -References - -Other websites -SunPower Celebrates the Dedication of SOLON's Gut Erlasee Solar Park - -Buildings and structures in Bavaria -Power stations in Germany -Solar power plants" -5945,19230,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1097,1097," - -Events - Edgar I deposes Donald III to become king of Scotland. - The First Crusade reaches Constantinople. - Crusaders besiege Nicaea, win the Battle of Dorylaeum, and capture Latakia from the Seljuk Turks, and begin the siege of Antioch." -6972,21987,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean%20algorithm,Euclidean algorithm,"The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers). - -What the algorithm looks like in words -Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said -If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them. - -The algorithm as an enumerated list -Start out with two positive integers m and n. - If the value of m is less than the value of n, switch the values of m and n - Find a number r equal to m modulo n - Let m have the same value as n - Let n have the same value as r - If n does not have the value of 0, go to step 2 - The wanted value is in m. - -The algorithm in pseudocode -Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster. - -Precondition: two positive integers m and n -Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of m and n -if m < n, swap(m,n) -while n does not equal 0 - r = m mod n - m = n - n = r -endwhile -output m - -C/C++ source code -Iterative (Non-recursive): -int euclid_gcd(int m, int n) -{ - int temp = 0; - if(m < n) - { - temp = m; - m = n; - n = temp; - } - while(n != 0) - { - temp = m % n; - m = n; - n = temp; - } - return m; -} - -Recursive: -int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n) -{ - if(n == 0) - return m; - - return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n); -} - -Algorithms" -7469,24149,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaheim%2C%20California,"Anaheim, California","Anaheim is a city in the United States. It was founded by German immigrants in 1857. It is the home of Disneyland, and two professional sports teams, The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (baseball) and the Anaheim Ducks (ice hockey). In 2012, there was a riot following a police officer shooting a man. - -Anaheim, California -1857 establishments in California" -4139,12814,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Patrick%27s%20Day,Saint Patrick's Day,"Saint Patrick's Day is the feast day of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland, and a day of celebration for Irish people. Saint Patrick’s Day is also called Paddy’s day. - -Celebrations -It is celebrated on March 17 all over Ireland and everywhere in the world where Irish people or their descendants live. New York City has one of the biggest parades. It is a very Irish festival, and it involves a lot of feasting and celebration, including traditional Irish music, drinking beer, and eating bacon and cabbage. Another tradition of Saint Patrick’s day is that one has to wear green clothing or they will be pinched. -Green is the color of Saint Patrick's day as it is the national color of Ireland. People often wear green on that day or have some type of shamrock on their clothing. It is very normal that they wear a Shamrock, a three leaved plant which is also a symbol for Ireland. - -The first St. Patrick's Day parade in Ireland was held in Waterford in 1903. In the beginning, it was a 3 day long celebration, but now it is a 5-day celebration. - -Celebration in Ireland - -Christian holidays -National Days" -6013,19375,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine,Chlorine,"Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl) is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 17, and its atomic mass is 35.45. It is part of the 7th column (halogens) on the periodic table of elements. - -Properties - -Physical properties -Chlorine is a very irritating and greenish-yellow gas. It has a strong, bleach-like smell. It is toxic and bad for you. It can be made into a liquid when cooled. It is heavier than air. - -Chemical properties -Chlorine is highly reactive. It is more reactive than bromine but less reactive than fluorine. It reacts with most things to make chlorides. It can even burn things instead of oxygen. It dissolves in water to make a mixture of hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. The more acidic it is, the more chlorine is made; the more basic it is, the more hypochlorous acid (normally turned into hypochlorite) and hydrochloric acid (normally turned into chlorides) are there. Chlorine reacts with bromides and iodides to make bromine and iodine. - -Chlorine compounds - -Chlorine exists in several oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +4, +5, and +7. The -1 state is most often in chloride. Chlorides are not reactive. Compounds containing chlorine in its +1 oxidation state are hypochlorites. Only one is common. They are a strong oxidizing agent, as are all + oxidation state compounds. +3 is in chlorites. +4 is in chlorine dioxide, a common chlorine compound that is not a chloride. +5 is in chlorates. +7 is in perchlorates. Hypochlorites are most reactive, while perchlorates are the least reactive. - -Many organic compounds have chlorine in them. Freon has chlorine in it. PVC (poly-vinyl chloride), a common plastic, has chlorine in it. - -Chlorine oxides can be made, but most of them are very reactive and unstable. - -Occurrence -Chlorine is not found as an element. Sodium chloride is the most common chlorine ore. It is in the ocean (sea salt) and in the ground (rock salt). There are some organic compounds that have chlorine in them, too. - -Preparation -It is made by electrolysis (the passing of electricity through a solution to make chemical reactions happen) of sodium chloride. This is known as the chloralkali process. It can also be made by reacting hydrogen chloride with oxygen and a catalyst. It can be made in the laboratory by reacting manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid. It is made when sodium hypochlorite reacts with hydrochloric acid. This is a dangerous reaction that can happen without anyone knowing. - -Uses - -For water purification -As of 2021, the main use of chlorine is for bleach. It is also added to water, as a way of purifying it. Chlorine is both very reactive, and very poisonous. It will act as a disinfectant: if it is added to water, it will kill off bacteria and other organisms. Swimming pools are often filled with water that has been treated that way. - -As a chemical weapon -Germany used chlorine as a chemical weapon in the First World War. They used it at the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915. According to soldiers, which were present at the battle, the chlorine smelled like a mixture of pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine reacts with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid will destroy living tissue. It often kills. Gas masks with activated charcoal or other filters can protect the respiratory system. This makes chlorine gas much less deadly than other chemical weapons. German scientist Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin was the first to use it. Together with IG Farben, he developed methods of how to use chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. Chlorine is heavier than air, so it will stay in the trenches. On 22nd April, 1915, German forces attacked the French army. With of chlorine, they only killed about 1.200 French soldiers. For this reason, chlorine was soon replaced with the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas. - -Because it is easily available, chlorine is still used as a chemical weapon in war. That way, it has been used in the Syrian civil war. It has also been used in an improvised explosive device in Iraq, in 2015. - -Other uses -Chlorine is used to make many compounds that are important: both chloroform and carbon tetrachloride contain chlorine. - -History -It was discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who thought it had oxygen in it. Chlorine was named in 1810 by Humphry Davy who insisted it was an element. The US made all water chlorinated (added chlorine to water) by 1918. - -Safety -It is poisonous in large amounts and can damage skin. When it is inhaled (breathed in), it irritates the lungs, eyes, and skin badly. It can cause fire with some things because it is very reactive. It is heavier than air, so it can fill up enclosed spaces. - -Related pages - List of common elements - Chlorine compounds - -Sources - -Chemical elements -Halogens" -8952,30400,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Life%20and%20Times%20of%20Michael%20K,The Life and Times of Michael K,"Life and Times of Michael K is a novel written by J. M. Coetzee in 1983. It won a Booker Prize. - -The story is about a simple gardener called Michael K, trying to run away from South Africa in the Apartheid Era. - -Some people think there is a link between Michael K and Josef K. in The Trial by Franz Kafka. - -Novels -1983 books -Booker Prize winners -English-language novels" -20176,77436,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic%20F-105%20Thunderchief,Republic F-105 Thunderchief,"The F-105 Thunderchief was a bomber during the Vietnam War. It first flew in 1955, and was introduced in 1958. It was used as a bomber, but was later replaced by the F-4 Phantom II and the F-111 Raven. But it was still in service for a while as a Wild Weasel. It could carry an electronic counter-measures pod that could mess up the enemy radar. - -United States Air Force aircraft -Vietnam War aircraft" -9001,30754,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia,History of Saudi Arabia,"History of Saudi Arabia covers thousands of years with lots of people from different cultures living there. There was a culture called the Dilmun culture among them, which was very old and existed along the Persian Gulf. It was as old as the ancient civilizations of Sumerians and the Egyptians. Saudi Arabia had trading relations with many parts of the ancient world, but the hot and harsh climate had made large settlements difficult. Some settlements had always existed around oases; these are places in the deserts where growth and water are available. - -Saudi Arabia became an important center, as Islam rose in the 620s. The cities of Medina and Mecca became the holiest places of Islam. They also became the two holiest cities for the Muslims in the whole world. The rulers and kings of Saudi Arabia also got more power. - -Early history - -Modern history - -Background - -The beginning of the modern history of Saudi Arabia was when an Islamic reformer named Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab and a local ruler named Muhammad bin Saud founded the Saudi state in the year 1744. It was founded in the central part of the Arabia. Over the next Century and a half, the Saud family saw bad and good times. The family also faced opposition from rulers of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. The family also faced opposition from other powerful families of Arabia - -Finally after many decades,The modern state of Saudi Arabia could be established by King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (also known as Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud). In 1902, he took over the city of Riyadh from another family, named Al-Rashid. He continued to win more areas, and on 8 January 1926, he became the King of Hijaz. On 29 January 1927, he took the title of King of Nejd. On 20th May 1927, the government of the United Kingdom accepted him as the King of the areas ruled by him. His kingdom now became a sovereignty. All the regions under his control were united to form the state of Saudi Arabia by the year 1932. Petroleum oil was found in Saudi Arabia on 3 March 1938, which made the country rich as export of oil started to bring a lot of money. - -Boundaries -Saudi Arabia discussed from the beginning of the 1920s with its neighboring countries about fixing of definite boundaries. It finalized its boundaries with Iraq, Jordan, and Kuwait. On borders with Iraq and Kuwait, two neutral zones were created – one with Iraq, and the other one with Kuwait. In 1934, borders with Yemen were almost finalized. - -In 1965, Saudi Arabia gave some of its areas to Jordan, and Jordan gave some of its areas to Saudi Area. In 1971, the neutral zone between Saudi Arabia and Kuwait was partitioned between these two countries. Likewise, Saudi Arabia and Iraq decided in 1981 to partition the neutral zone between them. The zone was partitioned between the two countries in 1984. - -Still, Saudi Arabia's borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not final. The border with Qatar was finalized in 2001. - -Politics -King Abdul Aziz Al-Saud died in 1953. His son named Saud became the king. He reigned for 11 years. In 1964, he was forced to step down, and his half-brother, Faisal, became the king. Faisal had the support of the senior members of the royal family and the religious leaders. Faisal also held the post of the Prime Minister. This tradition of being both the King and the Prime Minister still continues in Saudi Arabia. All Kings after Faisal had followed this practice. - -Faisal took a number of new steps for economic development of Saudi Arabia. During his reign, many important political events also happened like the ones noted below: - -Differences between Saudi Arabia and Egypt over Yemen: Egypt supported the new government of Yemen, while Saudi Arabia supported the royal family of Yemen to continue in power. -The Six-Day (Arab-Israeli) War of June 1967: Saudi Arabia did not directly fight in this war. But, after the war, it provided financial support to Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. -Stopping of supply of oil to the USA and the Netherlands: In 1973, many countries stopped supplying petroleum oil to the USA and the Netherlands. Saudi Arabia was one of them. - -In 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews. The nephew was found guilty, and he was sentenced to death. King Faisal's half-brother Khalid became the King and the Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. During the reign of King Khalid, Saudi Arabia's importance in regional politics increased. The economic growth of the country also continued at a good rate. - -King Fahd's period -King Khalid died in 1982. After his death, Fahd became the King. At the same time, he also became the Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. His half-brother Prince Abdullah became the Crown Prince. - -The income of Saudi Arabia became less during the period of King Fahd's reign. This was a result of lower price of petroleum oil. King Fahd's government used an economic policy which helped the country to survive with a lower income. - -King Fahd helped Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war. Iraq's economy had become very bad on account of this war. The King also discussed with these two countries to stop war. Both countries (Iran and Iraq) stopped the war in August 1988,. The King also helped in making Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) a stronger organization. The GCC is an organization of six countries of the Persian Gulf. The purpose of the organization is to increase development and cooperation among the member countries. - -Gulf War -In 1990, Saddam Hussain was ruling Iraq. The Gulf War of 1991 was when he invaded Kuwait. Many people thought that his army would also invade Saudi Arabia. King Fahd allowed some Western countries and USA to send their forces to the country. Many Muslims were against that their most holy land was used by non-Muslim soldiers. - -During and after the Gulf War, King Fahd’s role was very important. During the war, he allowed the entry of the royal family of Kuwait inside Saudi Arabia and followed by 400,000 other persons from Kuwait to stay on a temporary basis. The King allowed the troops of countries like USA to mount attacks on Kuwait to liberate it. He also helped in arranging support of other Muslim countries for liberation of Kuwait. Iraqi forces were eventually ousted from Kuwait. - -Terrorism -Presence of troops from the Western countries has angered many Muslims. One of them was the rich man Osama bin Laden. He was forced to leave Saudi Arabia when he disagreed and opposed the King of Saudi Arabia. Other than Osma bin laden and his groups, there were several other persons and groups who did not like the presence of Western troops inside Saudi Arabia. - -These persons and their groups attacked people, they tried manly to attack the foreign troops in Saudi Arabia. Some examples of such attacks are given below: - -A truck bomb killed 19 troops of the USA in June 1996. -Bombing of a base of Saudi National Guard in November 1995. - -September 11, 2001 attacks in New York had resulted into many deaths and big destruction. After enquiry, it came to light that out of 19 suspected persons for these attacks, 15 were from Saudi Arabia. - -Such things attracted the attention of the government of Saudi Arabia. The government started a policy to check such activities. Even then, terrorist activities of such persons and groups continued. - -Present position -Death of King Fahd: He died in July 2005. After his death, his brother Prince Abdullah became the king. -Death of King Abdullah: In 2015 King Abdullah died of sickness. His half-brother Prince Salman became king. -Oil hub: Saudi Arabia has world's largest oil reserves. The government is giving a lot of importance to the developments of infrastructure, science, and technology. Many economists and other scholars think that the country is on its way to becoming leading country of the Middle East. - -Related pages -Saudi Arabia - -Saudi Arabia" -21948,83562,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschi%20bei%20Spiez,Aeschi bei Spiez,"Aeschi bei Spiez is a municipality of the administrative district of Frutigen-Niedersimmental in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Bern" -10558,37593,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protractor,Protractor,"The protractor is a tool used to measure angles in degrees. It usually has marks with labels of the degrees. - -Geometry -Measuring tools" -7050,22320,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayarit,Nayarit,"Nayarit is a middle sized Mexican state. It is on the West coast of Mexico (on the Pacific Ocean shore). -Native people from Nayarit are called Nayaritas (singular: Nayarita). - -States of Mexico" -6024,19398,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20House%20of%20Representatives,United States House of Representatives,"The United States House of Representatives is a part of the United States (U. S.) Congress. Congress is the legislature of the U. S. government and makes federal laws. The other part of Congress is the U. S. Senate. There are maximum 435 members in the United States House of Representatives. These members are called U. S. Representatives or just representatives. - -The number of representatives from each state depends on the number of people in that state, the population, but there is at least one U. S. representative from each of the 50 states. Every 10 years, the United States Census Bureau counts the population of the United States. States gain or lose Representatives based on the count. The House of Representatives is in one of the two wings in the U.S. Capitol building. The other wing is for the Senate. Sometimes the House of Representatives is informally called the House. The chairman/chairperson in the U.S. House of Representatives is called the Speaker of the House. The current Speaker is Nancy Pelosi. - -According to the U.S. Constitution, all bills about raising revenue, which includes taxes, must start in the House of Representatives. Also, the House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach certain officials, such as the president or federal judges. According to the U.S. Constitution, the House of Representatives can expel, or impeach, one of its representatives by a vote of at least two-thirds of its members. - -Notes - -Other websites - -Clerk of the House of Representatives - Chief Administrative Office of the House - Office of the majority leader - Office of the speaker of the House - Official list of current members - Rules of the House - Legislative information and archives for US House and Senate, via Congress.gov - Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774 to Present - A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 - Complete Downloadable List of U.S. Representative Contact Information, via AggData LLC] - Information about U.S. Congressional Bills and Resolutions" -18411,69065,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20%28bird%29,Cardinal (bird),"The Cardinals or Cardinalidae are a family of passerine birds that live in North and South America. - -References - Stiles and Skutch, A guide to the birds of Costa Rica - Hilty, Birds of Venezuela, - ffrench, Birds of Trinidad and Tobago - ""National Geographic"" Field Guide to the Birds of North America - Klicka, Burns & Spellman. Defining a monophyletic Cardinalidae: a molecular perspective. . p. 36 - -Other websites - -Cardinalidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection - -Passeriformes" -11222,40627,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electorate,Electorate,"The Electorate are the people or citizens of a state who elect representatives to represent them in a democracy. They're also known as voters. Voters are people who normally votes in an election and they vote for their favorite person that if he/she wins, he/she will lead the people to a more favourable country Voting - -Voting" -9753,33262,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru,Kuru,"Kuru or Kurus may be: - -Kuru (kingdom), a powerful Indian kingdom during the Vedic period and later a republic during the Mahajanapada period -Kuru Kingdom, a kingdom based on the historic Kuru kingdom in Indian epic literature -Kuru (disease), a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy with the cannibalistic funeral practices of the Fore people. -Kuru (archaeology), Indian ethnic group and their kingdom -Kuru (mythology) is part of African mythology -Kuru (Hinduism), imputed ancestral king -Kuru, Finland, municipality -Kuruş, Turkish currency -Kuru, Turkish dried-bean dish kurufasulye -Kuru school, in Kuru, Nigeria -Kuru (band), British punk band during the late 1990s -KURU (movie), an indy movie in development by The Enemy -S/S Kuru, a Finnish lake steamer -kuru, Finnish word for a type of canyon -Interbreeding IX: Kuru, a various artists CD compilation - -Related pages - Kourou, a town in French Guiana" -7697,25174,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive%20%28color%29,Olive (color),"Olive is a color which looks like green or yellow. (when gray or black is added to yellow, the various shades of the color olive are produced). Some dark shades of olive can also be made by mixing a darker color (like brown) with green. - -The most common place you will find the color olive is on an olive. It is the color of the outside of an olive. An olive's center is usually brown or sometimes orange or red. - -There is a mineral called olivine that is colored a pale olive color. - -Meaning of olive - Olive drab is one of the colors used for Sofia and camouflage in the military. - Olive is one of the colors used in fashion when a conservative, moderate color is desired. - Olive or earls green is sometimes used for showing vomit in animated films. - -Tones of olive color comparison chart - -Related pages - List of colors" -7040,22249,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness,Madness,"Madness (or Insanity) is a word that can have different meanings: - Up to about the 19th century someone who acted strangely, or outside the socially accepted norms was called mad or insane. This could range from having bizarre ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis. - Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called mad or insane by people who are not doctors. Doctors say they have ""mental disorders - Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a markable change in behaviour. An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called rabid or mad. - -Being able to tell right from wrong is the base of a working society and of law; for this reason, the law treats those people differently who are not able to make this distinction. - -Related pages - Lunatic - Psychiatry - Insanity defense - -Mental illnesses" -1904,6354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%20Tasman,Abel Tasman,"Abel Janszoon Tasman (1603–1659) was a Dutch sea explorer. He found Tasmania and New Zealand while on voyages in 1642 and 1644, in the service of the VOC (Dutch East India Company). He also made the first historical sightings of large parts of Australia. - -He was born in Groningen, Holland. He went to Batavia (now called Jakarta) to work for the VOC in 1633. He went back to Holland in 1636. He went back to Batavia with his wife, Jannetie Tjaerss, two years later. He went north to Japan in 1640. In 1642 Tasman went south to Palembang. - -Tasmania and New Zealand 1642-4 -Tasman set Governor General of the Dutch East Indies. This man sailed around to the east coast of Van Diemen's Land and claimed the land for the Dutch on December 3, 1642. The ships then sailed west and found New Zealand. His ships were attacked by Maori in large war canoes (boats) and four sailors died. Tasman then sailed north-east to Tonga and Fiji. He then sailed north west to New Guinea and got back to Batavia in June 1643. - -Western Australia 1644 -In 1644 Tasman sailed from Batavia with the ships Limmen, Zeemeeuw and Bracq. He sailed along the west coast of New Guinea, and then the coast of Australia from Cape York to North West Cape. He went back to Batavia in August 1644. He showed that Western Australia and Queensland were part of the same country. He was not able to get through Torres Strait, but his maps were used for the next 200 years. Tasman made more trips including to Sumatra in 1646, Siam in 1647, and Manila in 1648. He purchased a lot of land in Batavia where he died in October 1659. - -Several places have been named after him, including Tasmania, the Tasman Peninsula, Tasman Island and the Tasman Sea. - -References - -1603 births -1659 deaths -Dutch explorers -Exploration of Australia -People from Groningen (province)" -9909,33896,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moers,Moers,"Moers (Low German: Meurs, formerly Mörs) is a city in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Moers is near to Duisburg and belongs to the Ruhr area. -It has about 110,000 inhabitants. - -References - -Other websites - -Wesel (district)" -3133,9796,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger,Tiger,"The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living member of the cat family, the Felidae. It feeds by hunting. It lives in Asia, mainly India, Bhutan, China, Korea and Siberian Russia. Tigers are solitary animals. - -Appearance -Tigers have orange [[flakes to - -]] with black stripes, and a white belly. The black stripes usually extend to the white underside. The stripes are used to keep them camouflaged while hunting. Usually, no two tigers have the same pattern of stripes. - -There are tigers with different colors. There are sometimes white tigers that have white fur with black stripes, or that even have pure white fur. They have orange or red eyes. Most Bengal tigers have orange fur. The white coat only appears once in every 100 -births. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. - -Tigers vary in size depending on their subspecies. Siberian tigers are the largest. Males can grow to at least long (body length) and weigh about . Females are a bit smaller. Record weight for males is claimed as 890 lbs (318 kg), but this cannot be confirmed. - -Where they live -Tigers can live in a variety of habitats. Mostly they need to hide, to be near a water source, and have enough prey to eat. Tigers are solitary and they all control large amounts of territory, the size of which depends on the availability of food and prey. According to Tigers-World, a male tiger may live and hunt in an area of 60 to 100 square kilometers (23 to 39 square miles). A female tiger may have 20 square kilometers (8 square miles). According to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, a single tiger can live in a territory as small as 21 square kilometers (8 square miles) to as large as 995 square kilometers (385 square miles). Bengal tigers in particular live in many types of forests. These include the wet, evergreen of Assam and eastern Bengal; the swampy mangrove forest of the Ganges Delta; the deciduous forest of Nepal, and the thorn forests of the Western Ghats. - -Subspecies -As previously thought, the tiger had five living subspecies. In this context, 'recently' means in the last two centuries. Three tiger subspecies are extinct (†). - Subspecies of Tiger (Panthera tigris) - Bali tiger (Panthera tigris balica) † - Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) - Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) † - Chinese tiger (Panthera tigris corbetti) - Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) † - Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) - Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) - South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) - Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) - -However, in 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica. - -Tigers and humans -Chinese Tigers are becoming rare, because people hunt them for their silk coat skin and destroy the habitats they live in. The Bengal tiger has the largest population with 3,500 left in the wild. To help keep the tiger population, tigers are often placed in zoos. In order for tigers to survive into the next century, governments throughout the tigers’ range must show greater determination and commitment to conserve tigers and their habitats. - -Chinese tigers have been used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine. Body parts such as their whiskers and bones are used to treat things such as toothaches, malaria, and burns. - -Diet -Tigers eat many types of prey, mostly other large mammals. Some examples are deer, monkeys, wild rabbits, wild pigs, tapirs, buffalo and other animals found in Asia. All are meat eaters. Some tigers may eat up to of meat a day. Tigers kill their prey by clamping down on the prey's throat and suffocating it. - -References - -Tigers -Felines" -14422,54262,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegnitz,Pegnitz,"Pegnitz can mean: - - The River Pegnitz in Germany - - Pegnitz, a city in Germany" -16445,63163,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20efficiency,Thermal efficiency,"The thermal efficiency () is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example. - -The input, , to the device is heat, or the heat-content of a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, , or heat, , or possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency is - -From the first and second law of thermodynamics, the output can not exceed what is input, so - -When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Due to inefficiencies such as friction, heat loss, and other factors, thermal efficiencies are typically much less than 100%. For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25% thermal efficiency, and a large coal-fueled electrical generating plant peaks at about 36%. In a combined cycle plant thermal efficiencies are approaching 60%. - -Heat engines -When transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of energy that is transformed into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as - -, - -or via the first law of thermodynamics to substitute waste heat rejection for the work produced, - -. - -For example, when 1000 joules of thermal energy is transformed into 300 joules of mechanical energy (with the remaining 700 joules dissipated as waste heat), the thermal efficiency is 30%. - -Energy conversion -For an energy conversion device like a boiler or furnace, the thermal efficiency is - -. - -So, for a boiler that produces 210 kW (or 700,000 BTU/h) output for each 300 kW (or 1,000,000 BTU/h) heat-equivalent input, its thermal efficiency is 210/300 = 0.70, or 70%. This means that the 30% of the energy is lost to the environment. - -An electric resistance heater has a thermal efficiency of at or very near 100%, so, for example, 1500W of heat are produced for 1500W of electrical input. When comparing heating units, such as a 100% efficient electric resistance heater to an 80% efficient natural gas-fueled furnace, energy prices must be compared to find the lower cost. - -Heat pumps and Refrigerators -Heat pumps, refrigerators, and air conditioners, for example, move heat, rather than convert it, so other measures are needed to describe their thermal performance. The common measures are the coefficient-of-performance (COP), energy-efficiency ratio (EER), and seasonal-energy-efficiency ratio (SEER). - -The Efficiency of a Heat pump (HP) and Refrigerators (R)*: - -If temperatures at both ends of the Heat Pump or Refrigerator are constant and their processes reversible: - - *H=high (temperature/heat source), L=low (temperature/heat source) - -Energy efficiency -The 'thermal efficiency' is sometimes called the energy efficiency. In the United States, in everyday usage the SEER is the more common measure of energy efficiency for cooling devices, as well as for heat pumps when in their heating mode. For energy-conversion heating devices their peak steady-state thermal efficiency is often stated, e.g., 'this furnace is 90% efficient', but a more detailed measure of seasonal energy effectiveness is the Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE). - -Related pages - Thermodynamics - -References - -Thermodynamics -Engineering" -6460,20414,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze%20River,Yangtze River,"The Yangtze River, or Yangzi (Simple Chinese: 扬子江 / Traditional Chinese: 揚子江), or Chang Jiang (Simple Chinese: 长江 / Traditional Chinese: 長江), is the longest River in China and Asia, as well as the world's third longest river (after the Amazon and the Nile). It is honored as one of the two main cradles of Chinese civilization. (another is Yellow River) - -The river is about 3,900 kilometers long and is one of the busiest waterways in the world. It goes from the western part of China (Plateau of Tibet) into the East China Sea, which is part of the Pacific Ocean. It has been thought of as a dividing point between northern and southern China. It helped start the Chinese civilization. - -On the river is a big dam called the Three Gorges Dam, which is the biggest in the world. It forms a man-made lake that stretches almost upstream. - -The Yangtze River is home to many species. The Finless porpoise is endangered and the Lipotes vexillifer (Chinese river dolphin) which died in 2002. - -Top tourist attractions for the Yangtze river cruise are Chongqing Dazu Carvings, Three Gorges, lesser Three Gorges, Bai Di City, Fengdu Ghost City and so on. - -The Yangtze River is also known as the Yanugzi or Chang Jiange. - -Uses - - transport - drinking water - cleaning - boundary marking - ingredients for food - -Pollution -The Yangtze river is becoming extremely polluted. The Yangtze river contains oil, dead animals and rubbish including cans, bags, wrappers, glass and plastic bottles. In 2001 about 23.4 billion tons of sewerage and factory waste was dumped in the river. - -References - -Other websites - Attractions along Yangtze River - Yangtze River Cruise Guide - -Rivers of China" -14185,52601,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cavendish%2C%204th%20Duke%20of%20Devonshire,"William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire","William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (8 May 1720-2 October 1764) was a British Whig statesman who was Prime Minister of Great Britain for a short period of time. - -Titles from birth to death - Lord Cavendish of Hardwick (1720-1729) - Marquess of Hartington (1729-1741) - Marquess of Hartington, MP (1741-1751) - The Rt. Hon. Marquess of Hartington (1751-1755) - His Grace The Duke of Devonshire, PC (1755-1756) - His Grace The Duke of Devonshire, KG, PC (1756-1764) - -1720 births -1764 deaths -English Dukes -Knights of the Garter" -608,2978,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto%20%28disambiguation%29,Pluto (disambiguation),"Pluto is a dwarf planet in Earth's solar system. - -Pluto can also mean: - -Pluto (mythology), the Roman god -Pluto (Disney) is the name of the dog of Mickey Mouse" -24780,97061,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20Tower%20Place,Water Tower Place,"Water Tower Place is a skyscraper in Chicago, United States. It is 262 meters (859 feet) tall and has 74 floors. It was built in 1976 and is one of the tallest buildings in the world. - -Related pages - List of tallest buildings in Chicago - List of tallest buildings in the world - -Other websites - Emporis.com - Water Tower Place - SkycraperPage.com – Water Tower Place - -Skyscrapers in Chicago -1976 establishments in the United States -1970s establishments in Illinois -Malls" -2147,7313,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookstore,Bookstore,"A bookstore is a store that sells books, and where people can buy them. A used bookstore or second-hand bookshop sells and often buys used books. - -Books -Shops" -18533,69485,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yours%20truly,Yours truly,"Yours truly could mean: - The ending of a letter, see Yours truly (letter) - -In music, yours truly could mean: - Yours Truly (Snow Crash), a character in the novel Snow Crash - Yours Truly (Air Supply album), 2001 - Yours Truly (Ariana Grande album), 2013 - Yours Truly (Rick Braun album), 2005 - Yours Truly (Sick of It All album), an album by hardcore punk band, Sick of It All, 2005 - ""Yours Truly (song)"", a single by Blindspott - Yours Truly (Sublime with Rome album), 2011 - Yours Truly, a 1991 album by Earl Thomas Conley" -10132,34819,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molise,Molise,"Molise is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is the city of Campobasso. - -Molise previously formed, with the Abruzzo region, the old region of Abruzzi e Molise. Molise was separated from that region in 1963, making Molise the youngest region in Italy. - -Geography -The region is located in South Italy bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Lazio to the west, Campania to the south, Apulia to the southeast and the Adriatic Sea to the east. - -Molise, with a total area of , is the second smallest region after Valle d'Aosta. The main rivers in the region are: - Fortore, long. - Trigno, long. - Biferno, long; it is the main river of those that flow only in the Molise region. - Volturno, ; it is the main river in South Italy by its length and its discharge. - -The highest mountain in the region is La Meta (its eastern summit) (), in the Isernia province, with an altitude of . - -Provinces -Molise is divided into two provinces: - -Largest municipalities -The 10 communi of the region with more people living in it are: - -Gallery - -References - -Other websites - - Official Site" -11919,43773,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaMonkey,SeaMonkey,"SeaMonkey is a free and open source Internet application suite, which uses the Gecko rendering engine. It works on many operating systems. It is very useful, and includes an e-mail client, a calendar, a HTML editor, an IRC client, and a web browser. It is made by the SeaMonkey Council, formerly by Mozilla Foundation. - -History -On March 10, 2005 the Mozilla Foundation said that they will not develop the Mozilla Application suite, including the Netscape web browser, because Firefox and Thunderbird were more popular. The SeaMonkey Council renamed the project SeaMonkey and continued its development. The newest version of its main release version is 2.46. - -Features -The web browser of SeaMonkey contains a lot of features used in new web browsers like tabbed browsing, pop-up blocking, e-mail, newsgroups, web editing software, spell checking, and an address book. - -Optionally included in the SeaMonkey suite is an IRC chat application. - -Related pages -List of IRC clients - -Other websites - Seamokey project site - SeaMonkey Wiki - SeaMonkey Download - -IRC clients -Web browsers -Mozilla" -8362,28158,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction,Addiction,"Addiction is when the body or mind badly wants or needs something in order to work right. When you have addiction to something it is called being addicted or being an addict. People can be addicted to drugs, cigarettes, alcohol, caffeine, and many other things. - -When somebody is addicted to something, they can become sick if they do not get the thing they are addicted to. But taking more of the thing they are addicted to can also hurt their health. Some people who are addicts need to go to a doctor or hospital to cure the addiction, so they no longer crave (want or need) the drug. - -Addiction takes place when the addictive element enters the body. The blood stream moves the element around the body so that it gets to the brain, and makes the person feel that they are enjoying it; then they want more of that substance. This takes place remarkably fast for some addictions such as hashish and cocaine; but all of them control the consumer. Once under this control, the consumer does not have a completely free will, and listens to the addiction's bidding. - -People can also be addicted to other things which are not drugs. You may hear people talk about being ""addicted to the Internet"" or ""addicted to chocolate"" or gambling. This means that they get into a habit of enjoying that thing, so if they have to go without it for a while, they miss it a lot. - -Addiction is similar to a major disease like chronic heart disease or perhaps diabetes, but addictions are not taken as seriously as these major diseases. Most people believe addiction to be a lifestyle choice, which in fact it is but it is also part of a person's genetics. While some people can do things and control themselves others cannot due to their genetic makeup. There are ways of helping the addict but this takes the admission of a problem and then proper testing to reveal what kind of treatment is needed. - -The American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) defines addiction as a treatable, chronic medical disease involving complex interactions among brain circuits, genetics, the environment, and an individual’s life experiences. People with addiction use substances or engage in behaviors that become compulsive and often continue despite harmful consequences. Prevention efforts and treatment approaches for addiction are generally as successful as those for other chronic diseases. - -Symptoms and Signs of Addiction -Common symptoms of addiction include: - - Tolerance, which is the need to engage in the addictive behavior more and more to get the desired effect - Difficulty cutting down or controlling the addictive behavior - Extreme mood changes – happy, sad, excited, anxious, etc - Weight loss or weight gain - Pupils of the eyes seeming smaller or larger than usual - Withdrawal happens when the person does not take the substance or engage in the activity, and they experience unpleasant symptoms, which are often the opposite of the effects of the addictive behavior - -Related pages - Substance abuse - Drug addiction -Alcoholism - -References - -Other websites - Definition of addiction -American Society of Addiction Medicine - Addiction -Citizendium -Addiction in the South - Life after Addiction - - -Psychology" -1062,4010,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday,Monday,"Monday is a day of the week. In some countries, it is the second day of the week. In other parts of the world, including some countries in Europe, Monday is the first day of the week. - -The International Standards Organization considers Monday the first day of the week. - -Other websites - -01" -9863,33747,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasschaat,Brasschaat,"Brasschaat is a municipality in the Belgian province of Antwerp. - -In 2007, 37133 people lived there. - -It is at 51° 17 North, 04° 29 East. - -There has always a big military force in Brasschaat. After World War II there were more military-related things. Including the defence buildings made to stop the Nazi's from reaching The port of Antwerp. Now most of them are closed or are used to train the soldiers. - -Brasschaat is called green because of the many parks and woods, such as the Peerdsbos, the parc of Brasschaat, De uitlegger, and De instlag. - -References - -Municipalities of Antwerp" -9317,31936,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle%20United%20F.C.,Carlisle United F.C.,"Carlsile United F.C. is an English football team in Football League Two. Jordan McDowall is the manager. - -League position - -Former position - -English football clubs -1904 establishments in England" -14587,55027,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux%20%28disambiguation%29,Flux (disambiguation),"Flux comes from Latin and means flow; it may mean: - Flux, a scientific term describing the rate of flow of something through a surface - Flux (software), a free for non-commercial usage suite of VRML/X3D viewing/authoring software - Flux (metallurgy), a material that aids in smelting and soldering by assisting the flow of the molten metal - Flow (psychology), often referred to as flux - Flux (biochemistry), the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway - Flux (novel), a book by Stephen Baxter - Flux Magazine (US), a short-lived American music, comic book & video game magazine from the mid-1990s - Flux Of Pink Indians, the name of a British anarcho-punk band, originally known as Flux of Pink Indians - Fluxx, a card game - Flux Capacitor, a fictional device from Back to the Future that ""makes time travel possible"" - Fluxus, an art movement - Flux Wildly, one of the main characters from the computer game Toonstruck - Flux (magazine), a magazine published by students at the University of Oregon journalism school - Flux (magazine), a magazine published in the United Kingdom" -735,3323,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power,Power,"Power has different meanings when talking about different subjects: - Power (physics), how fast energy can be changed into work - Electric power, electricity that comes from power plants or generators - In sociology, power is the ability of a person to make another person do something. This might also be called influence or control. - Statistical power, how likely the test is to say something is true when it is really true - Exponentiation; in mathematics, ""power"" is multiplying a number by itself. In the expression 23, where we multiply 3 2's together ( 2 * 2 * 2 ) we say that 2 is raised to the power of 3 - A life force, called chi by the Chinese and kiai by the Japanese. - In politics a great power is more powerful than other countries. - -Related pages - Power plant - Suzerainty - -Basic English 850 words" -20627,79352,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester,Chichester,"Chichester is a small cathedral city in West Sussex, England, with a population of 23,731 (2001 Census). It is quite near the sea, and near to a harbour for yachts. - -The City of Chichester is twinned with: - Chartres, France - Ravenna, Italy - -There are many buildings in the centre of Chichester which have interesting architecture. The oldest building is Chichester Cathedral. There are many beautiful houses in the Cathedral precincts. In many parts of the city one can still see the old city walls, and it is possible to walk along the top in some places. There is an old butter market dating from 1808. A century later another storey was added on top. - -Just to the north of Chichester is the Goodwood race course. Many people go there in the summer to watch the horse races. Goodwood is in the South Downs which is a beautiful area for walking. - -Chichester is an old Roman town. In the centre of Chichester are four main streets: North Street, South Street, East Street and West Street. These four streets meet in the centre, where there is a small round building with a cross: the Chichester cross. The four main streets form an area which is mostly pedestrianized. Chichester Cathedral stands near the centre, between West Street and South Street. Further to the north lies the area of Summersdale and the conservation area around Graylingwell Hospital. South of Chichester is a canal which links the city to the sea. Soon after it was built in the 19th century the railway came to Chichester so that the canal was not used for long. The canal was left in a bad state for many years until, more recently, it was restored. Some of it can be used by small boats, and there are reedbeds where birds can breed. - -There is a Roman Museum near Fishbourne, just west of the city, where many Roman remains can be seen, including a palace which once stood there. - -Chichester is a Fairtrade City. Suppliers of Fairtrade are shown by a green dot in the web directory. - -Because Chichester is so historic it has been divided into eight conservation areas. People are very anxious that the town should not lose its historic character. - -Culture - -Every year in July, a three-week festival, the Chichester Festivities, takes place. Then in August since 2007 there has been a week long I AM JOY Arts and Music festival held across different venues in the city. The Chichester Festival Theatre has productions for most of the year. It is one of the most famous theatres outside London. - -Pallant House Gallery won the 2007 gallery of the year Gulbenkian Prize. It has a lot of modern British art. - -The Joy Gallery, open from December 2008 to November 2009, showcased emerging and established artists from the local area. - -Chichester has its own amateur orchestra, the Chichester Symphony Orchestra, which gives three concerts during the year. - -Chichester RAJF (From ""Real Ale and Jazz Festival"") gives a four-day festival of music and real ale held each July in tents beside the 13th century Guildhall in Priory Park. - -Sport -There is plenty of sport in Chichester. Chichester R.F.C. are a central team and rugby club. There is a large swimming pool with fitness rooms and sports hall. There are tennis courts near the Festival Theatre. - -Education -Chichester has several schools, including Chichester High School for Boys, Chichester High School for Girls, Bishop Luffa School and Prebendal School which is linked to the Cathedral. There is a University of Chichester which, until recently, was known as Bishop Otter College. - -Transport -Several roads lead into Chichester. The A27, which runs along the south coast, now bypasses the city. There are rail links to London, Gatwick, Portsmouth, Southampton and Basingstoke. Many years ago there was a small train which went to Midhurst, and even a tram to Selsey. Nowadays busses go to these towns. They depart from the central bus station near the railway station. - -References - -Other websites - - Chichester Web - Chichester Live Music - I AM JOY Arts Collective - The Joy Gallery - Pallant House Gallery - Chichester Festival Theatre - -Settlements in West Sussex -Cities in England" -14957,56374,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%20power,Wave power,"Wave power means the use of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work—including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). It makes use of the kinetic energy of the waves that are driven by the wind. - -Power from ocean surface wave motion might produce much more energy than tides. Tests have shown that it is possible to produce energy from waves, particularly in Scotland in the UK. But the technology is not as well developed as other renewable energy such as wind power or solar power. - -Other websites - Practical Ocean Energy Management Systems Inc Links and discussion - An Ocean Wave Energy Converter Using Rotors - Oceanography: waves - ""Waves"" by Tim Lovett -- Tables and trivia on waves - Wave Energy -- World Energy Council - Corvallis Gazette Times -- Oregon State University wants to host a national wave research center - -Hydropower" -14024,51927,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Jurassic,Lower Jurassic,"The Lower Jurassic is the first geological epoch in the Jurassic that began 201.3 million years ago, and ended at 174.1 million years ago. - -The Jurassic period is divided into Lower, Middle and Upper. The Lower Jurassic started after the end-Triassic extinction event at 201.3 million years ago (mya). Its rocks form in Europe the Lias group of marine strata consisting mostly of limestone, with some clays and siltstone. It was in this formation on the Dorset Jurassic Coast that Mary Anning did much of her work. The mudstones of the earliest Jurassic (Blue Lias) give way to carbonate rocks as the water deepens in the Middle Jurassic. - -The Jurassic period was one of the time periods when dinosaurs were on the Earth. By this time, many groups of the Triassic period had become extinct. - -Britain -At the start of the Jurassic, Britain was warm temperate to subtropical, between 30° and 40° north of the equator. Temperature would have been in the range of 12–29°C. - -Shallow seas were over southern England; higher ground like the Mendip Hills were a string of islands stretching westwards South Wales. - -North America - -The Lower Jurassic in western North America is quite different. It is continental in origin, sandstones laid down in shifting streams and rivers. These sandstones were laid down over a long period from the later Permian to the Lower Jurassic. - -Related pages -Blue Lias -Jurassic -Middle Jurassic -Upper Jurassic - -References - - -Jurassic" -3979,12314,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junction,Junction,"A junction is any place where linear things, especially roads and railway tracks, meet. - -A Road junction is a place where roads meet. These are known as 'T' junctions and 'X' junctions. - -Railway junction - -A railway junction is a place where two railway tracks join. The shape of a junction looks like - Y - X -Sometimes the trains just cross and keep going straight ahead to their destination. Sometimes they turn onto the other track to reach the planned destination. Moveable portions of track make this possible. - -Transport" -1244,4591,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1826,1826," - -Events - The first photograph was taken. - - John Adams second president, and third president Thomas Jefferson both died same day Independence Day. - -Births - January 12 – William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier - January 26 – Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879) - February 16 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886) - February 16 – Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902) - March 4 – Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863) - March 24 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, pioneering feminist (d. 1898) - March 29 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German journalist and politician (d. 1900) - April 6 – Gustave Moreau, French painter (d. 1898) - May 3 – King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway (d. 1872) - May 4 – Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1900) - June 24 – George Goyder, Surveyor-General of South Australia (d. 1898) - July 4 – Stephen Foster, American songwriter and poet (d. 1864) - September 17 – Bernhard Riemann, German mathematician (d. 1866) - November 13 – Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier (d. 1895) - November 24 – Carlo Collodi, Italian writer (d. 1890) - -Deaths - July 4 – John Adams, President of the United States - July 4 – Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States - -Books -Biographical Sketches and Interesting Anecdotes of Persons of Color – Abigail Mott -The Broken Heart – Catherine Gore -Cinq-Mars – Alfred de Vigny -Deeds of the Olden Time – Anne Hatton -Gaston de Blondeville – Ann Radcliffe -Granby – T.H. Lister -Die Harzreise (The Heart's Journey) – Heinrich Heine -Henry the Fourth of France – Alicia Lefanu -Honor O'Hara – Anna Maria Porter -The Last Man – Mary Shelley -The Last of the Mohicans – James Fenimore Cooper -Tales Round a Winter Hearth – Jane Porter & Anna Maria Porter -Vivian Grey – Benjamin Disraeli -Woodstock – Sir Walter Scott" -14680,55350,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhodka,Nakhodka,"Nakhodka (Russian Находка) is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia. It is one of the most eastern cities in Russia. Nakhodka is a port on the Japan Sea. It is located around Nakhodka Bay. Nakhodka means ""Lucky find"" in Russian. - -The village Amerikanka was the first permanent settlement at the location of the current city. It was founded in 1907. Nakhodka became an urban-type fishing settlement in 1941. It received city status on May 19, 1950. This date is now called City Day. - -Economy -The economy of the city is based mainly on the port and port-related businesses. This include processing and canning fish. In Soviet times, Nakhodka was the only Soviet port in the Far East open to foreign vessels. After Vladivostok started being used by foreigners in 1991, the port of Nakhodka is not used as much as before. Economic activity in the city has become much less because of this.. - -Nakhodka is still an important international port. It is the center of the coastal trade. Exports include timber, coal, fluorspar, honey, fish and seafood. - -References - -Cities in Russia" -12408,45798,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambucus,Sambucus,"Sambucus is a genus in the family Adoxaceae. It is commonly called Elder or Elderberry. It includes several similar types of shrubs that produce fruit that is also called elderberries. The plant can be found in swampy habitats and other areas that provide enough water. - -Black Elderberry has been found to be effective against the H5N1 strain of Avian Flu (Zakay-Rones et al. 1995). Black Elderberry contains a unique compound called Antivirin® that can help protect healthy cells and inactivate infectious viruses. When given to patients, scientists have found the Black Elderberry, has the ability to ward off flu infections quickly (Zakay-Rones 2004). Black Elderberries are rich in anthocyanins which are a type of flavonoid – anthocyanins are antioxidants that may protect cells from free radicals and support your body’s immune system. -Black Elderberries have almost 5 times as many anthocyanins as Blueberries and twice the overall antioxidant capability of cranberries -Black Elderberry has a more potent antiviral effect than Echinacea. At sites in Switzerland and Italy, researchers have uncovered evidence that the black elderberry may have been cultivated by prehistoric man, and there are recipes for elderberry-based medications in the records dating as far back as Ancient Egypt. Historians, however, generally trace the tradition of the elderberry’s healing power back to Hippocrates, the ancient Greek known as the “father of medicine,” who described this plant as his “medicine chest” for the wide variety of ailments it seemed to cure. - -Over the centuries, elderberry has been used to treat colds, flu, fever, burns, cuts, and more than 70 other maladies, from a toothache to the plague. In the 17th century, John Evelyn, a British researcher, declared, “If the medicinal properties of its leaves, bark, and berries were fully known, I cannot tell what our countryman could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy [from the elderberry], either for sickness or wounds.” - - -Elderberry can grow in the form of a shrub or small tree, reaching up to 6 feet in height and width depending on the variety. It blooms during the spring or summer, and its flowers contain both male and female reproductive systems in the event that it is unable to reproduce through cross-pollination. It can be used to create a violet dye. - -Other websites - -Berries -Dipsacales" -14738,55560,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop%20Rocks,Pop Rocks,"Pop Rocks are a kind of candy with carbonation added to make a ""popping"" feeling in the mouth of the person eating them. - -Other websites - Images of US patent 4289794 for Pop Rocks from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office - Pop Rocks: The Inside Story of America's Revolutionary Candy, book detailing the story of Pop Rocks development to Pop Rocks today - How do Pop Rocks candy work?, an article from HowStuffWorks that explains how pop rocks candy is manufactured and also has links to the original patent - -Candy" -16708,63856,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope%20%26%20Faith,Hope & Faith,"Hope & Faith was an American television series. It was a sitcom that aired for three seasons on ABC from 2003 to 2006. For its first two seasons the series was part of a revived TGIF comedy block. - -The series starred Faith Ford as Hope and Kelly Ripa as Faith. Ford plays a homemaker with a husband (played by Ted McGinley) and three children. Ripa plays her sister, a soap opera star whose character is killed off, leading her to move in with her sister's family. The series is based in part on the life of its creator, Joanna Johnson, a former cast member of The Bold and the Beautiful. The series featured guest stars such as Tony Curtis, Dean Cain, Robert Wagner, Regis Philbin (Ripa's co-host on Live with Regis and Kelly), Kathie Lee Gifford, and Mark Consuelos (Ripa's husband). - -The series was primarily filmed at New York City's Silvercup East, a sister studio to Silvercup Studios, to accommodate Ripa's schedule with Live with Regis and Kelly. - -All 73 episodes were picked up by the American television network WE: Women's Entertainment, as the total number of produced episodes was short of what was required for American television syndication. - -American sitcoms -2003 American television series debuts -2006 American television series endings -English-language television programs" -20111,77037,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mafic,Mafic,"Mafic is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or igneous rock which is rich in magnesium and iron. The term is a portmanteau, made up from ""magnesium"" and ""ferric"". - -Mafic minerals are usually dark in color and have a specific gravity greater than 3. Common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite and other micas, augite and the calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars. Common mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro. - -In terms of chemistry, mafic rocks are on the other side of the rock spectrum from the so-called felsic rocks. The term roughly corresponds to the older basic rock class. - -Mafic lava, before cooling, has a lower viscosity than felsic lava due to its lower silica content. Water and other volatiles can more easily and gradually escape from mafic lava, so eruptions of volcanoes made of mafic lavas are less explosively violent than felsic lava eruptions. Most mafic lava volcanoes are oceanic volcanoes, like Hawaii. - -Related pages -List of minerals -Granite - -Rocks" -7747,25362,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1161,1161," - -Events - Bartholomew Iscanus becomes Bishop of Exeter. - -1161" -301,577,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography,Orthography,"Orthography is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography. - -Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is ""merry"" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.p970 - -English orthography -English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.p16 - -Vowels -No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets: -""The importance of the Greeks in the history of alphabetic writing is paramount. All the alphabets in use in Europe today stand in direct or indirect relation to the ancient Greek"". - -English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use,p237 and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds. - -Consonants -The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes. - -Dialects -The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another. - -Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling. - -British and American English -Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a Grammar, a Spelling book, and finally an American dictionary of the English language. In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose s over c in words like defense, he changed the re to er in words like center, he dropped one of the Ls in traveler. At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed tongue to tung: that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before. - -Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used. An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending -ough, which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough... The root causes of spelling variation are historical. Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling. Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed. - -English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling programme came from the French; US program is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody. - Spelling, though important, is less important than how the language is used in practice. The differences between British and American English in use are more to do with idiom, slang and vocabulary than they are to do with spelling. In this respect, spelling in writing or print is a bit like pronunciation in speech. They are the necessary outer clothes, but the inner substance is more important. - In Wikipedia (note the spelling), articles may be in either American or British English, but should be consistent within each article. More details: Wikipedia:Manual of Style - -Dictionaries and phonetics -Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's A dictionary of the English language (1755), and James Murray's Oxford English Dictionary. Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America. - -""The American adoption of the Dictionary was a momentous event not just in its history, but in the history of lexicography. For Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century, Johnson was the authority on language, and the subsequent development of American dictionaries was coloured by his fame"".p224 - -For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore: -""America's two great nineteenth-century lexicographers, Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Worcester, argued fiercely over Johnson's legacy ... In 1789 [Webster] declared that 'Great Britain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard; for the taste of her writers is already corrupted, and her language on the decline.' ... Where Webster found fault with Johnson, Joseph Worcester saluted him ... In 1846 he completed his Universal and critical dictionary of the English Language.p226 - -Some people argue which language is the easiest to spell. People who learn a second language tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a Germanic language. From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and Latin are the most frequent donors to English. - -Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word ""orologio"" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo (""gi"" always making a ""j"" sound.) In English, one comes across the word ""knife"". In ""knife"", the ""k"" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce ""K""s when they are in words. - -History of English spelling -One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. ""i before e except after c"" has over 100 exceptions.p272 Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings. - -Here are some of the causes of English orthography: - - Originally a 23-letter alphabet for the 35 or so phonemes (sounds) of Old English. Other letters were added later. - After the Norman conquest, French scribes introduced new spellings. - Printing. Many of the early printers came from the continent of Europe, and brought other spelling norms to England. But, although print stabilised spelling, pronunciation continued to change. - Printing coincided with the Great Vowel Shift at the end of Middle English (end 14th to 15th centuries). To avoid complex details, here is what happened: over a century, the pronunciation of all the vowels changed, and is still not standard throughout Britain. In any event, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects their pronunciation in Geoffrey Chaucer's time. - 16th-century scholars tried to indicate the history of a word by its spelling: the silent 'b' in 'debt' is there to reflect the Latin debitum. - More loan words added in the late 16th to early 17th century, such as pneumonia, idiosyncrasy, epitome, cocoa. - -English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. ""The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology"".p275 - -Differences between languages -Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have phonemic orthography. English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known: - different letters for the same sound - two or more letters for a single sound - sound depends on nearby letters - vast range of words whose sound varies according to dialect - huge number of loan words with imported spellings - defective: it does not represent some important differences in phonemes. Example: the difference between the voiced th (the) and the unvoiced th (thin). - -This field of study is called ""orthographic depth"". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to ""say"" the word correctly. - -Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth. - -Related pages - Ghoti - -References - -Language" -12377,45675,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%20Rose%20of%20Texas,Yellow Rose of Texas,"The Yellow Rose of Texas (Harison's Yellow) is a flower in the family Rosaceae. It is a type of yellow rose. It is often found around homes in the American state of Texas and along trails in the state of Oregon. It is also called the Oregon Trail Rose. - -Also mentioned in country songs such as Solid Country Gold by Shooter Jennings and Texas Pride by Miranda Lambert. - -References - -Roses" -5028,15892,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Mercury,Freddie Mercury,"Farrokh Bulsara (5 September 1946 – 24 November 1991), better known as Freddie Mercury, was a British singer, songwriter, record producer, and lead singer of the rock band Queen. Regarded as one of the greatest lead singers in popular music history, he was known for his flamboyant stage persona and four-octave vocal range. Mercury wrote numerous hits for Queen, including ""Bohemian Rhapsody"", ""Killer Queen"", ""Somebody to Love"", ""Don't Stop Me Now"", ""Crazy Little Thing Called Love"", and ""We Are the Champions"". He led a solo career while performing with Queen, and occasionally served as a producer and guest musician for other artists. - -He formed Queen in 1970 with guitarist Brian May, bassist John Deacon and drummer Roger Taylor. Mercury died in 1991 at age 45 due to complications from AIDS, having confirmed the day before his death that he had contracted the disease. In 1992, Mercury was posthumously awarded the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music, and a tribute concert was held at Wembley Stadium, London. As a member of Queen, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001, the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003, and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004. In 2002, he was placed number 58 in the BBC's 2002 poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. He is consistently voted one of the greatest singers in the history of popular music. - -Life and career - -Childhood -Freddie Mercury was born Farrokh Bulsara on 5 September 1946 in Stone Town in the British protectorate of the Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania). His parents were Jer and Bomi Bulsara. They were both Parsi. His father worked as a cashier in the British Colonial Office, a branch of the government. Mercury had a younger sister named Kashmira. His friends at school gave him the name ""Freddie."" His family then began calling him Freddie, too. - -At age eight, Mercury was sent to a boarding school in India. The school, St. Peters English Boarding school in Panchgani, was about 50 miles outside the city of Bombay (now called Mumbai). He began to show talent as an artist and a sportsman. At age ten, he was named the school champion of Table Tennis. When he was twelve, he received a trophy called the Junior All-rounder. - -Music career, personal life, and death -While in school he joined a choir and began to learn to play the piano. He had a four-octave vocal range. - -In 1964, Mercury moved to London with his family. He studied art at Ealing Art College. While in London, he became fond of Mary Austin, a woman he met through his guitarist, Brian May. They lived together for several years before and after the band became famous. They moved into a house in London nicknamed ""The Court of King Freddie"". Mary still lived in that house after she and Mercury broke up. - -Mercury was in love with a local barber when he died. He had been with him in a relationship for six years when it was learned by the media that Mercury had AIDS, which he was tested positive for in 1987. One day after the news was broadcast, Mercury died of Bronchopneumonia caused by AIDS on 24 November 1991 at the age of 45. - -References - -Other websites - Queen Archives: Interviews - -1946 births -1991 deaths -Bisexual people -British LGBT people -British pianists -British rock singers -British singer-songwriters -Deaths from AIDS -Deaths from bronchopneumonia -Deaths from pneumonia -Infectious disease deaths in England -LGBT singers -LGBT songwriters" -15541,59243,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%20Duquenne,Pascal Duquenne,"Pascal Duquenne is a Belgian actor. He was born in Vilvoorde, Flanders, Belgium on 8 August 1970. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome. - -It was Jaco van Dormael who noticed him (as Ducquenne was playing theatre). Dormael offered him his first roles in movies. - -In 1996 Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil were awarded a prize (for best male interpretation) at the Cannes Film Festival. Duquenne received the prize for the role of a boy who has Down syndrome. The movie was called Le Huitième Jour (The Eighth Day). - -He also has acted in other movies. Currently he lives in Brussels. - -Films he acted in - Toto le hèros (Toto the Hero), by Jaco van Dormael (1991) - Le Huitième Jour (The Eight Day), also by van Dormael (1995) - Lumière et compagnie (Light & Co.); a documentary made by about 40 authors (1996) - The Room, by Giles Daoust (2006) - Un Noël pas comme les autres (A Christmas not like the others), by Nancy Franck (1997, Television) - An episode of the Series Commissaire Moulin (2004, Television) - -References - -1970 births -Living people -Belgian movie actors -Belgian stage actors -Belgian television actors -Belgian voice actors -People from Flemish Brabant" -24281,93631,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarpfalz%20District,Saarpfalz District,"Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate) is a Kreis (district) in the south-east of the Saarland, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Saarbrücken, Neunkirchen, Kusel, Südwestpfalz, district-free Zweibrücken, and the French département Moselle. - -History -When after World War I the Saar area went under special government of the League of Nations, the Palatinate area, then part of Bavaria, was split in two parts. The part which went into the Saar became commonly known as Saarpfalz, and was administered by the two Bezirksamt: St. Ingbert and Homburg. The district Saarpfalz was created in 1974 when the two districts of Saint Ingbert and Homburg were joined. Since 1997 the district has a partnership with Henrico County, Virginia. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German) - -Districts of the Saarland" -13987,51825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Grenville,George Grenville,"George Grenville (14 October 1712–13 November 1770) was Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was a member of the Whig Party. He was one of the few prime ministers who never was given a title of nobility. - -Grenville was the second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple. His older brother was Richard Grenville-Temple. Grenville went to school at Eton College and at Christ Church College, Oxford. He entered Parliament in 1741 as member for Buckingham, and represented Buckingham until his death. - -As Treasurer of the Navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a fairer system of paying the wages of sailors. He stayed in office in 1761, when Pitt resigned, and in the administration of Lord Bute acted as Leader of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, and in October First Lord of the Admiralty; and in April 1763 he became First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. - -While Prime Minister, his government oversaw the prosecution of John Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act 1765, which led to the first disagreements between American colonies and Great Britain that led to the American Revolutionary War. - -After many years of being Prime Minister, he began to have disagreements with young king George III. The king started to think that the Prime Minister was using him as a puppet. The king convinced Rockingham to become the new Prime Minister and Grenville never held an office again. - -Grenville was called the ""gentile shepherd"" because he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him ""where"" to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune Gentle Shepherd, tell me where, and the House laughed. Though few excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of administrative details, he lacked tact in dealing with people and with affairs. - -In 1749 Grenville married Elizabeth Wyndham (before 1731-5 December 1769), daughter of Sir William Wyndham. They had seven children. - -1712 births -1770 deaths -Politicians from London -Whig party (UK) politicians -Prime Ministers of Great Britain" -15393,58462,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgebrach,Burgebrach,"Burgebrach is a municipality in the district of Bamberg in Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany. About 6,500 people live in Burgebrach. There are 27 villages in the municipality. - -Municipalities in Bavaria -Bamberg (district)" -18471,69328,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisuke%20Takahashi,Daisuke Takahashi,"is a Japanese athlete. He is best known as a figure skater. - -Takahashi was born in Kurashiki, Okayama. - -Career -Takahashi won the Japanese national championships in 2006 and 2007. - -Takahashi is the first male skater from Japan to win the World Junior Championships and the first male skater from Japan to win a silver medal at the World Championship. - -He was a member of the Japanese team at the 2006 Winter Olympics at Turin in Italy. In 2010, he won a bronze medal in the Winter Olympic Games at Vancouver in Canada. - -Related pages - Sports in Japan - Japan at the Olympics - -References - -Other websites - - Daisuke Takahashi at International Skating Union (ISU) - -1986 births -Living people -Japanese figure skaters -Japanese Olympic bronze medalists -People from Okayama Prefecture" -24214,93395,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halten,Halten,"Halten is a municipality in the district Wasseramt in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -19745,75549,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%20Pacific%20hurricane%20season,1972 Pacific hurricane season,"The 1972 Pacific hurricane season began on May 15, 1972 in the east Pacific, and on June 1, 1972 in the central Pacific. It ended on November 30, 1972. These dates conventionally delimit the period of time when tropical cyclones form in the east Pacific Ocean. - -This season had a below average number of storms. There were twelve tropical cyclones. Of those, four were tropical storms, eight were hurricanes, and four were major hurricanes that reached Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. In the central Pacific, two tropical storms and two tropical depressions formed. One of the depressions and one of the storms crossed the dateline to become typhoons. - -Other websites - Unisys Storm Tracks - CPHC Archive - -Pacific hurricane seasons -Pacific hurricane season" -18885,70940,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacres%20in%20Harput%20District,Massacres in Harput District,"Massacres in Harput District also Kharput were a large scale of massacres that happened in the district. - -Background -In May 1915, before the start of the deportations, the authorities in Harput began to mount systematic searches for arms in Armenian shops and homes in the twin cities and the surrounding villages. - -In the words of an eye-witness. - -Denmark's minister in Turkey during the First World War. ""The Turks are vigorously carrying through their cruel intention, to exterminate the Armenian people,"" Carl Wandel wrote on 3 July 1915. The Bishop of Karput was ordered to leave Aleppo within 48 hours ""and it has later been learned that this Bishop and all the clergy that accompanied him have been ... killed between Diyarbekir and Urfa at a place where approximately 1,700 Armenian families have suffered the same fate ... In Angora ... approximately 6,000 men ... have been shot on the road ... even here in Constantinople (Istanbul), Armenians are being abducted and sent to Asia ..."" - -Attack by Kurds -The first sign of dangers was the appearance on the plain of bands of Kurds from the regions north and east. Villages were attacked, looted and burned, while the villagers were killed or scattered. For a time the marauders seemed to hold aloof from the city itself, but as they kept on their course of pillage their appetite for plunder was whetted, and they looked with avaricious eyes at the city on the hill. - -Related pages - Armenian Genocide - Hamidian massacres - -References - -Armenian Genocide -Massacres in Turkey" -21943,83554,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarwangen,Aarwangen,"Aarwangen is a municipality of the administrative district of Oberaargau in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - -Official Website of Aarwangen -Bern: Schloss Aarwangen - Le château de Aarwangen (in French but with stunning photos) - -Municipalities of Bern" -19250,73063,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore%20Chass%C3%A9riau,Théodore Chassériau,"Théodore Chassériau (September 20, 1819 – October 8, 1856) was a French romantic painter noted for his portraits, historical and religious paintings, and images inspired by his travels to Algeria. - -Life and work - -Chassériau was born in El Limón, Samaná, in Saint Domingue (now the Dominican Republic). Her mother, Maria Magdalena Couret de la Blagniére, was born in Haiti but she moved with her parents to Santo Domingo when the Haitian revolution. At that time, the eastern part of Hispaniola was a French colony. There she met Bénoit Chassériau and soon they got married and moved to Samaná. - -When the eastern part of the Hispaniola became again a colony of Spain, the family moved to Venezuela and Jamaica. Then, in 1821, the family went to live in Paris, France. Théodore was three years old at that time. - -In 1830, at the age of eleven, he started to study with Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, and soon he became the favorite pupil of the great classicist. - -After Ingres left Paris in 1834 to become director of the French Academy in Rome, Chassériau fell under the influence of Eugène Delacroix, a well-known romantic painter. From that moment on, Chassériau tried to combine the two styles. - -His works could be grouped in two periods: -The classical period, with works like -Portrait of Adéle Chassériau (1836) -Christ on the Mount of Olives (1839) -The Two Sisters (1843) -The romantic period, with works like -Arab Chiefs Visiting Their Vassals (1849) -Jewish Women on a Balcony (1849) -The Tepidarium (1853) - -Chassériau died when he was 37 years old in Paris, on October 8, 1856. - -Other websites -Théodore Chassériau exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Retrieved on 2007-10-03. - -References - -1819 births -1856 deaths -French painters -Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris" -7938,26221,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan,Ramadan,"Ramadan (sometimes spelled Ramadhan) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which Muslims fast or do not eat or drink during the daytime. - -Overview -The date for the start of Ramadan is slightly different each year, depending on the position of the moon. Once Ramadan starts, Muslims should not eat or drink between dawn and sunset. This usually continues for thirty days, but sometimes twenty-nine days. - -Fasting is supposed to teach Muslims about patience and ibadah (faith). It is a time for Muslims to think about how the poor and homeless suffer without lots of food, it helps Muslims to be more obedient, and less greedy. During Ramadan, Muslims ask to be forgiven for their sins, and they pray for help in stopping them from doing bad things. -Muslims believe Ramadan is the month in which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad. - -Not everyone has to fast in Ramadan. Children do not have to fast. They should start when they reach the age of puberty, so long as they are healthy. People who are travelling long distances do not have to fast. Pregnant women do not have to if they think it might harm their unborn baby. Sometimes sportsmen do not observe the fast, although there are disagreements about this. For example, the Olympic Games in 2012 fell in the middle of the holy month. This made it very difficult for the sportsmen who could not eat or drink during daytime. - -When the sun goes down and it gets dark the Muslim people will start eating again (this is called ""breaking the fast""). This meal is known as Iftar. There are often big meals enjoyed together by lots of Muslims. -. Sometimes markets open after Iftar and stay open during the night. Ramadan is also the month when the ""Quran"" was sent down into Earth by an Angel called ""Jibrill"" (""Gabriel""). - -References - -Other websites - Ramadan 2016 - Islamic calendar makkah - -Arabic words and phrases -Islamic calendar" -2327,7619,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagar%20the%20Horrible,Hagar the Horrible,"Hägar the Horrible is the title of a comic strip and the name of the main character. The comic strip is about a Viking and his life of plundering and his family life. It was started in 1973 by Dik Browne. Since Dik's retirement (he stopped working) in 1988, his son Chris has continued the comic. - -Comic strips -Comics characters" -14041,52022,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension%20bridge,Suspension bridge,"A suspension bridge is a type of bridge that has been made since ancient times as early as 100 AD. Some simple suspension bridges, for use by pedestrians and livestock, are still constructed, based upon the ancient Inca rope bridge. - -Suspended from two high locations over a river or canyon, simple suspension bridges follow a shallow downward arc and are not suited for modern roads and railroads. - -The design of the modern suspended-deck suspension bridge was developed in the early 19th century. It can cross a longer span than other kinds of bridges. - -The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge is the world's longest suspension bridge. - -References - -Other websites - - Sructurae, Suspension Bridges - Bridgemeister, Suspension Bridges" -24402,94057,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossflower,Mossflower,"Mossflower is a fantasy book that was written in 1988 by Brian Jacques. It is the second book in the Redwall series, and was translated into eight different languages besides English. - -Redwall -1988 books -Fantasy books" -85,162,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin,Coin,"A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. Coins have been made for about 2600 years. The first place to make coins was Lydia (modern Turkey). These coins were made of precious metals and allowed people to trade with a standard amount of metal. - -Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints. - -Appearance -Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a famous or important person's head on it. - -The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called ""tossing a coin"". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called ""heads"", if the other side is facing up it is called ""tails"". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries. - -Other views -Some people see coins as a sign of greed, such as some Communists and Puritans, who sometimes condemn over-hoarding of coins, and ascetics, who often keep little in the ways of money (coins), leading a ""poor""-lifestyle. - -Collecting - -Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little. - -References - -Currency" -4407,13800,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation%20Portable,PlayStation Portable,"The PlayStation Portable, or PSP, is Sony's first video game console to be a handheld. It was made in Japan and came out there first on December 12, 2004. After that, it came out in North America on March 24, 2005 and came out in Europe on September 1, 2005. It was first announced in 2003 at E3 and then next year its first design was shown off. It can play PSP video games, as well as music, video, and pictures. To transfer music, videos, or pictures to a PSP, you must use a USB cable to send the files from a computer to it. The games and movies come on a disc called the ""Universal Media Disc"" which holds 1.8 GB (this is a lot more than a normal CD, but less than a DVD). A Memory Stick Pro Duo can also be used for memory storage. The PlayStation Portable is the first handheld game console to use a disc as its media storage instead of a cartridge. - -In January 2014, shipments of the PlayStation Portable ended in North America. They also ended in June 2014 in Japan and ended shipments to Europe by the end of 2014. - -Games and movies -There are over 700 games for the PSP. The movies look like the DVD. The reason the PSP can have movies is because the disc (Universal Media Disc) has a lot of memory space. In many countries, Spider-Man 2 (the movie) was included for free with the console. - -Wireless -The PSP is wireless, meaning it can connect to the Internet (and other PlayStation Portables) without any cables. This is called Wi-Fi. This allows players who are traveling to download items, surf the web and play online. The PlayStation Portable can also connect with the PlayStation 3 as a sort of remote control for movie playback and for downloading content. - -Versions -There are five versions of the PlayStation Portable, the PSP-1000 (also known as ""PSP fat""), PSP-2000 (""slim and light"" edition, a lighter version of the original PSP), PSP-3000 (""bright and light"" edition, that includes a built in microphone and improved LCD), PSP-N1000 (or PSP Go, with a sliding screen design, bluetooth and internal storage of 16GB replacing the UMD drive.) and PSP-E1000 (similar to PSP-3000, but without stereo sound, Wi-Fi and microphone). -Sony subsequently released the successor to the PSP, the PlayStation Vita, in Japan on December 17, 2011 and starting worldwide on February 22, 2012. - -Competition -The PlayStation Portable is similar to the Nintendo DS, because they are both for games you can take with you. However, Nintendo and Sony said they were made for different people. The DS has sold more units than the PSP. - -References - -2004 establishments -2014 disestablishments -Handheld video games -PlayStation -Sony -Sony consoles" -2538,8092,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928,1928,"1928 (MCMXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday in the Gregorian calendar. It was a leap year starting on Saturday in the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the obsolete Julian calendar. It was also the last year when the Julian calendar was used until Tuesday, January 1, 1929, when every state in the entire world had adopted the Gregorian calendar. - -Events - January 31 – Leon Trotsky is exiled to Kazakhstan - February 8 – British inventor John Logie Baird sends the first television signal across the Atlantic Ocean, from London to New York - May 7 – The United Kingdom gives equal voting rights to women by passing the Representation of the People Act. This law allows women to vote when they are 21 years old, like men. Before this, women could not vote until they were 30. - June 9 – Australian flyer Charles Kingsford Smith finishes the first airplane flight across the Pacific Ocean. - September 28 – Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin - October 2 – Josemaria Escriva starts Opus Dei. - -Births - January 5 – Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan and 4th President (died 1979). - March 6 - Glyn Owen, Welsh actor (died 2004) - March 20 – Fred Rogers, American television children's program host and writer (died 2003). - April 23 – Shirley Temple, American child actress and diplomat (died 2014). - May 4 – Hosni Mubarak, 4th President of Egypt and Prime Minister (died 2020). - May 23 - Nigel Davenport, British actor (died 2013). - June 14 – Che Guevara, Argentinian Marxist revolutionary (died 1967). - July 26 – Stanley Kubrick, American movie director (died 1999). - August 22 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer (died 2007). - December 1 - Malachi Throne, American television actor (died 2013). - December 30 – Bo Diddley, American rock and roll musician (died 2008). - -Deaths - February 4 – Hendrik Lorentz, Dutch physicist and mathematician" -7112,22516,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20A.%20Michener,James A. Michener,"James Albert Michener ( or ; February 3, 1907 – October 16, 1997) was an American writer. His books include Tales of the South Pacific, Hawaii, The Drifters, Texas, and Poland. Most of his 40 books are very large sagas. They are about the lives of many generations in a particular place. His non-fiction writings include the 1992 book The World is My Home and Sports in America. - -Michener wrote that he did not know who his parents were or exactly when and where he was born. He was raised by an adoptive mother, Mabel Michener, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. Some have argued that Mabel was his birth mother. He graduated from Swarthmore College, where he played basketball, in 1929. He later studied at the Colorado State Teachers College. He taught there for several years. He also taught at Harvard University. - -His writing career began during World War II. He was assigned to the South Pacific Ocean as a naval historian. He used his time there as the basis for Tales of the South Pacific, his first book. This book was the basis for the musical South Pacific. - -Michener met his wife Mari while in Japan. His novel Sayonara is autobiographical. - -On January 10, 1977, he was given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Gerald R. Ford. - -In his final years, he lived in Austin, Texas, where he died of kidney failure on October 16, 1997 at the age of 90. - -Books by James A. Michener - Alaska - The Bridge at Andau - The Bridges at Toko-Ri - Caravans - Caribbean - Centennial - A Century of Sonnets - Chesapeake - Collectors, Forgers - And A Writer: A Memoir - The Covenant - Creatures of the Kingdom - The Drifters - The Eagle and The Raven - The Fires of Spring - The Floating World - Hawaii - Iberia - Japanese Prints - Journey - Kent State: What Happened and Why - Legacy - Literary Reflections - Mexico - Miracle in Seville - The Novel - Pilgrimage: A Memoir of Poland and Rome - Poland - Presidential Lottery - The Quality of Life - Rascals in Paradise - Recessional - Return to Paradise - Sayonara - Six Days in Havana - The Source - Space - Sports in America - Tales of the South Pacific - Texas - The World is My Home - This Noble Land - Ventures in Editing - The Voice of Asia - Years of Infamy - -References - -1907 births -1997 deaths -Deaths from renal failure -Writers from Pennsylvania -Writers from Hawaii -Writers from Austin, Texas -Harvard University faculty -Educators from Pennsylvania -Educators from Hawaii -Educators from Austin, Texas" -24485,94727,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20Magic%20Kingdom,Virtual Magic Kingdom,"Virtual Magic Kingdom was an online game community run by Disney. It was made to be an online version of the Magic Kingdom in Disney World which is in Florida. The game opened in 2005 and closed in 2008. - -Online games" -1420,4995,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU,GNU,"GNU is the name of a computer operating system. The name is short for GNU's Not Unix. Richard Stallman leads the GNU Project. The popular Linux operating systems made using Linux kernel include many GNU tools. So, many projects and developers call the Linux-based operating systems GNU/Linux. - -The GNU project was started by Richard Stallman in 1983. His wanted to create a computer system that was all free and open source software. Users could change, share and publish new work based on GNU. He and a group of developers started by creating copies of each piece of Unix software. The rest of GNU was the kernel, called the GNU Hurd, which is not yet finished. The more popular Linux kernel is used instead. - -Other websites - - GNU User Groups - -Operating systems -GNU project" -7565,24432,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Richter,Charles Richter,"Charles Francis Richter (April 26, 1900 – September 30, 1985) was an American seismologist (someone who studies earthquakes) and a physicist. He is known for creating the Richter scale of magnitude, which says how big an earthquake is. - -Childhood -Richter went to work at the Carnegie Institute in 1927 after Robert Millikan offered him a position as a research assistant there, where he began a collaboration with Beno Gutenberg. The Seismology Lab at the California Institute of Technology wanted to begin publishing regular reports on earthquakes in southern California and had a pressing need for a system of measuring the strength of earthquakes for these reports. Together, Richter and Gutenberg devised the scale that would become known at the Richter scale to fill this need, based on measuring quantitatively the displacement of the earth by seismic waves, as Kiyoo Wadati had suggested. - -Other websites -Charles Richter interview, at USGS -Charles F. Richter Papers, Caltech Archives - -1900 births -1985 deaths -American physicists -Scientists from Ohio" -10159,35032,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid%20Lindgren,Astrid Lindgren,"Astrid Anna Emilia Lindgren (born Astrid Ericsson; November 14, 1907 – January 28, 2002) was a famous Swedish writer. She wrote many books for children. She had a son named Lars. - -Biography - -Astrid Lindgren grew up in Näs, near Vimmerby, Småland, and many of her books are based on her family and childhood memories. However, Pippi Longstocking, her most famous character, was invented for her daughter Karin, who was, at the time, ill and had to stay in the bed. - -Lindgren was the daughter of Samuel August Ericsson and Hanna Johnsson. She had two sisters. Her brother, Gunnar Ericsson, was a member of the Swedish parliament. She finished the school and took a job with the a local newspaper in Vimmerby. When she became pregnant with the chief editor's child in 1926, he proposed marriage. She did not accept, and moved to Stockholm, learning to become a typist and stenographer. There she gave birth to her son Lars in Copenhagen and left him with another family to care for him. - -Although poorly paid, she saved whatever she could and travelled as often as possible to Copenhagen to be with Lars; often just over a weekend, spending most of her time on the train back and forth. Eventually, she managed to bring Lars home, leaving him in the care of her parents until she could afford to raise him in Stockholm. In 1931 she married her boss, Sture Lindgren (1898-1952). Three years later, in 1934, Lindgren gave birth to her second child, Karin, who later became a translator. The family moved in 1941 to an apartment on Dalagatan, with a view over Vasaparken, where Astrid lived until her death. - -Astrid Lindgren died in 2002, at the age of 94. - -Politics -In 1976, they had a scandal in Sweden when Lindgren's had to pay taxes 102% of her income. This is known as the ""Pomperipossa effect"" from a story, which she published in Expressen on 3 March 1976. -Astrid Lindgren was well known both for her support for children's and animal rights, and for her opposition to corporal punishment. In 1994, she received the Right Livelihood Award (also known as the Alternative Nobel Prize), ""...For her commitment to justice, non-violence and understanding of minorities as well as her love and caring for nature."" - -Books -Some of her books include: -The Pippi Longstocking series (Pippi Långstrump) -The Six Bullerby Children (Barnen i Bullerbyn) -Mio, my Mio (also known as Mio, my Son) (Mio, min Mio) -Karlsson-on-the-Roof -Madicken -Emil of Lönneberga -The Brothers Lionheart (Bröderna Lejonhjärta) -Ronia the Robber's Daughter (Ronja rövardotter) - -References -1. ^ John-Henri, Holmberg (1997/1999), ""Scandinavia"", in Clute, John, and John Grant, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, New York: St. Martin's Griffin, pp. 841 . - -1907 births -2002 deaths -Swedish children's writers" -693,3259,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess,Chess,"Chess is a board game for two players. It is played in a square board, made of 64 smaller squares, with eight squares on each side. Each player starts with sixteen pieces: eight pawns, two knights, two bishops, two rooks, one queen and one king. The goal of the game is for each player to try and checkmate the king of the opponent. Checkmate is a threat ('check') to the opposing king which no move can stop. It ends the game. - -During the game the two opponents take turns to move one of their pieces to a different square of the board. One player ('White') has pieces of a light color; the other player ('Black') has pieces of a dark color. There are rules about how pieces move, and about taking the opponent's pieces off the board. The player with white pieces always makes the first move. Because of this, White has a small advantage, and wins more often than Black in tournament games. - -Chess is popular and is often played in competitions called chess tournaments. It is enjoyed in many countries, and is a national hobby in Russia. - -History - -Most historians agree that the game of chess was first played in northern India during the Gupta Empire in the 6th century AD. This early type of chess was known as Chaturanga, a Sanskrit word for the military. The Gupta chess pieces were divided like their military into the infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots. In time, these pieces became the pawn, knight, bishop, and rook. The English words chess and check both come from the Persian word shāh meaning king. - -The earliest written evidence of chess is found in three romances (epic stories) written in Sassanid Persia around 600AD. The game was known as chatrang or shatranj. When Persia was taken over by Muslims (633–644) the game was spread to all parts of the Muslim world. Muslim traders carried the game to Russia and to Western Europe. By the year 1000 it had spread all over Europe. In the 13th century a Spanish manuscript called Libro de los Juegos describes the games of shatranj (chess), backgammon, and dice. - -The game changed greatly between about 1470 to 1495. The rules of the older game were changed in the West so that some of the pieces (queen, bishop) had more scope, development of the pieces was faster, and the game more exciting. The new game formed the basis of modern international chess. Historians of chess consider this as the most important change since the game was invented. - -Rules -The rules of chess are governed by the World Chess Federation, which is known by the initials FIDE, meaning Fédération Internationale des Échecs. The rules are in the section Laws of Chess of the FIDE Handbook. FIDE also give rules and guidelines for chess tournaments. - -Setup -Chess is played on a square board divided into eight rows of squares called ranks and eight columns called files, with a dark square in each player's lower left corner. This is altogether 64 squares. The colors of the squares are laid out in a checker (chequer) pattern in light and dark squares. To make speaking and writing about chess easy, each square has a name. Each rank has a number from 1 to 8, and each file a letter from a to h. This means that every square on the board has its own label, such as g1 or f5. The pieces are in white and black sets. The players are called White and Black, and at the start of a game each player has 16 pieces. The 16 pieces are one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights and eight pawns. - -Movement - -Definitions: vertical lines are files; horizontal lines are ranks; lines at 45° are diagonals. -Each piece has its own way of moving around the board. The X marks the squares where the piece can move. - The knight is the only piece that can jump over another piece. - No piece may move to a square occupied by a piece of the same color. - All pieces capture the same way they move, except pawns. - - The king (K for short) can move one square in any direction. The king may not move to any square where it is threatened by an opposing piece. However, the king can move to a square that is occupied by an opponent's piece and capture the piece, taking it off the board. - The queen (Q) can move any distance in any direction on the ranks, files and diagonals. - The rooks (R) move any distance on the ranks or files. - The bishops (B) move diagonally on the board. Since a bishop can only move diagonally, it will always be on the same color square. - The knights (Kt or N) move in an ""L"" shape. Each move must be either two squares along a rank and one square along a file, or two squares along a file and one square along a rank. It is the only piece that can jump over other pieces. Like the other pieces, it captures an opposing piece by landing on its square. - The pawns can only move up the board. On its first move a pawn may move either one or two squares forward. A pawn captures one square diagonally, not as it moves: see white circles on its diagram. In some situations, pawns can capture opponent's pawns in a special way called en passant, which means in passing in French (see below). - -Capturing -Most pieces capture as they move. If a piece lands on an opponent's piece, the opposing piece is taken off the board. There are three special cases: - The king cannot be taken (see check and checkmate). - No piece can be taken while castling (see below). - Pawns take one square diagonally. - -Check and checkmate - -If a move is made which attacks the opposing king, that king is said to be 'in check'. The player whose king is checked must make a move to remove the check. The options are: moving the king, capturing the threatening piece, or moving another piece between the threatening piece and the king. If the player whose king is in danger cannot do any of these things, it is checkmate, and the player loses the game. - -Special moves - -Castling - -Once in every game, each king can make a special move, known as castling. When the king castles, it moves two squares to the left or right. When this happens, the rook is moved to stand on the opposite side of the King. Castling is only allowed if all of these rules are kept:p120 - - Neither piece doing the castling may have been moved during the game. - There must be no pieces between the king and the rook. - The king may not be currently in check, nor may the king pass through any square attacked by the opponent. As with any move, castling is not allowed if it would place the king in check. - -En passant - -En passant ('in passing' in French) is a special capture. It is only available when a pawn moves forward two squares past an opposing pawn on an adjacent file. The opposing pawn must be on the 5th rank from its own side. Then the opponent's pawn can capture the double-mover as if it had only moved one square forward. This option is open on the next move only. - -For example, if the black pawn has just moved up two squares from g7 to g5, then the white pawn on f5 can take it by en passant on g6. The en passant rule was developed when pawns were allowed to make their double move. The rule made it more difficult for players to avoid pawn exchanges and blockade the position. It kept the game more open. - -Promotion -When a pawn moves to its eighth rank, it must be changed for a piece: a queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color (player's choice). Normally, the pawn is queened, but in some advantageous cases another piece is chosen, called 'under-promotion'. - -Ways a game may end -Checkmates are rare in competitive chess. The most common ends are decisions made by one or both players. - -Wins - Checkmate. When a king is in check, and cannot get out of it. - Resignation. A player may resign at any time, usually because their position is hopeless. A losing player is able to resign by placing their king on its side on the chessboard. - Out of time. If player's clock time is over (exceeding the time control). Strictly speaking, this is not part of the rules of the game, but part of the rules of tournament and match chess where chess clocks are used.Chapter 8 - -Draws - Draw agreed. A game may end in a draw at any time if one player offers a draw and the other accepts. - Insufficient Material Or Dead Position . A position where no series of legal moves could lead to a mate (example: K+B vs K). The game is drawn.p92 - Stalemate. If a player cannot make a move, and the player's king is not in check, this is also a draw. This kind of draw is called a stalemate, and is rare. - 50-move rule. A game will also end in a draw if no piece is captured and no pawn has moved after fifty moves. This is called the fifty-move rule, and happens late in the game. - Threefold repetition. If the exactly same position is repeated three times during a game with the same player to move each time, the player next to move may claim a draw. The game is now drawn. This is called a draw by threefold repetition. - -Competition rules -The FIDE rules for competitive chess include all the above rules, plus several others.p92 et seq - -Touch and move law -If players wish to adjust a piece on the board, they must first say ""J'adoube"" (I adjust) or the equivalent. Apart from that, if a piece is touched it must be moved if possible. This is the 'touch and move' law.p425 If no legal move is possible with the touched piece, the player must make a legal move with another piece.Section 4p90 et seq When a player's hand leaves a piece after moving it then the move is over and may not be changed (if the move was legal). - -There are a few famous cases where players appeared to break this rule without being punished. The most famous example was by the then World Champion Garry Kasparov against Judit Polgar in a top-class tournament. - -Chess clocks -Competitive games of chess must be played with special chess clocks which time a player only when it is his/her turn to move. The essence is that a player has to make a certain number of moves in a certain total time. After moving, the player presses a button on the clock. This stops the player's clock, and start's the opponent's clock. Usually the clocks are mechanical, but some are electronic.Article 6p92 et seq Electronic clocks can be set to various programs, and they can count moves made.chapter 8 - -Notation for recording moves - -The moves of a chess game are written down by using a special chess notation. This is compulsory for any competitive game.Article 8 & Appendix E Usually algebraic chess notation is used. In algebraic notation, each square has one and only one name (whether you are looking from White's side of the board or Black's). Here, moves are written in the format of: initial of piece moved – file where it moved – rank where it moved. For example, Qg5 means ""queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank"" (that is, to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move to the same square, one more letter or number is added to show the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. Ngf3 means ""knight from the g-file moves to the square f3"". The letter P showing a pawn is not used, so that e4 means ""pawn moves to the square e4"". - -If the piece makes a capture, ""x"" is written before the square in which the capturing piece lands on. Example: Bxf3 means ""bishop captures on f3"". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn left is used in place of a piece initial. For example: exd5 means ""pawn captures on d5."" - -If a pawn moves to its eighth rank, getting a promotion, the piece chosen is written after the move, for example e1Q or e1=Q. Castling is written by the special notations 0-0 for kingside castling and 0-0-0 for queenside. A move which places the opponent's king in check normally has the notation ""+"" added. Checkmate can be written as # or ++. At the end of the game, 1-0 means ""White won"", 0-1 means ""Black won"" and ½-½ is a draw. - -In print, figurines (like those in diagrams, but smaller) are used for the pieces rather than initials. This has the advantage of being language-free, whereas the initials of pieces are different in every language. Typefaces which include figurines can be purchased by chess authors. Also, basic notes can be added by using a system of well-known punctuation marks and other symbols. For example: ! means a good move, !! means a very good move, ? means a bad move, ?? a very bad move (sometimes called a blunder), !? a creative move that may be good, and ?! a doubtful move. The purpose of these methods is to make publications readable in a wider range of countries. For example, one kind of a simple ""trap"" known as the Scholar's mate, as in the diagram to the right, may be recorded: - -1. e4 e5 -2. Qh5?! Nc6 -3. Bc4 Nf6?? (3...Qe7 would prevent the mate, with 4...Nf6 next move) -4. Qxf7# 1-0 - -With figurines in place of the initials, this would be understood by players everywhere. - -Playing arena -Players may not smoke in the playing area, but only in areas designated by the organiser. Mobile phones may not be used or even switched on. Players may not use any sources of advice, and may not analyse on any device. These and other matters are covered by the FIDE Laws on the conduct of the players.Article 12 - -Stages of a game -Chess is an easy game to learn the moves, but a difficult game to master. Strategy is an important part of the game. First of all comes the openings, about which a great deal is now known. The best-known move, the King's Pawn opening, is the white player moving his king's pawn on e2 forward two spaces to e4. Black can reply to that move in various ways. - -Opening - -The first moves of a chess game are called the opening. A chess opening is a name given to a series of opening moves. Recognized patterns of opening moves are openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian defence. They are listed in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings. They range from gambits, where a pawn, say, is offered for fast development (e.g. the King's Gambit), to slower openings which lead to a maneuvering type of game (e.g. the Réti opening). In some opening lines, the sequence thought best for both sides has been worked out to 20–30 moves, but most players avoid such lines. Expert players study openings throughout their chess career, as opening theory keeps on developing. - -The basic aims of the opening phase are: - Development: to place (develop) the pieces (mostly bishops and knights) on useful squares where they will have the most powerful impact on the game. - Control of the center: the center is the most important part of the board. The player who controls the center can move his/her pieces around freely. His/her opponent, on the other hand, will find his/her pieces cramped, and difficult to move about. - King safety: keeping the king safe from danger. Castling (see section above) can often do this. - Pawn structure: pawns can be used to control the center. Players try to avoid making pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. - -Players think, and chess databases prove, that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a better chance. Black normally tries to equalise, or to get some counterplay. - -Middlegame - -The middlegame is the part of the game after most pieces have been developed. It is where most games are won and lost. Many games will end in resignation even before an endgame takes place. - -A middlegame position has a structure. That structure is determined by the opening. The simplest way to learn the middlegame is to select an opening and learn it well (see examples in English opening and French defence). - -These are some things to look for when looking at a middlegame position: - Material: changes in the balance of material are critical. To lose a piece for nothing is enough to lose a game. If the players are evenly matched, then a rough material balance of pieces is normal. Material balance is often quite static: it does not change for many moves. - Development: the opening may have left one player with a lead in development. That player has the initiative, and may attack before the opponent can get his pieces out. It is a temporary asset: if a lead in development is not used effectively, it will disappear. - The centre: in the centre pieces have their greatest effect, and some (such as the knight) attack more squares in the centre than at the sides. The player who controls the centre will almost always have the advantage. - Mobility: a position is mobile if the pieces can get where they need to. Almost all middle game positions have some limitations to mobility. Look for open files for the rooks, and open diagonals for the bishops. Outposts are what knights need, places where they can not easily be dislodged. - King safety: where is the king? Ideally, a king should be castled, and kept behind a screen of pawns. Many other things may happen in practice. If a king is weak, it may be put under direct attack. - Pawns: they provide the skeleton of a position. They move slowly, and may become blocked for many moves. Everything takes place round the pawns. Different openings produce different pawn structures. In this way openings influence the whole game (Philidor: ""Pawns are the soul of chess""). - -Here is an example from the borderline between opening and middlegame. In the diagram to the left, White will operate mainly on the Q-side, and Black on the K-side. - -White, to play, may wish to cope with Black playing 10...Nf4. He can do this by playing 10.g3, or by playing 10.Re1 so that if 10...Nf4 11.Bf1 will preserve the bishop (in this position an important defensive piece). Or maybe White will plough ahead with 10.c5, the key move on the Q-side. - -ChessBase shows that the number of tournament games with these choices were: - -10.Re1 2198 -10.g3 419 -10.c5 416 - -The data base also shows that the overall results were significantly better for 10.Re1. What the player does is note the features on the board, and formulate a plan which takes the features into account. Then the player works out a sequence of moves. Of course, in practice, the opponent is interfering with the plan at every step! - -Endgame -The endgame (or end game or ending) is the part of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier parts of the game and endgame: - - Pawns: during the endgame, pawns become more special. In the endgame, one thing players try to do is to promote a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank. - Kings: may become strong pieces in the endgame. The king may be brought towards the center of the board. There it can support its own pawns, attack the opponent's pawns, and oppose the opponent's king. - Draws: in the endgame, a game may be drawn because there are too few pieces on the board to allow a player to win. This is one of the main reasons for games to be drawn. - -All endgame positions can be put into two camps. On the one hand are positions which may be won by force. On the other hand, are positions which are drawn, or which should be drawn. The ones that are drawn for certain may be legally drawn (mate could not happen) or drawn by chess experience (no sane defence could lose). All endgames in master chess revolve around the borderline between winning and drawing. Generally, once a 'textbook' drawn position is reached the players will agree a draw; otherwise they play on. - -Endgames can be studied according to the types of pieces that remain on board. For example, king and pawn endgames have only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other endings are studied according to the pieces on board other than kings, e.g. rook and pawn versus rook endgame. - -Basic checkmates -Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces, enough to checkmate the opponent's king. They are usually learned at the beginner stage. Examples are mate with K+Q v K; K+R v K; K+2B v K; K+B&N v K (this one is quite difficult). - -Chess and computers - -There are two types of chess programs. One is to play against you; the other is to help you become a better player by learning more. The two types can be made to work together, though they have different functions. - -Chess engines -Chess engines are computer systems that can play chess games against human opponents. Quite a number have been devised; they can play at master level, though their processes are quite different from a human being.p87 - -Every year brings new advances, which if listed here would soon be out of date. Best advice is to go to English Wikipedia, who keep an up-to-date chart of the leading software: . - -Chess databases -Chess databases do not actually play. They give access to the recorded history of master chess. There are two components. First, there is the software, which lets one search and organise the database material. Then there is the actual database, typically one to four million games. - -In practice, databases are used for two purposes. First, for a player to train his/her ability at specific openings. Second, to look up specific opponents to see what they play, and prepare against them beforehand. - -The existence of chess databases is one of the reasons young players can achieve mastery at an early age. - -ChessBase -ChessBase is the biggest database, and widely used by masters. Although it can be used online, most users download the software and data onto their computer. If that computer happens to be a laptop, then they might take the laptop to tournaments, to help prepare for games. Players may not use computers or any other aid during games, but much preparation goes on behind the scenes. ChessBase has to be purchased, and it is not cheap. - -New in Chess -This is a Dutch magazine for advanced players, which runs an on-line database called NicBase as part of its services. NicBase is free, and has over a million games. - -Chessgames -Chessgames.com runs an on-line database of games. It is partly free, but requires registration. Full access to all its facilities is by a fairly modest subscription. It has over half a million games on its database. - -On-line playing sites -There are websites which a player can join (for a fee) and play on line. In this case, the subscriber will play against other subscribers, not a computer. All standards of players are amongst the members, and various events are on offer at different rates of play. The two leaders in this market are: -Internet Chess Club -Playchess - -Further reading - Burgess, Graham and John Nunn 1998. The mammoth book of the world's greatest chess games. Carroll & Graf. - Chandler, Murray 1998. How to beat your dad at chess. Gambit, London. (Improvers) - Chandler, Murray 2004. Chess for children. Gambit, London. (Beginners) - Euwe, Max and Kramer H. 1994. The middlegame, books I and II. Hays. and This goes further than improvers need, but might be used by chess teachers as a source of classic positions. - King, Daniel 2000. Chess: from first moves to checkmate. Kingfisher, London. Illustrated, 64 pages. (Beginners, children). - Polgar, Laszlo 2006. Chess: 5334 problems, combinations and games. Illustr. ed, Black Dog & Leventhal. - Pritchard, David Brine 2008. The right way to play chess. 8th ed, Right Way. (Beginners > impovers) - Silman, Jeremy 1997. How to reassess your chess. 3rd ed expanded, Siles. - - Ward, Chris 1994. Opening play (think like a chess master). Batsford, London. - Wolff, Patrick 2005. The complete idiot’s guide to chess. 3rd ed, Alpha, New York. (Beginners > improvers) - Znosko-Borovsky, Eugene 1980. The middle game in chess. Dover. (Improvers > intermediate) - -Endgames -These are endgames for improvers, based on reviews by John Watson. - Flear, Glenn 2000. Improve your endgame play. Everyman, London. - Seirawan, Yasser 2003. Winning chess endings. Everyman, London. - Silman, Jeremy 2007. Silman's complete endgame course: from beginner to master. Siles. - Snape, Ian 2003. Chess endings made simple. Gambit, London. - -Related pages - - List of World Chess Champions - List of chess terms - Chess Olympiad - History of chess - Middlegame - Shogi - -References" -15755,60332,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano%20trio,Piano trio,"The term “piano trio” can also be used in jazz. This article is about the piano trio in classical music. - -A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play. - -Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”. - -Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands. - -Famous music for piano trio - -Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname Archduke because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios. - -In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky. - -In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio. - -Famous piano trios - -Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century. -During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory. - -Musical groups -Piano" -9713,33129,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop,Bishop,"Bishop is a type of clergy in some Christian churches. The bishop is the leader of the Christians and the Christian priests in each diocese. The diocese which a bishop governs is called a bishopric. Episcopal is the adjective for bishops. A cathedral is the church building where the bishop has an episcopal throne. The cathedral is the main church of the diocese and the bishop's see. A bishop may be given the rank of archbishop in an archdiocese. - -Christian priests in some denominations must be made priests by bishops. In these denominations, bishops are above parish priests in the hierarchy of the church's organization. However, some Protestant denominations have no bishops or archbishops. The Presbyterianism is an example. The leader of the Church of Scotland is the Moderator. The General Assembly elects the Moderator of the Church of Scotland each year. Other Christian movements have neither bishops nor priests: Quakers are one example. - -In the Catholic church, the Pope is chosen by all the cardinals from amongst their number. According to church law, this does not have to be the case: any male, unmarried, baptized Christian who is judged fit for the office can become pope. However, the last pope who was not a bishop was Urban VI (elected in 1378). - -The pope is also 'the Bishop of Rome'. In fact he rules an independent state within Rome, called the Vatican. All Roman Catholic bishops answer to the pope (or to patriarchs in some orthodox churches). In the Anglican church, bishops are governed by Archbishops. - -Usually a bishop can be identified by a special hat, called a mitre. - -References - -Other websites - Bishop Citizendium - -Christian religious occupations" -14512,54676,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count%20Dooku,Count Dooku,"Count Dooku of Serenno (also known as Darth Tyranus) is a character from the Star Wars universe. Dooku is one of the major characters in Episode II: Attack of the Clones. He was played by late Christopher Lee. - -He is the second known student of Darth Sidious. Dooku is also the leader of the Confederacy of Independent Systems during the Clone Wars. - -Fictional characters introduced in 2002 -Star Wars characters" -12322,45443,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangram,Pangram,"Pangrams are sentences that have one or more of every letter in an alphabet. They are used to show every letter in a font, or to test a keyboard or typewriter. - -The most common example in English is ""The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."" - -Language" -22868,86792,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugaggia,Lugaggia,"Lugaggia was a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 20 April 2008 the former municipalities of Bidogno, Corticiasca and Lugaggia joined together and became the municipality of Capriasca. - -References - -Other websites - - - -Former municipalities of Ticino" -14700,55428,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold%20II%20of%20Belgium,Leopold II of Belgium,"Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor) (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909) was King of the Belgians. Born in Brussels the second (but oldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise of Orléans. He succeeded his father to the throne on 17 December 1865 and was king until his death. - -Biography -Leopold is mainly remembered as the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State. He lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He treated the people badly in order to make money. His harsh rule was responsible for the deaths of between five to 10 million Congolese people. The Congo became one of the most infamous international scandals of the early 20th century. As a result, Leopold II was forced to give control of it to the government of Belgium. Despite owning and ruling it as a dictator, Leopold II never visited the Congo Free State and Africa. - -Personal life -Leopold II married Archduchess Marie Henriette of Austria, in Brussels on 22 August 1853. - -On 15 November 1902, Italian anarchist Gennaro Rubino tried to assassinate Leopold. Rubino fired three shots at the King. The shots missed Leopold and Rubino was immediately arrested. Leopold II had a wedding ceremony with Caroline Lacroix, a prostitute, on 14 December 1909, five days before his death. This was not legal under Belgian law. - -He was succeeded as King of the Belgians by his nephew Albert, son of his brother Philippe. - -Titles and styles -9 April 1835 – 17 December 1865 His Royal Highness The Duke of Brabant, Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Duke in Saxony. -17 December 1865 – 17 December 1909 His Majesty The King of The Belgians. Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duke in Saxony. - -References - - - -1835 births -1909 deaths -Kings and Queens of Belgium -Human rights abuses -Knights of the Golden Fleece -People from Brussels" -5113,16321,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliwice,Gliwice,"Gliwice is a city in south Poland, in Silesian Voivodeship and along the Kłodnica River. According to a count in 2004, it has a population of 200,361 people. - -History of Gliwice -In the late Middle Ages, around 1276, was the first known time that there was a reference to Gliwice in history. At first, it was ruled by Polish dukes, but later became a part of Bohemia in 1335. Later on, in 1526, it was conquered by Austria. - -In the middle of the 18th century, Gliwice was taken from the Austrian ruling family and became a part of Prussia. However, in the unification, or coming together, of Germany in 1871, Gliwice became a part of the German empire. - -In the 19th century, Gliwice became more developed and was home to many businesses, including one of the most famous theaters in Germany at the time. - -In 1945, Gliwice passed into Polish rule. - -Other websites - http://www.gliwice.zobacz.slask.pl - http://www.gliwice.uc.gov.pl - -Cities in Poland" -7992,26491,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caregiver,Caregiver,"A caregiver, or carer, is someone who has the job of caring for people. They usually care for people who are unable to care for themselves, for example, children, disabled people, or the elderly. When a caregiver is assigned to look after a baby or a child they are sometimes called a babysitter. - -Related pages -Parent -Infant attachment - -Social sciences -Personal service occupations" -8423,28411,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy,Strategy,"Strategy is a word which was first used by the military. It comes from an ancient Greek word for the general officer commanding all the armed forces of a state. A strategy is a long term plan on what to do to achieve a certain goal. When talking about the near future, people often use the word tactics. Military theorist Carl von Clausewitz said ""tactics is the art of using troops in battle; strategy is the art of using battles to win the war"". Today, the word ""strategy"" is in common use; people might talk about ""business strategy"", for example. - -The distinction between strategy and tactics applies to any planning which might be done against an enemy or opponent. Strategy is what we broadly intend to do to reach our long-term goal or objective. Tactics is the detailed steps which are used as our progress is opposed by the opponent. For this reason, tactics are short-scale and flexible. Strategy, on the other hand, is changed as little as possible. It may be that our goal simply cannot be reached. In that case, a search goes on for a new goal and a new or adjusted strategy. Often, in war, chess or business, roughly the same tactics are still used to get to a different goal. Negotiation is another area where the distinction between strategy and tactics is especially clear. - -References - -Bibliography -Clausewitz, Carl von. 1989. On War, trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. -Gray, Colin S. 1999. Modern Strategy. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. -Liddell Hart, Basil. H. 1967. Strategy. New York: Praeger. -Luttwak, Edward. 2001. Strategy: the logic of war and peace. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. -Sun Tzu. 1963. The Art of War. trans. Samuel B. Griffith. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. -Watson, John 1998. Secrets of modern chess strategy: advances since Nimzowitsch. Gambit, London. - -Military -Games" -14479,54516,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bram%20Stoker,Bram Stoker,"Abraham ""Bram"" Stoker (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912) was an Irish writer. He is best remembered as the author of the classical and influential vampire (or devil) novel Dracula. - -Life -He was born on 8 November 1847 at 15 Marino Crescent—then as now called ""The Crescent""—in Clontarf, a coastal suburb of Dublin, Ireland. His parents were Abraham Stoker (born in 1799; married Stoker's mother in 1844; died on 10 October 1876) and the feminist Charlotte Mathilda Blake Thornley (born in 1818; died in 1901). Stoker was the third of seven children. Abraham and Charlotte were members of the Church of Ireland and attended the Clontarf parish church (St. John the Baptist) with their children where both were baptised. Until he started school at the age of seven—when he made a complete, surprising recovery—Stoker was sick. During that time, Stoker wrote, ""I was naturally thoughtful, and the leisure of long illness gave opportunity for many thoughts which were fruitful according to their kind in later years."" - -After his recovery, he became a normal young man even excelling as an athlete at Trinity College, Dublin (1864–70), from which he was graduated with honors in mathematics. He was auditor of the College Historical Society and president of the University Philosophical Society, where his first paper was on ""Sensationalism in Fiction and Society"". In 1876, while he was employed as a civil servant in Dublin, he wrote theater reviews for The Dublin Mail, a newspaper partly owned by fellow horror writer J. Sheridan Le Fanu. His interest in theater led to a lifelong friendship with the English actor Henry Irving. In 1878 Stoker married Florence Balcombe, a celebrated beauty whose former suitor was Oscar Wilde. The couple moved to London, where Stoker became business manager of Irving's Lyceum Theater, a post he held for 27 years. The collaboration with Irving was very important for Stoker. Through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met, among other notables, James McNeil Whistler and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In the course of Irving's tours he got the chance to travel around the world. - -They had one son, Irving Noel Stoker, who was born on 31 December 1879. - -Dracula - -He earned his money by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale Dracula which he published in 1897. Before writing Dracula, Stoker spent eight years researching European folklore and stories of vampires. Dracula is an epistolary novel, written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the Whitby and London newspapers. Stoker's inspiration for the story was a visit to Slains Castle near Aberdeen. The bleak spot provided an excellent backdrop for his creation. - -Dracula has been the basis for countless movies and plays. The first was Nosferatu directed by Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau and starring Max Schreck as Count Orlock. Nosferatu was produced while Florence Stoker, Bram Stoker's widow and literary executrix, was still alive. Represented by the attorneys of the British Incorporated Society of Authors, she eventually sued the filmmakers. Her chief legal complaint was that she had been neither asked for permission for the adaptation nor paid any royalty. The case dragged on for some years, with Mrs Stoker demanding the destruction of the negative and all prints of the movie. The suit was finally resolved in the widow's favour in July 1925. Some copies of the movie survived, however, and Nosferatu is now widely regarded as an innovative classic. The most famous movie version of Dracula is the 1931 production starring Bela Lugosi and which spawned several sequels that had little to do with Stoker's novel. - -Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none of them achieved the lasting fame or success of Dracula. His other novels include The Snake's Pass (1890), The Jewel of Seven Stars (1903), and The Lair of the White Worm (1911). - -Bibliography - -Novels - The Primrose Path (1875) - The Snake's Pass (1890) - The Watter's Mou' (1895) - The Shoulder of Shasta (1895) - Dracula (1897) - Miss Betty (1898) - The Mystery of the Sea (1902) - The Jewel of Seven Stars (1903) - The Man (AKA: The Gates of Life) (1905) - Lady Athlyne (1908) - Snowbound: The Record of a Theatrical Touring Party (1908) - The Lady of the Shroud (1909) - Lair of the White Worm (1911) - -Short story collections - - Under the Sunset (1881) - Dracula's Guest (1914) Published posthumously by Florence Stoker - -Uncollected stories - Bridal of Dead (alternative ending to The Jewel of Seven Stars) - Buried Treasures - The Chain of Destiny - The Crystal Cup (1872)- published by 'The London Society' - The Dualitists; or, The Death Doom of the Double Born - The Fate of Fenella (1892), Chapter 10, ""Lord Castleton Explains"" only. - The Gombeen Man - In the Valley of the Shadow - The Man from Shorrox''' - Midnight Tales The Red Stockade The Seer Non-fiction - The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland (1879) - A Glimpse of America (1886) - Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving (1906) - Famous Impostors (1910) - -Related pages - Blood from the Mummy's Tomb (film adaptation of The Jewel of Seven Stars'') - Bram Stoker Award - -References and notes - -Other websites - - Bram Stoker cultural Heritage visitor centre , Dublin - ""Bram Stoker: A Biography of the Author of Dracula"" - h2g2 article on Bram Stoker - Bram Stoker's brief biography and works - The Lair of the White Worm - dedicated site (film and novel) - 20 Common Misconceptions and Other Miscellaneous Information - -Online texts - - Full text of Dracura at the Project Gutenberg in various formats. - Bram Stoker Full text and PDF versions of most of Stoker's works. - Bram Stoker Books in HTML format. - -1847 births -1912 deaths -Irish novelists -Writers from Dublin" -23622,91091,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord%20Department,Nord Department,"Nord (English: North) is one of the ten departments (French: départments, singular départment) of Haiti. After the Haitian Revolution, the country was divided into only three departments: Nord, Ouest and Sud. The Nord-Est and Nord-Ouest departments were part of the Nord department. - -Its capital and largest city is Cap-Haïtien, founded in 1670 by Bertrand d'Orgeron and the old capital city of Saint-Domingue. It had the nickname of Paris of Saint-Domingue. - -Geography -The Départment du Nord has an area of 2,106 km². It is bordered to the northwest by the Nord-Ouest Department, to the east by the Nord-Est Department, to the southeast by the Centre Department and to the west by the Artibonite Department. The Atlantic Ocean is to the north. - -The main rivers of the department are Grande Rivière du Nord, Haut du Cap and Limbé. The rivers Trois-Rivières and Bouyaha have their sources in this department. All these rivers, except Bouyaha that is a tributary of the river Artibonite, flow to the north, into the Atlantic Ocean. - -The Massif du Nord mountain range, known in the Dominican Republic as Cordillera Central, runs from the northwest to the southeast along the southern half of the department. This Massif du Nord is formed by several chains and the most important, in this department, are the Chaine de la Grande Rivière du Nord and the 'Chaine de Saint Raphael. - -The Pleine du Nord (in English, ""Northern Plain"") is in the northern half of the department. - - Population -The department had, in the 2003 census, a population of 823,043 persons: 393,547 men and 429,496 women, with 325,318 (39.53%) living in cities and towns. - - Administrative division -The department is divided into seven arrondissements (like districts) and 19 communes'' (like municipalities). The ""arrondissements"" and their ""communes"" are: - Acul-du-Nord - Acul-du-Nord - Milot - Plaine-du-Nord - Borgne - Borgne - Port-Margot - Cap-Haïtien - Cap-Haïtien - Limonade - Quartier-Morin - Grand-Rivière du Nord - Grande-Rivière-du-Nord - Bahon - Limbé - Limbé - Bas-Limbé - Plaissance - Plaisance - Pilate - Saint-Raphaël - Saint-Raphaël - Dondon - La Victoire - Pignon - Ranquitte - -References - -Departments of Haiti" -10760,38415,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide,Cyanide,"Cyanides are chemicals that contain the cyano-group C≡N. Organic compounds that contain the CN group are called nitriles. In that group a carbon atom has three chemical bonds to a nitrogen atom. The group is present in many substances. Those substances that can release the compound CN are highly poisonous. - -Certain bacteria, fungi and algae are able to produce cyanides. Cyanides are also found in certain foods or plants, such as cassava. The cyanides serve as a defense against being eaten by herbivores. - -In popular culture, cyanides are said to be highly toxic. There are some cyanides that are, but others that are not. Prussian blue, a cyanide compound, is given as a treatment to poisoning with thallium and caesium, for example. - -The poisons referred to are usually hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and the chemicals which are similar to it, like potassium cyanide (KCN), and sodium cyanide (NaCN). They are derivatives of hydrogen cyanide. The single most hazardous compound is hydrogen cyanide, which is a gas and kills by inhalation. - -Antidote -Hydroxocobalamin reacts with cyanide to form cyanocobalamin, which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys. This antidote kit is sold under the brand name Cyanokit and was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2006. - -References - -Chemical compounds -Poisons" -18462,69313,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner%20Temple,Inner Temple,"The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple is one of the four Inns of Court around the Royal Courts of Justice in London. They may call members to the Bar and allow them to practice as barristers. (The other Inns are Middle Temple, Gray's Inn and Lincoln's Inn.) - -The Inner Temple was first recorded as being used for legal purposes when lawyers' houses were burned down in Wat Tyler's revolt in 1381. Before that date, the Temple was occupied by the Knights Templar. The Inner Temple was damaged during the wartime bombings in the areas surrounding the River Thames. - -Famous members - -Geoffrey Chaucer (reputed) -Thomas de Littleton -William Catesby -Sir Edward Coke -Sir Francis Drake -Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester -Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex -Christopher Hatton -Thomas Morton, a member of the associated Inn of Chancery Clifford's Inn -William Wycherly -Judge Jeffreys -James Boswell -Samuel Johnson (resided at the Inner Temple for a period, though not a member) -William Paca -Karl Pearson, and his father William Pearson, QC -George Phillippo -Thomas Hughes -William Schwenk Gilbert -Bram Stoker -Mohandas Gandhi (called 1891, disbarred 1922, reinstated 1988) -John Maynard Keynes -Clement Attlee -Jawaharlal Nehru -Mohammed Ali Jinnah -Cecil Rhodes -Ivy Williams, the first female barrister -A.J.P. Taylor -Seretse Khama, president of Botswana (admitted 1946) -Derry Irvine -Lord Woolf -Elizabeth Butler-Sloss -Jack Straw -Michael Howard -John Mortimer (whose best-known creation, Horace Rumpole, was also an Inner Templar) -Richard Searby -Malcolm Bishop -Thomas Willing -Musa Alami -Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad -Tunku Abdul Rahman - -Other websites -Inner Temple website -Inner Temple Banqueting website - -Inns of Court" -21157,81064,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacallo,Vacallo,"Vacallo is a municipality of the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -The current population is almost 3,000 people. The coat of arms of Vacallo is a V with three bunches of grapes. Each bunch of grapes symbolises the three parishes or 'frazione' of the municipality. - -References - -Other websites - Official website of the municipality of Vacallo - Page with some pictures - Primary school - SAV Basket team - -Municipalities of Ticino" -11987,44062,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojiya%2C%20Niigata,"Ojiya, Niigata","Ojiya (Japanese: 小千谷（おぢや）市;-shi) is a city in Niigata, Japan. As of July 16, 2003, 40,342 people lived in the city. Ojiya's total area is . The Lord Mayor of Ojiya is Yasuo Yatsui - -An earthquake of magnitude 7.2 struck Ojiya on October 23, 2004 at 17:56 local time. The earthquake killed 51 people. 4,795 people were injured. 16,910 buildings and houses were destroyed. The amount of damage was 3,000,000,000 Yen ($32.5M US). - -Ecomony -Ojiya has many types of industry. Electronics companies Sanyo electric and Panasonic are located in the city. It also has textile companies. The main agricultural crop in the city is rice. Ojiya is the largest miner of natural gas in Japan. - -Events -There are several festivals each year in Ojiya. - -Events Ojiya festival (August 24 and 25) -Katakai festival (September 9 and 10) - (The Katakai festival is known to set off the biggest fireworks display in the world) -Balloon festival (February 25 and 26) - -Cities in Japan -Settlements in Niigata Prefecture" -5388,17577,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1625,1625," - -Events - -Births - -Deaths -January 7 – Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer -March 7 – Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572) -March 25 – Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569) -March 27 – King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566) -March 29 – Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549) -April 23 – Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567) -April 27 – Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553) -June 1 – Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568) -June 5 – Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583) -August – John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579) -September 20 – Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555) -September 26 – Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579) -October 22 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561) -December 9 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547) -Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler" -6132,19654,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species,Species,"A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used. - -All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried. - -Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things. - -There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: ""King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti"". - -Example -Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver: - Kingdom: Animalia - Phylum: Chordata - Class: Aves - Order: Gaviiformes - Family: Gaviidae - Genus: Gavia - Species: Gavia immer - Common name: Common Loon or Great Northern Diver. - -Historical changes in the term -There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species. - -Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species). - -It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution. - -The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas. - -Numbers -According to the most recent estimate, there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses. - -Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete. - -Related pages - Wikispecies - -References - -Taxonomy" -2558,8135,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Crichton,Michael Crichton,"Michael Crichton (October 23, 1942 – November 4, 2008) was an American author of many books. His books were usually in the science fiction, medical fiction, and thriller genres. He was also a producer, director, and doctor. - -Crichton is well known for writing novels that later became well-known Hollywood movies. His most famous work was Jurassic Park. Other examples of Crichton's novels that later went on to become big-budget films include Congo, The Lost World, Rising Sun, and Sphere. - -Crichton has also created the ER television show. - -Crichton was born in Chicago, Illinois. He was 69"" tall. He was married five times. He had a daughter from his fourth marriage. - -In November 4, 2008, he died of throat cancer and lymphoma in Los Angeles, California, aged 66. He was looked down on by some as a climate change denier In February 2009, his widow gave birth to his only, posthumous son, John Michael Todd Crichton. - -Further reading - -References - -Other websites - -1942 births -2008 deaths -American movie directors -American movie producers -American novelists -Screenwriters from Illinois -American television producers -American television writers -Deaths from lymphoma -Deaths from throat cancer -Writers from Chicago" -6614,20825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure,Pleasure,"Pleasure is an emotion. It is the opposite of pain. Humans and many other mammals feel pleasure. People feel pleasure when they do something that is fun or that feels good. - -Pleasure in neuroscience -Pleasure is studied in neuroscience. Neuroscientists have mapped pleasure ""hotspots"" in the brain. Pleasure is important for a person's mental health and well-being. The loss of pleasure is common in people with mental illnesses like depression, schizophrenia, and addiction. - -Pleasure in psychology -Pleasure is studied in positive psychology. How much pleasure someone feels changes from person to person. Pleasure depends how special something is. There is no rule that says what pleasure is for every person. - -Sigmund Freud wrote about the ""pleasure principle"" in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle is what drives people to do things that give them a feeling of immediate gratification. - -Pleasure in philosophy -The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus said that people feel the most pleasure possible when they have no suffering. - -Hedonism is another philosophy that is focused on pleasure. It says that pleasure is good. In Hedonism, people focus on pleasure and avoid pain. - -Utilitarianism is a philosophy that focuses on pleasure. It says that morality requires that people do what has the most utility for the most people. - -Related pages -Happiness - -References - -Emotions" -18135,68186,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%20Summer%20Olympics,1968 Summer Olympics,"The 1968 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIX Olympiad, were held in Mexico City in 1968. Mexico City beat out bids from Detroit, Buenos Aires and Lyon to host the Games in 1963. The Games were preceded by the Tlatelolco massacre, in which hundreds of students were killed by security forces ten days before the opening day. It is the only Games ever held in Latin America, and it was the second ever outside of Western Europe, Australia, or the USA. - -1968 Summer Olympics" -6918,21772,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiruvananthapuram,Thiruvananthapuram,"Thiruvananthapuram () is the capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. The city used to be known by the name of Trivandrum. It is on the west coast of India near the far south of the mainland. -With 889,191 people as of 2001, it is the biggest city in Kerala in terms of size and number of people. - -The city is the state capital and houses many national and state government offices, organizations and companies. It is also a major center of learning and is home to several schools and colleges including Kerala University, and to many scientific institutions, the most prominent being the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Technopark, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB) and Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST). - -Origin of name -Thiruvananthapuram literally means ""City of Lord Anantha"" in Malayalam. The name derives from the god of the Hindu temple at the centre of the city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu lies. The temple of Vishnu lying on Ananta, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple is the most recognizable landmark of the city. The city was officially known as Trivandrum in English until 1991, when the government decided to change the city's name back to the original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. However, the city is still widely referred to as ""Trivandrum"" (now Thiruvananthapuram). - -Infrastructure -The city is fully electrified by the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB). The district is divided in to three circles: Transmission circle, Thiruvananthapuram city and Kattakkada. Domestic users account for 43% of the total power usage, or 90 million units per month. Thiruvananthapuram district has one 220 kV, nine 110 kV and six 66 kV electrical substations. A 400 kV substation has just been commissioned by the Power Grid Corporation and will ensure high-quality power supply to the city. - -The water supply schemes cover 100% within the city limits. It is 84% of the urban and 69% of the rural population, when the district is considered. Peppara and Aruvikkara dams are the main sources of water for distribution in the capital city. The new project plan for improving the water supply with Japan aid covers Thiruvananthapuram city and six suburban panchayats having urban characteristics. - -The sewerage system in the city was implemented at the time of the Travancore Kingdom, and modernised in 1938. This scheme for the disposal of sullage and sewage is an underground system. The whole system is controlled by Kerala Water Authority now. The city area is divided in to seven blocks for the execution of the sewerage system, two commissioned in the 1990s and two after 2000. The sewerage is pumped to a stilling chamber at the Sewerage Treatment Plant (STP) at Valiyathura, and is disposed through sewage farming. Diary Development Department maintains this sewage farm and fodder cultivation is done here. There is no revenue generation from this scheme, and the sewerage system in the city is a service provided to the residents. - -Strategic Importance -Apart from being the capital of India’s most literate and socially developed state, Thiruvananthapuram is a strategically important city in Southern India. Being the largest city in India’s deep south, it is important for both military logistics and civil aviation in the southern part of the country. It is the headquarters of the Southern Air Command(SAC) of the Indian Air Force. The city is very close to the international shipping route and east–west shipping axis. Also, it falls under the international air route. -Due to the strategic importance of the city, the Indian Air Force authorities have planned to make an aerospace command in SAC. -The plan for setting up a new ""Tri-Service Command"", which will integrate all the three forces under a single command, is also in the pipeline. - -Being the Indian city with the closest air link to the small island-country of Maldives and also Sri Lanka, the city’s medical and health infrastructure caters to patients from both countries, especially Maldives. Exports of perishables and medicines from Trivandrum International Airport run to full capacity on everyday flights to Maldives and Sri Lanka because of this nearness. Thiruvananthapuram also provides a key link in movement of goods and passengers to and from southern Tamil Nadu into Kerala, the state border being just 30 km away. The city is also important for people from around the world seeking help through Ayurveda medicine and therapy. Ayurveda resorts are coming up at a rapid pace along the International Beach of Kovalam and Varkala coast. - -Notes - -Other websites - Official District website - Public Relations Department Page on Trivandrum - Government of Kerala Website on Thiruvananthapuram District - -Capital cities in India -Settlements in Kerala" -7127,22564,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1748,1748," - -Events - July 25 - A Solar eclipse happened. It was one of the reasons Charles Messier became an astrologer. - - February 15-Jeremy Bentham" -5843,18914,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne,Cheyenne,"Cheyenne might mean: - -Cheyenne people, a Native American tribe -Cheyenne, Wyoming, a city in the U.S. state of Wyoming -Cheyenne (TV series), a television series starring Clint Walker" -15838,60692,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamandridae,Salamandridae,"The family Salamandridae is a family of amphibians. It consists of true salamanders and newts. - -The species are spread all over the northern hemisphere - Europe, Asia, the northern tip of Africa and North America. - -As of 2007, there were 74 known species, in 20 genera." -21254,81462,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piltdown%20Man,Piltdown Man,"Piltdown Man (Eoanthropus dawsoni) was once thought to be a ""missing link"" between man and ape. The first Piltdown fragments were discovered in 1912. Thereafter, over 500 scientific essays were written on the Piltdown Man in a 40-year period. The discovery was proven to be a deliberate hoax in 1953. - -The fossil remains -Piltdown Man consisted of two human skulls, an orangutan jaw, an elephant molar, a hippopotamus tooth, and a canine tooth from a chimpanzee. Sir Kenneth Oakley has determined the human skulls to be approximately 620 years old. They may have belonged to Ona Indians from Patagonia, as the skulls were unusually thick. Thick skulls are a common trait among Ona Indians. The orangutan jaw is around 500 years old, perhaps from Sarawak. The elephant molar is thought to be from Tunisia. The hippopotamus tooth is thought to have come from Malta or perhaps Sicily. The canine tooth belonged to a Pleistocene Chimpanzee. The Piltdown remains were purposefully scattered around a quarry in Piltdown, England, so that they could be ""discovered"" later as evidence for evolution and the development of man from ape. The skulls had been treated with acid. All of the fossil remains were stained with an iron sulfate solution. The canine tooth was painted brown and patched with bubble gum. The molars were filed down. The portion of the orangutan jaw that connected the jaw to its skull was carefully broken so as not to show evidence that this jaw did not belong to a human skull. - -The perpetrators -The Piltdown Man hoax is thought to have been perpetrated by Charles Dawson, an archaeologist, geologist and fossil collector for the British Museum. However, no one is quite certain who was involved. There are a number of other suspects, including Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, Keeper of the British Museum's Natural History department, and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a paleontologist and Jesuit theologian. - -References - The Times, November 21, 1953; November 23, 1953 - The hoax exposed: The Piltdown Forgery by Joseph Weiner 1954 - The case against Smith: The Piltdown Man by Ronald Millar 1972 - The Dawson evidence: Unraveling Piltdown by John Evangelist Walsh 1996 - -Fossils -Hominins -Hoaxes" -2591,8233,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Nicholson,Jack Nicholson,"John Joseph ""Jack"" Nicholson (born April 22, 1937) is an American retired actor, director, producer and writer. He started out as a writer and part-time actor. He became a star in 1969 when he had a small part in the movie Easy Rider. He has won three Oscars, for As Good as it Gets, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, and Terms of Endearment. He is one of the fans for Los Angeles Lakers. Nicholson is one of only two actors who have been nominated for an Academy Award for acting in every decade from the 1960s to 2000s; the other is Michael Caine. Nicholson received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1999. He has won seven Golden Globe Awards. He received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2001. Nicholson dropped out from the remake movie Toni Erdmann. - -Personal life -Nicholson has been linked to many actresses and models, including Michelle Phillips, Bebe Buell and Lara Flynn Boyle. He had a intimate relationship with Anjelica Huston from 1973 to 1989. The relationship ended when the media reported Rebecca Broussard was pregnant with their child. Nicholson and Broussard had two children together, Lorraine and Raymond. Nicholson's other children are Jennifer (born with Sandra Knight) and Honey Hollman (born with Winnie Hollman). Susan Anspach says that her son, Caleb Goddard, was fathered by Nicholson. He is not sure that he is the father. Nicholson describes himself as a ""lifelong Irish Democrat"", and is highly against abortion. He is Roman Catholic. In 2020, Nicholson endorsed Bernie Sanders's second presidential campaign for the 2020 nomination. - -Filmography - -References - -Other websites - - Jack Nicholson Online - -1937 births -Living people -Actors from New Jersey -Actors who played the Joker -American movie actors -American television actors -Best Actor Academy Award winners -Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners -Movie directors from New Jersey -Movie producers from New Jersey -Screen Actors Guild Award winners -Screenwriters from New Jersey" -16271,62577,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Croydon,West Croydon,"West Croydon might refer to: - -West Croydon, South Australia, a suburb of Adelaide -West Croydon railway station, Adelaide, South Australia -West Croydon station, Croydon, England" -17977,67631,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaoka%20Shiki,Masaoka Shiki,"was the pen-name of a Japanese author, poet, literary critic, and journalist in Meiji period of Japan. His real name was Masaoka Tsunenori. As a child he was called Noboru. - -Other websites - Selected Poems (haiku and tanka) of Masaoka Shiki, Translated by Janine Beichman at University of Virginia Library Japanese Text Initiative poem translations from 'Masaoka Shiki' by Janine Beichman - Ehime University site on Masaoka Shiki with photos, poetry - fan site with bio and poems - National Diet Library bio and photos - -Japanese poets -Japanese journalists -1867 births -1902 deaths -People from Ehime Prefecture" -5453,17756,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20St.%20Helens,Mount St. Helens,"Mount St. Helens is a volcano in the U.S. state of Washington. It is 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle and 53 miles (85 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon. The volcano is in Cascade Range of mountains. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanos. This is a deadly volcano. - -Mount St. Helens was first called Louwala-Clough, which means ""smoking"" or ""fire mountain"" in the language of the Native American Klickitat people. This volcano is well known for its explosions and flows of lava. Its most famous volcanic eruption was on May 18, 1980. In 1982, U.S. President Ronald Reagan and the United States Congress made the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acre (445 km²) area around the volcano that is also a part of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest. - -The 1980 eruption was the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States. 57 people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles of railways, and 185 miles of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche was triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale. This caused the eruption, which reduced the height of the mountain's summit from to and replacing it with a wide horseshoe-shaped crater. The earthquake was caused by a sudden surge of magma from the Earth's mantle. The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (3.1 cubic kilometers) in volume. - -History - -Before the eruption in 1980, Mount St. Helens was the fifth-highest peak in Washington State. The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,525 m) above its base, where it rises from the ridges that are around it. It stood out from the surrounding hills because of the symmetrical cone shape and the snow that covered the top. Because of its cone-shape, it was called the ""Mount Fuji of America"", after the famous Mount Fuji which is a symbol of Japan. - -Modern eruptions - -In the months before the large eruption that took place on May 18, 1980, there were many signs of volcanic activity. On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens was the center of a magnitude 4.2 earthquake. Steam venting from the volcano started on March 27. By the end of April, the north side of the volcano started to grow larger. - -On May 18, a second earthquake of magnitude 5.1 made a huge part of the north face of the volcano collapse. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. At 8:32 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time, the magma inside of St. Helens exploded. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five, which is the same rating of the famous Vesuvius eruption in 79 AD. - -For more than nine hours, ash erupted from the volcano, rising into the air for 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level in the air. This cloud rising from a volcano is called a ""plume"". The pyroclastic flow of heated rocks and gas that poured out of the Volcano spread over an area of over 230 square miles (600 km²), destroying plants and buildings. The ash spread east at about 60 miles per hour (95 km/h), with some ash reaching Idaho by about 12:00 pm, almost 3.5 hours after the eruption. By about 5:30 pm the plume of ash became smaller. Through the night and for several days after, there were smaller eruptions. - -As well as the effect of the fast-moving hot gasses and stones from the explosion, the collapse of the northern side of Mount St. Helens caused lahars, or volcanic mudflows. These were mixtures of volcanic ash with melted ice and snow. The lahars went many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz rivers, destroying bridges and killing many trees. A total of 3.9 million cubic yards (3.0 million m³) of material was carried 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the lahars. - -The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy. It released more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.8 cubic km) of ash and other material. The collapse of the north side of the volcano shortened St. Helens' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a volcanic crater one to two miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide and half of a mile (800 m) deep. The eruption -killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and about 12 million fish from a fish farm. It destroyed or damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (300 km) of highway and of railways. - -1980-2004 -Between 1980 and 1986, more volcanic activity continued at Mount Saint Helens, with a new lava dome made in the crater. Several small explosions and eruptions took place, making more lava domes. From December 7, 1989 to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990 to February 14, 1991, the volcano erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash. - -The ash reached a number of states, as far east as Montana and as south as Colorado. - -2004 to present activity - - -Magma bubbles came to the top of the volcano on about October 11, 2004, and a new lava dome was made on the first dome's south side. This new dome grew throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several new features were seen, such as the ""whaleback,"" which is solid magma being pushed to the top of the volcano by magma under it. These features do not last long and break down soon after they are formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, and a rockfall sent ash several hundred meters into the air. - -Mount St. Helens showed important new activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000-foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash came from the volcano. The plume was seen from as far away as Seattle, a city that is 96 miles away. This fairly small eruption took place because of a new lava dome being formed and a 2.5 magnitude earthquake. - -Another feature that grew from the dome is a ""fin"" or ""slab."" About half the size of a football field, the large volcanic rock was being moved up as fast as 6 feet (2 m) per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab had rockfalls very often, but was still being pushed up from inside the volcano. - -On October 22, 2006, at 3:13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke the lava dome. The resulting collapse and avalanche sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (610 m) over the crater, although it quickly disappeared. - -On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of steam was seen, and some journalists from the media thought there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the United States Geological Survey says that there was no large ash plume, so it could not have been an eruption. The volcano has been erupting on occasion since October 2004. - -References - -Other websites - - Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument website from the U.S. Forest Service. - Mount St. Helens picture and current status from the United States Geological Survey website - The VolcanoCam Live camera from the U.S. Forest Service - -Volcanoes of Washington (U.S. state)" -2684,8497,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1533,1533," - -Events - Ottoman-Habsburg War in Hungary - January 25– Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn - -Births - September 7 – Elizabeth I of England - -Deaths - June 25 – Mary Tudor" -17351,65769,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow%20Coma%20Scale,Glasgow Coma Scale,"Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS is a scale that is used to measure the consciousness of a person. It was invented in 1974 by Graham Teasdale and Bryan J. Jennett, professors of neurosurgery at the University of Glasgow. - -GCS is used in evaluation of patients, especially in ICUs. This scale consists of three tests, which are described below. A score is given for each test, and the GCS score is calculated by adding the scores given to each test. The maximum score is 15, which means the patient is fully conscious. The minimum score is 3, and is usually seen in patients with brain death or those in deep coma. - -Elements of the scale - -The scale comprises three tests: eye, verbal (talking) and motor (movement) responses. - -Best eye response (E) -There are 4 grades for this test: - No eye opening - Eye opening in response to pain (for example when his sternum is pressed firmly). - Eye opening to speech (that is, when he is called). - Eyes opening by himself (normally). - -Best verbal response (V) -There are 5 grades for this test: - No verbal response (not talking at all). - Meaking meaningless sounds (that is, moaning but no words). - Inappropriate words (like random speech, without being able to communicate correctly). - Confused. (The patient responds to questions but there is some confusion). - Oriented. (Patient responds appropriately to questions such as the patient’s name and age, where they are and why, the year, month, etc.). - -Best motor response (M) -There are 6 grades for this test: - No motor response (no movement at all). - Extension in response to pain (decerebrate response: adduction, internal rotation of shoulder, pronation of forearm). - Flexion in response to pain (decorticate response). - Withdrawing from pain (pulling part of body away when pinched). - Localizing to pain. (Purposeful movements towards the painful location). - Obeys commands. (The patient does simple things he is asked to do). - -References - Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974,2:81-84. PMID 4136544. - -Psychiatry -Medicine" -23867,92207,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship%20of%20the%20European%20Union,Citizenship of the European Union,"Citizenship of the European Union was started by the Maastricht Treaty signed in 1992. It is extra to being a citizen of one of the member countries of the European Union, and gives extra rights to nationals of European Union Member States. - -History - -Before the Maastricht Treaty (1992), the European Communities treaties allowed workers, and their families, to travel and live in any member country. This idea started when the European Coal and Steel Community was set up by the Treaty of Paris in 1951. This allowed workers in the coal and steel industries to move to another country for work. In 1957, the European Economic Community was set up by the Treaty of Rome. That treaty allowed all workers to move freely. - -The European Court of Justice took a wider idea of freedom of movement. The Court said people should be allowed to move to another country to get a better life style, not just to earn more money by working. The law made by the European Court, the reason the reason a worker wanted to move abroad does not matter, they could start part-time and full-time work, and get extra help from the new country. - -Other decisions of the ECJ allowed any citizen of a member country live anywhere in the EU and be treated the same as a citizen of the new country. - -Start of EU Citizenship - -The idea of EU citizenship was started by the Maastricht Treaty, and was extended by the Treaty of Amsterdam. The Treaty of Amsterdam said that union citizenship will not replace national citizenship, but only be extra it. - -Who is an EU citizen? - -Article 17 (1) of the amended EC Treaty states that Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship. - -Rights of EU citizens - -Specific rights - -The amended EC Treaty provides the following rights to EU citizens: - The right to be treated the same as citizens of the country where they live. (Article 12); - The right to move and live anywhere in the EU, and to apply for any job. EU citizens have the right to work for the government too, but not for some jobs in areas like defence and national security. (Article 18); - The rights to vote or be a candidate in local and European elections in any Member State under the same conditions as the nationals of that state (Article 19); - the right to protection by the diplomatic or consular authorities of any EU country when in a non-EU Member Country, if there are no diplomatic or consular authorities from the citizen's own country (Article 20); - The right to ask for help from the European Parliament, or from the European Ombudsman if any EU body has acted badly. (Article 21); - The right to contact the EU bodies in one of the official languages and to get a reply in that same language (Article 21); and - The right to get European Parliament, Council and Commission documents (Article 255). - -Citizens of new countries which join the EU can have some of the rights limited for up to seven years after they join. - -Brexit -The United Kingdom is set to leave the European Union. It is still unclear whether UK citizens will continue to enjoy EU citizenships after Brexit. - -Related pages - Treaty of Lisbon - -Further reading - -References - -Law -European Union -International law" -11,21,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic,Arithmetic,"In mathematics, arithmetic is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and extraction of roots are also studied in arithmetic. - -Other arithmetic topics includes working with signed numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages. - -Most people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, auto mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering. - -Some arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside. - -Examples of arithmetic - 2 + 3 = 5 (adding is commutative: 2 + 3 is the same as 3 + 2) - 7 − 5 = 2 (subtracting is not commutative: 7 − 5 is different from 5 − 7) - 3 × 4 = 12 (multiplying is commutative: 3 × 4 is the same as 4 × 3) - 6 ÷ 2 = 3 (dividing is not commutative: 6 ÷ 2 is different from 2 ÷ 6 - -Related pages - Affine arithmetic - Elementary algebra - Interval arithmetic - Modular arithmetic - -References - -Arithmetics" -18114,68097,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prithvi,Prithvi,"Prithvi is the name for the goddess of the Earth in Hinduism. - -The goddess prithvi is also called Devi basundhara, mata dharitri and bhoomidevi. - -Hindu gods and goddesses" -19052,71965,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre%20Jeunet,Jean-Pierre Jeunet,"Jean-Pierre Jeunet (born 3 September 1953 in Roanne, Loire, France) is a French movie director. - -Career -Jean-Pierre Jeunet bought his first camera at the age of 17 and made short movies while studying animation at Cinémation Studios. He made friends with Marc Caro. Caro was a designer and comic book artist. Caro worked on many of Jeunet's movies with him. - -Together, Jeunet and Caro directed award-winning animations. Their first live-action movie was The Bunker of the Last Gunshots (1981). It was a short movie about soldiers in a futuristic world. Jeunet also directed numerous television advertisements and music videos. - -Jeunet and Caro's first full-length movie was Delicatessen (1991). It was a black comedy set in a famine-plagued future. Next came The City of Lost Children (1995). It was a dark fantasy movie with a story about a doctor who kidnaps children in order to steal their dreams. - -Because The City of Lost Children was well liked, Jeunet was asked to direct the fourth movie in the Alien series - Alien: Resurrection (1997). Though not well received by critics, Alien: Resurrection turned a profit at the box office. - -Jeunet returned to France after making Alien: Resurrection. The fact that he had made a Hollywood movie gave him freedom on his next movie, Amélie. Amélie is lighter and more romantic than his earlier movies. This story was a huge success worldwide. It was nominated for several Academy Awards. For this movie he also got an European Film Award for Best Director. - -In 2004, Jeunet released A Very Long Engagement. It is based on the novel by Sebastien Japrisot. The movie is set after World War I. It is about a woman (played by Audrey Tautou) looking for her missing lover. - -Filmography - L'Évasion (1978) - Le Manege (1980) - Le Bunker de la derniere rafale (1981) - Pas de repos pour Billy Brakko (1984) - Foutaises (1989) - Delicatessen (1991) - The City of Lost Children (1995) - Alien: Resurrection (1997) - Amélie (2001) - A Very Long Engagement (2004) - -References - -Other websites - Jean-Pierre Jeunet Official Site - -1953 births -Living people -French movie directors" -1366,4831,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory%20Coast,Ivory Coast,"Ivory Coast or Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa. - -The capital of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire. - -Geography -It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east. - -Regions -Côte d'Ivoire is divided into nineteen regions. The regions are further divided into 81 departments. - -Related pages -Côte d'Ivoire at the Olympics -Côte d'Ivoire national football team -List of rivers of Côte d'Ivoire - -References - -Notes - - -French-speaking countries -Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation -1960 establishments in Africa" -13183,48321,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobster,Lobster,"Lobsters are large crustaceans that live in the sea. They form the family of Nephropidae, which is sometimes also called Homaridae. People make a lot of money from catching lobsters and selling them to make seafood. - -Biology -Lots of different kinds of animals that live in the sea are called lobsters. When people talk about lobsters, most of the time they mean clawed lobsters. One kind of clawed lobster is the American lobster. Lots of animals that we call lobsters are not actually clawed lobsters. Squat lobsters, spiny lobsters or slipper lobsters, are all different kinds of animal. Some kinds of crayfish which live in fresh water and reef lobsters are very similar to clawed lobsters. - -Smaller kinds of lobsters are sometimes called ""lobsterettes"". Lobsters do not have bones. They have hard shells which protect them. This hard shell is made from a material called chitin. The shell is so hard that lobsters must climb out of them before they can grow bigger. This is called moulting. When lobsters moult they are weak and easy to attack. If they hide for long enough they will grow a new hard shell and the lobster will be bigger. Some lobsters change color when they grow a new shell. Lobsters can grow new parts of their body when they lose them. Every time they moult the body part will get a little bit bigger and stronger until it is back to normal. - -Lobsters live in the sea between the shore and the edge of the continental shelf. They live underwater on rocky, sandy, or muddy ground. They usually live alone in cracks or under rocks. - -Lobsters usually eat live food like fish, molluscs, other crustaceans, worms, and some plants. Lobsters sometimes scavenge (eat dead plants and animals). Lobsters also eat other lobsters (cannibalism) when they are put together in small spaces where they cannot get out. Lobsters do not usually eat other lobsters in the oceans. People have found lobster skin in the stomachs of some lobsters. This is because lobsters eat the skin they shed when they moult. Lobsters grow all their lives. Some lobsters live for over 100 years, and some become very big. The Guinness World Records says that the largest lobster was from Nova Scotia, Canada and weighed 20.14 kg (44.4 lb). - -Lobsters are usually the same on the left and right sides. Lobsters have claws on their front legs, and one claw can be bigger than the other. One reason they are different sizes is because they do different jobs. Big strong claws can grab food, and little sharp claws can cut the food up so they can eat it. When a fisherman catches a lobster, they like to keep them if the claws are big. People like to eat lobsters with big claws because there is more good tasting meat in them. The head end of the lobster is called the cephalon. The middle part of the lobster is called the thorax. These parts of a lobster are stuck together and can not move, so we put the words together and call them both the cephalothorax. The bottom end of the lobster is called the abdomen, where the tail is. At the end of the tail is a fan. Lobsters have long thin body parts called antennae under their eyes which they can move around. Lobsters use these to feel what is near them, and they also help them find food. Lobsters have eyes but they cannot see very well. Lobsters have three pairs of jaws. All legs of a lobster have claws apart from the ones at the back. Only the front two legs have big claws. The little claws on the other legs help pick up food they find and put them in the jaws so the lobster can eat. - -Lobsters usually move slowly by walking on the bottom of the sea floor. When they are in danger and need to escape, they swim backwards quickly by bending their tail down and up. The fan on the tail helps them to swim faster. Lobsters can move at a speed of 5 metres every second when they do this. - -References - -Other websites - - - Lobster Liberation - -Decapods -Seafood" -10897,39128,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1576,1576,"The year 1576 was a leap year which started on Sunday. - -Events - August 11 – English navigator Martin Frobisher, on his search for the Northwest Passage, enters the bay now named after him." -22136,84029,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travagliato,Travagliato,"Travagliato is a city in north of Italy. Travagliato is in the province of Brescia, Lombardy Region. About 12,000 people live in Travagliato. - -Cities in Lombardy" -17251,65302,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturi%20effect,Venturi effect,"The Venturi effect is a case where fluid flows through a tube that is narrow. The velocity of the fluid increases as it flows through the narrower tube while the pressure decreases, due to conservation of energy. The effect is an example of Bernoulli's principle. - -With the B.E. a simple flow of either A. Fluids, or B. Air, will cause pressure. Within an amount of time, this will cause a decrease in pressure and have the potential of creating energy. -Physics" -15449,58816,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie%20James%20Dio,Ronnie James Dio,"Ronnie James Dio (born Ronaldo Giovanni Padovan July 10, 1942 - May 16, 2010) was an American heavy metal singer. His parents were Italian Americans. He performed with Elf, Rainbow, Black Sabbath, and his own band Dio. He was also part of the band Heaven and Hell (named after Black Sabbath's most famous song), with some of the original Black Sabbath members. Dio was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and raised in Cortland, New York. He starred in the Tenacious D movie, The Pick Of Destiny. - -In November 2009, Dio was diagnosed with stomach cancer, which caused his death in Houston, Texas, on May 16, 2010. He was 68. - -References - -Other websites - Official site of Ronnie James Dio - -American rock singers -Bassists -Cancer deaths in the United States -Deaths from stomach cancer -People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire -Singers from New York -Singers from New Hampshire -1942 births -2010 deaths" -7803,25510,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20of%20France,Marie of France,"Marie of France was the eldest daughter of Louis VII of France and Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 1164 she was married to Henry I of Champagne. Their children included: -Henry II of Champagne -Theobald III of Champagne - -French royalty" -22713,85967,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curio,Curio,"Curio could mean: -Curio, Switzerland, a municipality in the canton of Ticino -Gaius Scribonius Curio, one of two politicians in the late Roman Republic -Curio, a student newspaper based in Canberra, Australia" -14483,54525,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20Generation,Love Generation,"Love Generation () was a dramatic Japanese television series on Fuji Television. It first aired in Japan from October 13 1997 to December 22, 1997 every Monday. It had a very high rating of 30.8%. It features music by Cagnet. - -Cast -Katagiri Teppei - Takuya Kimura -Uesugi Riko - Takako Matsu -Takagi Erika - Norika Fujiwara -Katagiri Soichiro - Masaaki Uchino -Mizuhara Sanae - Junna Risa -Yoshimoto - -Characters -Katagiri Teppei - A talented advertisement designer and a playboy with an egocentric attitude and dislike for anything boring. He has a girlfriend named Riko, but still misses his past girlfriend Sanae at the same time -Uesugi Riko - She moves out from her family to Tokyo hoping to be more independent. She is a girl with a lot of spirit, and eventually becomes part of a love triangle. -Takagi Erika - A flight attendant and Riko's bestfriend. While she secretly likes Teppei, she frequently gives helpful advice to Riko to maintain her relationship -Katagiri Soichiro - a public prosecutor and Teppei's brother. He is very serious in his doings unlike Teppei, and thus Soichiro is his brother's role model. He was engaged to Sanae, Teppei's former girlfriend, but he meets his own past girlfriend and develops an affair with her later on in the story. -Mizuhara Sanae - translates between Mandarin and Japanese. She was Teppei's highschool sweetheart. Later, she is engaged to his brother Soichiro, but later finds herself falling in love with Teppei again -Yoshimoto - Teppei's highschool friend, who falls in love with Riko at first sight, but was rejected by her - -Summary - -The show revolves around the relationship of the two leading characters, Katagiri Teppei and Uesugi Riko, who begin their relationship as squabbling colleagues before falling in love. Katagiri Teppei is a talented designer and very popular among women. Unfortunately, Teppei, who despises anything boring and repetitive, is forced to move to the sales department for his egocentric behavior. Throughout the series, he is forced to adapt to the new working environment, which includes cutting his precious locks of hair to create a neater and more professional image. As he struggles to adapt, he meets Uesugi Riko. While she does not like him at first, she eventually falls for him. However, Teppei runs into his highschool sweetheart Mizuhara Sanae, and discovers that his ex-girlfriend is now engaged to his brother Soichiro. Fortunately, Riko is there to console him, and this eventually blooms into a romance. Not long after, however, Sanae realizes she still has feelings for Teppei, and thus creates a love triangle. To make the matter even more complicated, Soichiro starts to have an affair with his past girlfriend. - -Symbols - -Crystal apple -Teppei's apartment has many unusual items such as Thai artifact, a 30-year-old refrigerator, and a crystal apple. The meaning behind the apple is that there is only one true love, between Adam and Eve, that is. A crystal can be broken easily, and when one would look in it, it appears upside down. The apple is seen upside down for the 10 of the 11 episodes. At the last episode, however, the apple is no longer upside down. The apple is on the album cover of the soundtrack for Love Generation. - -True love never runs smooth -The advertising poster appears over and over again. The model is holding a crystal apple, and reads True love never runs smooth symbolizing the relationship between Riko and Teppei, which constantly faces struggles from when they meet for the very first time to the love triangle. This advertisement is visible everywhere from the park to Teppei's 30-year-old refrigerator, as ""True love never runs smooth"" is the unofficial tagline of this television series. - -Other websites -Lover Generation Central -Love Generation - The Dog Shed -SMAP Wonderland Love Generation -Plot for each episode - -Japanese television series -Drama television series" -7983,26429,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cane,Cane,"A cane is a stick from a piece of wood, or sometimes of metal. It is used by someone to help support themself when they are walking. A person might need a cane because of their age, or weight, or for another reason. - -Related pages - Walking stick - -tools" -9236,31727,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience%20points,Experience points,"Experience points, commonly known as ‘xp’, are numbers used in certain role-playing games. Gaining enough experience points usually leads to the player ""leveling up"". Each ""level up"" means that the player is more powerful than before. They can use better weapons, armor and magic. Most games have a maximum level that the player can achieve, which means they cannot get any more experience points. - -References - -Games" -24959,98081,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitol,Capitol,"Capitol can mean: - - Capitol building, a building in which a legislature meets, including: -Capitoline Hill in Rome (from which the word capitol derives) -United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. -Capitol of Puerto Rico in San Juan -Capitole de Toulouse in Toulouse, France -Capitolio Nacional in Colombia -Capitolio Federal in Venezuela -El Capitolio in Havana, Cuba - -Capitol (board game), a Roman-themed board game -Capitol (TV series), a U.S. soap opera -Capitol Air Lines, a U.S. charter airline in the 1970s and 1980s -Capitol Corridor, an Amtrak railroad corridor -Capitol Records, a U.S. record label" -21877,83362,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/85%20Io,85 Io,"85 Io is a big, dark Main belt asteroid of the C spectral class. It is probably a primitive body made of carbonates. Like 70 Panopaea it orbits within the Eunomia asteroid family but it is not related to the shattered parent body. - -Io is a retrograde rotator, with its pole pointing towards one of ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (-45°, 105°) or (-15°, 295°) with a 10° uncertainty[1]. This gives an axial tilt of about 125° or 115°, respectively. Its shape is quite spherical. - -It was found by C. H. F. Peters on September 19, 1865 and named after Io, a lover of Zeus in Greek mythology. - -A diameter of 178 kilometres was measured from an occultation of a star on December 10, 1995 [4]. - -Io is also the name of the volcanic moon of Jupiter. With a two-digit number and a two-letter name, 85 Io has the shortest designation of all minor planets. - -Other websites - shape model deduced from lightcurve - -References - J. Torppa et al. Shapes and rotational properties of thirty asteroids from photometric data, Icarus, Vol. 164, p. 346 (2003). - PDS lightcurve data - Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey - A. Erikson Photometric observations and modelling of the asteroid 85 Io in conjunction with data from an occultation event during the 1995-96 apparition, Planetary and Space Science, Vol. 47, p. 327 (1999). - G. A. Krasinsky et al. Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt, Icarus, Vol. 158, p. 98 (2002). - -Asteroids" -21632,82442,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20Formula%20One%20season,1974 Formula One season,"The 1974 Formula One season crowned as champion Emerson Fittipaldi. - -Season review - -1974 Drivers Championship final standings - -Formula One seasons -1974 in sports" -8245,27533,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rene%20Rivkin,Rene Rivkin,"Rene Rivkin (June 6, 1944 – May 1, 2005) was an Australian man, born in Shanghai, who made much money by buying stocks and shares on the Australian stockmarket. Rivkin had his own television show and magazine to help people to make money. Rivkin had cheated to make money from the stock market. Rivkin became depressed. Rivkin was put in jail. He was released, and killed himself in Sydney. Before killing himself, Rivkin said on a television show called ""Enough Rope"" with Andrew Denton that if he went to jail he would kill himself. Andrew Denton has said that he is very sad about this. - -1944 births -2005 deaths -Australian businesspeople -Australian criminals -People from Shanghai -People from Sydney -Suicides in Australia" -23841,92099,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uri,Uri,"Uri can mean: - -Geography: - Canton of Uri is a canton (region) of Switzerland - Uri, Jammu and Kashmir, a region and town in Indian-Controlled Kashmir - Uri, a city in Sardinia, Italy - Úri, a village in Pest county, Hungary - Sumerian URI, the land of Agade - -URI, a three-letter abbreviation: - Uniform Resource Identifier - United Religions Initiative - Ultrasound Research Interface - University of Rhode Island - Upper respiratory infection, also known as the common cold - NYSE stock symbol of United Rentals" -10609,37825,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Fisher,Andrew Fisher,"Andrew Fisher (29 August 1862 – 22 October 1928) was the fifth Prime Minister of Australia. He was Prime Minister three times. His government helped create the Royal Australian Navy and make Australia's own paper money. When he retired he moved to London. - -Fisher was born in Crosshouse, Scotland, where he was educated at the Crosshouse Primary School. At the age of 10 he left school to work in the coal mines. In 1885 he moved to Australia where he worked in the coal mines at Burrum and Gympie. He was elected to the Queensland Parliament in 1892. In 1901 he married Margaret Irvine. Fisher was elected in 1901 to the seat of Wide Bay in the first Australian parliament. - -When Fisher was Prime Minister a number of important projects were undertaken. The Commonwealth Bank was set up, the Northern Territory of South Australia was transferred to the Commonwealth, the federal capital of Canberra was founded, and the construction of the trans-Australian railway line linking Perth to the other capital cities was begun. As well as introducing maternity allowances, Fisher acknowledged the need for greater political equality for women. - -Andrew Fisher is one of Australia's most successful prime ministers because of the changes he made. He was the first prime minister to have a majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. He was able to have more than 110 Acts passed into law. - -References - -Prime Ministers of Australia -1862 births -1928 deaths -Australian Labor Party politicians -Leaders of the Opposition (Australia) -Treasurers of Australia -Politicians from Queensland -Members of the Australian House of Representatives" -16401,63047,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brose%20Baskets,Brose Baskets,"Brose Baskets Bamberg (also Brose Baskets) is a basketball club in Bamberg, Germany. In 2005 (as GHP Bamberg), 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 it won the BBL. In 1992, 2010, 2011, and 2012 it won the German Cup. - -Bamberg -Basketball teams -Sports clubs -Sport in Bavaria" -20749,79816,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden%20University%20of%20Technology,Dresden University of Technology,"The Dresden University of Technology (; TUD) is a university in Dresden, in Germany. It is the largest university in the state of Saxony and one of the ten largest universities in Germany with around 35,000 students. - -History -Dresden University is one of the oldest colleges of technology in Germany. In 1828, the Saxon Technical School was founded to teach workers in technological subjects such as mechanics and ship construction. In 1871, the institute was renamed the Royal Saxon Polytechnic, and other subjects, such as history and languages, were introduced. By the end of the 19th century the institute had grown into a university covering all subjects. It was given its current name in 1961. - -Organisation -The Dresden University of Technology is organised into 14 departments. Almost all departments are on the main campus south of the city centre, except for the Faculty of Medicine which has its own campus near the Elbe River, east of the city centre, and the Department of Forestry in a town nearby called Tharandt. - -The university's annual budget is around €400 million. - -Reputation - -The TU Dresden offers a wide range of courses and research. It has a high reputation in technical fields such as electrical engineering or computer science. - -The university also has a strong research tradition in microelectronics and transport sciences in the Dresden area, and now is becoming more important in new fields of research such as biotechnology. - -Campus -TU Dresden is a campus university, meaning most of its buildings are in one area rather than being spread out across the city. Some of its buildings are more than a hundred years old. In recent years these historic building have been complemented by modern buildings (e.g. the library, the main auditorium, the biochemistry department or the life sciences building). - -Students - -About 60% of the students come from Saxony (about three-quarters live in Dresden), 19% from other eastern German states, 12% from the western German states and 10% from other countries. - -In 2005/2006, there were 3,442 international students enrolled at TU Dresden. Most of the foreign students come from Europe (1,527), followed by Asia (1,404) and America (170). Ranked by countries the largest group of students comes from China (710), followed by Poland (294), Vietnam (196), Bulgaria (160) and Russia (154). The university is also quite popular among Central and East European countries such as the neighbouring Czech Republic (which is only away or Ukraine. - -Because of the Erasmus programme and partnerships with universities in the United States, there are many English-, French- and Spanish-speaking students. But the language spoken during lessons is nearly always German. To prepare for the university, many international students attend German language courses at the university. - -Other activities -Sports are very popular among the TUD students. There are eight big students' clubs and the summer campus party is among the biggest in Germany. There are cafeterias as at most universities and the largest refectory can compete with some restaurants even as far as menu size. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -1828 establishments in Europe -19th-century establishments in Germany -Dresden -Technical colleges and universities in Germany" -1742,5789,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos,Laos,"Lao People's Democratic Republic or Laos (ᝮᝢ), is a country in southeast Asia. The capital of Laos is Vientiane. - -Laos is landlocked (it does not have a coast on a sea or ocean). It is bordered by Myanmar (used to be known in English as ""Burma"") and by China to the northwest, by Vietnam to the east, by Cambodia to the south and by Thailand to the west. The Mekong river forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand. Boats from Laos cannot get to the ocean using the Mekong because of rapids and waterfalls in the south of the country. - -The official language is Lao, a language belonging to the Tai language group. 98% of Lao people believe in Buddhism. The main crop in Laos is rice. - -Geography -Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. The country is slightly smaller than Romania and Colorado. The landscape is mostly rugged mountains. The highest point is Phou Bia at . The Mekong River forms the border with Thailand. The mountains of the Annamite Range form the eastern border with Vietnam. The climate is tropical. The rainy season is from May to November. The dry season is from December to April. Laos has three seasons (rainy, cold and hot). The capital and largest city is Vientiane. - -History -Fa Ngum created the first unified Lao Kingdom. - -Lao became a French colony in 1893 and also became part of French Indochina. In 1949 it became independent from France, as the Kingdom of Laos. Later there was a civil war, and in 1975 it became a One-party state under the leadership of the communist party. - -Provinces -Laos is divided in 16 provinces and one prefecture. - -Government and politics -Laos is one of the world's five remaining communist states. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone. He is the General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. - -Shortly after the end of the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) joined forces with the Pathet Lao, started a coup on December 2, 1975 to overthrow the royalist Lao government, and established a communist government that continues to run the country to this day. - -The current head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith, as of 2016. The current President is Bounnhang Vorachith. Government policies are determined by the party. Important government decisions are checked by the Council of Ministers. - -Related pages -Laos at the Olympics -Laos national football team -List of rivers of Laos - -References - - -Least developed countries -1949 establishments in Asia" -11328,41114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1073,1073," - -Events - April 22 – Pope Gregory VII (Cardinal Hildebrand) succeeds Pope Alexander II as the 155th pope. - Emperor Shirakawa ascends the throne of Japan - Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi finishes writing the Rif, an important work of Jewish law. - John IX bar Shushan ends term as Syrian Patriarch of Antioch - Beginning of Sviatoslav II's reign as ruler of Kievan Rus - Seljuk Turks conquer Ankara - -Births - David the Builder, King of Georgia - Margrave Leopold III of Austria - -Deaths - April 21 – Pope Alexander II - June 15 – Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034) - Zhou Dunyi – Neo-Confucian philosopher in Song Dynasty China - -1073" -8031,26730,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvorak%20Simplified%20Keyboard,Dvorak Simplified Keyboard,"The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard ( ) is an alternative way of putting letters on an English keyboard. Most English keyboards have the keys lined up in a ""QWERTY layout."" The point of QWERTY was to prevent typewriter keys from sticking, but it is not the most ""ergonomic"", or comfortable, keyboard to type on. August Dvorak invented the Dvorak keyboard, where letters are arranged based on how often they are used. For instance, the most common letters (like ""e"") are in the center row of keys, so less hand movement is needed when a person is typing. - -Proponents of the Dvorak keyboard feel that with the use of computers rather than typewriters, there is no reason to keep the QWERTY keyboard. Many Dvorak keyboard users think that more people should use the Dvorak keyboard, as it aims to prevent typing injuries (like repetitive strain injury and carpal tunnel syndrome). But most users are used to the QWERTY keyboard, and do not want to switch. - -References - -Writing tools -Computer hardware -Data input" -15945,61156,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract%20killing,Contract killing,"Contract killing is murder where a person or group is paid (usually money) to kill someone else. Someone who does this is known as a hit man (also hitman), or assassin. Contract killing is illegal, and is punishable, sometimes by death. Contract killing is often used by the mafia. - -Types of crime" -8084,26870,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilo%20%26%20Stitch%3A%20The%20Series,Lilo & Stitch: The Series,"Lilo & Stitch: The Series is a Disney Channel animated television series based on the 2002 movie, Lilo & Stitch. It follows Stitch! The Movie, which was a pilot to the series. As with the first movie, it stars Daveigh Chase as Lilo Pelekai and Chris Sanders as her alien friend Stitch. In the show, they try to find Stitch's alien cousins and the job each cousin is perfect for. - -Characters - 626/Stitch (voiced by Chris Sanders) - Lilo Pelekai (voiced by Daveigh Chase) - Dr. Jumba Jookiba (voiced by David Ogden Stiers) - Agent Wendy Pleakley (voiced by Kevin McDonald) - Nani Pelekai (voiced by Tia Carrere) Lilo's older sister. - Captain Gantu (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) - 625/Reuben (voiced by Rob Paulsen) - Dr. Jacques von Hämsterviel (voiced by Jeff Bennett) - Mertle Edmonds (voiced by Liliana Mumy) - 624/Angel (voiced by Tara Strong) - -Episodes -Main article: List of Lilo & Stitch: The Series episodes - -Other websites - Disney Channel site - - TV.com entry - -Animated television series -2003 television series debuts -Lilo & Stitch -Television series by Buena Vista Television -2006 television series endings" -5818,18860,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumn,Autumn,"Autumn is the season after summer and before winter. In the United States this season is also called fall. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is often said to begin with the autumnal equinox in September and end with the winter solstice in December. In the Southern Hemisphere, it runs from the autumnal equinox in March to the winter solstice in June. - -In many places in the temperate zone, autumn is a time for harvesting most crops. Deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every year) lose their leaves, usually after turning yellow, red, or brown. In many countries, autumn is the time a new school year starts. The period of school between the start of September and the end of December is often referred to as the “Fall Semester”, “Fall Quarter”, or “Fall Term”. - -When it is autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Southern Hemisphere. When it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Equator, autumn is very much like spring, with little difference in temperature or in weather. Autumn is a time when most animals are looking for food so they can store up for winter, because they soon will be going into hibernation. The weather gets colder and more windy. In Autumn the hours of daylight and the hours of night are the same. In autumn the weather changes all the time. The weather turns cooler and often windy and rainy." -14399,54123,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20Nottingham,Greater Nottingham,"Greater Nottingham is a conurbation based around the city of Nottingham in Nottinghamshire, England. - -Unlike Greater Manchester, which is a metropolitan county and Greater London, which is a region, Greater Nottingham not officially an administrative area. But it is an own Nottingham Urban Area with a population of 666,358 at the time of the 2001 census. - -The Nottingham Urban Area includes Nottingham itself and the surrounding towns and villages of Arnold, Beeston, Breaston, Carlton, Clifton, Eastwood, Heanor, Hucknall, Ilkeston, Kimberley, Long Eaton, Ripley, Ruddington, Stapleford, and West Bridgford. This Nottingham Urban Area is separated from the Derby Urban Area only by a narrow gap between Breaston and Borrowash. Similar narrow gaps exist between the Nottingham urban area and the Mansfield Urban Area and Alfreton Urban Area. - -Other websites -Greater Nottingham partnership (GNP) -Office for National Statistics: Census 2001, Key Statistics for urban areas -map depicting ONS definition - -Nottinghamshire" -751,3354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage%20basin,Drainage basin,"Drainage basin is a geographic term about rivers. It is also called catchment, catchment area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin. - -It is an area of land. All water that falls on that land flows into one river. It can flow directly into the river or go through tributaries (smaller rivers that flow into the bigger river) first. - -One river can drain a large area. For example, more than half of the United States is drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. The Amazon basin is similarly large. - -River basins are an open system with inputs and, outputs. Water comes in as precipitation and goes out as discharge. - -Watershed -This term can have two main meanings: - Meaning drainage divide, the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins - Meaning drainage basin in North American usage. (an area of land where surface water converges) -There are also a number of figurative meanings as a metaphor. - -Related pages - Basin (geology) - Endorheic basin - -References" -9723,33175,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angara%20River,Angara River,"The Angara is a river in Siberia, Russia, close to the Jenissei. It is nearly 1.779 km long. It flows out of Lake Baikal and into the Jenissei. A big city on the river is Irkutsk. - -Rivers of Russia -Siberia" -14365,53931,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiromu%20Shinozuka,Hiromu Shinozuka,"Hiromu Shinozuka (, born 27 March 1979 in Fukuoka) is a Japanese manga artist. She writes in Ciao. She came out with Takkyu shoujo in 1999. - -Famous works -Chenge! -Mirrumo de pon! -Koisuru purin -Chibi☆debi!! - -Other websites - Profile at Ciao Magazine site - Hiromu Shinozuka at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia - -Japanese manga artists -1979 births -Living people -People from Fukuoka Prefecture" -17553,66417,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1410,1410," - -Events of 1410 -March 29 – The Aragonese capture Oristano, capital of the giudicato di Arborea in Sardinia - July 15 – Battle of Grunwald (also known as Tannenberg or Zalgiris). Polish and Lithuanian forces under the cousins Władysław Jagiełło of Poland and Vytautas the Great decisively defeat the forces of the Teutonic Knights, whose power is broken - Jan Hus is excommunicated by the Archbishop of Prague. - Antipope John XXIII is elected. - Start of the building of Castle Woerden. - -Births -date unknown -Masuccio Salernitano, Italian poet (died 1475) -William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness (died 1484) -probable -Johannes Ockeghem, Dutch composer (died 1497) -Conrad Paumann, German organist and composer (died 1473) -Vecchietta, Sienese painter, sculptor and architect (died 1480) - -Deaths -March 5 – Matthew of Kraków, Polish reformer (born 1335) -March 16 – John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset -May 3 – Pope Alexander V -May 18 – Rupert of Germany, Count Palatine of the Rhine (born 1352) -May 31 – King Martin I of Aragon (born 1356) -July 15 -Ulrich von Jungingen, German Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights (killed in battle) (born 1360) -Friedrich von Wallenrode, komtur of Ryna, (killed in battle) -September 13 – Isabella of Valois, queen consort of England (born 1387) -date unknown -Beatrice, Queen of Portugal in the 1383-1385 crisis and Queen-consort of John I of Castile (born 1372) -John Badby, English martyr -Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (born 1337) -John Gower, English poet (born 1330)" -4486,14021,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Something%20Awful,Something Awful,"Something Awful is a comedy website and forums. The part of the website where people are paid to write comedy is called the ""front page,"" and the part where people talk about a variety of things is the forums. People have to pay money to join the forums to talk with other people around the world. It currently costs $9.95 to join. The money they pay goes towards keeping the website online, and is said to make the forums higher quality, because members of the forums have something to lose if they are banned. Because of the comedy nature of the website, people on the forums often post to try to make people laugh instead of posting seriously. - -Something Awful was started by Richard ""Lowtax"" Kyanka in 1999. - -In March, 2008 Richard ""Lowtax"" Kyanka left forums management to Kevin ""Fragmaster"" Bowen, in order to focus on operating the main site. - -Other websites - Something Awful - Something Awful Twitter account - -References - -Websites" -7543,24338,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20hemisphere,Western hemisphere,"The western hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that is west of the Prime Meridian. Pretend that the earth is cut in half, from the North Pole, through England, to the South Pole. The Western Hemisphere is the half to the west. The other half is called the Eastern Hemisphere. - -Related pages - The Americas - New World - Eastern hemisphere - Northern hemisphere - Southern hemisphere - Prime Meridian - -References - -Hemispheres" -15206,57499,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving%20suit,Diving suit,"A diving suit is a type of protective clothing worn by scuba divers when they swim underwater in oceans, lakes, and rivers. Diving suits help insulate the diver from the cold temperature of the water. There are several types of diving suits, including wetsuits and dry suits. - -Protective clothing" -16441,63152,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar%20dynasty,Qajar dynasty,"The Qajar dynasty (, - or دودمان قاجار - Qâjâr) was a ruling Azerbaijani dynasty of Iran from 1781 to 1925. - -Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909-1925) was the last ruling Shah. Among many other members of the Qajar family are -Mohammad Mosaddegh 19 May 1882 – 5 March 1967), the Prime Minister who nationalised Iran's oil industry -Aga Khan III, Ismaili leader -Aga Khan IV, Ismaili leader - -History of Iran -History of Azerbaijan -Azerbaijani dynasties -Royal dynasties -1781 establishments -1925 disestablishments -18th-century establishments in Iran -1920s disestablishments in Asia -1780s establishments in Asia" -10090,34617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet,Toilet,"A toilet is a place where humans get rid of waste that comes from their bodies (urine and feces). Most toilets use water to flush the waste through plumbing into a sewage system. However, some modern toilets do not use water, and are called dry toilets. - -A room that has a toilet can be called a ""restroom"" or ""bathroom"" in the United States. In other places it may be called the toilet or the water closet (WC). - -Toilets in homes - -Almost all modern buildings have at least one toilet. In the home, a toilet may or may not be in the same room as a shower or a bathtub. Some toilets are outside, in an ""outhouse"". - -In developing countries, many people do not have a toilet in their home. More than 4.5 billion people do not have access to toilets. - -Public toilets - -A public toilet may or may not cost money to use. Toilets that cost money are called ""pay toilets"". - -Public bathrooms often have many toilets with walls between them. This makes areas called stalls (US) or cubicles (UK). Bathrooms for men often also have separate urinals. Urinals can either be on the wall for a single user, or a basin or trough for many men to use at the same time. Urinals on walls sometimes have small walls or dividers for privacy reasons. - -Outdoor public toilets (in the street, around parks, etc.) are a form of street furniture. These toilets are in individual cubicles. Some are simple and have little or no plumbing. Others are less simple, and some toilets even clean themselves after every use. - -Some toilet-cubicles are mobile and can be put in place where and when they are needed. These toilets are called ""portable toilets"". Portable toilets are commonly used at large outdoor events like concerts, festivals or carnivals. - -Inventions -In 1775, Alexander Cumming patented the S-bend. This was crucial in the development of the flushing toilet. It was a simple length of pipe with a curve in it. - - -Every day, toilets use 141 billion liters of water to flush waste. Engineers try to make toilets that do not need so much water. In 2019, one group made a chemical to put in toilets to make them more slippery so that the waste flushes away with only a little water. - -References - -Other websites - -Toilet guide for travelers -Public Toilet Near Me -World Toilet Day celebrated on November 19 -World Toilet Organization - -Home -Waste management" -1805,6075,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevi,Trevi,"Trevi (Latin: Trebiae), an old town and comune of Italy, in the province of Perugia in east central Umbria, 42°53N 12°45E, at 424 meters (1391 ft) above sea-level on the lower part of Mt. Serano above the wide plain of the Clitunno river. It is 10 km (6 mi) S.S.E. of Foligno and 20 km (12 mi) N. of Spoleto. The 2003 count of people by the government said that there were 7800 people living in the comune: about half of the people live in the town and the other people live in the country near town. The frazioni of Trevi (the smaller towns that belong to Trevi) are Borgo, Bovara, Cannaiola, Coste, Pigge, Manciano, Matigge, Parrano, Picciche, S. Lorenzo, S. Maria in Valle. - -Most of the town is densely built with many buildings predating the 18th century. It crowns a summit and when one is in the centre the streets are mostly gently sloping. From the town one can see one of the best views in Umbria, over 50 km (30 mi) to the west and on clear days as far as Perugia to the north and even Monte Amiata in southern Tuscany. On the main train route from Rome to Ancona there is a station at the botton of Monte Serano servicing Trevi but the rapid Intercity services do not stop. The train service from Florence to Rome by way of Perugia also stops there: Local bus connections are not frequent. Trevi is a pleasant place to visit and of recent accommodation and good eating has become available; there are few restaurants, but they are good and more numerous than in other nearby small towns. - -History - -In Roman times, Pliny the Elder said Trevi was a city of the old Umbrians, and an old stone with Umbrian writing was found in the comune, at Bovara, in the 1950s. ""Treviae"" is also listed in the 5th‑century Bordeaux Itinerary. We do not know the history of Trevi in very old times, although some walls in the center part of the town on the hill are as old as the 1st century BC. Trevi started to spread out away from the hill during the time of the Empire, when Hadrian fixed the main road in the area, the Via Flaminia; this made a small town in the plain grow, at a place now called Pietrarossa. For hundreds of years people have been finding old things there: there were Roman baths that people were probably using in the time of St. Francis, who came here and told people to bathe in them. - -In old times people say that Trevi ruled the valley below it, all the way to the Colli Martani, the line of mountains that run down the middle of Umbria. Trevi had a bishop until the 11th century, and was an important place belonging to the Lombards (in Italian, a gastaldato). At the beginning of the 13th century, Trevi made itself independent and became a free commune. It often fought on the side of Perugia to defend itself against nearby Spoleto, and fought wars with other communes in the area, winning some and losing some. It was invaded by Spoleto in the 14th century and by the Trinci, rulers of Foligno. In 1438 Trevi became part of the lands belonging to the Church as part of the ""legation"" of Perugia: after that Trevi's history was as part of the States of the Church, then (1860) of the united Kingdom of Italy. - -Trevi was at its most prosperous in the 15th century: the town was so important for those who wanted to buy and sell that people called it ""il porto secco"" — the dry port. In 1470, with Foligno, Trevi became the fourth town in Italy to have a printing press, managed by the first known printing company. Many big renaissance palazzi of the town indicate the contemporaneous prosperity. - -Important old buildings -Trevi is inside two walls of the Middle Ages; at the end of the 20th century, people found that the inside walls were Roman. - -Trevi has about twenty old churches, some of which are interesting: - the Duomo Sant' Emiliano, a Romanesque building: it has a carved door and the back of the church has more sculpture. The inside of the church was fixed in the 18th century and does not look old. - the Madonna delle Lacrime, a church from the Middle Ages, for monks, with big wall paintings painted to thank God for good things. The best painting is the Adoration of the Magi by Perugino: it is the last painting he put his name and the date on. - S. Martino, has old Lombard stones and good paintings by Mezzastris - S. Francesco, a large Gothic building. It is now a museum. - -The country area around the town has many Romanesque churches: some of those on the plain were built on the Roman Via Flaminia and indicate the road's former route. Some of the stone in these churches is old Roman and derives from buildings long gone. - -Museums -Trevi's big museum is the Museo S. Francesco, next to the Gothic church S. Francesco, which is not used for worship any more. It has a few Roman stones, but mostly many Umbrian paintings from the late Middle Ages to the 17th century: the best painting once was part of an altar, and it is by Lo Spagna. There is a very interesting group of ""ex‑votos"" (paintings to thank God for saving a person from a sickness or an accident) painted by ordinary people, not famous artists, of the 16th‑ century to the 18th‑century. - -The Museo della Civiltà dell' Olivo demonstrates the local olive culture: how they are planted, how they grow, and how they are made into oil. The Flash Art Museum is dedicated to contemporary art and is the seat of an international art magazine. - -Books to learn more about Trevi -The oldest big book on the history of Trevi is Historia universale dello Stato temporale ed ecclesiastico di Trevi, 1233 pages, by Durastante Natalucci, Trevi, 1745. It was translated into a more modern and readable Italian by Carlo Zenobi, a local historian, between 1987 and 1994. -An important book for the plain below Trevi is Cannaiola, Memorie storiche raccolte negli anni 1873‑74 by Father (now the Blessed) Pietro Bonilli. - -Pro Trevi, the town's volunteer tourism office, has helped people write and print new books about the history, plants and animals of Trevi and the country nearby. - -Other websites - Official Site - Trevi Tourist Office (Pro Trevi) - Bill Thayer's site - -Towns in Italy -Settlements in Umbria" -3836,11527,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankie%20Avalon,Frankie Avalon,"Frankie Avalon (born Francis Thomas Avallone, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on September 18, 1939) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for his starring roles in a series of beach movies in the 1960s. He was known as a teen idol. - -References - -Other websites - - -1939 births -Living people -American movie actors -American pop musicians -Actors from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania -Singers from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania" -19680,75406,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boy%20George,Boy George,"George Alan O'Dowd, better known as Boy George (born 14 June 1961 in Bexley, Kent) is a rock singer-songwriter and Club DJ. He grew up in a large, working-class Irish family. The family which originally came form Thurles, in Co. Tipperary, Ireland. - -O'Dowd was a part of the British new romantic movement which emerged in the late 1970s and was popularised in the early 1980s. He and Marilyn (born Peter Robinson) were regulars at 'The Blitz' a very popular nightclub in London. It was run by Steve Strange of the musical group Visage. The Blitz was a starting place for many early 1980s pop stars such as Spandau Ballet. The new romantics based their image on the coolness of David Bowie and high fashion. They liked the music of Bowie, Kraftwerk, Marc Bolan and post punk New Wave. - -O'Dowd gained fame with his group Culture Club during the 1980s. His music is often called blue-eyed soul. He was heavily influenced by Rhythm and Blues and reggae. Early recordings with Culture Club showed that O'Dowd's vocals had an emotional quality which was like American soul music of the 1960s and 1970s. His later solo work has also touched on glam rock influences and was particularly influenced by David Bowie and Iggy Pop. - -O'Dowd is also known for his flamboyant and androgynous appearance during the 1980s and early 1990s. - -On 11 May 2009, Boy George was released from prison at HMP Edmunds Hill in Newmarket, Suffolk. He was four months into a fifteen-month sentence for the assault and false imprisonment of a male escort, in his East London flat. He was tagged and placed on a curfew for the rest of the sentence. - -Boy George told the BBC on 27 January 2011 that there will be a 30th anniversary Culture Club reunion tour sometime later in the year. He also said they would be releasing a new album in 2012. Culture Club did play two live concerts, in Dubai and Sydney, but did not have a tour. - -In 2018, George, along with Culture Club, released an album called Life. They did an accompanying tour, called the Life Tour.  - -Harper Collins published his first autobiography, Take It Like a Man, in 1995, written with Spencer Bright. It was a bestseller in the UK. In 2005, Century published Straight, his second autobiographical book. This one was written with author Paul Gorman. - -References - -1961 births -Living people -British autobiographers -British people convicted of assault -English LGBT people -Gay men -LGBT singers -Musicians from Kent -New wave musicians -Singers from London" -3405,10113,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914,1914,"1914 (MCMXVI) was a common year that started on a Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. It was the year that saw the start of what became known as World War I. - -Events - June 28 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Countess Sophie were assassinated by Black Hand in Sarajevo. This led to World War I. - August 2 – According to the NSDAP 25 points manifesto, anyone who was not German-race who did not live in Germany before this date had to leave the country. - August 31 – Saint Petersburg, Russia is renamed Petrograd by Nicholas II. - -Date unknown - Australian supermarket chain Coles Supermarkets was founded. - The Iglesia ni Cristo (""Church of Christ"") was built in the Philippines. - The Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main opened - Construction of the Panama Canal is finished. - Yuma, Arizona became a city - -Nobel Prizes - Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Robert Bárány, Austrian doctor. - -Births - February 5 – William S. Burroughs, American writer (d. 1999) - March 31 – Octavio Paz, Mexican writer, poet and diplomat (d, 1998) - April 2 – Alec Guinness, English actor (d. 2000) - May 13 – Joe Louis, American boxer (d. 1981) - May 29 – Tenzing Norgay, Sherpa climber (d. 1986) - September 24 – John Kerr, 18th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1991) - October 16 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, last Shah of Afghanistan (d. 2007) - October 27- Dylan Thomas, Welsh poet (d. 1953) - November 25 – Joe DiMaggio, American MLB baseball player (d. 1999) - December 14 – Karl Carstens, 5th President of West Germany (d. 1992) - December 20 - Harry F. Byrd, Jr., American politician (d. 2013) - December 30 – Igor Diakonov, Russian (Soviet) historian and linguist (d. 1999) - Nancy Drew, Fictional character - -Deaths - June 14 – Adlai E. Stevenson, Vice President of the United States (b. 1835) - June 28 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (b. 1863), and his wife Countess Sophie - August 6 – Ellen Louise Wilson, American First Lady, wife of Woodrow Wilson. (b. 1860) - -Books - Dubliners – James Joyce - - - -nv:1901 – 1950" -5758,18656,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord%2C%20New%20Hampshire,"Concord, New Hampshire","Concord is the capital city of the U.S. state of New Hampshire. The land which Concord now occupies along the banks of the Merrimack River was settled thousands of years ago by Native Americans. The broad sweeps of the river valley, good soil for farming, and easy transportation on the Merrimack made the site of Concord equally inviting to English-speaking settlers in the eighteenth century. Settled by immigrants from Massachusetts in 1725, the community grew in prominence during the eighteenth century. Some of Concord's earliest houses remain today at the north end of Main Street. In the years following the American Revolution, the City's central location made it a logical choice for the state capital, and in 1808 Concord was named the official seat of state government. Today the 1819 State House is the oldest state capitol in which the legislative branches meet in their original chambers. - -History -This area's first settlement in 1659 was named Penacook, for the Indian name Pannukog, meaning crooked place or bend in the river. The first land grant was in 1725, and the town was incorporated as Rumford in 1733. The name was changed to Concord in 1765 upon resolution of a bitter boundary dispute between Rumford and Bow. Its central location was the logical choice for state capital, and Concord was so named in 1808. The State House, built in 1818 and first occupied in 1819, is the oldest in continuous use in the country. In 1853, the State granted Concord a city charter. It was in Concord that the Abbotts built the famous Concord Coach, modeled after the coronation coach for King George III. Granite quarrying has been another major industry, and Concord's quarries supplied granite for the US Library of Congress. Concord was home to Franklin Pierce, 14th President of the United States, following his presidency. - -Population Trends -Concord had the tenth largest numeric change in population, totaling 12,777 over 50 years, from 27,988 in 1950 to 40,765 in 2000. The largest decennial percent change was a 22 percent increase between 1980 and 1990; all other decades increased by ten percent or less. The 2005 Census estimate for Concord was 42,336 residents, which ranked third among New Hampshire's incorporated cities and towns. - - -County seats in New Hampshire -State capitals in the United States -1733 establishments -1730s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies -18th-century establishments in New Hampshire" -410,848,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy,Tragedy,"In theatre, a tragedy as defined by Aristotle is a play that ends badly for the hero or heroine or others. A tragedy is usually about a person who has many good qualities, but also has one poor quality (called a ""tragic flaw"") that causes trouble for him, and maybe his family or friends. - -Often in a tragedy, there is one possible event that the hero fears and tries to prevent, but no matter what he does, it makes this thing more and more sure to happen. Tragedies originated in Ancient Greek theatre, where they were performed at religious festivals. The three most famous Greek tragedy writers were Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Later famous writers include Shakespeare and Jean Racine. - -Sometimes the word tragedy is also used to mean something with a bad outcome in real life e.g. crime or death. - -Related pages -English Renaissance drama -Henrik Ibsen -Arthur Miller - -Theatrical forms" -4337,13513,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingot,Ingot,"Ingots are bars of metal, formed by pouring the molten metal into a mould. This is done after it has been purified from the ore. Gold ingots are often seen in movies. - -Metals" -2119,7253,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology,Epistemology,"Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge. It seeks to answer the questions ""What is knowledge?"" and ""How is knowledge acquired?"" - -Epistemologists are philosophers who are interested in questions such as whether it is possible to have knowledge, what kind of knowledge there is, and how people come to know things. - -One of the first philosophers to make a clear statement on these questions was Xenophanes (570–470 BC). The following saying was, and still is, famous: -""Certain truth has no man... for even if he ever succeeds in saying what is true, he will never know it"". -This is an early kind of skepticism. - -Some questions - - What is knowledge? - How can we know anything? - What is science? - What is truth? - -Some positions - Knowing how vs. knowing that: This was an idea of Gilbert Ryle. Moral questions, for example, may come down to knowing how to behave. Science could be about knowing that something is the case. - Rational vs. empirical knowledge: Rational knowledge (if it exists) is knowledge built up from a person's internal thought. Empirical knowledge is built up from what is received through the senses. - Error: Knowledge cannot err vs. the possibility of making mistakes is an essential part of knowledge (Ludwig Wittgenstein). - -There are other debates of this kind. - -Related pages - Epistemic community - Philosophy of science - -References" -7770,25388,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1618,1618," - -Events - March 8 – Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion (he soon rejects the idea after some initial calculations were made but on May 15 confirms the discovery). - May 23 – The Second Defenestration of Prague – Protestant noblemen throw three representatives of Ferdinand II out of a window. The event began the Thirty Years' War. - July 20 – Pluto reached, according to sophisticated mathematical calculations, its second most recent aphelion. The next one occurred in 1866, and the following one will occur in 2113. - August 29 – Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius are imprisoned by Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange - October 29 – English adventurer, writer, and courtier Sir Walter Raleigh is beheaded for allegedly conspiring against James I of England. - - The margraves of Brandenburg is granted Polish approval to inherit Ducal Prussia. - November 13, the Synod of Dordrecht has its first meeting. - Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mustafa I (1617-1623) to Osman II (1618-1622). - The 3000 seat Teatro Farnese, the first permanent proscenium theatre, was built into the Great Hall of the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, Italy in 1618." -22843,86685,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemish%20language,Flemish language,"Flemish is a language. It is a type of Dutch which is spoken by people in Belgium. It is the same as Dutch, but there are some typical words added. Dutch became the official language of the northern part of Belgium in 1938. -The biggest difference from Dutch is the pronunciation. - -Related pages -Dutch language - -References - -West Germanic languages -Languages of Europe" -13458,49485,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChuChu,ChuChu,"ChuChu is a comic magazine that is written for teenage girls. It is published by Syougakukan（Japan). - -Famous works -Sakura zensen（Miyuki Ohbayashi） -ALMIGHTY×10(Aqua Mizuto) -NG boy×Paradise(Yukino Miyawaki) -Hitohira no koi ga furu(Yuu Yabuuchi) - -Manga writers who write for ChuChu -Aqua Mizuto -Chitose Yagami -Hisa Kyoumachi -Iori Shigano -Kana Nanajima -Kei Ouri -Kirara Himekawa -Kiyoko Arai -Kyoko Mami -Mai Jinna -Mikiko Satsuki -Miwako Sugiyama -Miyuki Ohbayashi -Naomi Uramoto -Naoto Kohaku -Natsumi Kawahara -Nimi Fujita -Nozomi Shiratori -Rei Nanase -Ryouko Mizoguchi -Satoru Takamiya -Sayumi Nakamura -Tae Usami -Takemaru SaSaki -Yukako Iizaka -Yukino Miyawaki -Yuu Yabuuchi - -Manga" -12840,47144,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookie,Cookie,"A cookie is a sweet dessert made from flour. Cookies are made in an oven. They are also called biscuits in many English-speaking countries. In the United States and Canada, many varieties of biscuit are called cookies as well. - -Description - -Most cookies are flat and round like a disc. Cookies often have flavors added to them, like spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts or dried fruits. Most cookies are very sweet. Today, many people think of cookies with warmth and love. Cookies may be used like chocolate and candy as a reward when children do good deeds. - -Even though it is close to cakes and other sweetened breads, cookies usually do not use water for cohesion. Water in cakes makes the base (in the case of cakes called ""batter"") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles to form better. Cookies do not have bubbles, so they do not need this. In cookies, some form of oil or fat is used for cohesion. Oils, like butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. So a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is more dense when cooked. - -History -Cookies where made in Ancient Greece around 1200 BC. Hard wafers have been made for as long as baking existed. They were very popular because they last a long time and are not fragile, but they were normally not sweet enough to be called cookies today. - -Cookies were made at first in 7th century AD Persia, just after the use of sugar became common there. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all parts of Europe, and could be found anywhere from royal cuisine to street vendors. - -People started to travel around the world at that time, and cookies made a good travel snack; a sweeter version of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled very well and became known on every continent, was the jumble, a hard cookie made mostly from nuts, sweetener, and water. - -Types -Common types of cookies: - - Vanilla cookie - Chocolate cookie, often called Chocolate chip cookie - Nut cookie, especially peanuts and walnuts - Oatmeal cookie - Ginger cookie - Fig cookie - Sugar cookie - -Related pages -Gingerbread Man -Cake -Pastry -Cracker -Biscuit - -Pictures - -References - - -Snack foods" -9062,31012,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment,Punishment,"Punishment is when something is done to a person (or animal) that they do not like. It may be because they broke a rule. There are many kinds of punishment, from a death penalty for very bad crimes, to things that parents may do to punish children, like spanking them or taking away their toys. People are often sent to prison as punishment for a crime. - -Punishment can be seen as good in society to prevent people from doing bad things. It can also seen as cruel and unnecessary. It can also be seen to do more harm than good. - -References - -Basic English 850 words - -Criminal justice" -19720,75481,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sommerau,Sommerau,"Sommerau is a municipality in the Trier-Saarburg district, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. As of 31 December 2018, 75 people lived there. - -Municipalities in Rhineland-Palatinate -Trier-Saarburg" -17244,65290,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallene%20%28moon%29,Pallene (moon),"Pallene is a small moon of Saturn. It was discovered by the Cassini Imaging Science Team in 2004. It orbits between two larger moons, Mimas and Enceladus. Pallene is about 4 km in diameter. - -Saturn's moons" -24673,96551,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair%20trade,Fair trade,"Fair trade is a social movement which tries to help people who make things in developing countries. The movement helps people to work in better conditions and helps them get more money for what they make. These things give workers the opportunity to improve their lives and plan for their future, and they help reduce poverty. The movement also tries to keep the environment the same or improve the state that it is in. it is a way to help poverty - -Fair trade helps people in developing countries sell to people in developed countries. Things that are sold in international trade include handicrafts and other manufactured goods, agricultural products such as grains, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, bananas, honey, cotton, quinoa, fresh fruit, chocolate, wine and flowers, and minerals such as iron and petroleum. - -Merchandise that has fair trade status must be given a fair trade certificate. This says it follows rules about fairness to workers and the environment. This will mean the product can put the Fairtrade symbol on their packaging if they earn the certificate. - -Related pages -Moral purchasing -Oxfam - -Other websites -FLO International -FLO-CERT - -Trade" -13104,48050,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20Eagles,Philadelphia Eagles,"The Philadelphia Eagles are an American football team in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. - -The Eagles joined the National Football League in the year 1933. They have appeared in three Super Bowls (XXXIX, XV and LII) and won the Super Bowl LII in 2018, winning the 2017 season. They have won three championships in 1948, 1949, and 1960, besides the one in 2017. Sixteen Eagles players have become Pro Football Hall of Famers. Donovan McNabb was the quarterback for the Eagles from 1999-2009. He was traded to the Washington Redskins on April 4, 2010. Michael Vick was also an Eagles quarterback. Jalen Hurts is the current starting quarterback for the Philadelphia Eagles, but Nick Foles guided the win in 2018. - -The Eagles were named after the Bald Eagle, a symbol of the U.S.. The city of Philadelphia played a large part in the early history of the United States. - -Other websites -Official Philadelphia Eagles website - -1933 establishments in the United States -1930s establishments in Pennsylvania" -5466,17813,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lima,Lima,"Lima is the capital city (where the government works), and is considered the most important and largest city of Peru. 75% of the Peruvian economy is handled in Lima. -Lima is the industrial and financial center of Peru, and one of the most important financial centers in Latin America. - -It is an important city of South America and the entrance to Peru. Lima is city in constant urban growth. It has a large population. Over 8 million people live in the metropolitan area, which includes Callao Seaport. Lima is the fifth largest city in Latin America, behind Mexico City, São Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro. - -The city was founded by the Spanish conquistador (conqueror) Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535. He called it 'La Ciudad de los Reyes' (the City of the Kings). It became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. And after the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru. - -In the 1940s, Lima started a period of rapid growth, with the migration from the Andean regions of Peru, as rural people. They wanted to find better opportunities for work and education. The population, estimated at 0.6 million in 1940, reached 1.9M by 1960 and 4.8M by 1980. - -Lima has developed an important tourism industry, characterized by its historic center, archeological sites, nightlife, museums, art galleries, festivals, popular traditions, and gastronomy. Lima is considered Americas's gastronomical capital. - -Lima is made up of mainly Spanish speaking inhabitants with over 90% of the population speaking the language. Lima Province has 43 districts, including: - -1 - Cercado de Lima - -3 - Ate - -4 - Barranco - -5 - Brena - -7 - Comas - -9 - Chorrillos - -10 - El Agustino - -11 - Jesus Maria - -12 - La Molina - -13 - La Victoria - -14 - Lince - -17 - Magdalena del Mar - -18 - Miraflores - -21 - Pueblo Libre - -22 - Puente Piedra - -25 - Rimac - -27 - San Isidro - -28 - Independence - -29 - San Juan de Miraflores - -30 - San Luis - -31 - San Martin de Porres - -32 - San Miguel - -33 - Santiago de Surco - -34 - Surquillo - -35 - Villa María del Triunfo - -36 - San Juan de Lurigancho - -38 - Santa Rosa - -39 - Los Olivos - -41 - San Borja - -42 - Villa El Savador - -43 - Santa Anita - -References - - -1535 establishments -16th-century establishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru -1530s establishments in South America" -8984,30629,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto,Concerto,"A concerto is a piece of music made for a solo instrument and an orchestra. When an orchestra plays at a concert they might play a symphony (a piece for orchestra) and they might play a concerto (with a soloist). If the solo instrument is a violin the piece is called a “violin concerto”, if it is a piano it is called a “piano concerto”, etc. The orchestra accompanies the soloist. This means that it is the soloist who decides how fast or slow to play. The conductor should listen to the way the soloist wants to play and make the orchestra accompany sensitively. - -The word “concerto” is an Italian word (the second “c” is pronounced like an English “ch”). It means “agreeing” or “playing together”. The English plural is “concertos”. - -The concerto became popular during the 17th century in Italy. Some concertos had several soloists instead of just one. This kind of concerto was called a concerto grosso. - -The Concerto in the Baroque Period - -The solo concerto became popular with composers like Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) who wrote over 400 concertos for various instruments. His most famous concertos are a group of four known as The Four Seasons. These are violin concertos, and each concerto deals in turn with one of the seasons: spring, summer, autumn and winter. Many other Baroque composers wrote concertos: Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) wrote several concertos for violin although only two have survived, the others have been lost. He also wrote solo concertos for the harpsichord. George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) wrote concertos for the organ. Organs in England were very small in those days and balanced well with an orchestra. Handel sometimes put pauses in his concertos where the soloist could improvise (make up) some music. These improvised bits became known as “cadenzas”. Concertos ever since have cadenzas where the soloist can show how brilliant they are at playing and at improvising. Some composers wrote their own cadenzas. - -The Concerto in the Classical Period - -In the Classical period Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) wrote a few concertos including two for the cello, but he is better known for his symphonies. It was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) who wrote many wonderful piano concertos. This was at a time when the piano was a new instrument. Mozart was a brilliant pianist and he wrote most of them for himself to perform. He also wrote five violin concertos, four horn concertos, two flute concertos and a clarinet concerto. He also wrote concertos for more than one soloist e.g. a flute and harp concerto and a violin and viola concerto which he called Sinfonia Concertante. By this time concertos always had three movements: a fast one (usually in sonata form), a slow one, and a fast movement (often a rondo) to finish with. - -Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) became famous as a pianist before he was known as a composer. He wrote five piano concertos. The last one, known in English-speaking countries as the Emperor Concerto, is a very big, powerful work which looks forward to the music of the Romantic period. Beethoven wrote a beautiful violin concerto. At the time everyone thought it was too hard for the soloist to play, but as composers wrote harder and harder music the players had to become better and better. Nowadays every professional violinist should be able to play it. Beethoven also wrote a Triple Concerto for piano, violin, cello and orchestra. - -The Concerto in the Romantic Period - -The 19th century is known as the age of Romanticism. People adored creative men like artists, musicians and writers (the time for women to be equal had not yet come). They were seen as heroes. The concerto fitted in very well with this way of thinking. The soloist was a great hero, and the concerto enabled him to show off his great technique. The violinist and composer Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840) was one of these great heroes. He played the violin like no one else had ever done, and because he was a thin, skinny man with a pale face and long hair people thought he looked like the devil. He wrote violin concertos which at the time only he could play. - -Romantic and Modern Concertos - -Some of the most famous violin concertos of the 19th and 20th centuries include those by Felix Mendelssohn, Max Bruch (no 1), Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Edward Elgar, Dmitri Shostakovich (no 1), Béla Bartók, Alban Berg, Igor Stravinsky and Sir William Walton. - -Famous piano concertos after Beethoven’s time include those by Frederic Chopin (2), Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms (2), Pjotr I. Tchaikovsky (3), Edvard Grieg, Sergei Rachmaninoff (4), Béla Bartók (3), Sergei Prokofiev (5) and Igor Stravinsky. - -Famous cello concertos include those by Antonín Dvořák, Edouard Lalo, Edward Elgar and Dmitri Shostakovich. Tchaikovsky wrote a piece for cello and orchestra called Rococo Variations and Benjamin Britten wrote a piece for cello and orchestra which he called a “Cello Symphony” because the cello and orchestra are equal in importance. Brahms wrote a Double Concerto for violin and cello with orchestra. - -There are viola concertos by Paul Hindemith and William Walton, and Hector Berlioz wrote Harold in Italy which is like a viola concerto. - -Famous concertos for woodwind instruments include two for clarinet by Carl Maria von Weber, clarinet and flute concertos by Carl Nielsen, a clarinet concerto by Aaron Copland, an oboe concerto by Ralph Vaughan Williams. - -Richard Strauss wrote two concertos for the French horn. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov wrote a trombone concerto and Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote a tuba concerto. - -Modern composers have written percussion concertos. These are usually pieces for one percussion player playing lots of different percussion instruments, and an orchestra accompanying. James MacMillan wrote a piece for percussion and orchestra called Veni, Veni Emmanuel. - -Joaquin Rodrigo wrote several works for guitar and orchestra including Concierto de Aranjuez. - -Béla Bartók wrote a piece called Concerto for Orchestra. He gave it this title because, although it is a piece for orchestra (like a symphony), there are lots of solos for the different instruments. Other composer, such as Alan Hovhaness, have also written concertos for orchestra. - -Sir Peter Maxwell Davies has written ten concertos, each for a different solo instrument. They are known as the ""Strathclyde Concertos"". - -Musical forms" -14353,53884,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork%20%28city%29,Cork (city),"Cork is a city in County Cork in Ireland. It is the country's second largest city, only Dublin is larger. It is the third largest city on the island of Ireland, as Belfast is also larger. People from Cork are called Corkonians. It was founded by Saint Finbarr in the sixth century. 274,000 people live in Cork city and the surrounding urban areas. The River Lee runs through Cork city. - -Famous things in Cork City include Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral, Shandon cathedral, Blackrock castle, Fota wildlife park, Fota house and gardens, and University College Cork. Many famous sports people come from Cork including Roy Keane, Dennis Irwin and Christy Ring. Olympic medal winner Sonia O'Sullivan comes from the town of Cobh just outside Cork city in County Cork. - -Twin cities -, Shanghai -, Coventry -, Rennes -, Cologne -, San Francisco -, Swansea - -Europe - Capital of Culture in 2005. - -References - -Other websites - Cork City Council site - The Peoples Republic Of Cork - Architecture of Cork - - -6th-century establishments in Europe -County towns in Ireland" -5196,16633,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convair%20B-36%20Peacemaker,Convair B-36 Peacemaker,"The B-36 Peacemaker was a strategic bomber. It was used in the United States. The B-36 could carry a 21,000 pound bomb. The B-36 was never used in wartime, but was in a movie called Strategic Air Command. The Peacemaker could fly for 48 hours non-stop and was one of the longest ranged bombers at the time. It first flew in 1948, and the last combat flight was in 1959. - -United States Air Force aircraft" -22508,85109,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Causeway%2C%20Bermuda,"The Causeway, Bermuda","The Causeway is a narrow strip of reclaimed land and bridges in the north of Bermuda linking Hamilton Parish on the mainland in the southwest and Bermuda International Airport on St. David's Island in St. George's Parish in the northeast, which are otherwise divided by Castle Harbour. - -Other websites - New Crossing, government website on the future of the Causeway - -Bermuda" -16280,62613,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode%20%28statistics%29,Mode (statistics),"In statistics, the mode of a set of data is the one that occurs most. Very often, samples of data are collected. These might be measurements of some kind. In this context, the mode is the value that occurs most often. Unlike the median and the mean, the mode is not necessarily unique. There might be several different values that occur the same number of times. - -Statistics" -17815,67174,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation%20of%20powers,Separation of powers,"Separation of Powers means that the three branches of government are separated. - -The three branches are as follows: - the Legislative - the part that makes laws - the Executive - the part that carries out (executes) the laws - the Judicial Branch - the courts that decide if the law has been broken - -Separation of Powers helps to protect freedom. The executive branch carries out the laws but cannot make laws to make themselves powerful. Also the judiciary is responsible for making sure that criminals are punished, so that members of the government or legislature cannot ignore the law as the judiciary can check on them. - -Separation of powers is also called a system of checks and balances because the branches can check up on each other and if any of the branches get too strong, that branch will be balanced by the others. - -In the United States the three branches of government are completely separate except for the Vice President who is President of the Senate. In the United Kingdom the three branches of Government are mixed but the checks and balances are provided by history and custom (the rule that says something should happen because that is how it has been done for a long time). The Queen is Head of State (the executive), but is also part of Parliament (the legislative branch) and is the Fountain of Justice (the head of the judicial branch). But by convention she does not do anything without the advice of Ministers and never refuses to pass an Act of Parliament. The Queen has a lot of power but the power is controlled and balanced by the need to act in certain ways or only use the power at certain times. - -In some countries the leaders of the executive branch are members of the legislature. This system is called responsible government. -The first to talk about separation of powers in the modern age was Charles-Louis Montesquieu. Montesquieu published his book De l'esprit des lois (The Spirit of Laws) in 1748. - -Related pages - Constitution -Constitution of the United States - Mixed government - -Constitutions -Government -Politics" -21699,82703,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1448,1448," - -Events of 1448 -January 5/ 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir, leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as co-regents of Sweden. -June 20 – The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden. -June 28 – Charles VIII of Sweden is publicly hailed as king at Mora Stones. -September 28 – Christian of Oldenburg, betrothed to Queen Dowager Dorothea of Brandenburg, becomes King Christian I of Denmark. -October 17 – Battle of Kosovo – Hungarian forces under John Hunyadi are defeated by the Turks due to the treachery of Prince Dan of Wallachia and George Brankovic of Serbia. -Queens' College, Cambridge founded by Margaret of Anjou. -Vatican Library founded by Pope Nicholas V. -Vlad III the Impaler becomes reigning Prince of Wallachia for two months before being deposed by Vladislav II. -After a long episode of drought, flood, locust infestation, and famine in Ming Dynasty China since the year 1434, these natural afflicitions finally wane and agriculture and commerce return to a state of normalcy. - -Births -November 4 – King Alphonso II of Naples (died 1495) -date unknown -Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia (died 1478) -Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1473) - -Deaths -January 6 – Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (born 1418) -September 23 – Adolph I, Duke of Cleves (born 1373) -October 31 – John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1390) -date unknown – Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, Chinese general (born 1391)" -6848,21595,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal,Bhopal,"Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India. - -The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal. - -Bhopal has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 ft). - -Bhopal Disaster - -In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a tank containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as ""World's worst industrial disaster"". - -References - -Other websites" -8921,30184,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass%20%28fish%29,Bass (fish),"For other uses of the word ""bass,"" see bass. - -Bass is the name of some species (types) of fish that are often caught for food or sport. There are freshwater bass (that live in rivers and lakes) and saltwater bass (that live in the ocean). Many bass live in or near North America. Bass are from the order of Perciformes or ""perch-like fish"". Their name comes from the word for perch. - -Some well-known bass species are: -temperate basses such as the striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and white bass (M. chrysops), from the family Moronidae. -warm water basses, such as the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu), spotted bass (M. punctulatus), Guadalupe bass (M. treculii) and rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), from the sunfish family, Centrarchidae. These basses are also called black basses. - -Many other species are also called basses, such as: -The Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, from the perch family, Percichthyidae. -The black sea bass, Centropristis striata, from the family Serranidae. -The giant sea bass Stereolepis gigas, also called the black sea bass, from the family Polyprionidae. -The Chilean sea bass, Dissostichus eleginoides, more commonly known as the Patagonian toothfish. -The European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax. - -Perciformes" -13713,50728,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed%20Dose%20Procedure,Fixed Dose Procedure,"The fixed-dose procedure (FDP) was proposed in 1984 to test a substance's acute oral toxicity using fewer animals with less suffering than the older LD50 test which was developed in 1927. - -FDP uses 10-20 animals to find the dose that produces toxicity signs but not death, and from there predicts the lethal dose. LD50 (""lethal dose 50%"") uses 60-80 animals to find a dose that kills 50% of animals in a given time. FDP sometimes needs retesting using slightly higher or lower doses. - -Other websites -Department of Applied Statistics, University of Reading, UK. - -Toxicology" -3983,12319,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldous%20Huxley,Aldous Huxley,"Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 22 November 1963) was an English writer, and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. - -He wrote a number of novels, on various themes. Most of his books are about modern society, the effects of modern science and, later, on mysticism and psychedelic drugs like LSD. - -Huxley is probably best known for his book Brave New World. In the book, which was written in 1932, he writes about a world in the far future, where the whole social hierarchy is based on genetic traits, and not on the personal effort of individual people to learn and improve themselves. - -Selected works - -Novels - Crome Yellow (1921) - Antic Hay (1923) - Those Barren Leaves (1925) - Point Counter Point (1928) - Brave New World (1932) - Eyeless in Gaza (1936) - After Many a Summer (1939) - Time Must Have a Stop (1944) - Ape and Essence (1948) - The Genius and the Goddess (1955) - Island (1962) - -Essay collections - On the Margin (1923) - Along the Road (1925) - Essays New and Old (1926) - Proper Studies (1927) - Do What You Will (1929) - Vulgarity in Literature (1930) - Music at Night (1931) - Texts and Pretexts (1932) - The Olive Tree and other essays (1936) - Ends and Means (1937) - Words and their Meanings (1940) - The Art of Seeing (1942) - The Perennial Philosophy (1945) - Science, Liberty and Peace (1946) - Themes and Variations (1950) - The Doors of Perception (1954) - Heaven and Hell (1956) - Adonis and the Alphabet (U.S. title: Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow) (1956) - Collected Essays (1958) - Brave New World Revisited (1958) - Literature and Science (1963) - Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience 1931–63 (1977) - The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959 (1977) - -Screenplays - Brave New World - Ape and Essence - Pride and Prejudice (Collaboration. 1940) - Madame Curie (Collaboration. 1943) - Jane Eyre (Collaboration with John Houseman. 1944) - A Woman's Vengeance 1947 - Eyeless in Gaza (BBC Mini-series 1971) - -Audio Recordings on CD - Knowledge and Understanding (1955) - Who Are We? (1955) - -Other - Pacifism and Philosophy (1936) - An Encyclopedia of Pacifism (editor, 1937) - Grey Eminence (1941) - The Devils of Loudun (1953) - The Politics of Ecology (1962) - Selected Letters (2007) - -References - -Other websites - - Video interviews of Huxley from the 1950s, exploring Brave New World, Island, and psychedelics - - Aldous Huxley on the Internet Movie Database - LitWeb.net: Aldous Huxley Biography - -1894 births -1963 deaths -Cancer deaths in Los Angeles -Deaths from laryngeal cancer -English children's writers -English novelists -English playwrights -English poets -English screenwriters -English essayists -Huxley family -Writers from Surrey" -16678,63797,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreams%20Come%20True,Dreams Come True,"Dreams Come True is a Japanese J-Pop music group. - -The group is made up of a woman and a man. The vocalist is Miwa Yoshida and the bassist is Masato Namamura. They made their debut in 1988. The group tends to use humorous and ambiguous language in their songs. - -Japanese musical groups -J-pop bands -Jazz bands" -12687,46681,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share,Share,"Share may mean: - - Sharing (or ""To Share""); to make joint use of resources (such as food or money), or to ""give something away"" - Share (finance), a stock or other security such as a mutual fund - Share, the percentage of television sets in use tuned to a specific program—see Nielsen Ratings - - SHARE (charity), the acronym of a major Cork-based charity - SHARE (computing), one of the oldest computer user groups - Share (newspaper), a Caribbean and Black Canadian community newspaper based in Toronto, Canada - Share (P2P), a Japanese P2P computer program. The successor to Winny. - Share Foundation, a not-for-profit organization in Newfoundland - SHARE Foundation (El Salvador), an El Salvador justice organization - Share International, a new religious movement founded by the British painter Benjamin Creme - Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment, tracking space weather from Antarctica - - Network share, a file storage area that is available over a computer network. - Plowshare, the cutting blade of plow (plough)." -24076,92866,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Agincourt,Battle of Agincourt,"The Battle of Agincourt was fought on 25 October 1415 and was a major win for England against France in the Hundred Years' War. It led to several later English victories. Henry V of England led the English army and Constable of France Charles d'Albret led a larger French army. King Charles of France didn't engage because he was mentally unwell. Henry V was involved in hand to hand combat and was struck by an axe but his helmet saved him. - -The English longbow was an important weapon for killing and winning this battle. It was more powerful than the French crossbow and they had more of them. The majority of the army were bowmen. The English army used sharp wooden archer's stakes to protect the archers from French mounted knights. - -The English took prisoners but killed all except those of high rank. Overall the French lost 8000 men and the English lost 100 but historians are unsure of the actual numbers. The French mainly lost because they wore heavy armour and got stuck in the sticky mud at Azincourt (Agincourt). - -Agincourt -1415 -15th century in England -15th century in France -October events" -2629,8377,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy,Economy,"An economy is a system of making and trading things of value. It is usually divided into goods (physical things) and services (things done by people). It assumes there is medium of exchange, which in the modern world is a system of finance. This makes trade possible. The alternative systems of barter – exists only on a very small scale. - -To better understand how the economy works, it can be discussed in three sections. These are: - The primary sector which covers raw products from farming, fishing, and mining, and so on. - The secondary sector which covers manufacturing of goods. - The tertiary sector which covers a range of services, provided to people and companies. - -The term 'real economy' is sometimes used to mean the part of the economy concerned with goods and services. This is contrasted with the 'paper economy', the financial side of the economy, which buys and sells on the financial markets. - -The word 'economy' comes from the Greek word οἰκονόμος. This means ""person who manages the house"". - -Related pages - Economics - Political economy - -References" -23094,87986,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu%20Zun,Wu Zun,"This is a Chinese name. The surname is Wu (吳) - -Wu Zun (traditional Chinese: 吳尊; simplified Chinese: 吴尊; pinyin: Wú Zūn) is a Brunei-born actor and singer. He is the only non-Taiwanese member of the boy band Fahrenheit. He is also known for his roles in the Taiwanese TV shows Hanazakarino Kimitachihe and Tokyo Juliet. - -Biography -Born Goh Kiat Chun (traditional Chinese: 吳吉俊; Pinyin: Wú Jí Jùn) in Brunei on 10 October 1979, Wu studied at the Chung Hwa Middle School in Bandar Seri Begawan. He later graduated from the RMIT University in Melbourne with a Bachelor's degree in Business Administration. Wu also played basketball for Brunei's national team . Before joining Fahrenheit (band), he was a model for 伊林 Yi Lin in Taiwan and for Diva Models in Singapore. He manages a gym club called Fitness Zone in Brunei. - -Television roles - -Fahrenheit -Wu was the last and oldest member to join Fahrenheit (band). He is the bass vocalist of the group. He also plays the drums. His personality is represented by a cool Autumn at 59 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. He also represented by the word ""Mysterious"" (traditional Chinese: 神; Pinyin: shén). - -References - -Other websites - Chinese H.I.M International Music - Japanese Fahrenheit: Official Japan Site - Wu Zun's Blog - -1979 births -Living people -C-pop singers -Actors -Singers -Bruneian people" -1298,4678,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Jong-il,Kim Jong-il,"Kim Jong-il, birth name Yuri Irsenovich Kim (according to the Soviet Union's records) (, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was the Supreme Leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) from the time of his father's death in 1994 until his own death in 2011. He was the son of Kim Il-Sŏng. Official North Korean propaganda said that Jong-il was born on Mount Paektu (a holy mountain in Korea); but most historians think that he was born near Chabarowsk in the Soviet Union. The North Korean laws made him permanent ruler of North Korea for life. He was sometimes referred to as the ""Dear Leader"", but this was not an official title. His official title was ""Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea"", ""Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army"" and ""General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea"". Many people in North Korea were imprisoned or killed for speaking out against the Kim regime. Almost everyone in North Korea wore a small pin with a picture of Kim Jŏng-Il or Kim Il-Sŏng on it. - -The North Korean government told people of his death through the state media on 19 December 2011. It was said that he had died two days earlier of ""physical and mental over-work"". - -Early life -Jong-il was born Yuri Irsenovich Kim on 16 February 1941. - -Personal life -Jong-il was a Stalinist. He believed in the North Korean Communist philosophy of Juche (self-reliance). He was afraid to travel on aeroplanes and traveled only on trains. He was well known for his love of movies and luxury goods, especially caviar and Hennessey brand cognac, even though North Korea was one of the poorest countries in the world. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright once gave Jong-il a present of a basketball signed by Michael Jordan when he visited North Korea because Jong-il was a fan of the National Basketball Association and of Michael Jordan. - -Death -On the morning of 17 December 2011, at the age of 69 or 70, Jong-il died of a heart attack while traveling. His funeral was held on 28 December, and as a result, Kim Jong-un was then elected as the new leader of North Korea. On 13 April 2012, Kim Jong-il was made Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission and Eternal General Secretary of the Workers Party of Korea. - -References - -Other websites - - – Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998) - Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood. - The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il - ""Hidden Daughter"" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth) - Kim's family tree - -1941 births -2011 deaths -Former dictators -North Korean military people -North Korean politicians -Deaths from myocardial infarction" -21745,82878,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zihlschlacht-Sitterdorf,Zihlschlacht-Sitterdorf,"Zihlschlacht-Sitterdorf is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -References - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -23838,92091,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muldentalkreis,Muldentalkreis,"The Muldentalkreis was a district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It ended in 2008. - -The district was formed in 1994 when the two old districts of Grimma and Wurzen were joined together. A few municipalities from other districts around Bad Lausick were added as well. - -Geography -The district is named after its major river, the Mulde - the name means . The Mulde is starts in the south of the district where two smaller rivers, the Freiberger Mulde and the Zwickauer Mulde join. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - Official website (German) - - -2008 disestablishments in Europe" -7787,25470,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20%28novel%29,Emma (novel),"Emma is a book by Jane Austen. It was first published in the year 1815. Jane Austen teased readers with the idea of a ""heroine whom no one but myself will much like"" when she began writing Emma. It is a comedy about Emma Woodhouse, a rich young lady growing up in the fictional community of Hartfield, in 19th century England. The book is about the troubles Emma causes when she tries matchmaking. - -Plot - -Emma Woodhouse is a rich and beautiful young woman. The book starts by introducing her, and with her governess, Miss Taylor's wedding with Mr. Weston, a cheerful neighbor. Emma quickly becomes friends with Harriet Smith, a ""natural daughter"". - -Characters - - Emma Woodhouse - the second daughter of Mr. Woodhouse. Jane Austen introduces Emma as ""handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy disposition,"" and has had ""...very little to distress or vex her."" She is elegant, friendly, and cares about her friends. However, Emma can also be proud and vain, like when she stops Harriet from marrying Robert Martin. Sometimes her kind feelings and her pride struggle with each other: ""Emma could not but picture it all, and feel how justly they must resent (be angry), how naturally Harriet must suffer...She would have given a great deal, or endured a great deal, to have had the Martins in a higher rank of life. They were so deserving, a little higher should have been enough; but as it was, how could she have done otherwise? Impossible! She could not repent (be sorry). They must be separated..."" Emma is also an ""imaginist,"" ""on fire with speculation (guesses) and foresight."" She tries to match the people around her, but thinks she will never marry. Mr. Knightley warns her to try not to do so: ""You are more likely to have done harm (bad) to yourself, than good to them, by interference."" He also says to Mrs. Weston, ""Emma is spoiled by being the cleverest of her family. At ten years she had the misfortune of being able to answer questions which puzzled her sister at seventeen...ever since she was twelve, Emma has been mistress of the house and of you all."" Later, however, she sees her mistakes and has a happy marriage with Mr. Knightley. - - Mr. George Knightley - the brother of Mr. John Knightley, Emma's brother-in-law, and an old family friend. He is ""a sensible man about seven or eight-and-thirty,"" with ""a cheerful manner."" He is ""one of the few people who could see faults in Emma Woodhouse, and the only one who ever told her of them."" He is jealous of Frank Churchill when he comes and flirts with Emma. He is not as proud as Emma, and knows that Harriet would be very happy if she married Robert Martin. He is kind and generous, and respectful to people like Miss Bates. - - Frank Churchill - the son of Mr. Weston by his first wife. He is ""...a very good-looking young man - height, air, address, all were unexceptionable, and his countenance (face) had a great deal of the spirit and liveliness of his father's - he looked quick and sensible."" Somehow Mr. Knightley seems ""...determined to think ill of him,"" and says he is a ""...trifling, silly young fellow."" Everybody seems to expect Frank Churchill and Emma to fall in love with each other. At first, Emma likes him very much, and thinks she loves him, but soon she realizes her love has settled into cheerful friendship, and she decides to match him with Harriet. She does not know he is already engaged to Jane Fairfax, and is very, very surprised when she finds out. - - Jane Fairfax - a quiet young lady of Emma’s age. Emma is secretly jealous of her because she can do lots of things better than Emma, like playing the piano. She is very beautiful, and “very elegant, remarkably elegant…elegance was the reigning character.” She is also delicate, kind, clever, and polite. However, she does not have the cheerful openness or warmth of Emma. She is secretly engaged to Frank Churchill, and is very unhappy when he keeps on flirting with Emma. - - Harriet - a seventeen-year-old illegitimate daughter of a tradesman. She is ""a very pretty girl...short, plump, and fair, with a fine bloom, blue eyes, light hair, regular features, and a look of great sweetness..."". Harriet is not very clever. However, she is grateful, nice, and humble. She loves Robert Martin, but because of Emma's opinion, she refuses his offer of marriage, and she falls in love with Mr. Elton instead. But Emma is very surprised when she finds out Mr. Elton loves her! Harriet is very sad, but Emma soon wants her to marry Frank Churchill instead. She is shocked when she realizes Harriet does not love Frank Churchill, but Mr. Knightley. In the end, Harriet marries the person she really liked, Robert Martin, and has a happy life. - - Mr. Woodhouse - Emma's old father. He loves his daughters, but with ""gentle selfishness."" He does not want his daughters to be married because he does not want them to leave him. Mr. Woodhouse is very cautious about illness and disease. He is sweet tempered, and likes to eat gruel. - -Movie - -1996: Emma - Starring Gwyneth Paltrow. - -Other websites - - An examination of Emma's theme and its slavery subtext - Chronology/Calendar for Emma - - Emma, online at Ye Olde Library - Emma , complete text and audio - Emma, free audio book at LibriVox - -Emma -1810s books -English novels" -881,3667,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20Brigades%20Union,Fire Brigades Union,"The Fire Brigades Union (FBU) is the main union for firefighters in the United Kingdom. A union is a group of workers. They make the group to improve pay and working conditions. It was founded in 1918 in the London area as the Firemans Trade Union. It soon grew to cover the entire country. Today, it has around 50,000 members. - -Other websites -FBU homepage - -Organisations based in London -Unions -Firefighting" -8099,26909,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo%20%28mythology%29,Echo (mythology),"Echo was a nymph in Greek mythology, and an Oread (a mountain nymph). She was very beautiful, but loved her own voice. - -Hera -According to Ovid, Echo once had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus having relationships with other women. She did this by leading Hera away and flattering her. When Hera found out she was very angry with Echo. She put a curse on her that meant that she could only speak the last words of other people after she had heard them. It is due to this story that we get the meaning behind the word echo. - -Narcissus -After she was cursed, Echo fell in love with Narcissus. Narcissus was very handsome and anybody who saw him always fell in love with him. However, Narcissus had no heart and could not fall in love with anybody. Echo could not speak to Narcissus but wanted to be able to see him. She therefore followed him everywhere, but made sure that he could not see her. - -Narcissus got lost and called out ""Is anyone here?"". Echo said back ""Here, here, here."" Narcissus then asked Echo to come out of her hiding place. Echo did so and then told Narcissus that she loved him by hand movements. Narcissus, who was angry that so many people loved him, told Echo that he did not love her. - -Echo was very upset and prayed to Aphrodite for death. Aphrodite granted Echo's wish, but she liked Echo's voice so much she kept it alive. - -Narcissus also rejected Echo and broke her heart. She then went and haunted valleys and mountainous areas where echoes are able to be heard in all hollow places of the earth. - -Pan -This is a different story about Echo's death. Echo was a talented dancer and singer, but did not like the love of any man. This caused another god, called Pan, to become angry. He had Echo killed and split into pieces. These pieces were spread about the world, but were collected up by Gaia. Echo's voice was not collected, so it remains all over the world and still says the last words that other people have said. In some versions of the story, Echo and Pan have a child who was called Iambe. - -Nymphs" -15993,61415,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byron%2C%20Wyoming,"Byron, Wyoming","Byron is a town in the American state of Wyoming. It part of Big Horn County. At the 2010 census, 593 people lived in Byron. - -In high school, students go to Rocky Mountain High School in Byron. Middle School students go to Rocky Mountain Middle School in Deaver and elementary school students attend Rocky Mountain Elementary School in Cowley. - -The town has an area of 0.9 mi². 0.1 mi² of it (5.62%) is water. - -Towns in Wyoming -Big Horn County, Wyoming" -23606,91021,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary%20%28music%29,Voluntary (music),"In music a voluntary is a piece of music, usually for organ, which is played as part of a church service. - -The word “voluntary” can be used for the title of a piece of music. The title was often used by English composers in the late Renaissance or Baroque periods for a piece of organ music that was free in style, i.e. it did not have to be composed in a strict form such as sonata form or a fugue. It was meant to sound as if it was being improvised (the word voluntary in general means “free”, i.e. not “forced to do something”). - -Composers such as Orlando Gibbons, John Blow and Henry Purcell wrote voluntaries, although sometimes they preferred to use other titles such as fancy (an English form of the Italian word fantasia), or even fugue. However, these fugues were not composed in the proper fugue style: they just started off with imitation as in a fugue, but continued in a freer style. - -Some voluntaries were called double voluntaries. These were pieces written for organs with two manuals (keyboards). The pieces contrasted a loud manual with a soft one. - -Some voluntaries were known as trumpet voluntaries. These were voluntaries which had a tune which was played (with the right hand) on a stop called a “trumpet” or a “cornet”. Two very famous trumpet voluntaries, often played at weddings, are the trumpet voluntary by Henry Purcell and the one by Jeremiah Clarke (which people used to think was composed by Purcell). In the 18th century the composer John Stanley wrote many trumpet voluntaries. - -References -groves music online - -Musical forms" -11126,40127,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt%20mine,Salt mine,"A salt mine is a mine where salt is taken from the earth. Very often, this is done in the mountains. It is different from a salt evaporation pond, where salt is taken from salt water. Getting salt from different layers of rock in a mountain used to be a very dangerous job. The Romans used to sentence prisoners to this kind of labour. - -Usually the salt is mixed with rock that has chlorides and sulfates. - -Empty salt mines are used very often as a storage area, for example, for unused radioactive elements (from nuclear power plants). Salt mines are empty if there is no salt left to take, or if taking the salt that is left would be too expensive. - -Minerals" -7088,22436,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed%20tomography%20scanner,Computed tomography scanner,"A computed tomography (CT) scanner is an X-ray machine that takes cross section images. They can help a doctor in diagnosis. - -Medical equipment -Laboratory equipment -Medical imaging" -22715,85976,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobryanka,Dobryanka,"Dobryanka (, 58°27′N, 56°25′E) is a town in Perm Krai, Russia. It is a center of Dobryansky District. As of 2005, there were about 36,100 people. - -Dobryanka was founded in 1623 and became a town in 1943. It is one of the oldest settlements of Perm Krai. - -Towns in Russia" -23071,87888,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Adams,Richard Adams,"Richard George Adams (9 May 1920 – 24 December 2016) was an English author. His most famous book, Watership Down, began as a story to tell his daughters. Adams won both important British children's book awards, the Carnegie Medal and the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize. - -Adams was in the British Army during World War II. Later he joined the British Civil Service. Two years after Watership Down was published, Adams became a full-time author. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1975. - -Adams died on 24 December 2016 at the age of 96 in Oxford, England from complications of a blood disorder. - -Select books - Watership Down - Shardik - Nature Through the Seasons - The Tyger Voyage - The Plague Dogs - Voyage Through the Antarctic (with Ronald Lockley) - Daniel (2006) - -References - -1920 births -2016 deaths -English writers -English novelists -Literature since 1500" -11326,41112,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Britain,Roman Britain,"Roman Britain (Britannia) was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410. - -History - -The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic. He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire. - -Their capital was taken over by the Romans. Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain. The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century. - -In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were: - - Legio II Augusta - Legio IX Hispana - Legio XIV Gemina - Legio XX Valeria Victrix - -The II Augusta was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. The other three legions were also led by high-ranking men. - -The invasion was one of the most significant events in British history. After the revolt of Boudica there was usually peace and a process of full ""romanization"" started successfully in southeast Britain. - -The Romans considered Britannia as a single territory and administratively they divided the huge island in five provinces: Britannia prima (capital London), Britannia secunda, Flavia Caesariensis, Maxima Caesariensis and Valentia. It seems that they have created also a sixth province -during Agricola conquest- in Caledonia, called Vespasiana. - -Roman legions left in 410 AD after almost four centuries, and the administration of the country was taken over by prominent local chieftains. This was known as Sub-Roman Britain, with a Romano-British culture and the people may have used a Latin-based language. It lasted for more than two centuries but gave way to an increasingly Anglo-Saxon England by the start of the seventh century. - -Technology - -Roman technology made its impact in road building and the construction of villas, forts and cities. During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads. They were used in later centuries, and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and sewage systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans. - -There was no writing in Britain before the Romans. They introduced it and, when they left, writing only survived with the help of religion. - -The British were skilled in the arts, and produced ornamental jewellery and pottery which was exported to Europe. They built defensive structures such as hill forts. They were proficient in warfare with spears, bows and arrows. Small round stones found in such sites indicate the use of slings or catapults. - -To keep Roman control, forts and garrisons were built throughout Britain, and the existing roads improved. The local people had to maintain the Roman roads in Britain, and got tax relief for their efforts. - -Roman roads allowed for troop movements and the distribution of supplies. The forts and garrisons needed food and other services. Vast areas produced these goods. For example, the often flooded Somerset levels was like a huge market garden that provided supplies for the garrisons at Exeter, Gloucester, Bath and the forts in between. Local fishermen supplied fresh fish, and farmers reared sheep, pigs, cattle and poultry for the garrisons. - -Christianity -Missionaries from Gaul began to introduce Christianity to the West country. Before the end of the first century AD they had a Church of Celtic Christianity. This spread such that by the mid second century much of Cornwall, Devon, Western Dorset, and South Somerset had adopted Christianity. The spread of Christianity continued eastward and strongly northward into Wales through the next two centuries, especially after the adoption of Christianity by Rome. The Romans had built shrines and temples to their pagan gods and continued to patronize these, even after the adoption of Christianity by Rome. - -References - -Related pages - - Roman Empire - History of the United Kingdom - Roman Wales - Sub-Roman Britain - -Places of Ancient Rome -History of the British Isles -1st-century establishments in Europe -5th-century disestablishments -Establishments in the United Kingdom -Disestablishments in the United Kingdom" -3063,9594,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20graphic%20design,History of graphic design,"Graphics (from Greek ) are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone. It includes everything that relates to creation of signs, charts, logos, graphs, drawings, symbols, geometric designs and so on. - -Graphic design is the art or profession of combining text and pictures in art, advertisements, publications, or websites. The aim of graphics is to brand, inform, and have a specific effect on its audience. - -History of graphics -Hundreds of graphic designs of animals were made by primitive people in Chauvet cave, in the south of France, about 30,000 BC. Also, similar art was done in the Lascaux cave, France, about 14,000 BC. The art of primitive hunters is found in the rocks of Bhimbetka in India, drawn earlier than 7000 BC. Aboriginal rock art in Kakadu National Park of Australia, show that graphics has a long history in many parts of the world. This history (with writing, which emerged in 3000–4000 BC) are the foundation of graphic art. - -Rock and cave art - -Writing - -Calligraphy & graphics in books -Religious books have used graphics extensively. Among these books are Bibles that were created in the monasteries in Ireland, Scotland, and England. Spiralling and interlocking patterns, often including small figures, were part of the ancient graphic tradition of the British Isles. From the 6th century onwards these were applied to the decoration of illuminated gospels. - -Graphics in the Quran -In Islamic countries the graphic designs can be found in their holy book, the Quran. The Quran was first wriiten an angled style called Kufi. This appeared in the 8th century, and reached its peak in the 10th century. Later on decoration of margin, page and other graphic techniques were added to beautify the book. In the 12th century the Naskh script was invented: it used curves instead of angled lines. Other styles were added later on. - -Graphics and miniatures - -Graphic compositions in Asia - -Decorative graphic design in pottery -From ancient times graphic design has been used for decoration of pottery and ceramics. - -Birth of modern graphic design -William Morris had an influence on modern graphics. In the second half of 19th century his Kelmscott Press produced many graphic designs, and created a collector market for this kind of art. In Oxford he was associated with artists like Burne-Jones, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. They formed the Pre-Raphaelites group, whose ideas influenced modern graphic design considerably. - -Mondrian's minimalism revolution -The Dutch painter Piet Mondrian in the years 1920–21 courageously introduced the style of minimalism in painting. His simple geometric compositions, together with the use of only three basic colors, blue, yellow, and red, in combination with black and white created -a new venue for the graphic designers. He demonstrated that with simple relocation of these colors, and experimenting with the proportionality of various square surfaces, one can achieve extremely different ambiances and various feelings. For the graphic designers who intend to convey a message with a minimum interference from the extraneous elements his experiment in minimalism was a valuable gift. - -Communication with pictures - -Logos and trademarks -A trademark, identified by the symbols ™ and ®, or mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, company or other entity to identify its products or services and to distinguish them from those of other producers. A trademark is a type of intellectual property, and typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. - -Signs of culture and peace - -Information signs: Isotype and the Viennese method -In 1921, Otto Neurath, an Austrian social scientist, introduced graphic design to help the understanding of social and economical data. In 1925, the Museum of Economy and Society used such graphics for the public. This style of presentation at the time was called the Viennese method, but now it is known as Isotype charts. - -Dynamic designs, and computer animation - -Placards and posters -Placards and posters existed from ancient times. The Greek axons and the Roman Albums, with their decorative designs and announcements, were quite similar to today's posters. In ancient Greece the names of athletes and games schedules were written on columns that were slowly turning on an axis. Romans used whitewashed walls in their markets in which sellers, money lenders, and slave traders wrote their announcements and advertised for their products, and to attract the attention of customers they added an attractive design. - -With the invention of printing, in 1440, and particularly the development of the lithographic process, invented by a Czech named Alois Senefelder in 1798 in Austria, creation of posters became feasible. Although handmade posters existed before, they were mainly used for government announcements. William Caxton, who in 1477 started a printing company in England, produced the first printed poster. - -In 1870, the advertising poster emerged. - -Art nouveau posters and the impact of graphics on painting - -Posters after World War II -After the Second World War, with the emergence of new color printing technology and particularly appearance of computers, the art of posters underwent a new revolutionary phase. People can create color posters on their laptop computers and create color prints at a very low cost. Unfortunately, the high cost of sophisticated printing processes can only be afforded mostly by government entities and large corporations. With the emergence of the internet, the role of posters in conveying information has greatly diminished. However, some artists still use chromolithography in order to create works of art in the form of print. In this regard the difference between painting and print has been narrowed considerably. - -Graphic design in modern life -Today graphic design has penetrated into all aspects of modern life. In particular modern architecture has been influenced by graphics. - -References - - -Graphic Design -Communication" -8025,26713,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Birth%20of%20Venus%20%28Botticelli%29,The Birth of Venus (Botticelli),"The Birth of Venus is a painting by Sandro Botticelli (1445 – May 17, 1510). It is of a Roman goddess who was called Venus. He pictured her standing on a shell because Venus was said to have been born from foam on the sea in Stanze per la giostra, a poem written by Angelo Poliziano. The painting shows Zephyr, god of the winds holding the gentle breeze Aura, blowing her toward the shore where Horae, goddess of the seasons, is awaiting her with a cloak. She is pictured naked to show her innocence and divinity. - -Art by Sandro Botticelli -15th-century paintings" -18217,68383,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Gaozu%20of%20Han,Emperor Gaozu of Han,"Emperor Gaozu of Han (, 256 BC or 247 BC – 195 BC) was the founder of Han Dynasty. He ruled China from 202 BC until 195 BC. His name was Liu Bang and Ji was his courtesy name. He was born in Yang Li City. After defeating the great King, Xiang Yu, Emperor Gaozu of Han unified China and became the first emperor of Han Dynasty. Emperor Weidi of Han, Gaozu's son, was the 2nd emperor of Han Dynasty. - -Birth: - -One day, Liu Bang's mother slept near the river bank. Suddenly, thick clouds darkened the sky and it thundered. Liu Bang's father, Liu Tai Gong, felt it strange and he worried over his wife's safety. He went to find his wife immediately. When Liu Tai Gong arrived, he saw a dragon sleeping on her body. After this incident, Liu Tai Gong's wife had a baby and Liu Bang was born soon! - -Appearance and Personality: - -According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Liu Bang looked like the dragon. Also, there were 72 moles on his left leg. People saw a dragon following Liu Bang all the time. For the personality, Liu Bang was kind and he loved helping poor people. He liked drinking wines with his friends as well.Emperors of Han Dynasty -3rd-century BC births -190s BC deaths" -13255,48658,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final%20Fantasy%20VII,Final Fantasy VII,"Final Fantasy VII is a 1997 role-playing video game created by Square for the PlayStation console. It is the seventh major game in the Final Fantasy series. - -Many people see the game as one of the most influential and important role-playing games to date. It is the highest-selling game in the series, having sold more than 13 million copies of the game. Final Fantasy VII Remake released in April 2020. - - Storyline - - Plot Final Fantasy VII follows the story of Cloud, who joins forces with many others to fight a new threat to the world while dealing with a seemingly terminal illness. - -Characters -The main playable character is Cloud who is supported by Tifa, Aerith, and Barret. - - Music -The music in Final Fantasy VII covers a wide variety of musical genres, including rock, techno, orchestral, and choral. - - Spin-off titles - Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children – set 2 years after Final Fantasy VII - Before Crisis – set 6 years before Final Fantasy VII - Crisis Core – set 7 years before Final Fantasy VII - Dirge of Cerberus'' – set 3 years after Final Fantasy VII - -References - -Other websites -Official website - -Final Fantasy 07 -Final Fantasy 07 -PlayStation games -Windows games -IOS games -PlayStation 4 games -Android (operating system) games -Nintendo Switch games -Xbox One games" -18531,69483,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20ace,Flying ace,"A flying ace or fighter ace is a military pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in air combat. Use of the term ""ace"" in military aviation began in World War I (1914–18). French newspapers called Adolphe Pegoud, as l'as (French for ""ace"") after he became the first pilot to shoot down five German aircraft. Many other pilots later became aces, and some are very famous today, like the ""Red Baron"", Manfred von Richthofen who had 80 kills. - -Erich Hartmann was the ace with the most kills; he had 352. - -Some countries have recognized armor commanders as ""tank aces"" for destroying five enemies. - -Other websites - Fighter ace list - -Occupations in aviation" -20846,80227,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzlingen,Kreuzlingen,"Kreuzlingen is a municipality in the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -It is the second largest city of the canton, after Frauenfeld with a population of over 18,000. - -In 1874, the municipality of Egelshofen was renamed Kreuzlingen. It reached the present size with the adding of Kurzrickenbach in 1927 and Emmishofen in 1928. - -Geography -It is located on Lake Constance. - -It is halfway between Schaffhausen and Rorschach. - -History - -The name of the municipality stems from the Augustinian monastery Crucelin, which was later renamed Kreuzlingen Abbey. It was built in 1125 by the Bishop of Constance, Ulrich I. In the Swabian War and the 30 Years' War after the siege of Constance by Swedish troops, Kreuzlingen Abbey was burned down by the people of Constance. The crime was blamed on the monks for having supported the enemy. In 1650, the monastery was rebuilt in its present location. Because of secularization in 1848, the buildings became a school. The chapel became a Catholic church - -People already lived in the Kreuzlingen area during the Bronze Age. Celtic and Roman coins and artifacts show that people continued to be settled in the area pre-writing. Kurzrickenbach is first mentioned as Rihinbah in 830, Egelshofen is mentioned as Eigolteshoven in 1125, and Emmishofen is mentioned as Eminshoven in 1159. The territory of the municipality, except for the Augustinian monastery, belonged to the Bishop of Constance. - -Until the beginning of the 19th century, the current centre of Kreuzlingen was still largely agricultural. The first steamboats began to operate on Lake Constance in 1824. The first train line to Romanshorn was finished in 1871, and the second to Etzwilen in 1875. This brought commerce and industry to the area. In 1874, Kreuzlingen became the capital of the district, instead of the previous capital, Gottlieben. However, until World War I, Kreuzlingen was a kind of suburb of Constance. Most of its profits went to German firms. The war made Kreuzlingen more independent. - -w:The Sanatorium of Bellevue (1857-1980), which occupied part of the old monastery, played an important role in the history of Kreuzlingen. In 1842, a man called Ignaz Vanotti from Constance bought a large area of land and constructed a building to house the emigrant press of Bellevue in 1843, which had been located in Römerburg before. In 1857, Ludwig Binswanger, a psychiatrist from Münsterlingen bought the property and opened a private sanatorium. The clinic was very modern and stayed in the control of the Binswanger family for nearly 120 years. Important psychiatric discoveries, particularly under the founder's grandson's control, especially in the development of existential psychotherapy, were made at the sanatorium. However, few of its buildings remain. - -Economy -Earlier, most of the people in Kreuzlingen made a living in the wine industry. However, because of diseases and bad harvests, the last wine grapes were raised in Kreuzlingen in 1938. - -Today, the local economy is mostly shopping and handcraft, with the largest employer being a clothing maker. - -References - -Other websites - -http://www.kreuzlingen.ch - -Cities in Switzerland -Municipalities of Thurgau" -11071,39833,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear,Clear,"Clear might mean: - - Transparency - Clear (Scientology), how you are when you have understood your mind - In financial terms, the process of making good on an obligation, such as transferring the funds from the writer of a cheque to the receivor of the cheque - To remove from current memory previous numbers or results in an adding machine - An acronym for Citizen Law Enforcement Analysis and Reporting, a software system used by the Chicago Police Department - -Related pages - Clearing - -Basic English 850 words" -7816,25605,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20Theresia%20of%20Austria,Maria Theresia of Austria,"Maria Theresia of Austria (13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was the only female head of the Habsburg Dynasty. She was the Holy Roman Empress, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and archduchess of Austria. - -During her rule she changed the royal palace outside Vienna (the Austrian capital) to look much like Versailles. Vienna itself became an important center for the arts, especially music. Maria Theresia added support to her absolute power by tightening her hold on the government. She also improved conditions for the peasants. She is generally known to history as the Empress Maria Theresia. - -Biography - -Maria Theresia was born in Vienna, Austria, on 13 May 1717. Her parents were Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Her father had made the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, a decree which allowed a female ruler despite the Salic law prohibition. - -Maria Theresia married Duke Francis Stephan I of Lorraine for love. They had sixteen children who are named here: - Archduchess Maria Elisabeth of Austria (1737–1740) - Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria (1738–1789) - Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (1740–1741) - Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (1741–1790) - Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, Duchess of Teschen (1742–1798) - Archduchess Maria Elisabeth of Austria (1743–1808) - Archduke Charles Joseph of Austria (1745–1761) - Archduchess Maria Amalia of Austria (1746–1804) - Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (1747–1792) - Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria (stillborn 1748) - Archduchess Maria Johanna Gabriela of Austria (1750–1762) - Archduchess Maria Josepha of Austria (1751–1767) - Queen Maria Carolina of Austria of Naples and Sicily (1752–1814) - Queen Marie Antoinette of France and Navarre, born Maria Antonia (1755–1793) - Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria (1756–1801) - -Maria Theresia died in Vienna, Austria, on 29 November 1780. - -References - -1717 births -1780 deaths -Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria -Holy Roman Empresses consort -Habsburg Dynasty -House of Habsburg-Lorraine -House of Lorraine -Grand Duchesses of Tuscany -Grand Dukes of Luxembourg" -17404,66090,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20notation,Scientific notation,"Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that is often used by scientists and mathematicians to make it easier to write large and small numbers. A number that is written in scientific notation has several properties that make it very useful to local scientists. It makes very large numbers into smaller numbers using decimals and exponents. - -Variations -The basic idea of scientific notation is to express zeros as a power of ten. The notation for this can be written as : - -where b is an integer, or ""whole"" number, that describes the number of times 10 is multiplied by itself and the letter a any real number, called the significand or mantissa (using ""mantissa"" may cause confusion as it can also refer to the fractional part of the common logarithm). - -Normalized notation -Written in the form , exponent b is chosen such that the absolute value of a remains at least one but less than ten . Normal mathematics convention dictates a minus sign to precede the first of the decimal digits of a for a negative number; that of b for a number with absolute value between 0 and 1, e.g. minus one half is . There is no need to represent zero in normalized form, the digit 0 is sufficient. The normalized form allows easy comparison of two numbers of the same sign in a, as the exponent b gives the number's order of magnitude. - -Other websites - Scientific Notation in Everyday Life - An exercise in converting to and from scientific notation - Scientific Notation Calculator and Converter -Measurement -Notation -Numerals" -6565,20667,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding,Welding,"Welding is a way of heating pieces of metal using electricity or a flame so that they melt and stick together. There are many kinds of welding, including arc welding, resistance welding, and gas welding. The most common type is arc welding. Anyone who is near arc welding needs to wear a special helmet or goggles because the arc is so bright. Looking at the arc without visual protection may cause permanent eye damage. It is also important to cover all your skin because it can give you something like a sunburn. Hot sparks from the weld can burn any skin that is showing. One kind of welding that does not use an arc is Oxy-fuel welding (OFW), sometimes called gas welding. OFW uses a flame to heat up the metal. There are other kinds of welding that do not use an arc. - -Arc Welding -Any welding process that utilizes an electric arc is known as arc welding. The common forms of arc welding include: - - Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW): SMAW is also known as ""stick"" welding. - Gas metal arc welding (GMAW): GMAW is also known as MIG (metal/inert gas welding). - Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): GTAW is also known as TIG (tungsten inert gas welding). - -Arc welding heats metals by making a high-current electric arc between pieces of metal to be joined and an electrode. - -Use of the electrode varies based on the type of welding process. In SMAW, GMAW, and related welding processes, the electrode is consumed and becomes part of the weld. The electrode is usually made of the same kind of metal to be welded. Because the electrode is consumed by the welding process, the electrode must constantly be fed into the weld. The SMAW welding process features a ""stick"" electrode impregnated with a weld promoter known as flux, clamped to the end. - -The GMAW welding process uses a thin wire on a rotating spool, as a continuous electrode. The size of this electrode varies from around 0.635 millimeters to about 4 millimeters. The welding machine has a motor-driven spool inside that feeds the wire electrode into the weld. - -The TIG welding (GTAW) process features an electrode that is not consumed by the welding process as the metal that makes up the weld does not have any electricity flowing through it. The electrode is made of Tungsten, so used as it will not melt while immersed in the electrical arc. A filler metal, in the form of a rod, can be used to add metal to the weld area. - -Almost all welding uses filler metal to fill in the small gap between the metal pieces. The extra metal helps to make the weld strong. Sometimes welds need to be made without any filler metal. Welding with no filler metal is called autogenous welding. - -Shielding in arc welding -All types of welding require that the hot metal have protection. Dirt, rust, grease, and even the oxidation of the metal under the weld process can prevent a proper weld joint. As such all weld processes use one of two protection methods: flux, and shielding gas. - -Welding flux may be used in a solid, liquid, or paste form. During welding, the flux will melt and some of it will evaporate. This creates a small pocket of gas around the weld. This pocket of gas prevents oxidation of the metal under weld. Melted flux, through a corrosive reaction, cleans contaminants that prevent a proper weld. After welding, the flux solidifies. This layer of solid flux is called slag, and must be removed from the weld. The SMAW weld process most commonly uses flux, and is most commonly used on steel. - -Shielding gas protects the weld by being a pocket of gas around the weld. The purpose of this gas is to keep normal air out, especially oxygen. It is different from flux because there is no liquid on the weld. There is only a gas around the weld. Because there is no liquid, it will not clean up dirt and other things on the metal. This means that the metal has to be clean before it is welded. If it is not, the dirt and other things could cause problems. The gases that are usually used are argon, helium, and a mixture that is 3 parts argon and one part carbon dioxide. Other mixtures of gases can have nitrogen, hydrogen, or even a little bit of oxygen in them. One kind of welding that uses shielding gas is gas metal arc welding. It is usually used in factories to make things. - -Welding that uses flux is easier to do outside when it is windy. This is because the liquid flux is protecting the hot metal and it will not blow away. Also, the flux is always making the pocket of gas which keeps the electric arc from going out. Welding that uses shielding gas usually cannot be used outside because the gas would blow away if there were any wind. - -Other kinds of welding -Some kinds of welding do not use an electric arc. They might use a flame, electricity without an arc, an energy beam, or physical force. The most common type of welding that does not use an arc is called gas welding. In gas welding, a flammable(meaning it will burn) gas and oxygen are combined and burn at the end of a torch. Gas welding does not need any special shielding because a flame which is adjusted right has no extra oxygen in it. It is still important to make sure the metal is clean. The flame heats up the metal so much that it melts. When both the pieces of metal are melted at the edge, the liquid metal becomes one piece. - -The other kind of welding that does not use an arc still uses electricity. It is called resistance welding. With this kind, two pieces of thin metal are pinched together and then electricity is made to go through them. This makes the metal get really hot and melt where it is pinched together. The two pieces melt together at that place. Sometimes this is called spot welding because the welding can only happen at one small place(or spot) at a time. - -Forge welding is the first kind of welding that ever was used. Forge welding needs the two pieces of metal to so hot that they almost melt. Then they are beat together with hammers until they are one piece. - -The other kinds of welding that do not use an arc are hard to do, and usually new. They are expensive too. Most of these kinds of welding are only done where specially needed. They might use an electron beam, laser, or ultrasonic sound waves. - -Energy for welding -Every kind of welding needs to use energy. This energy is usually heat, but sometimes force is used to make a weld. When heat is used, it can be from electricity or from fire. - -Power supplies for arc welding -A lot of electricity is used in arc welding. Some kinds of welding use alternating current like the electricity that buildings use. Other kinds use direct current like the electricity in a car or most things with a battery. Almost all kinds of welding use a lower voltage than the electricity that comes from a power plant. Arc welding requires using a special power supply that makes the electricity from the power plant usable for welding. A power supply lowers the voltage and controls the amount of current. The power supply usually has controls on it that allow these things to be changed. For kinds of arc welding that use alternating current, sometimes the power supply can do special things to make the electricity alternate differently. Some power supplies do not plug into a power plug, but instead generate their own electricity. These kind of power supplies have an engine that turns a generator head to make the electricity. The engine might run on gasoline, diesel fuel, or propane. - -Energy for other kinds of welding -OFW uses a flame from burning fuel gas and oxygen to heat up the metal. This fuel gas is almost always acetylene. Acetylene is a flammable gas that burns very hot, hotter than any other gas. That is why it is used most of the time. Other gases like propane, natural gas, or other industrial gases can be used too. - -Some kinds of welding do not use heat to make the weld. These kinds of welding can get hot, but they do not make the metal melt. Forge welding is an example of this. Friction stir welding is a special kind of welding that does not use heat. It uses a very powerful motor and a special spinning bit to mix the metals together at the edge. This seems odd because metals are a solid. this is why it takes a lot of force to do and is very hard. The energy for this kind of welding is mechanical energy from the spinning bit. - -Other websites - - The American Welding Society - -Construction -Technology" -2845,9053,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Who,The Who,"The Who are an English rock band formed in 1964. The main lineup from 1964 to 1978 was guitarist Pete Townshend, vocalist Roger Daltrey, bassist John Entwistle and drummer Keith Moon. They became known for high energy live shows. The Who have sold about 100 million records. Many people think that The Who are the greatest live band of all time. - -The Who rose to fame in the United Kingdom with a series of top ten hit singles including: ""I Can't Explain"", ""The Kids Are Alright"", ""My Generation"", ""Who Are You"", and ""Love Reign O'er Me"". The albums ""My Generation"", ""A Quick One"" and ""The Who Sell Out"" followed. Their fame grew with memorable shows at the Monterey Pop and Woodstock music festivals. ""Tommy,"" released in 1969, was the first in a series of top ten albums in the United States. - -Keith Moon died in 1978. The band released two more studio albums with drummer Kenney Jones before disbanding in 1983. They re-formed at events such as Live Aid and for reunion tours such as their 25th anniversary tour and the Quadrophenia tours of 1996 and 1997. In 2002 planning for recording an album of new material was put on hold after John Entwistle's death at the age of 57. Townshend and Daltrey continued to perform as The Who and in 2006 they released the studio album titled ""Endless Wire."" - -The Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990. - -Discography -Studio albums - My Generation (1965) - A Quick One (1966) - The Who Sell Out (1967) - Tommy (1969) - Who's Next (1971) - Quadrophenia (1973) - The Who by Numbers (1975) - Who Are You (1978) - Face Dances (1981) - It's Hard (1982) - Endless Wire (2006) - TBA (2015) - -Other websites -Hear the Who on the Pop Chronicles. - -1964 establishments in the United Kingdom -1960s British music groups -1970s British music groups -1980s British music groups -1990s British music groups -2000s British music groups -2010s British music groups -English rock bands -Musical groups established in 1964 -Musical groups from London -Warner Bros. Records artists" -13974,51782,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilac%20%28colour%29,Lilac (colour),"Lilac is a light violet colour. It is named after the colour of the lilac flower. The actual colour of the flowers of the plant may range from the colour of the lilac flowers shown at left to a richer or deeper colour. These colours, such as rich lilac and deep lilac, are shown in the colour chart below. - -The first written use of lilac as a colour name in English was in 1775. - -Meaning of lilac - Lilac is a soft dainty colour that is often associated with grandparents or grandchildren and used on greeting cards addressed to grandparents or grandchildren. - -Tones of lilac and Persian lilac colour comparison charts -Some lilac flowers are coloured tones of lilac and other lilac flowers are coloured tones of red-violet. Those lilac flowers that are coloured red-violet are said to be coloured Persian lilac. Therefore, two different colour comparison charts are provided. - -Tones of lilac colour comparison chart - -Tones of Persian lilac colour comparison chart -See also red-violet - -Related pages - List of colors - -References" -18336,68844,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84,Ä,"Ä or ä are letters used in some languages. Ä and ä are both just ""a""s with umlauts. - -German - -Germany, Austria and Switzerland - -Ä or ä is one of the 4 extra letters used in German. It can be replaced by using the letters Ae or ae. In English language newspapers it is often written as A or a but this is not correct. Ä and ä are usually pronounced like the ""e"" in ""bed"". - -Internet addresses are written as ""ae"" because the internet address system can only understand ordinary English letters. - -Latin letters with diacritics -Vowel letters" -11853,43443,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish%20Potato%20Famine,Irish Potato Famine,"The Great Famine, Great Hunger, or Potato Famine is the name given to the famine in Ireland in the years 1845-1852. Outside Ireland, it is usually called the Irish Potato Famine. The famine was caused by ""the potato blight"", a fungus-like organism which quickly destroyed the potatoes in Ireland, and throughout Europe. The effect was particularly bad in Ireland because potatoes were the staple food for most Irish people at the time. - -It is believed that between 1 million to 1.5 million people died in the three years from 1846 to 1849 because of hunger or disease. Another million became refugees because of the famine. Many people who left Ireland moved to Great Britain, (mostly to the nearby town of Liverpool), the United States, Canada and Australia. - -In Ireland this time is referred to as ""the starvation"". The potato was the only crop affected, yet Ireland continued to produce corn, wheat, barley, and beef. However, the mostly English landlords made a bigger profit by selling these food products elsewhere. - -By the late 17th century, potatoes had become common as a supplementary rather than a major food. The diet was mainly around butter, milk, and grain products. Potato became a base food of the poor, especially in winter. The lack of genetic variability among the potato plants in Ireland caused the emergence of Phytophthora infestans which had devastating effects in Ireland. Another factor is that holdings were so small that no crop other than potatoes would be able to feed a family. - -Starting in 1801, Ireland had been directly governed, under the Act of Union as part of the United Kingdom. In the 40 years after the union, British governments grappled with the problems of governing the country. One historian calculated that, between 1801 and 1845, there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees enquiring into the state of Ireland. ""Without exception their findings prophesied disaster. Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low"". It was caused by monoculture because they only planted one main crop and let its disease infest all other potatoes in the Irish territory. - -References - -Other websites -Irish Potato Famine at The History Place - -1840s in Europe -1850s in the United Kingdom -Disasters in the United Kingdom -History of Ireland -Potatoes" -19077,72111,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20Empire,Austrian Empire,"The Austrian Empire was an empire that lasted in Europe from 1804 to 1867. The empire was centered on present-day Austria and was a remnant of the Holy Roman Empire which collapsed on 1806. The last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, became Francis I of Austria. It was succeeded by Austria-Hungary. - -19th century in Austria - -1804 establishments in Europe -1867 disestablishments -19th-century disestablishments in Europe -1860s disestablishments in Europe" -17548,66408,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1390,1390," - -Events - Robert III succeeds his father, Robert II, as King of Scotland. - Henry III succeeds his father, John I, as King of Castile and León. - John VII Palaiologos overthrows his grandfather, John V Palaiologos, as Byzantine Emperor. John V Palaiologos is restored later in the year by his son, Manuel, and the Republic of Venice. - The Turks take Philadelphia, the last Byzantine enclave of any significance in Anatolia. - With the help of the Teutonic Knights, Vytautas begins a revolt against his cousin, Jogaila the Supreme Prince of Lithuania. - Barquq is restored as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt after overthrowing Sultan Hadji II. - Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III overthrows his brother, Abu Baker, as Sultan of Delhi. - Manuel III succeeds his father, Alexios III, as Emperor of Trebizond (now north eastern Turkey). - Sikandar But-shikan succeeds Sikandar Shah as Sultan of Kashmir. - Ko Cheng succeeds Che Bong Nga as King of Champa (now eastern Vietnam). - Mahmud succeeds Sandaki as Mansa of the Mali Empire. - N'Diklam Sare succeeds Sare N'Dyaye as ruler of the Jolof Empire (now part of Senegal). - (circa 1390) The Kingdom of Kaffa is established in present-day Ethiopia. - Building of Templo Mayor, the main temple of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). - Building of the Candi Surawana temple in the Majapahit Kingdom (now Indonesia). - San Petronio Basilica begins to be built in Bologna. - -Births - December 27 – Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (died 1411) - Domenico da Piacenza, Italian dancemaster (died 1470) - John Dunstaple, English composer (died 1453) - Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Swedish statesman and rebel leader (died 1436) - Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (died 1447) - John VIII Palaeologus Byzantine Emperor (died 1448) - -Deaths - April 19 – King Robert II of Scotland (born 1316) - August 14 – John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (b. 1364) - September 23 – John I, Duke of Lorraine (born 1346) - October 9 – King John I of Castile (fall from a horse) (born 1358) - Altichiero, Italian painter (born 1330) - Sultan Sikandar Shah of Kashmir. - Towtiwil, Prince of Black Ruthenia" -17979,67634,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind%20power%20in%20Texas,Wind power in Texas,"Wind power in Texas consists of many wind farms with a total installed generating capacity of 9,410 MW from over 40 different projects. Texas produces the most wind power of any U.S. state, followed by Iowa with 3,670 MW. - -Several forces are working to the advantage of wind power in Texas: the wind resource in many areas of the state is very large, large projects are relatively easy to site, and the market price for electricity is relatively high because it is set by natural gas prices. The wind power industry is also creating many jobs and farmers may earn extra income by leasing their land to wind developers. - -The Roscoe Wind Farm (781 MW) is the world's largest wind farm. Other large wind farms in Texas include: Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center, Sherbino Wind Farm, Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm, Sweetwater Wind Farm, Buffalo Gap Wind Farm, King Mountain Wind Farm, Desert Sky Wind Farm, Wildorado Wind Ranch, and the Brazos Wind Farm. - -Overview -Wind power has a long history in Texas. West Texas State University began wind energy research in 1970 and led to the formation of the Alternative Energy Institute (AEI) in 1977. AEI has been a major information resource about wind energy for Texas. - -Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development in the USA, ahead of Iowa and California. The expanding wind power market will help Texas meet its 2015 renewable energy goal of 5,000 new megawatts of power from renewable sources. - -The table below lists the larger wind farms in Texas, currently operating or under construction. Wind farms which are smaller than 120 MW in capacity are not shown. - -Several forces are driving the growth of wind power in Texas: the wind resource in many areas of the state is very large, large projects are relatively easy to site, and the market price for electricity is set by natural gas prices and so is relatively high. The broad scope and geographical extent of wind farms in Texas is considerable: -""Wind resource areas in the Texas Panhandle, along the Gulf Coast south of Galveston, and in the mountain passes and ridge tops of the Trans-Pecos offer Texas some of the greatest wind power potential in the United States. Currently there are over 2,000 wind turbines in West Texas alone. Most of the new wind capacity added in the last two years has been in the Abilene-Sweetwater area. The Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center is the largest wind power facility in the nation with a total capacity of 735 MW. It is spread across approximately 47,000 acres in Taylor and Nolan County near Abilene."" - -Wind is a highly variable resource, but with proper understanding it can be readily incorporated into an electric utility's generation mix. Many areas contain areas with winds presently suitable for electric power generation. The number of commercially attractive sites will expand as wind turbine technology improves and development costs continue to drop. - -Texas farmers may lease their land to wind developers for either a set rental per turbine or for a small percentage of gross annual revenue from the project. This offers farmers a fresh revenue stream without impacting traditional farming and grazing practices. Although leasing arrangements vary widely, the U. S. Government Accountability Office reported in 2004 that a farmer who leases land to a wind project developer can generally obtain royalties of $3,000 to $5,000 per turbine per year in lease payments. These figures are rising as larger wind turbines are being produced and installed. - -The wind power industry is also creating thousands of jobs for communities and for the state. Wind technology and the various aspects of producing electricity from wind power can help to keep employment in Texas after the rigs stop producing oil. - -Terrorism and industrial accidents can be potential threats to the large, centrally located, power plants that provide most of Texas’ electricity. Should one of these plants be damaged, repairs could take more than a year, possibly creating power shortages on a scale that Texans have never experienced before. Coal trains and gas pipelines are also vulnerable to disruption. However, wind power plants are quickly installed and repaired. The modular structure of a wind farm also means that if one turbine is damaged, the overall output of the plant is not significantly affected. - -References - -Wind energy -Texas" -13144,48172,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninja,Ninja,"A ninja is a kind of spy or assassin who lived in Japan beginning in the 14th century. - -History - -Ninja (or shinobi) were a mystery in the History of Japan. The correct Japanese word for these warriors was shinobi-no-mono, which literally means ""people who survive/endure"". Ninja is easier to say; this is why it is more widely used. Shinobi-no-mono is the native Japanese word for ninja, while ninja is the Sino-Japanese word. Ninja warriors created secret associations and took part in many political killings. Their mystery comes from two ideas: 1) they always participated in secret spy operations and political killings; 2) ninja were hired by heads of armies as paid warriors (mercenaries). The art of fighting which was used by ninja was called ninjitsu, which was a combination of shinobi-no-jitsu and shinobi-jitsu. - -Many people thought ninja were not normal people. People believed they could fly and had supernatural skills. Ninja existed during the entire history of Japan, but ninja only became specially trained people at the beginning of the 15th century. They mainly trained in the regions of Iga and Koga. - -Ninja were involved in samurai wars and were hired by samurai for different missions, but at the same time samurai did not accept them as noble warriors because most of the ninja came from lower social classes. They were dangerous and could not be controlled. Their methods of fighting did not fit the samurai code. The samurai code was a code of honor. For example, the samurai warrior would show his rank and would only fight a samurai of equal or higher rank. Japanese land lords (daimyo) widely used the services of the Iga and Koga ninja in the period of 1485-1581. But in 1581, one of the three daimyo who united Japan – Oda Nobunaga attacked ninja from Iga province. The ninja remained alive and ran to the provinces Kii and Mikawa, where Tokugawa Ieyasu protected them. Later, Oda Nobunaga was killed by a samurai named Akechi Mitsuhide, who later became an enemy to Tokugawa Ieyasu. - -The art of ninja fighting was passed down from father to son, or from master (sensei) to their best students. But in the middle of 17th century, Nakagawa Sosuntzin created a ninja school in the Mutsu Province. It was called Nakagawa-ryu and taught the ninjitsu method of fighting. Nakagawa Sosuntzin himself trained a group of 10 men, which he called Hayamiti-no-mono (men of the short hit). Ninja were taught many more things than a samurai. They had to be skilled at handling swords, spears, bows and many other weapons; but also they had to know about explosive and poisonous substances, to be a good path finder and to survive in different situations. Usually they were trained from young age and had to keep a very specific physical shape. Ninja were not allowed to be too light or too heavy. A ninja who could read and write was very appreciated. - -Ninja clothing and equipment - -It tends to be thought that a ninja usually wore black clothes which helped him to hide in the dark, however, they wore dark blue, red, or brown clothes, which are more quiet than black at night. In usual days, a ninja never wore showy dress and pretended to be another job, for example, a merchant, a traveling monk, a monkey showman and so on. If they had to fight on the battlefield, they put on a light armor, which protected them, but also allowed easy movement. On their feet they wore Japanese socks which separated the big toe (the socks were called tabi). The ninja outfit had many pockets for helpful gear. Chain armor was normally beneath their cloak in-case danger came their way like an ambush. - -The diversity of ninja weapons and attributes is much wider than that of the samurai. The main weapon of ninja was the sword. Ninja swords were usually shorter than samurai katana and had a straight blade. When they climbed, the sword was put on the left shoulder, putting the handle of the sword was close to the left ear. Ninja also used different types of throwing knives, and a weapon for their fists called tagaki. They used metallic claws on their feet which helped them to climb and made their kicks more dangerous. - -They are also very close to the other form of Japanese killer, a samurai. - -As with Robin Hood or King Arthur, the ongoing presence of ninja in pop culture movies and manga often differs widely from their true origins. - -Related pages -Samurai - -References - -Other websites -Methods of Fighting and Ninja Wearing Apparel -Hanami Web - Ninja - -Samurai -Occupations -Japanese culture" -11295,40982,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne%20Cup,Melbourne Cup,"The Melbourne Cup is Australia's major horse race. It happens once a year. People say it is The race that stops a nation, it is for horses three-years-old and over, and it is 3200 metres long. The event has been held on the first Tuesday in November since 1861 (except on one year during the Second World War) by the Victoria Racing Club, on the Flemington Racecourse in Melbourne. Many people say it is the most important ""two-mile"" horse race in the world. - -The race was first held over two miles, about 3,218 metres, but after Australia changed to the metric system in 1972 it was changed to 3,200 metres. This made it 61 ft 6in shorter, and Rain Lover's 1968 race record of 3min.19.1sec was changed to 3min.17.9sec. Now, the record holder is the 1990 winner Kingston Rule with a time of 3min 16.3sec. - -The race starts at 3.00pm Melbourne (AEST) time. - -Attendance -The event is one of the most popular events to watch in Australia. Over 110,000 people attend the race. Some people dress in traditional formal raceday clothing. Other people dress in different kinds of strange and amusing costumes, -In 2005 a total of 383,784 race fans went to the Melbourne Cup Carnival annual event - -History - -Seventeen horses raced in the first Melbourne Cup in 1861. The prize was a gold watch and 170 pounds cash. Some people say Archer (the winner) walked 800 km to the course from Nowra, New South Wales. However, it is possible he travelled by ship. Four thousand people watched the race. - -Archer won again the next year. However, because the owner's application form arrived late the next year, Archer was unable to try for a third cup. Many owners boycotted (did not race in protest) the race, so it started with only seven horses. That is the smallest number in the history of the cup. - -The winner of the Melbourne Cup last year was Rekindling, from Great Britain. - -Off the track -'Fashions On The Field' is a major focus of the day. Raceday fashion sometimes draws almost as much attention as the race itself. The miniskirt received worldwide attention when model Jean Shrimpton wore one on Derby Day during Melbourne Cup week in 1965. - -In Melbourne, the race day is a public holiday. In the rest of Australia most people watch the race on television and gamble. Some people bet at the TAB (the Australian betting office). Other people bet in workplace cup ""sweeps"". (In ""sweeps"" each person pays a small amount [e.g. $3] and draws a random horse. First, second, and third place then share the money.) In 2000 it was estimated that 80 percent of the adult Australian population placed a bet on the race that year. - -Betting on the Melbourne Cup has become more and more popular over the years, with one time a year punters having a crack at picking the winning horse. - -References - -Sport in Melbourne -Horse racing -1861 establishments in Australia -November events" -13923,51511,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small%20white,Small white,"The small white (Pieris rapae) is a small to mid-sized butterfly of the 'yellows' & 'whites' Pieridae family. It is also commonly known as the small cabbage white or just the cabbage white. - -Distribution -It is common across Europe, North Africa and Asia and has also been accidentally introduced to North America, Australia and New Zealand where they have become pests on cultivated cabbages and other mustard family crops. - -Description - -It looks like a smaller version of the Large White. The upperside is creamy white with black tips to the forewings. Females also have two black spots in the center of the forewings. Its underwings are yellowish with black . - -Habits -Like its close relative the large white this is a strong flyer and the British population is increased by continental immigrants in most years. Like other 'white' butterflies it hibernates as a pupa. Like the large white, it is sometimes known as the cabbage white' or cabbage butterfly. - -Lifecycle -It has two flight periods, April–May and July–August. - -Eggs -Its caterpillars can be a pest on cultivated cabbages. . It also lays eggs on wild members of the cabbage family such as the charlock Sinapis arvensis and hedge mustard Sisybrium officinale. The eggs are laid singly on foodplant leaves. - -Caterpillars -Known in the United States as ""imported cabbage worms"", the caterpillars are green and well camouflaged. Unlike the large white they do not store the mustard oils from their foodplants and so are not distastful to predators like birds. - -References - Asher J. et al. The millennium atlas of Britain and Ireland Oxford University Press - Evans W.H. 1932. The identification of Indian butterflies. 2nd ed, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India. - -Pieridae" -9934,33955,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20complexity%20theory,Computational complexity theory,"Computational complexity theory is a part of computer science. It looks at algorithms, and tries to say how many steps or how much memory a certain algorithm takes for a computer to do. Very often, algorithms that use fewer steps use more memory (or the other way round: if there is less memory available, it takes more steps to do). Many interesting algorithms take a number of steps that is dependent on the size of the problem. - -Different classes of complexity - -Constant Complexity -Complexity theory also looks at how a problem changes if it is done for more elements. A problem of constant complexity class is the only class in which this is not true. A problem with constant complexity takes the same number of steps to complete no matter the size of the input or the number of elements it is computed on. Broadcasting a message can be thought of as a problem of constant complexity. No matter how many people need to receive a message, all can listen on to one single broadcast with no extra broadcasts needed. - -Linear complexity -Mowing the lawn can be thought of as a problem with linear complexity. Mowing an area that is double the size of the original takes twice as long. - -Quadratic complexity -Suppose you want to know which of your friends know each other. You have to ask each pair of friends whether they know each other. If you have twice as many friends as someone else, you have to ask four times as many questions to figure out who everyone knows. Problems that take four times as long when the size of the problem doubles are said to have quadratic complexity. - -Logarithmic complexity -This is often the complexity for problems that involve looking things up, like finding a word in a dictionary. If the dictionary is twice as big, it contains twice as many words as the original to compare to. Looking something up will take only one step more. The algorithm to do lookups is simple. The word in the middle of the dictionary will be either before or after the term that needs to be looked up, if the words do not match. If it is before, the term needs to be in the second half of the dictionary. If it is after the word, it needs to be in the first half. That way, the problem space is halved with every step, until the word or definition is found. This is generally known as logarithmic complexity - -Exponential complexity -There are problems that grow very fast. One such problem is known as the Travelling salesman problem. A salesman needs to take a tour of a certain number of cities. Each city should only be visited once, the distance (or cost) of the travelling should be minimal, and the salesman should end up where he started. This problem has exponential complexity. There are n factorial possibilities to consider. Adding one city (from n to n+1) will multiply the number of possibilities by (n+1). Most of the interesting problems have this complexity. - -Theoretical computer science" -963,3854,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001,2001,"2001 (MMI) was . - -Events - -January - January 1 – Strictly speaking, it was the first day of the 3rd millennium and 21st century in the Gregorian calendar, but according to Popular Culture, the first day of these two distinctions was January 1, 2000. A nine foot tall rock was placed by an artist in Seattle's Magnuson Park, like the one in 2001: A Space Odyssey. - January 13 – A strong earthquake hits El Salvador, killing at least 800 (See also February 13). - January 15 – Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, goes online. - January 20 – Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo becomes the 14th President of the Republic of the Philippines, replacing Joseph Estrada. - January 20 – George W. Bush replaces Bill Clinton and becomes the 43rd President of the United States. - January 22 – Four of the ""Texas 7"" are caught at a store in Woodland Park, Colorado and a fifth kills himself. - January 24 – The last two of the ""Texas 7"" are caught by police in Colorado Springs, Colorado. - January 26 – A 50-year-old DC-3 crashes near Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela and kills 24 people. - January 26 – An earthquake happens in Gujarat, India; more than 20,000 die. - January 29 – Thousands of students in Indonesia tell President Abdurrahman Wahid that he should give up his job because he was caught doing something bad. - January 31 – A court finds one Libyan guilty and another innocent in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 which crashed in Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988. - -February - February 5 – Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman announced that they are not together anymore. - February 6 – Likud Party leader Ariel Sharon wins election as Prime Minister of Israel. - February 9 – American submarine USS Greeneville accidentally hits and sinks Japanese fishing ship Ehime-Maru. - February 12 – NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft lands on 433 Eros becoming the first spacecraft to land on an asteroid. - February 13 – An earthquake hits El Salvador, killing at least 400. - February 16 – Iraq disarmament crisis: British and U.S. forces carry out bombing raids attempting to destroy Iraq's air defense network. - February 16 – Baghdad suburb bombed by US and UK war planes, killing 3 people. - February 18 – During the Daytona 500 race, NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt is killed in a car crash. - February 18 – FBI agent Robert Hanssen is arrested for being a spy. - February 19 – An Oklahoma City bombing museum is dedicated at the Oklahoma City National Memorial. - February 26 – Treaty of Nice was signed. - -March - March 24 – Apple Computer's Mac OS X version 10.0 is released. - -April - April 1 – An American EP-3E spyplane collides with a Chinese F-8 fighter jet and is forced to make an emergency landing in Hainan, China. The U.S. crew was jailed for 10 days and the Chinese pilot, Wang Wei, went missing and thought to be dead. - April 1 – Former president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milosevic surrenders to police special forces, to be tried on charges of war crimes. - April 26 – Junichiro Koizumi becomes Prime Minister of Japan. - April 28 – American Dennis Tito becomes the first space tourist. - -May - May 1 – The Japanese cities of Urawa, Omiya, and Yono become one to form the city of Saitama. - May 10 – In Ghana, a sudden rush at a soccer game kills over 120. - May 24 – Mountain climbing: Sherpa Temba Tsheri, 16, becomes the youngest person to reach the top of Mount Everest. - May 25 – Mountain climbing: Erik Weihenmayer, of Boulder, Colorado, becomes the first blind person to reach the top of Mount Everest. A 64-year old Sherman Bull, of New Canaan, Connecticut, becomes the oldest person to reach the top. - -June - June 5-9 – Houston, Texas is devastated by flooding when Tropical Storm Allison hits the city. Texas Medical Center lost years of research and data and thousands of lab animals. Twenty-two people die; damage exceeds five billion American dollars. - June 7 – Tony Blair's Labour Party were selected for second term in UK General Election - June 11 – Timothy McVeigh is executed for the Oklahoma City Bombing. - June 19 – An American missile hits a soccer field in northern Iraq, killing 23 people and wounding 11. - June 20 – Andrea Yates drowns her children in a bathtub and confesses to her crime. She would get life in prison for it. - June 21 – Total solar eclipse. - June 23 – An earthquake measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale, hits the south of Peru. - -July - July 2 – The world's first self-contained artificial heart is implanted in Robert Tools. - July 16 – The FBI arrests Dmitry Sklyarov at a meeting in Las Vegas for violating a condition of the DMCA. - July 18 – In Baltimore, Maryland, a 60-car train derails in a tunnel, causing a fire that last for days and virtually shuts down downtown Baltimore. - July 19 – UK politician and novelist Jeffrey Archer is sentenced to four years in prison for perjury and perverting the course of justice. - July 23 – Megawati Sukarnoputri becomes the new president of Indonesia, replacing Abdurrahman Wahid. - -August - August 9 – US President George W. Bush announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic stem cells. - August 9 – In the Comoros, the military seizes power in the island of Anjouan that had declared independence. They plan to rejoin the Comoros. - August 31 – PBS airs the final episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood with host Fred Rogers retiring - -September - - September 5 – Peru's attorney general files homicide charges against ex-President Alberto Fujimori. - September 6 – United States v. Microsoft: The United States Justice Department announces that it was no longer seeking to break-up software maker Microsoft and will instead seek a lesser antitrust penalty. - September 9 – Ahmed Shah Massoud, leader of the Northern Alliance, is assassinated in Afghanistan. - September 11 – Almost 3,000 people are killed in the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, The Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and rural Pennsylvania. - September 14 – The Nintendo GameCube is released in Japan. - September 15 – President George W. Bush says that the United States of America is at war against terror. - -October - October 4 – The first case of anthrax in the U.S. is announced by federal officials. - October 7 – The 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan begins. - October 10 – War on Terrorism: US President George W. Bush presents a list of 22 most wanted terrorists. - October 15 – NASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within 112 miles of Jupiter's moon Io. - October 23 – Apple Inc. releases the iPod. - October 25 – Microsoft releases Windows XP. - -November - November – The Doha Declaration relaxes the international intellectual property law by a bit. - November 4 – Hurricane Michelle hits Cuba, destroying crops and thousands of homes. - November 7 – The super-sonic commercial aircraft Concorde starts flying again after a 15-month break. - November 10 – The People's Republic of China became a member of the World Trade Organization. - November 12 – In New York City, an Airbus A300 crashes minutes after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport, killing all 260 on board. - November 12 – 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan: Taliban forces abandon Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, as the Northern Alliance troops are coming (Northern Alliance fighters took Kabul on November 14). - November 13 – Doha Round: The World Trade Organization ends a four-day conference in Doha, Qatar. - November 13 – War on Terrorism: In the first such act since World War II, US President George W. Bush signs an executive order allowing military tribunals against any foreigners suspected of having connections to terrorist acts or planned acts on the United States. - November 16 – The first Harry Potter movie, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, is released, earning US $975.8 million, becoming the second highest earning movie around the world of all time, behind Titanic. - November 24 - Melanie Thornton, the German/American Pop singer, also the former member of La Bouche, dies in a plane crash going to Zürich, Switzerland, along with Maria Serreno-Serreno and Nathaly Van Het Ende of the German dance band Passion Fruit (band). - November 29 - George Harrison, former lead guitarist of The Beatles, dies of lung cancer at the age of 58. - -December - December 2 – Enron scandal: Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection five days after Dynegy canceled a US$8.4 billion buyout bid (At the time this was the largest bankruptcy in the history of the United States). - December 13 – The United States withdraw from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. - December 13 – Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin, Raja of Perlis becomes the 12th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. - December 14 – Annular solar eclipse. - December 22 – 2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan: Hamid Karzai became head of the interim government in Afghanistan. - December 27 – The People's Republic of China is granted permanent normal trade status with the United States. - - February 18 – Dale Earnhardt – NASCAR race car driver - February 25 – Sir Donald Bradman, cricketer of Australia - March 12 – Robert Ludlum, writer of spy novels - March 22 – William Hanna, cofounder (with Joseph Barbera) of famous Hanna-Barbera animation studio - May 11 – Douglas Adams, writer of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy - June 3 – Anthony Quinn, 86, actor - June 7 – Charles Templeton, Canadian cartoonist and television evangelist (b. 1915) - June 11 - Timothy McVeigh, 33, terrorist - June 21 – John Lee Hooker- Blues musician - June 23 – Yvonne Dionne, One of the Dionne Quintuplets - June 27 – Jack Lemmon, 76, actor and movie director - July 5 – Hannelore Kohl, 68, wife of ex-chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl (suicide) - August 25 – Aaliyah, 22, American singer and actress - November 29 – George Harrison, 58, musician and former member of The Beatles - 37,862 U.S. Citizens die in car crashes. - Approximately 40,000 citizens in the European Union die in car crashes - -Nobel prize winners - Chemistry – William S. Knowles - Chemistry – Ryoji Noyori - Chemistry – K. Barry Sharpless - Economics – George A. Akerlof - Economics – A. Michael Spence - Economics – Joseph E. Stiglitz - Literature – V. S. Naipaul - Medicine – Leland H. Hartwell - Medicine – Tim Hunt - Medicine – Sir Paul Nurse - Peace – United Nations - Peace – Kofi Annan - Physics – Eric A. Cornell - Physics – Wolfgang Ketterle - Physics – Carl E. Wieman - -Fictional references to the year - Arthur C. Clarke set the 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey in this year, the first year of the 21st century. - -Other websites - 2001 Year-End Google Zeitgeist – Google's Yearly List of Major Events and Top Searches for 2001 - Nisqually Earthquake Clearinghouse – Information on the February 28th earthquake from the University of Washington - -References" -19880,76082,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20printer,Optical printer,"An optical printer is a device. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material. - -Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printers work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs. - -The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn expanded the concept in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers. - -Sice the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movie. - -Printers" -12328,45457,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azuki%20bean,Azuki bean,"The azuki bean is a type of reddish-brown colored bean. It can also be spelled adzuki. The bean is grown in East Asia and the Himalayas. It is often boiled in sugar to make a red bean paste. This paste is used in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese cooking. Azuki beans are eaten in many places in the world. Especially, azuki beans are used in sweet meals, snacks and dishes in Japan, China, Korea and Vietnam. Azuki beans have a long and varied history and there are many recipes. - -History and origin - -Azuki beans are very famous red beans in Japan. Excavations suggest that people have been eating Azuki beans since the Jomon period. At that time, Azuki beans were called ""shozu"". - -Azuki beans have been grown since the Yayoi period. The first time the word ""Azuki"" was used was in the book ""Koziki"". Old Japanese said ""Aka"" for red. And Azuki beans were called ""zuki"" because Azuki beans get soft when they are boiled. ""Aka"" plus ""zuki"" is ""Azuki"" and this is the origin of Azuki bean's name. Another Azuki beans has many origins. - -Azuki beans are red, so many old people believed Azuki beans were a good luck charm. Azuki beans were used in many events and ceremonies in Japan, China and Korea. In the Edo period, people made rice mixed with Azuki -beans. This was called sekihan and many people gave sekihan at ceremonies. Azuki beans were used as medicine, because Azuki beans are nutritious. Now many people eat sekihan when there are ceremonies in Japan. In addition Azuki beans are used in many Japanese cakes, Many sweets use Azuki raw materials for the taste and colour. So Azuki beans are closely related to Japanese life from ancient times. - -Azuki bean jam -Azuki beans make bean jam. A sweet porridge of boiled and crushed azuki beans are eaten with rice-flour dumplings. Oval-shaped sweets are made from glutinous rice and covered with azuki bean. Bean-jam pancakes and bean-jam filled buns are also popular snacks. Azuki beans are also used in pillows and beanbags. - -Recipe -First, the azuki beans are boiled until the azuki skin stretches. The beans are then put into a perforated basket. Next, the azuki are boiled again for a short time to remove harshness. They are again put into perforated basket to drain. While they are draining, a big pan for steaming is prepared. The azuki are put in the pan and covered with a lid. The azuki beans are steamed and then heat is turned off. After steaming you have azuki bean mash, which is then dried on a cloth. The next step is putting them back in a pan to bring to a hot temperature. The azuki are taken out of the pan which is hot from flame. Sugar is added. The sugar and azuki are mixed and the water from the azuki is left. Finally, the azuki is cooled. When the beans are cold, it is finished. - -Azuki bean jam is used in many foods. For example, a fish-shaped waffle is filled with azuki bean jam. Azuki bean jam foods are famous in Japan, and they are eaten by many Japanese. - -Beans -Faboideae" -5111,16317,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20McKinley,William McKinley,"William McKinley Jr. (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. - -Before he became President, McKinley was a congressman of Ohio. - -Presidency -McKinley was inaugurated in 1897. This was the first presidential inauguration to be filmed. - -When the USS Maine was sunk, the public wanted war. Congress declared war against Spain in Latin America. This was the Spanish-American War. It started the era of imperialism for the United States. - -During his presidency, McKinley also supported higher tariffs (taxes on countries which trade with the US). During his term, the United States annexed Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, and Wake Island. - -Assassination -McKinley was elected to a second term as president in 1900. His second term did not last very long. He was shot by an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz on September 6, 1901. His abdominal gunshot wounds became infected and resulted in gangrene. He died on September 14. Czolgosz said the President committed war crimes in the Philippines and was an enemy of the people. Czolgosz was executed in the electric chair on October 29, 1901 . McKinley was the third American president to be assassinated. - -After McKinley's death, his vice president Theodore Roosevelt became president. - -Praise -McKinley's biographer, H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history. - -Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro-business, industrial, and modernizing program, represented by McKinley. - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - William McKinley's White House biography - -1843 births -1901 deaths -Deaths from gangrene -Assassinated presidents of the United States -Murders by firearm in New York -People from Canton, Ohio -People murdered in New York -Politicians from Ohio -Presidents of the United States - -20th-century American politicians -19th-century American politicians" -14046,52033,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment,Pigment,"A pigment is something that is added to something else to give it color. Natural pigments can come from just about anything. Pigments can be made from animals, plants, rocks and minerals or even the ground itself, for example clay plus salts. Pigments can also be created by people. - -An example of a pigment is ultramarine. It is a powder found in nature. It adds a blue color to paints and dyes. - -The first synthetic dye was aniline. Aniline is an organic chemical compound produced in two stages from benzene. It gives a mauve color which was much used for dyeing clothes in the 19th century. It was invented in 1856 by William Henry Perkin. Apparently, it gave a brilliant fuchsia color when first applied, but fades rapidly to mauve. - -References - - -Materials -Chemical synthesis" -4783,15128,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB,USB,"The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is technology that allows a person to connect an electronic device to a computer. It is a fast serial bus. - -It is mostly used on personal computers. USB is also used on other devices, such as smartphones and video game consoles. USB connects different devices using a standard interface. - -Most people use USB for computer mice, keyboards, scanners, printers, digital cameras, and USB flash drives. There are over six billion USB devices around the world. - -The standard was made to improve plug and play devices. This means that a device can be plugged into a free socket, and simply work. The computer will notice the device. The computer sometimes installs special software to use the device. The device can be removed after it stops being used. This technology is called ""hot swapping"". ""Hot swapping"" means it can be plugged and unplugged while the power is on. The computer does not need to be turned off for people to change the devices. - -USB can provide a small amount of power to the attached device through the USB cord. Devices that only need a little power can get it from the bus, and do not need a separate electric power plug. That allows gadgets like USB battery chargers, lights, and fans. - -As of 2015, USB has mostly replaced several older standards. Those include the parallel port, serial port and SCSI. These old standards are still used for a few jobs where USB cannot replace them. - -Brief history - -The first version of the Universal Serial Bus was created in 1995. This new technology became an instant success. Since the introduction of USB, people that make electronic devices thought about how it could be used in the future. Today, USB connects a computer or other devices like laptops and MP3 players to peripheral devices. - -The bus was introduced by seven companies which represent the leaders in the industry of information technology: Compaq, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). - -Several years earlier, adopters and developers of USB held a meeting called Plugfest at a special hotel in California to test their devices. They selected a hotel that included rooms for sleeping and for testing. The meeting lasted three days. During the meeting, the representatives of about 50 companies connected their USB devices to one general host system. - -The logo of the USB device also has its own history. The USB logo was in development for several months. - - 1994 - Seven companies united to begin the development of USB. - 1995 - 340 companies formed the USB Implementation Forum. - 1996 - More than five hundred USB products were already developing around the world. - 1997 - USB Implementation Forum became richer with 60 more companies. - 1998 - USB becomes the most popular technology on the market of electronics. - 2000 - The introduction of USB 2.0. Today it represents the most widely used USB device. - 2005 - USB becomes wireless. - 2008 - USB 3.0 is introduced. It is over 10 times faster than USB 2.0. - 2013 - USB 3.1 is introduced. It is about twice as fast as USB 3.0. - 2015 - USB Type-C is introduced. It is a reversible connector, which means that you can plug it in both ways. - -Different standards -Currently, five different USB standards are used: USB 1.0, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 3.1. USB 3.1 was released in 2016 and doubled the speed of 3.0. It optionally uses a different connector called USB Type-C, which is reversible (meaning you can plug it in both ways). USB 1.0 is now rarely used. - -USB offers five different transfer speeds: 1.5 MBit per second (called low speed), 12 MBit per second (Full Speed), 480 MBit/second (Hi Speed), 5Gbit per second (called super speed), and 10 Gbit/s (“super speed+“). Hi speed is only available in USB 2.0 and later, and Super speed is only available in USB 3.0. These speeds are raw bit rates (in Million bits per second). The actual data rate is usually lower due to protocol overhead. - -In order to use the hi speed transfer rate, the USB controller and the connected device both need to support it. USB is backwards compatible. Faster and slower USB devices and controllers can be connected together, but they will run at the slower speed. - -USB Hubs - -Almost all computers sold today have USB ports, and most of them support USB 2.0 or later. The number of ports they have is usually limited, though. Between two and six ports are common. USB allows connecting USB hubs to add more USB ports. - -The hubs themselves are also compliant to one of the USB standards. Devices connected to a USB 1.1 hub will only go as fast as USB 1.1 rates. Devices connected to a later controller can use different standards. - -USB Connectors - -USB was designed to be easy to use. The engineers learned from other connectors before they designed USB connectors. There are 3 connectors. - Type A, commonly used at computer end of cable - Micro-A (rare) - Type B, at peripheral end, rare except for printers - Micro-B, at peripheral end, for most smartphones - Type C, at either end. As of 2017, many new computers, phones and peripherals use it. - -Usability and Probability - It's not possible to plug in a USB A or B connector the wrong way. They can not go in upside down, and it is obvious from the look and kinesthetic feeling, when it goes in properly. Sometimes, however, a user doesn't understand or see how the connector goes, so it might be necessary to try both ways. - Type C USB connectors can be plugged in both ways. It does not matter which way the connector is plugged in. - There is no need to push or pull very hard to plug or unplug it. This was in the specification. USB cables and small USB devices are held in place by the gripping force from the receptacle. USB does not need screws, clips, or other fasteners. The force needed to make or break a connection is small. This allows connections to be made in awkward positions or by those with motor disabilities. - Before the advent of Type C, the connectors enforced the directed topology of a USB network. USB does not support cyclical networks, so the connectors from incompatible USB devices are themselves incompatible. Unlike other communications systems (e.g. RJ-45 cabling) gender-changers were almost never used before the advent of USB-On-The-Go (OTG), making it difficult to create a cyclic USB network. - -Durability - The connectors are designed to be tough. Early connector designs were fragile, with pins or other delicate components which could easily bend or break, even if treated gently. The electrical contacts in a USB connector are protected by a plastic tongue. The entire connecting assembly is usually further protected by an enclosing metal sheath. As a result, USB connectors can safely be handled, inserted, and removed, even by a small child. - The connector construction always ensures that the external sheath on the plug contacts with its counterpart in the receptacle before the four connectors within are connected. This sheath is typically connected to the system ground, allowing otherwise damaging static charges to be safely discharged by this route (rather than via delicate electronic components). This means of enclosure also means that there is a (moderate) degree of protection from electromagnetic interference afforded to the USB signal while it travels through the mated connector pair (this is the only location when the otherwise twisted data pair must travel a distance in parallel). As well, the power and common connections are made after the system ground but before the data connections. This type of staged make-break timing allows for safe hot-swapping and has been used for connectors in the aerospace industry. - The newer USB micro receptacles are designed to allow up to 10,000 cycles of insertion and exertion between the receptacle and plug, compared to 500 for the standard USB and Mini-USB receptacle. This is done by adding a locking device and by moving the leaf-spring connector from the jack to the plug, so that the most-stressed part is on the cable side of the connection. This change was made so that the connector on the (relatively inexpensive) cable would bear the most wear instead of the micro-USB device. - -Compatibility - The USB standard specifies relatively big tolerances for compliant USB connectors. This is done to minimize incompatibilities in connectors produced by different vendors (a goal that has been very successfully achieved). Unlike most other connector standards, the USB specification also defines limits to the size of a connecting device in the area around its plug. This was done to prevent a device from blocking adjacent ports due to its size. Compliant devices must either fit within the size restrictions or support a compliant extension cable which does. - Two-way communication is also possible. Usually cables have only plugs, and hosts and devices have only receptacles: hosts having type-A receptacles and devices type-B. Type-A plugs only join with type-A receptacles, and type-B with type-B. However, an extension to USB called USB On-The-Go allows a single port to act as either a host or a device — chosen by which end of the cable plugs into the socket on the unit. Even after the cable is hooked up and the units are talking, the two units may ""swap"" ends under program control. This facility targets units such as PDAs where the USB link might connect to a PC's host port as a device in one instance, yet connect as a host itself to a keyboard and mouse device in another instance. - -How USB works -A USB system has an asymmetric design. It is made of a host, several downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices connected in a star topology. Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching into a tree structure with up to five tier levels. - -A USB host can have multiple host controllers. Each host controller provides one or more USB ports. Up to 127 devices, including the hub devices, may be connected to a single host controller. - -USB devices are linked in series through hubs. There is always one hub known as the root hub. The root hub is built into the host controller. There are special hubs, called ""sharing hubs"". These allow multiple computers to access the same peripheral devices. They work by switching the access between PCs, either manually or automatically. They are popular in small-office environments. In network terms, they converge rather than diverge branches. - -A physical USB device can have several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device functions. A single device may provide several functions, for example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in microphone (audio device function). - -USB device communication is based on pipes (logical channels). Pipes are connections from the host controller to a logical entity on the device named an endpoint. The term endpoint is occasionally used to incorrectly refer to the pipe. A USB device can have up to 32 active pipes, 16 into the host controller and 16 out of the controller. - -Each endpoint can transfer data in one direction only, either into or out of the device, so each pipe is uni-directional. Endpoints are grouped into interfaces and each interface is associated with a single device function. An exception to this is endpoint zero, which is used for device configuration and which is not associated with any interface. - -When a USB device is first connected to a USB host, the USB device enumeration process is started. The enumeration starts by sending a reset signal to the USB device. The speed of the USB device is determined during the reset signaling. After reset, the USB device's information is read by the host, then the device is assigned a unique 7-bit address. If the device is supported by the host, the device drivers needed for communicating with the device are loaded and the device is set to a configured state. If the USB host is restarted, the enumeration process is repeated for all connected devices. - -The host controller polls the bus for traffic, usually in a round-robin fashion, so no USB device can transfer any data on the bus without an explicit request from the host controller. - -Host controllers -The computer hardware that contains the host controller and the root hub has an interface for the programmer. It is called Host Controller Device (HCD) and is defined by the hardware implementer. - -For USB 1.0 and 1.1, there were two different HCD implementations, Open Host Controller Interface (OHCI) and Universal Host Controller Interface (UHCI). OHCI was developed by Compaq, Microsoft and National Semiconductor, UHCI by Intel. - -VIA Technologies licensed the UHCI standard from Intel; all other chipset implementers use OHCI. UHCI relies more on software. This means UHCI is slightly more processor-intensive than OHCI but easier and cheaper to make. Because there were two different implementations, operating system vendors and hardware vendors needed to develop and test on both of them. This increased cost. - -The USB specification does not specify any HCD interfaces and is not concerned with them. In other words, USB defines the format of data transfer through the port, but not the system by which the USB hardware communicates with the computer it sits in. - -During the design phase of USB 2.0, the USB-IF insisted that there was only one implementation. The USB 2.0 HCD implementation is called the Enhanced Host Controller Interface (EHCI). Only EHCI can support hi-speed (480 Mbit/s) transfers. Most of PCI-based EHCI controllers have other HCD implementations called 'companion host controller' to support Full Speed (12 Mbit/s) and may be used for any device that claims to be a member of a certain class. An operating system is supposed to implement all device classes, so it can provide generic drivers for any USB device. Device classes are decided upon by the Device Working Group of the USB Implementers Forum. - -USB device classes -Device classes include: - - - Use class information in the Interface Descriptors. This base class is defined to be used in Device Descriptors to indicate that class information should be determined from the Interface Descriptors in the device. - -Related pages - FireWire - -References - -Computer hardware -Computer buses" -23417,89999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanology,Volcanology,"In geology, volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the part of geology that studies volcanoes, lava, magma, and other related things. The term volcanology comes from the Latin word vulcan, the Roman god of fire. - -A volcanologist is a person who studies volcanoes and their eruptions. Volcanologists visit volcanoes often, especially active ones. This makes it a dangerous science. They analyze physical and chemical variations related to historical and current activity of the volcanoes. - -Volcanologists look at volcanic eruptions, collect material from the eruptions, such as ash or pumice, rock and lava samples. - -Other websites - Area Vesuvio - European Volcanological Society - United States Geologic Survey- Volcanic Hazards Program - Volcano Live- What is a volcanologist? - VolcanoWorld- How to become a volcanologist" -14319,53583,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Waldo%20Emerson,Ralph Waldo Emerson,"Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 – April 27, 1882) was an American author, poet, and philosopher. - -Early life -Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1803. His father was a Unitarian minister. He chose not to follow the beliefs of the Unitarians and instead, created his own world view, Transcendentalism. He first wrote about this view in an essay called Nature in 1836. Emerson's father died when he was only eight years old. He studied at school in Boston and went to Harvard University, one of the most well-rated universities in the country. - -How he became an author -Many men were heads of a town church in Emerson’s family history. His father wanted him to be one, too. In 1817, at the age of 14, he began his education at Harvard College. He finished in 1821 and started to teach in a local school. In 1825, he continued studies at Harvard Divinity School to be a minister. By 1829, he was the head of a church in Boston. Then some events happened that made him change the direction of his life. - -In 1831, his wife died. Soon after that, Emerson left America to go on a journey through Europe. He returned after almost a year, then married again in 1833. Emerson didn’t want to continue to be the head of a church. Instead, he began speaking in halls and schools. He began writing his thoughts in short writings and speeches. His first essay was “Nature.” It would become one of his most popular essays. Then, many scholars know about him after he gave a speech at Harvard Divinity School in 1837. Emerson became an author instead of a head of a town church by creating his own, instead of following someone else's, plan for his life. - -Effects on his writings -Emerson’s days as a child, when he was the son of a head of a town church, shaped his religious views. He also formed his way of thinking about spiritual topics from his education at Harvard. These views are present in his philosophy of Transcendentalism, a way of thinking about the connections between man, nature, and the highest being. Church leaders of Emerson’s time focused on religious topics. Emerson instead focused on the everyday lives of people. Even though his father died when he was eight, and his first wife died a few years after marriage, Emerson wrote in a good way about his subjects. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an author who lived during the same time as Emerson, also affected him. - -His effect on American society -Emerson had several effects on Americans during his time. The first effect he had was on the value of the individual. He once wrote, “Let us unfetter ourselves of our historical associations and find a pure standard in the idea of man.” Up to this time, Americans still looked to England and other European countries for ideas on fashion and ways of thinking. Emerson’s writings gave impulse to Americans to be free of European ideas on what is right or good. Along with individualism, Emerson is best known for starting the Transcendentalist movement. This philosophy made important the ideas of self-discovery and the connections between nature, all persons as a group, and the highest being. - -End of life -In his later life, Emerson was a close friend of many other important authors and thinkers, including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Stuart Mill, and Thomas Carlyle. He traveled the world, including France, England, Italy and the Middle East. Emerson was active in writing and speaking into the 1870s. However, he started to forget things. He would only read from detailed notes or scripts. By 1879, his memory was so bad that he stopped making public appearances and speeches. He still socialized at private events, but never with the amount of talking that he once did. Walt Whitman described him at a party in 1881 to be a careful listener but he didn’t join in any conversations. Within six months, in early 1882, Emerson died of pneumonia in Concord, Massachusetts. - -Notable works - Nature - Essays, Volumes I & II -The Mountain and The Squirrel - Representative Men - English Traits - Conduct of Life - -References - -1803 births -1882 deaths -19th-century American poets -19th-century philosophers -American philosophers -Deaths from pneumonia -Disease-related deaths in Massachusetts -Infectious disease deaths in the United States -Writers from Massachusetts" -11679,42914,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing,Rowing,"Rowing is about moving a boat on water using human muscle power. It can be a sport. The goal in rowing is to move as fast as possible on top of the water. The athletes use a boat. They move the boat forward by using two sculls or one oar. There are different types of rowing. The types depend on how many people are in the boat and if they have a coxswain or not. Rowing is a very popular sport in England, the Commonwealth, and the Northeastern United States. The old universities of the United States and England have yearly rowing matches. - -Other websites - - FISA – The Official World Rowing Website - Rachel Quarrell's Rowing Service – UK rowing news and information site. - Row2k.com – Worldwide Rowing information site with news, results and photographs. - - -Summer Olympic sports" -4639,14502,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%20767,Boeing 767,"The Boeing 767 is a wide-body aircraft made and built by Boeing. The arcraft was developed on July 14, 1978, as apart of the 7X7 project. The first prototype flew on September 26, 1981. The aircraft was certified on July 30, 1982. - -The aircraft started flying the 767-200 commerically on September 8, 1982 with United Airlines. They did not fly the 767-100 as it had close to the same seats as the Boeing 757. The 767-200ER, which has more range, started flying in 1984. The 767-300, which is a longer version, started flying in 1986. The 767-300ER, which has more range than the 767-300, started flying in 1988. - -A cargo version, the 767-300F, started flying in 1995. It was made into the 767-400ER, which is longer. - -Accidents and incidents -Lauda Air Flight 004 was the first fatal crash of a Boeing 767. -Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961 -EgyptAir Flight 990 -September 11 attacks -American Airlines Flight 11 -United Airlines Flight 175 -American Airlines Flight 63 -Air China Flight 129 -LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16 -Ethiopian Airlines Flight 702 -Atlas Air Flight 3591 - -References - -Other websites - -767" -20700,79664,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/41%20%28number%29,41 (number),"Forty-one is a number. It comes between forty and forty-two, and is an odd number. It is also the 13th prime number, after 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, and 37. - -Integers -Prime numbers" -12420,45819,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apples%2C%20Vaud,"Apples, Vaud","Apples is a municipality in Switzerland. It is in Vaud Canton. Vaud Canton has 364 communes in it. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - Aerial views of the municipality - Commune de Apples - VD - Suisse . communal.ch. - -Municipalities of Vaud" -18391,69022,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam%20Neeson,Liam Neeson,"William John ""Liam"" Neeson, OBE (born 7 June 1952) is an Irish actor and comedian, nominated for many awards including the Oscar. He is well known for his role as Oskar Schindler in the 1993 movie Schindler's List, and after that he has appeared in several popular movie series, including the Star Wars prequel trilogy, The Chronicles of Narnia and Batman Begins. He has also continued to play real-life characters, including Michael Collins and Alfred Kinsey. - -Other websites - - - -1952 births -Living people -Irish movie actors -Irish television actors -Irish voice actors -Actors from Northern Ireland -Irish stage actors -Irish radio actors -County Antrim" -3590,10914,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/800s%20BC,800s BC," - -Events -The poet, Homer is thought to have lived. -Dido, Queen of Carthage is thought to have lived. - 804 BC - The empire of Assyria takes over the city of Damascus. - 804 BC - The Egyptian ruler Pedubastis I dies. - Ancient Italian society develops. - Olmec people start to build pyramids." -23782,91710,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riesa-Gro%C3%9Fenhain,Riesa-Großenhain,"Riesa-Großenhain was a district in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. The district was created in 1994 by joining the two previous districts Riesa and Großenhain. It ended in 2008. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - Official website (German) - - -2008 disestablishments in Europe" -12927,47518,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restauration,Restauration,"Following the fall from power of Napoleon Bonaparte: - -Bourbon Dynasty, Restored -Restauration (Switzerland) - -Related pages -Restoration" -13947,51670,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochen%20Rindt,Jochen Rindt,"Karl Jochen Rindt (born April 18 1942 in Mainz, Germany – died September 5 1970 in Monza) was a German racing driver who represented Austria during his career. In 1970, he won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship, but died in a crash in Monza. He was the only driver to win the championship after he died. - -In 1965 he won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race. - -References - -1942 births -1970 deaths -Austrian sportspeople -Formula One drivers -People from Mainz -Sportspeople from Rhineland-Palatinate" -20626,79349,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle%20size%20%28general%29,Particle size (general),"The term particle size is used to compare dimensions of different small material objects. - -Larger objects are usually called stone, rock, a piece of something, etc. The term particle indicates small size, usually less than centimeter. Particle might be either solid, or liquid, or even gas. Liquid particles are called droplets. Gaseous particles are bubbles. All of them can be characterised in terms of size. - -Particle size of spherical object equals to its diameter. - -But a typical material object is likely to be irregular in shape. This causes ambiguity in definition of particle size. Existing definitions are based on replacent of a given particle with imaginary sphere that has one of the properties identical with the particle. -Volume based particle size equals to the diameter of the sphere that has same volume as a given particle; -Weight based particle size equals to the diameter of the sphere that has same weight as a given particle; -Area based particle size equals to the diameter of the sphere that has the same surface area as a given particle; -Hydrodynamic particle size equals to the diameter of the sphere that has the same drag coefficient as a given particle; - -Related pages - Particle size (grain size) - -Chemistry" -23252,88843,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau,Tau,"Tau (uppercase/lowercase Τ τ), is the letter of the Greek alphabet, used to represent the ""t"" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 300. Letters that came from it include the Roman T and Cyrillic Т. - -Other Uses - -Some people want to use Tau in place of Pi, the special number that comes from circles. Tau would be equal to two times pi, or about 6.283. - -These people want to use Tau because they think it would be easier for everyone to understand. There are many reasons in math why Tau could be useful or helpful. One of the simplest is that it would make learning about radians easier. - -A radian is a way of measuring the angle of a circle. It says that the number of radians in an angle is equal to the length of the outside of the circle, or the 'arc length', that is covered by an angle, divided by the radius, or distance from the point in the center of a circle to anywhere on the outside (see the picture on the bottom right of the page). - -If the distance covered around the outside of a circle is equal to the radius, than one radian is being covered. Around the whole outside of a circle, there are about 6.283 radians - or, Tau radians (Tau is just a number, like 0, or 7, or 100). - -The advantage of this is that one quarter of a circle would simply become Tau / 4 radians, and one half of a circle Tau / 2 radians, which is more in line with our intuition on circles (see also the drawing below). - -Not many people use Tau yet, but more and more are. - -Related pages - - Tau lepton - -References - -Greek alphabet" -21161,81072,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden%20%28district%29,Baden (district),"Baden is a district in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland. The capital city is the town of Baden. The largest municipality is Wettingen. The district has 26 municipalities, an area of 153.07 km², and a population of 121,071. - -Municipalities - - - -Districts of Aargau" -10987,39566,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never%20Mind%20the%20Buzzcocks,Never Mind the Buzzcocks,"Never Mind the Buzzcocks is a British television game show on channel BBC Two. It was first presented by Mark Lamarr, then a different person each episode, then Simon Amstell, then different people again and finally Rhod Gilbert. The left team is captained by Phill Jupitus. The right team was captained by Sean Hughes, then Bill Bailey, then different people for each episode and finally by Noel Fielding. - -Other websites - -1993 television series debuts -1990s British television series -2000s British television series -2010s British television series -BBC Television programmes -British comedy television series -British television game shows -Panel games -1993 establishments in the United Kingdom -1990s British television series debuts -2012 television series endings -2012 disestablishments in the United Kingdom -English-language television programs" -4864,15323,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drummer,Drummer,"A drummer is a person who plays the drums as a job or as a hobby. This can be someone who plays drums in the military, in a band or as a session musician. A session musician is someone who plays an instrument in a band when no one else is available. A drummer keeps the beat so their role is a hard and important job. Without a drummer, the band would find it hard to keep in time." -19227,72926,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas,Oireachtas,"The Oireachtas is the national parliament of Ireland. - -There are three parts of the Oireachtas: - -The President of Ireland -Dáil Éireann - The lower house. It is similar to the House of Commons in the United Kingdom or the House of Representatives in the United States. -Seanad Éireann - The upper house. It is similar to the House of Lords and the Senate - -Only the Irish names are used, never the English - -Politics of Ireland -Government of the Republic of Ireland -Ireland" -17128,64922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ani%20%28god%29,Ani (god),"In Etruscan mythology, Ani is god of the sky. He is shown as living in the highest heaven. He is sometimes shown with two faces, possibly showing a link with the Akkadian god Anu and the Roman god Janus. - -Notes - -References - - Jordan, Michael Encyclopedia of Gods: Over 2,500 Deities of the World New York: Facts on File 1993 - Fischer, Richard James Historical Genesis: from Adam to Abraham University Press of America, 2007 - -Etruscan gods and goddesses -Ancient Rome" -3360,10067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%2010,October 10," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 19 - Roman general Germanicus dies under mysterious circumstances in Antioch in present-day Turkey. It is believed that he was poisoned on the orders of Emperor Tiberius. - 680 – Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, was decapitated by forces under Caliph Yazid I. This is commemorated by Shi'a Muslims as Aashurah. - 732 – Battle of Tours: Near Poitiers, France, leader of the Franks Charles Martel and his men, defeat a large army of Moors, stopping the Muslims from spreading into Western Europe. The governor of Cordoba, Abd-ar-Rahman, is killed during the battle. - 1471 – Battle of Brunkeberg in Stockholm: Sten Sture the Elder, the Regent of Sweden, with help of farmers and miners, repels an attack by Christian I, King of Denmark. - 1575 – Battle of Dormans: Catholic forces under Duke Henry of Guise defeated the Protestants, capturing Philippe de Mornay among others. - 1582 – Due to the implementation of the Gregorian calendar this day does not exist in this year in Italy, Poland, Portugal and Spain. - 1631 – Thirty Years' War: A Saxon army takes over Prague. - 1760 - In a treaty with the Dutch colonial authorities, the Ndyuka people of Suriname, descended from escaped slaves, gain extra freedom. - 1780 – The Great Hurricane of 1780 kills 20,000-30,000 in the Caribbean. - 1798 - British troops occupy Menorca. - 1845 – In Annapolis, Maryland, the Naval School (later renamed the United States Naval Academy) opens with 50 midshipmen students and seven professors. - 1846 - Neptune's moon Triton is discovered by British astronomer William Lassell. - 1868 – Carlos Céspedes issued the Grito de Yara from his plantation, La Demajagua, proclaiming Cuba's independence. - 1871 - Chicago burns after an accident. - 1877 – Lieutenant-Colonel George Armstrong Custer is given a funeral with full military honors. - 1882 - The Bank of Japan is founded. - 1892 - British passenger ship Bokhara sinks in a Typhoon off the west of Taiwan, killing 125 people. - 1897 - German chemist Felix Hoffmann discovers an improved way of synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). - -1901 1950 - 1908 – Baseball Writers Association forms. - 1910 – Tau Epsilon Phi Fraternity is established at Columbia University. - 1911 – Wuchang Uprising which led to the demise of Qing Dynasty, the last emperial court in China, and the founding of the Republic of China. - 1913 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson triggered the explosion of the Gamboa Dike thus ending construction on the Panama Canal. - 1920 – The Carinthian Plebiscite determined that the larger part of Carinthia became part of Austria. - 1928 – Chiang Kai-shek becomes Chairman of the Republic of China. - 1933 – A United Airlines Boeing 247 is destroyed by sabotage while en route from Cleveland, Ohio to Chicago, Illinois, the first such proven case in the history of commercial aviation. - 1935 - A coup occurs in Athens the royalist leadership of the Greek Army. - 1938 – The Blue Water Bridge opens, connecting Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario. - 1938 – World War II: The Munich Agreement cedes the Sudetenland to Germany. - 1942 - The Soviet Union and Australia create diplomatic relations. - 1944 – Holocaust: 800 Gypsy children are systematically murdered at Auschwitz death camp. - -1951 2000 - 1957 - The Windscale fire occurs in Cumbria, England, in the world's first nuclear accident. - 1957 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower apologizes to the finance minister of Ghana, Komla Agbeli Gbdemah, after he was refused service in a Dover, Delaware restaurant. - 1963 - France cedes control of Bizerte naval base to Tunisia. - 1964 – The 1964 Summer Olympics open in Tokyo, Japan - 1966 – Simon and Garfunkel release the album Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme. - 1967 - The Outer Space Treaty comes into force, having been signed on January 27. - 1970 – Fiji becomes independent. - 1970 – In Montreal, Quebec, a national crisis hits Canada when Quebec Vice-Premier and Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte becomes the second statesman kidnapped by members of the FLQ terrorist group. - 1971 – Sold, dismantled and moved to the United States, the London Bridge reopens in Lake Havasu City, Arizona. - 1973 – Vice President of the United States Spiro Agnew resigns after being charged with federal income tax evasion. - 1975 - Papua New Guinea joins the UN. - 1978 – US President Jimmy Carter signs a bill into law that authorizes the minting of the Susan B. Anthony dollar. - 1979 – The Pac-Man arcade game is released to the Japanese market by Namco. - 1980 - A magnitude 7.3 earthquake hits the town of El Asnam, Algeria, killing 3,500 people. - 1985 – United States Navy F-14 fighter jets intercept an Egyptian plane carrying the Achille Lauro cruise ship hijackers and force it to land at a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) base in Sigonella, Sicily where they are arrested. - 1986 – An earthquake measuring 7.5 on the Richter scale strikes San Salvador, El Salvador, killing an estimated 1,500 people. - 1987 – Fiji becomes a republic. - 1997 – An Austral Airlines DC-9-32 crashes and explodes near Nuevo Berlin, Uruguay, killing 74. - 1998 - A Lignes Aeriennes Congolaises Boeing 727 airplane is shot down by rebels over Kindu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, killing 41 people. - 1999 - In London, the London Eye is raised. - -From 2001 - 2001 – US President George W. Bush presents a list of 22 most wanted terrorists. - 2005 – Channel 4's new 'adult' entertainment channel More4 starts broadcasting on ntl, Sky Digital and Freeview in the UK. - 2005 – Angela Merkel is announced to be the new Chancellor of Germany. She officially becomes Chancellor on November 22. - 2005 – Most Aardman Animations props are melted in a warehouse fire. Props from Chicken Run and Wallace and Gromit are destroyed. - 2008 - Martti Ahtisaari wins the Nobel Peace Prize. - 2008 - A bomb attack in Orakzai, Pakistan, kills 110 people. - 2010 – The Netherlands Antilles are split up. The islands of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius becomes special municipalities of the Netherlands proper. Curaçao and Sint Maarten become constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. - 2014 - The Nobel Peace Prize is shared between Kailash Satyarthi and Malala Yousafzai, who also becomes the youngest-ever winner of a Nobel Prize. - 2015 - Two bomb attacks at a peace demonstration in Ankara kill at least 102 people. - 2017 - President of Catalonia Carles Puigdemont delays his region's declaration of independence from Spain. - 2018 - Hurricane Michael makes landfall in Florida, as one of the strongest hurricanes to hit the mainland of the United States. - 2019 - Olga Tokarczuk (for 2018) and Peter Handke win the Nobel Prize in Literature. - 2020 - A ceasefire takes effect after almost two weeks of intense fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 1201 - Richard de Fournival, French philosopher (d. 1260) - 1344 - Mary Plantagenet, English princess (d. 1362) - 1470 - Selim I, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1520) - 1486 - Charles III of Savoy (d. 1553) - 1567 - Infanta Catherine Michelle of Spain (d. 1597) - 1669 - Johann Nicolaus Bach, German composer (d. 1753) - 1678 - John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll, Scottish soldier (d. 1743) - 1684 – Antoine Watteau, French painter (d. 1721) - 1700 - Lambert-Sigisbert Adam, French sculptor (d. 1759) - 1731 – Henry Cavendish, English scientist (d. 1810) - 1738 - Benjamin West, American painter (d. 1820) - 1780 – John Abercrombie, Scottish physician (d. 1844) - 1794 - William Whiting Boardman, American politician (d. 1871) - 1813 – Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer (d. 1901) - 1819 - Heinrich Joseph Dominicus Denzinger, German theologian (d. 1883) - 1825 – Paul Kruger, South African Boer politician (d. 1904) - 1828 - Samuel J. Randall, American politician (d. 1890) - 1830 – Isabella II of Spain (d. 1904) - 1834 – Aleksis Kivi, Finnish writer (d. 1872) - 1837 - Robert Gould Shaw, American army officer (d. 1863) - 1858 - Maurice Prendergast, American painter (d. 1924) - 1860 - Joan Maragall, Catalan poet (d. 1911) - 1861 – Fridtjof Nansen, Norwegian polar explorer, scientist and diplomat (d. 1930) - 1861 - Edouard Dujardin, French writer (d. 1949) - 1861 - Claudio Williman, President of Uruguay (d. 1934) - 1863 - Helen Dunbar, American actress (d. 1933) - 1863 - Vladimir Obruchev, Russian geographer, geologist and writer (d. 1956) - 1870 - Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin, Russian writer (d. 1953) - 1870 - Louise Mack, Australian writer (d. 1935) - 1878 - Blanche Lazzell, American painter, printmaker and designer (d. 1956) - 1885 - Walter Anderson, German folklorist (d. 1962) - 1885 - José Alvalade, Portuguese football team founder (d. 1918) - 1888 - Pietro Lana, Italian footballer (d. 1950) - 1889 - Kermit Roosevelt, American writer, businessman and military officer (d. 1943) - 1890 - Morley Griswold, Governor of Nevada (d. 1951) - 1895 - Wolfram von Richthofen, German field marshal (d. 1945) - 1899 – Wilhelm Röpke, German economist (d. 1966) - 1900 - Helen Hayes, American actress and singer (d. 1993) - -1901 1925 - 1901 – Alberto Giacometti, Swiss sculptor (d. 1966) - 1903 – Charles, Prince Regent of Belgium (d. 1983) - 1910 - Price Daniel, Governor of Texas (d. 1988) - 1910 - Harold LeVander, Governor of Minnesota (d. 1992) - 1911 - Clare Hollingworth, English journalist and author (d. 2017) - 1913 – Claude Simon, French writer (d. 2005) - 1917 - Thelonious Monk, American jazz musician (d. 1962) - 1918 - John W. King, Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1996) - 1918 - Yigal Allon, Israeli politician (d. 1980) - 1919 - Edgar Laprade, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2014) - 1920 - Gail Halvorsen, American pilot, took part in the Berlin Airlift - 1923 - Nicholas Parsons, British actor and presenter (d. 2020) - 1923 – Murray Walker, British sports commentator - 1923 – James Jabara, American air force pilot (d. 1966) - 1924 – James Clavell, Australian writer (d. 1994) - 1924 - Ludmilla Tchérina, French ballerina, sculptor, actress, painter, choreographer and author (d. 2004) - 1924 - Ed Wood, American director, producer, actor and screenwriter (d. 1978) - -1926 1950 - 1926 – Richard Jaeckel, American actor (d. 2007) - 1926 - Oscar Brown, Jr., American singer, poet and activist (d. 2005) - 1927 - Nedunuri Krishnamurthy, Indian singer (d. 2014) - 1929 - Bernard Mayes, British broadcaster (d. 2014) - 1930 – Yves Chauvin, French chemist (d. 2015) - 1930 – Harold Pinter, British playwright (d. 2008) - 1933 - Daniel Massey, British actor (d. 1998) - 1933 – Jay Sebring, American hairstylist and murder victim (d. 1969) - 1935 - Abu Jihad, Palestinian founder of Fatah (d. 1988) - 1935 – Hermann Nuber, German footballer - 1936 – Gerhard Ertl, German chemist - 1936 - Judith Chalmers, English television host - 1937 - Peter Underwood, 27th Governor of Tasmania (d. 2014) - 1940 - Nol Heijerman, Dutch footballer (d. 2015) - 1940 – Winston Spencer-Churchill, British politician, grandson of Winston Churchill (d. 2010) - 1941 – Ken Saro-Wiwa, Nigerian writer and activist (d. 1995) - 1941 - Peter Coyote, American actor - 1942 – Radu Vasile, former Prime Minister of Romania (d. 2013) - 1943 – Reinhard Libuda, German footballer (d. 1996) - 1945 - Edoardo Reja, Italian footballer and coach - 1946 – Charles Dance, English actor - 1946 – Naoto Kan, former Prime Minister of Japan - 1946 - John Prine, American singer, songwriter and guitarist (d. 2020) - 1946 – Chris Tarrant, English television presenter - 1946 - Ann Mather, English author - 1948 - Sue Campbell, Baroness Campbell of Loughborough, English academic and businesswoman - 1948 - Roger B. Wilson, former Governor of Missouri - 1949 - Lance Cairns, New Zealand cricketer - 1949 - Wang Wanxing, Chinese activist - 1950 – Nora Roberts, American novelist - -1951 1975 - 1951 - Epeli Ganilau, Fijian statesman - 1953 – Midge Ure, Scottish musician - 1954 - David Lee Roth, American singer (Van Halen) - 1954 – Rekha, Indian actress - 1954 - Fernando Santos, Portuguese footballer and manager - 1956 - Taur Matan Ruak, Prime minister and former President of East Timor - 1956 - Amanda Burton, British actress - 1956 - Fiona Fullerton, British actress - 1956 - David Hempleman-Adams, English businessman and adventurer - 1956 - Paul Sturrock, Scottish footballer and manager - 1957 – Rumiko Takahashi, Japanese mangaka - 1958 - Tanya Tucker, American country music singer and musician - 1959 – Kirsty MacColl, English singer (d. 2000) - 1959 - Julia Sweeney, American actress - 1959 - Bradley Whitford, American actor - 1960 - Simon Townshend, English guitarist, singer and songwriter - 1961 - Martin Kemp, English singer and actor (Spandau Ballet) - 1964 - Sarah Lancashire, English actress - 1964 - Daniel Pearl, American journalist (d. 2002) - 1965 - Toshi, Japanese singer-songwriter and producer - 1965 - Chris Penn, American actor (d. 2006) - 1965 - Rebecca Pidgeon, American-English actress and singer-songwriter - 1966 – Tony Adams, English footballer - 1967 - Jonathan Littell, American-French writer - 1967 - Mike Malinin, American drummer (Goo Goo Dolls) - 1967 - Gavin Newsom, American politician, current Governor of California and former Mayor of San Francisco - 1969 – Brett Favre, American football player - 1970 – Silke Kraushaar-Pielach, German luger - 1970 – Matthew Pinsent, British rower - 1970 - Dean Kiely, Irish footballer - 1970 - Bai Ling, Chinese actress - 1971 - Graham Alexander, British footballer and manager - 1971 - Markus Heitz, German author - 1972 - Alexei Zhitnik, Russian ice hockey player - 1972 - Nicky Morgan, English politician - 1974 – Julio Ricardo Cruz, Argentine footballer - 1974 - Dale Earnhardt, Jr., American racing driver - 1975 - Ihsahn, Norwegian singer-songwriter, musician and producer - 1975 - Jacqueline Pirie, Scottish actress - -From 1976 - 1976 – Shane Doan, Canadian ice hockey player - 1979 – Nicolás Massú, Chilean tennis player - 1979 - Mya, American singer-songwriter, producer, dancer and actress - 1979 - Kangta, South Korean singer-songwriter, producer and actress - 1980 - Sherine, Egyptian singer and actress - 1980 - Tim Maurer, American singer-songwriter (Suburban Legends) - 1981 - Una Healy, Irish singer (The Saturdays) - 1982 - Logi Geirsson, Icelandic handball player - 1982 - Yasser Al-Qahtani, Saudi Arabian footballer - 1983 – Nikos Spiropoulos, Greek footballer - 1984 - Chiaki Kuriyama, Japanese actress - 1985 – Marina Diamandis, Welsh singer-songwriter (Marina and the Diamonds) - 1987 - Colin Slade, New Zealand rugby player - 1988 - Luis Cardozo, Paraguayan footballer - 1989 - Aimee Teegarden, American actress - 1991 – Gabriella Cilmi, Australian singer - 1991 - Xherdan Shaqiri, Swiss footballer - 1991 - Michael Carter-Williams, American basketball player - 1992 - Jano Ananidze, Georgian footballer - 1992 - Gabrielle Aplin, English singer-songwriter - 1994 - Bae Suzy, South Korean singer, dancer and actress - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 19 – Germanicus, father of Caligula and brother of Claudius (b. 15 BC) - 680 – Husayn bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad (b. 626) - 1359 - Hugh IV of Cyprus (b. 1295) - 1459 – Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini, Italian humanist, classicist (b. 1380) - 1531 – Huldrych Zwingli, leader of Swiss Reformation (b. 1484) - 1659 – Abel Tasman, Dutch explorer (b. 1603) - 1708 - David Gregory, Scottish mathematician (b. 1659) - 1723 - William Cowper, 1st Earl Cowper, English politician (b. 1665) - 1725 - Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil, French politician (b. 1643) - 1747 – John Potter, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1674) - 1795 - Francesco Antonio Zaccaria, Italian theologian and historian (b. 1714) - 1806 - Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, German prince (b. 1772) - 1827 – Ugo Foscolo, Italian writer (b. 1778) - 1837 - Charles Fourier, French philosopher (b. 1772) - 1872 – William H. Seward, Secretary of State (b. 1801) - 1875 – Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Russian novelist, poet and dramatist (b. 1817) - 1893 – Lip Pike, American baseball player (b. 1845) - -1901 2000 - 1901 – Lorenzo Snow, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1814) - 1911 - Jack Daniel, American businessman (b. 1849) - 1913 – Katsura Taro, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1848) - 1913 - Adolphus Busch, German-American brewer and businessman (b. 1839) - 1914 – Charles I of Romania (b. 1839) - 1927 – Gustave Whitehead, German-born inventor (b. 1874) - 1940 – Berton Churchill, American pioneer Hollywood actor (b. 1876) - 1962 – Trygve Gulbranssen, Norwegian writer (b. 1894) - 1964 – Eddie Cantor, American singer, vaudeville performer (b. 1892) - 1964 - Guru Dutt, Indian actor, producer and director (b. 1925) - 1966 - Charlotte Cooper, English tennis player (b. 1870) - 1970 - Edouard Daladier, French politician (b. 1884) - 1971 – John Cawte Beaglehole, New Zealand historian (b. 1901) - 1973 - Ludwig von Mises, Austrian economist (b. 1881) - 1978 – Ralph Metcalfe, track and field athlete (b. 1910) - 1979 – Christopher Evans, British psychologist and computer scientist (b. 1931) - 1983 – Ralph Richardson, actor (b. 1902) - 1985 – Yul Brynner, Russian-born actor (b. 1920) - 1985 – Orson Welles, American director, actor (b. 1915) - 1998 - Marvin Gay, Sr., father and killer of Marvin Gaye (b. 1914) - 1998 – Clark Clifford, United States Secretary of Defense (b. 1906) - 2000 – Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan Prime Minister (b. 1916) - -From 2001 - 2003 – Eugene Istomin, American pianist (b. 1925) - 2004 – Arthur H. Robinson, cartographer (b. 1915) - 2004 – Maurice Shadbolt, New Zealand writer (b. 1932) - 2004 – Christopher Reeve, American actor (b. 1952) - 2004 – Ken Caminiti, American baseball player (b. 1963) - 2005 – Milton Obote, President of Uganda (b. 1924) - 2008 - Kazuyoshi Miura, Japanese businessman (b. 1947) - 2009 – Stephen Gately, Irish singer (Boyzone) (b. 1976) - 2010 – Solomon Burke, American soul singer and songwriter (b. 1940) - 2010 – Hwang Jang-yop, North Korean politician and defector (b. 1923) - 2010 – Joan Sutherland, Australian operatic soprano (b. 1926) - 2011 – Albert Rosellini, American politician (b. 1910) - 2011 - Jagjit Singh, Indian musician (b. 1941) - 2012 - Alex Karras, American football player and actor (b. 1935) - 2012 - Amanda Todd, American student, victim of cyberbullying (b. 1996) - 2013 - Scott Carpenter, American test pilot, astronaut and aquanaut (b. 1925) - 2014 - Valeri Karpov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1971) - 2014 - Ed Nimmervoll, Austrian-Australian music journalist and author (b. 1947) - 2014 - Finn Lied, Norwegian military researcher and politician (b. 1916) - 2015 - Richard F. Heck, American chemist (b. 1931) - 2017 - Cho Jin-ho, South Korean footballer (b. 1973) - 2017 - Don Pedro Colley, American actor (b. 1938) - 2017 - Pentti Holappa, Finnish poet, writer and politician (b. 1927) - 2017 - Bob Schiller, American television writer (b. 1918) - 2018 - Mary Midgley, English philosopher (b. 1919) - 2018 - Raye Montague, American naval engineer (b. 1935) - 2018 - Tex Winter, American basketball coach (b. 1922) - 2019 - Ugo Colombo, Italian cyclist (b. 1940) - 2019 - Richard Jeranian, Armenian-French painter and draftsman (b. 1921) - 2019 - Tarek Kamel, Egyptian politician and computer engineer (b. 1962) - 2019 - Juliette Kaplan, British actress (b. 1939) - 2019 - Enrique Moreno, Mexican-American lawyer (b. 1955) - 2019 - Marie-José Nat, French actress (b. 1940) - 2020 - Vasili Kulkov, Russian footballer and manager (b. 1966) - -Observances - Independence Day (Fiji) - National Day of the Republic of China - World Mental Health Day - International Day Against the Death Penalty - Arbor Day (Poland) - Army Day (Sri Lanka) - -Days of the year" -4699,14815,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent,Agent,"An agent is a person who acts on behalf of another person, or a representative of an agency. - -an FBI agent is an official representative of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. - literary agent, a person who represents a writer - sports agent, a professional who represents an athlete - talent agent, a person who finds jobs for actors, models, and other people in various entertainment businesses. - travel agent, a person who helps plan a trip and buys airline tickets and makes hotel reservations. - -Agent can also mean: - - a secret agent, a spy (espionage) - a free agent, a sports player who is out of contract - a realtor (US), or real estate agent (Brit.) - -In science: - - Agent Orange, a herbicide - biological agent, an infectious disease that can be used in biological warfare - -In fiction: - - Agents, characters in The Matrix - Secret Agent, a 1936 film" -16070,61708,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freestyle%20football,Freestyle football,"Freestyle football is a sport played by one person by kicking a football. Freestyle football is a new sport, which has become more popular in recent years. - -To play freestyle football, one needs skill to keep the ball off the ground. This is done by juggling the ball with one's feet. Many people can do this well. At the same time, they can add in more difficult tricks. The most famous trick is called 'around the world'. There are five or more different ways of doing 'around the world'. Freestyle football can be played anywhere, such as in the street or a park. - -Other websites -Moscow Football Freestyle Organisation -Professional Football Freestyle Agency -Professional Football Freestyle Agency - -Football" -9107,31200,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow%20leopard,Snow leopard,"The snow leopard (Panthera uncia), also known as the Irbis and ounce, is a feline, which lives in central Asia. It used to be thought not to be closely related to the smaller leopard, which is why they were put in different genera before. However, recent research has discovered this is not correct. The cat is closely related to the other big cats in the genus Panthera. - -Appearance -Snow leopards are about 2-5 meters long in the body, and have a 90-100 centimeter long tail. They weigh up to 75 kilograms. They have grey and white fur with dark rosettes and spots, and their tails have stripes. Its fur is very long and thick to protect it against the cold. Their feet are also big and furry, which helps them to walk on snow more easily. They use their long tails for balance and as blankets to cover sensitive body parts against the severe mountain chill. - -Voice -They are one of the cats which cannot purr: ""In five cat species (lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard and snow leopard) the epihyoideum is an elastic ligament, whereas in all other species of the Felidae the epihyal is completely ossified (bony)... those felids with an elastic epihyoid are able to roar but not purr, while species with a completely ossified hyoid are able to purr but not to roar"". Despite this, it seems now that snow leopards cannot roar, though they can make a number of other sounds. - -Hunting -Snow leopards are well camouflaged, and are crepuscular (most active at dawn and dusk). They stalk and eat medium-sized prey like Ibex, bharal (mountain sheep) and wild goats. It can survive on a single sheep for two weeks. - -Snow leopards prefer to ambush prey from above, using broken terrain to conceal their approach. They try to land on the sheep, and kill it directly. If the sheep runs, they pursue it down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of their initial leap to chase prey for up to . - -They kill with a bite to the neck, and may drag the prey to a safe location before feeding. They consume all edible parts of the carcass, and can survive on a single bharal (blue sheep) for two weeks before hunting again. Annual prey needs is 20–30 adult bharals. - -Habitats -In summer, snow leopards usually live above the tree line on mountainous meadows and in rocky regions at altitudes from . In winter, they come down into the forests to altitudes around . Snow leopards prefer broken terrain, and can travel without difficulty in snow up to deep, although they prefer to use existing trails made by other animals. - -They live alone. After a pregnancy of about a hundred days the female gives birth to 2 or 3 cubs. Snow leopards are protected in most of the countries they live in. However, people do still kill them for their fur, or to protect their cattle. - -Distribution -The snow leopard has a huge range in central Asia. It is in Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kashmir, Kunlun, and the Himalaya to southern Siberia, Mongolia, and Tibet. - -Since many estimates are rough and outdated, its numbers could be falsely viewed as low. The total wild population of the snow leopard was estimated in 2008 as 4,510 to 7,350 individuals. - -Taxonomy and evolution -The snow leopard was not thought closely related to the Panthera or other living big cats. However, recent molecular studies put the species firmly in the genus Panthera: its closest relative is the tiger (Panthera tigris). MSW3 still refers to the snow leopard as Uncia uncia, but the more recent IUCN classifies it as Panthera uncia. - -In popular culture -The snow leopard is an official symbol of Kazakhstan. - -References - -Felines -Mammals of Asia -National symbols of Pakistan" -20382,78366,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliotar,Sliotar,"A sliotar (or sliothar) is a hard solid sphere slightly larger than a tennis ball, consisting of a cork core covered by two pieces of leather stitched together. Sometimes called a ""puck"" or ""hurling ball"", it resembles an American baseball with more pronounced stitching. It is used in the Gaelic games of hurling, camogie, rounders and shinty. - -Early sliotars used various materials, depending on the part of the country: - - hollow bronze - wood and leather - wood, rope and animal hair. - -Sports equipment" -6192,19840,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikiquote,Wikiquote,"Wikiquote is a sister (related) project of Wikipedia. It is one of many projects run by the Wikimedia Foundation. - -Wikiquote was based on an idea by Daniel Alston and made by Brion Vibber. The goal of the project is to produce a large reference of quotations from famous people, books, and proverbs, and to give details about them. - -Languages -The project was first created in English. However, in July 2004, more languages were added. Some of there are: - Afrikaans language: Wikiquote - Arabic language: ويكي الاقتباس - Bulgarian language: Уикицитат - Catalan language: Viquidites - Chinese language: 維基語錄 - Danish language: Wikiquote - Dutch language: Wikiquote - English language: Wikiquote - French language: Wikiquote - German language: Wikiquote - Greek language: Βικιφθέγματα - Hindi language: Wikiquote - Hebrew language: ויקיציטוט - Hungarian language: Wikidézet - Italian language: Wikiquote - Japanese language: ウィキクォート - Korean language: 위키인용집 - Latin language: Vicicitatio - Malayalam language: മലയാളം Wikiquote - Marathi language: Wikiquote - Punjabi language: Wikiquote - Pushto language: Wikiquote - Persian language: ویکی‌گفتاورد - Polish language: Wikicytaty - Portuguese language: Wikiquote - Romanian language: Wikicitat - Russian language: Викицитатник - Spanish language: Wikiquote - Tamil language: விக்கி மேற்கோள் - Telugu language: వికీవ్యాఖ్య - Thai language: วิกิคำคม - Turkish language: Vikisöz - Urdu language: Wikiquote - -As of May 2016, 31 versions each have more than 1,000 articles. The largest Wikiquote is the English project with over 26,500 content pages, followed by the Italian and Polish versions, both with over 22,000 content pages. In total, 60 languages have over 100 content pages. - -In February 2010, the Simple English Wikiquote was locked and closed. It can still be read, however. - -References - -Other websites - Main page - -Wikimedia -Wikis" -22633,85732,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Mentor%20Johnson,Richard Mentor Johnson,"Richard Mentor Johnson (October 17, 1780 – November 19, 1850) was the ninth vice president of the United States, serving with President Martin Van Buren. A resident of Kentucky, Johnson served as a U.S. representative and senator from Kentucky, and in the Kentucky House of Representatives. - -Johnson started his career as a lawyer representing many people for free. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1806. During the War of 1812, Johnson led troops against the British. - -Johnson later served in the Senate before being chosen as vice president. Johnson was elected by the Senate and not through the normal election because he did not have enough electors to win. This happened because Johnson lived with a slave named Julia Chinn, had two children with her, and treated her like his wife. - -Johnson was not chosen to run with Van Buren in 1840. Johnson served in the Kentucky House of Representatives again as well as ran for a Senate seat again. In 1850 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives again but died two weeks into his term on November 19, 1850. - -1780 births -1850 deaths -United States representatives from Kentucky -United States senators from Kentucky" -19190,72649,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%20Armenian%20Reconciliation%20Commission,Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission,"The Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission was made in 2001 to help Turkey and Armenia be closer. The main goal was to make the governments more active. - -Members - Gunduz Aktan (Ankara) - resigned June 2003 - Alexander Arzoumanian (Yerevan) - Ustun Erguder (Istanbul) - Sadi Erguvenc (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003 - David Hovhannissian (Yerevan) - Van Krikorian (New York) - Andranik Migranian (Moscow) - Ozdem Sanberk (Istanbul) - resigned June 2003 - Ilter Turkmen (Istanbul) - Vamik Volkan (Charlottesville) - -Newer Members (2003-2004) - - Emin Mahir Balcioglu (Geneva) - Ahmet Evin (Istanbul) - Ersin Kalaycioglu (Istanbul) - Sule Kut (Istanbul) - Ilter Turan (Istanbul) - -Other websites -Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission -Turkish Armenian Reconciliation Commission - Armeniapedia.org - -Establishments in Armenia -2000s establishments in Turkey -2001 establishments in Asia -Political organizations based in Asia" -12462,45924,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine%20tundra,Alpine tundra,"In physical geography, an alpine tundra, alpine habitat, alpine zone, or alpine biome is in the mountains. The alpine habitat is too high up for trees to grow but not so high that the snow and ice never melt. There are alpine places all over the Earth. There are tropical alpine places and arctic alpine places. Many alpine places are 3000 meters (10,000 feet) above sea level, but they can be higher or lower depending on how far from the equator and ocean they are. - -Plants - -Alpine plants grow slowly and stay short their whole lives. There are many reasons for this: - -Alpine places are usually very windy, so the plants that live there are usually short and strong. They are also very cold and dry. This high up, there is not much carbon dioxide in the air, which also makes it harder for plants to grow. Alpine plants grow slowly. When living things die in alpine places, their bodies break apart slowly. This means that the soil in alpine places is not very good. - -Tropical alpine plants can be different from alpine plants in colder places. Their bodies stop them from losing too much water. They can have wax on their leaves to hold water in. They can have hairs to block sunlight or silver color to reflect sunlight. This keeps them from photosynthesizing so fast that they lose too much water and die. - -Important alpine plants: - -Tussock grasses -Lichen -Sedges -Dwarf forms of trees -Shrubs -Bristlecone pine tree - -Animals - -There is more ultraviolet light in alpine places than closer to sea level. Mammals can live in alpine places because they are warm-blooded. They can grow fur or fat to protect themselves from the cold. Many of them sleep in the winter. Other animals walk or climb lower down in the hills for the winter. Alpine animals usually have smaller ears, legs, and tails than other animals so they do not lose heat through them. Because there is less oxygen in alpine places, alpine animals sometimes have larger lungs and more blood cells than other animals. Few insects live in alpine places because they are so cold. Few birds live in alpine places all year, but many fly there during warm weather and fly away during the winter. Almost no amphibians or reptiles live in alpine places. - -Tropical alpine animals can be different from animals in other places. Mammals tend to hide a lot and have dull colors. Because the air is so thin, birds tend to have smaller bodies and longer, wider wings than other birds. - -Important alpine animals: - -Wild sheep and goats -Chinchillas -Snowshoe hares -Voles -Pika -White-tailed ptarmigan -Big-winged birds, for example vultures and condors -Tiny birds, for example hummingbirds and sunbirds. -Rock wren -Pollinating insects, for example bumblebees and butterflies -Digging insects, for example springtails - -Name - -It is named after the mountain range the Alps, but there are alpine habitats all over the world. - -History - -Alexander von Humboldt was one of the first scientists to write about alpine places. He was from Germany. In the 1800s, he went to South America and climbed the Andes mountains. He wrote papers and drew drawings about the mountains and their plants and animals. In 1889, another scientist, C. Hart Merriam, wrote about ""life zones"" that he saw in mountains in Arizona. He put plants, animals, and places in groups and saw that, the further south he looked, the higher up the place had to be to have the same kinds of plants and animals. His ideas work well in North American mountains, but they do not work well in tropical places. - -References - -Other websites - -Biomes - -Ecozones" -15315,58086,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie%20Miller,Reggie Miller,"Reginald Wayne Miller (August 24, 1965) is a retired American basketball player. Miller was known for being a great jump shooter during his career. He played his entire career for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is from Riverside, California. - -Basketball players from California -Indiana Pacers players -1965 births -Living people -People from Riverside, California -National Basketball Association players with retired numbers" -17721,66988,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinca,Vinca,"Vinca (from Latin vincire ""to bind, fetter"") is a genus of five species in the family Apocynaceae, that grows in Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia. The common name, shared with the related genus Catharanthus, is Periwinkle. - -They are subshrubs or herbaceous, and have slender stems 1–2 m (3–6 feet) long but not growing more than 20–70 cm (8-30 inches) above ground; the stems frequently take root where they touch the ground, so the plant can spread widely - -References - -Blamey, M., & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. Hodder & Stoughton. -Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening 4: 664-665. Macmillan. - -Other websites - -Flora Europaea: Vinca -Virtual Flowers Vinca - -Apocynaceae" -13451,49461,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouda%20%28cheese%29,Gouda (cheese),"Gouda is a kind of soft cheese made from cows' milk. The cheese is named after the city of Gouda, which is famous for it. The name Gouda is not protected, so Gouda is made all over the world. There is also a protected designation of origin Noord-Hollandse Gouda (Gouda from North Holland). This may seem inaccurate, because the city of Gouda is in South Holland. Most of the cows however graze in North Holland. - -There are two varieties of Gouda for export: Young gouda, which is between one and six months old. Young gouda is usually sold with a yellow or red coating of paraffin wax. - -Gouda that is older, is usually sold with a black coating. It is more brittle, and has a stronger scent. - -There are other variations, like Smoked Gouda, which is a processed cheese, and Leyden Gouda. - -There is also spiced gouda which has spices in it to make it have more flavour. - -References - -Dutch cheeses -Gouda" -11815,43311,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasmosaurus,Elasmosaurus,"Elasmosaurus was a 46 foot long swimming reptile that lived in the North American Inland Sea. It was a plesiosaur. - -It was first discovered in 1868 by a scientist named Edward Drinker Cope who accidentally put the head on the tail. It had 71 cervical vertebrae. - -It was suggested by D.M.S. Watson that their method was as surface swimmers, mostly eating with their head above water, darting down to snatch smaller fish which were feeding on plankton. It is hard to see the benefit of a long neck under water. Aquatic mammals operating under water all have a streamlined torpedo-shape, as did pliosaurs and ichthyosaurs. All the longer-necked families were, from the setting of the teeth and jaws, eaters of small fish. The large number of neck vertebrae is probably linked to the modest degree of flexibility between adjacent vertebrae. - -References - -Plesiosaurs" -21743,82876,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilen,Wilen,"Wilen is a municipality of the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -18215,68362,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste,Paste,"Paste could mean: - - Glue, something that is used to make two objects stick together. - Cut, copy and paste in computing. - Paste (food), a type of Mexican food. - -Basic English 850 words" -22691,85900,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/PetSmart,PetSmart,"PetSmart Inc. is an American pet supply company. They sell pet supplies and services like grooming and dog training in the United States and Canada. The name PetSmart was made as a pun. - -Other websites - -Official website - -1986 establishments in the United States -Companies based in Arizona -Pets" -11267,40799,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20home,Group home,"A group home is a private house that serves as a home for people who are not in the same family but have a common characteristic. In the United States, this would mean a home for people who need social assistance or who are not able to live alone or without proper care for safety reasons. Before the 1970s, these people lived in psychiatric hospitals, homes for the poor and orphanages. - -People who live in a group home may be recovering drug addicts, developmentally disabled, abused or neglected youths, and/or young people with a criminal record. A group home is different from a halfway house because it is not restricted to recovering addicts or convicted criminals, and also because the people who live there usually have to help maintain the household by doing chores or helping to manage a budget. In most countries, people can still vote and attend university while in a group home. - -There are typically from 3 to 16 residents, as well as a resident manager or service staff. Residents may have their own room or share rooms, and share facilities such as laundry, bathroom, kitchen and common living areas. The opening of group homes is occasionally fought against by neighbours who fear that it will lead to a rise in crime and/or a drop in property values. - -A group home can also refer to family homes in which children and youth of the foster care system are placed until foster families are found for them. - -References - -Disability" -18222,68397,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%ABg%C5%AB-j%C5%8D,Ryūgū-jō,"In Japanese mythology, Ryūgū-jō (竜宮城) is the palace of Ryūjin, the dragon god of the sea. It is located under the sea. Depending on the version of the legend, it is built from red and white coral, or from solid crystal. Those that live in the palace were Ryūjin's servants, which were various creatures of the sea. On each of the four sides of the palace is a different season, and one day at the palace is like 100 years on earth. In legend, Urashima Tarō visits Ryūgū-jō. - -Japanese mythology -Japanese folklore" -23173,88462,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palagnedra,Palagnedra,"Palagnedra was a municipality of the district Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. Lago di Palagnedra is found below the village, on the Melezza river. On 25 October 2009 the former municipalities of Borgnone, Intragna and Palagnedra merged into the municipality of Centovalli. - -References - -Former municipalities of Ticino" -21968,83640,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano%20Jos%C3%A9%20de%20Larra,Mariano José de Larra,"Mariano José de Larra (24 March 1809 - 13 February 1837) was a Spanish romanticist writer noted for satire and perhaps the best prose writer of 19th-century Spain. - -He was born in Madrid; his father served as a doctor in the French army, and, as an afrancesado, was forced to leave the Peninsula with his family in 1812. In 1817 Larra went back to Spain, knowing less Spanish than French. His nature was disorderly, his education was imperfect, and, after futile attempts to obtain a degree in medicine or law, he made an imprudent marriage at the age of twenty, broke with his relatives and became a journalist. - -On the 27th of April 1831 he produced his first play, No más mostrador, based on two pieces by Scribe and Dieulafoy. Though wanting in originality, it is brilliantly written, and held the stage for many years. On the 24th of September 1834 he produced Macías, a play based on his own historical novel, El doncel de don Enrique el Doliente (1834). - -The drama and novel are interesting as experiments, but Larra was essentially a journalist, and the increased liberty of the press after the death of Ferdinand VII gave his caustic talent an ampler field. He was already famous under the pseudonyms of Juan Pérez de Munguía and Fígaro which he used in El Pobrecito Hablador and La Revista Española respectively. Madrid laughed at his grim humour; ministers feared his vitriolic pen and courted him assiduously; he defended Liberalism against the Carlist rebellion; he was elected as deputy for Ávila, and a great career seemed to lie before him. But the era of military pronunciamientos ruined his personal prospects and patriotic plans. His writing took on a more sombre tinge; domestic troubles increased his pessimism, and, in consequence of a disastrous love-affair, he committed suicide by shooting himself in February 1837. - -Larra lived long enough to prove himself the greatest prose-writer that Spain can boast during the 19th century. He wrote at great speed with the constant fear of the censor before his eyes, but no sign of haste is discernible in his work, and the dexterity with which he aims his venomous shafts is amazing. His political instinct, his abundance of ideas and his forcible, mordant style would have given him a foremost position at any time and in any country; in Spain, and in his own period, they placed him beyond all rivalry. - -References - -Influence -Some of his phrases like Vuelva usted mañana (come back tomorrow) or Escribir en España es llorar (To write in Spain is to cry) are still applied to chastise present-day ills. -The Spanish-language clone of the Slashdot Internet forum, Barrapunto, uses Pobrecito Hablador (""Poor little talker"") as the name for anonymous commenters. -The Premio Mariano José de Larra rewards young outstanding journalists in Spain. - -Other websites -Mariano José de Larra in the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. -Proyecto Mariano José de Larra en Internet - Mariano José de Larra: text, concordances and frequency list - -1809 births -1837 deaths -Spanish journalists -Playwrights -Suicides by firearm -Writers from Madrid" -11538,41981,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20University%20of%20Beirut,American University of Beirut,"The American University of Beirut (AUB; ) is the first American university to be built in Beirut, Lebanon. Its old name was the Syrian Protestant College, and it was built in the year 1866. The name was changed to American University of Beirut on November 18, 1920. - -References - -Colleges and universities in Asia -Beirut -1866 establishments" -22355,84702,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranraer,Stranraer,"Stranraer (Gaelic: An t-Sròn Reamhar, ) is a town in the south of Scotland in the west of the region of Dumfries and Galloway and in the county of Wigtownshire. It was formerly the ferry port connecting Scotland with Belfast in Northern Ireland. Ferries now leave from Cairnryan. - -References - -Towns in Scotland" -24254,93496,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson%20Bay,Hudson Bay,"The Hudson Bay is a bay that goes into East-central Canada. It is the fourth largest sea in the world with an area of 316,000 square miles (819,000 square kilometres). The northern and western shores belong to Nunavut, the southern shore is split between Manitoba and Ontario, and the eastern shore belongs to Quebec. It is connected with the Atlantic Ocean through the Hudson Strait, which is in the northeast of the bay, and with the Arctic Ocean through the Foxe Channel in the north part of the bay. - -It was named for the English explorer Henry Hudson, who, in 1610 on the ship Discovery, found the bay and clamed it for England. - -Other websites -Britannica Online-Hudson Bay - -Seas -Bays of Canada" -1432,5022,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical%20music,Classical music,"Classical music is a very general term which normally refers to the standard music of countries in the western world. It is music that has been composed by musicians who are trained in the art of writing music (composing) and written down in music notation so that other musicians can play it. Classical music may also be described as ""art music"" though it was not good in classical period that term also Includes types of serious modern music which are not classical. Classical music differs from pop music because it is not made just in order to be popular for time or just to be a commercial success. It is different from folk music which is generally made up by ordinary members of society and learned by future generations by listening, dancing and copying. - -Meaning of ""classic"" - -The word “classic” tends to mean: an art which is so good that it will always be enjoyed by future generations. It is something that has become a model for future artists. The period of Ancient Greece and Rome is known as the Classical Period because, many centuries later, people looked back to those ancient civilizations and thought they were perfect. In recent European history the 18th century was known as the Classical Period because musicians, artists, writers and philosophers were inspired by the art forms of the Classical Period of Ancient Greece and Rome. Something that is a “classic” is therefore something that will always be remembered as something great. Famous books such as the novels of Charles Dickens are called ""classics"". “Classical music” therefore tends to mean music that will not be forgotten soon after it is written, but is likely to be enjoyed by many future generations. - -Contrast with pop music and jazz - -Although people sometimes think of classical music as the opposite of pop music, it can still be very popular. Like all kinds of music, classical music can be in many different moods: happy, sad, scary, peaceful, thoughtful, simple etc. Mozart wrote his serenades and divertimentos to entertain people at parties. Classical pieces of music can be quite short, but they can also be very long, like a big, musical story. A symphony by Mahler or Shostakovich can last for nearly an hour, and an opera is a whole evening’s entertainment. - -Classical music is also different from jazz because true jazz is improvised. However, the differences are not always obvious. Classical music has often been inspired by jazz, and jazz by classical music. George Gershwin wrote music which is both jazz and classical. Classical music, too, can be improvised. The great composers Bach, Mozart and Beethoven often improvised long pieces of music on the organ, harpsichord or piano. Sometimes they wrote these improvistions down. They were, in effect, compositions which were composed in one go. - -Religious and non-Religious music - -In Western countries a vast amount of music was written for Christian worship in churches and cathedrals. This is called “sacred” (religious) music. All other music is “secular” music. The word “secular” means things that are not sacred. Sacred and secular music have influenced one another in many ways during the course of music history. Secular music was largely influenced by dance, and this in turn changed the style of scared music. For example: the church music of the 16th century composer Giovanni da Palestrina has nothing to do with dance music, but both the sacred and secular music of Johann Sebastian Bach two centuries later is full of dance rhythms. At some times in music history there have been different styles of composing for sacred and for secular music. Claudio Monteverdi uses two different styles for his church and for his non-church music. When composers were experimenting with new ways of writing music they usually did this with secular music, and sacred music caught up later. - -Use of the term ""classical music"" - -The term ""classical music"" was not used until the early 19th century. People then started talking about classical music in order to praise the great composers such as Bach, Mozart and Beethoven. In the 20th century many different ways of composing were used, including music played by electronic instruments or very modern music using strange sounds (experimental or ""avant garde"" music), for example the music of John Cage. Some people feel that this kind of music cannot really be described as ""classical music"". - -Instruments used - -Classical music can be for instruments or for the voice. The symphony orchestra is the most common group of instruments for the playing of classical music. It has four families of instruments: the string instruments which include the violins, violas, cellos and piano, the woodwind instruments which include flutes, oboes,clarinets and bassoons together with related instruments of different sizes, the brass instruments: trumpet, trombone, tuba and French horn, and percussion instruments which nearly always includes timpani as well as many other possible instruments which are hit or shaken. This is very different from a typical rock band which has a drummer, a guitarist, one or two singers and an electric bass and keyboard. Instruments that play classical music are not normally amplified electronically. - -The same applies to the voice. Singers may be sopranos, altos, tenors or basses, depending on their vocal range. Their voices are not amplified. Opera singers, in particular, have to develop very powerful voices which will be heard over the orchestra and project right to the back of an opera house. - -The instruments used in classical music developed at different times. Some of the earliest were known in Medieval music. The trombone and the triangle have hardly changed for hundreds of years, but the violin family developed from folk instruments such as fiddles and gradually replaced the viols to form the basis of the modern orchestra. This was happening by the beginning of the 17th century, which was the time when opera was invented. - -In general, musical instruments have become louder as concert halls have become bigger. Violins are louder than viols. Modern violins are louder than the early 17th century violins, largely because of they have metal strings instead of gut strings. The piano developed from the clavichord which was very quiet indeed. Woodwind instruments developed from Renaissance instruments, while the clarinet was invented in the middle of the 18th century, and the saxophone and tuba came even later. Modern trumpets sound much brighter than the straight trumpets of the 18th century. - -Form (shape) of classical music pieces -Most popular music is based on song form, but classical music has many different forms, some of which can be used over a long time span to make big compositions. Classical music can have many forms, including the symphony, concerto, oratorio, opera, sonata, fugue or any combination of dance movements such as suites. In many of the longer compositions, short tunes are developed and changed during the course of the piece. Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony is a good example of a piece which develops from just four notes into a large piece lasting about half an hour. - -Musical training and general use of classical music - -People who want to be good at performing classical music have to practice hard for many years. They normally have formal training at a music college or conservatoire and have lessons from well-known music teachers. - -Classical musicians often spend a lot of time thinking carefully about pieces of music, especially about pieces of music that they perform. They study such things as harmony and counterpoint to help them understand the way that the composers were thinking when they put the piece together. When they look at pieces of music in this way this is called “musical analysis”. People who specialize in thinking and writing about music may become professors or lecturers of music at universities. - -Classical music is often heard in popular culture. It is used as background music for movies, television programs, advertisements and even for mobile phone ringing tones. Most people in the Western world recognize many classical tunes, possibly without even realizing it. Some classical pieces of music have become enormously popular, e.g. the song Nessun dorma from Giacomo Puccini's opera Turandot which was sung by the three tenors Luciano Pavarotti, Plácido Domingo and José Carreras, and used as the theme tune for the 1990 Soccer World Cup. This made many people who had never been interested in opera start to become curious about it. - -Outline of the history of classical music - -Middle Ages - -The history of classical music really started in the late Middle Ages. Music written for the church was almost always vocal (singing), because instruments were thought to be wicked. This is because the devil played them, and because they were used for dancing. There was a lot of dance music, but most of it is lost because it was never written down. - -Medieval composers who are remembered today include Léonin, Pérotin and Guillaume de Machaut - -Renaissance -The Renaissance was from the 15th century until the 17th century. This period saw a massive increase in the composition of music, both sacred and secular. Many great cathedrals had been built in Europe and composers wrote music for them, mostly vocal music. Secular music also became extremely popular, especially songs and madrigals, which would sometimes be accompanied by instruments. - -The greatest composers of this period include: Giovanni da Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso, Thomas Tallis and William Byrd. - -Baroque period -The Baroque period was from about the 17th century until the mid-18th century. This was the time when the modern orchestra was formed, more or less as we know it. It was also the time when opera was invented. Most musicians worked either for the church or for rich people who had their own orchestras. Many of them also started to work for opera houses. - -The greatest composers of this time include: Claudio Monteverdi, Heinrich Schütz, Henry Purcell, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach, Domenico Scarlatti and Georg Philipp Telemann - -Classical period -The years between 1760 - 1825 was known as the Classical period. Composers thought a lot about the forms of their pieces and were influenced by the classical art of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The symphony was invented and various forms of chamber music including the string quartet. - -The greatest composers include: Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Antonio Salieri, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert . - -Romantic period -From 1820 to 1910 was known as the Romantic period. Composers continued to use the forms that had been invented in the 18th century, but they also thought that personal feeling and emotion were very important. Music for orchestra sometimes told a story (programme music). Musicians who played their instruments brilliantly (such as Paganini) were worshipped like heroes. Beethoven and Schubert belong, in many ways, to this period as well as to the Classical period. It was a time when there were a lot of changes in society. After the wars that Napoleon had waged, there were not so many ruling aristocratic families. There was a lot of feeling of nationalism as countries united. 19th century music is often nationalistic: composers wrote music that was typical of their own country. - -Some of the greatest composers include: Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Hector Berlioz, Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Edward Elgar, Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss. - -20th century -What is known as 20th century classical music (or “modern music”) is music from about 1910 onwards. At this time many composers felt that everything had already been done by the composers of the past, so they wanted to find new ways of composing. Claude Debussy, Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky, in particular, found new ways of writing music which was not necessarily tonal (in any particular key). Classical music was influenced by jazz, especially with American composers. Later in the century people such as Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen experimented in many other ways, including with electronic music (tape recorders etc.). Today’s composers have combined some of these ideas to develop their own styles. - -Some of the most important composers are: Claude Debussy, Jean Sibelius, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Aaron Copland, Benjamin Britten, Dmitri Shostakovich, Leonard Bernstein, Philip Glass, Dmitri Kabalevsky, James MacMillan, Judith Weir, Peter Maxwell Davies - -Conclusion -It has never been possible to say exactly what is meant by “classical music”. Many different kinds of music influence one another. Since 1970 it has been even harder to make clear dividing lines between rock, pop, classical, folk, jazz and world music. This shows that classical music, like other kinds of music, continues to develop and reflect the society from which it comes. - -References -The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; - -Music genres" -21340,81741,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20Pepper,Art Pepper,"Arthur Edward ""Art"" Pepper, Jr. (September 1, 1925–June 15, 1982) was an American jazz alto saxophonist. He was born in Gardena, California United States. Pepper began his musical career in the 1940s playing with Benny Carter. Along with Chet Baker, Gerry Mulligan, Shelly Manne and others, he performed and recorded a lot of very good music. - -Some of his most famous albums are Art Pepper Meets the Rhythm Section, The Aladdin Recordings (three volumes), Art Pepper + Eleven - Modern Jazz Classics, Gettin' Together, and Smack Up. - -He wrote a book in 1980 called Straight Life. The book is about his life and his music. It was very popular because it was honest, and very good. There was also a movie made called Art Pepper: Notes from a Jazz Survivor, which is available on DVD. - -Other websites - The Art Pepper Discography Project - NPR Interview With Laurie Pepper - The Art Of Pepper - Art Pepper on YouTube - MikeL's Unofficial Art Pepper website - Art Pepper MySpace Tribute Site - -1925 births -1982 deaths -American jazz musicians -American saxophonists -Musicians from Los Angeles" -8157,27138,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loch%20Ness%20Monster,Loch Ness Monster,"The Loch Ness Monster, also referred to as Nessie, is a supposed animal, said to live in the Scottish loch of Loch Ness, the second biggest loch in the country. The Loch Ness Monster story was big in the field of cryptozoology. - -Most scientists believe that the Loch Ness Monster is not real, and they say that many of the seeings are either hoaxes or pictures of other mistaken existing animals. However, a popular theory among believers is that ""Nessie"" is a plesiosaur, an extinct meat-eating aquatic reptile that lived in the Mesozoic era. The Loch Ness monster has also been described as an elephant, eel, and other animals. - -Surgeon's photograph' (1934) -The Surgeon's photograph was the only photographic evidence of a head and neck – all the others are humps or disturbances. Dr. Wilson claimed he was looking at the loch when he saw the monster, so grabbed his camera and snapped five photos. After the film was developed, only two exposures were clear. The first photo (the more publicised one) shows what was claimed to be a small head and back. The second one, a blurry image, attracted little publicity because it was difficult to interpret what was depicted. - -The image was revealed as a hoax in 1994. -Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the Daily Mail on 21 April 1934. Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with the photograph led to it being called ""Surgeon's photograph"". - -The strangely small ripples on the photo fit the size and of circular pattern of small ripples as opposed to large waves when photographed up close. Analysis of the original uncropped image fostered further doubt. A year before the hoax was revealed, the makers of Discovery Communications's documentary Loch Ness Discovered analysed the uncropped image and found a white object was visible in every version of the photo. ""It seems to be the source of ripples in the water, almost as if the object was towed by But science cannot rule out it was just a blemish on the negative"", he continued. Additionally, analysis of the full photograph revealed the object was quite small, only about long. - -After Christian Spurling's confession, most agree it was what Spurling claimed – a toy submarine with a sculpted head attached. Details of how the photo was accomplished were published in the 1999 book, Nessie – the Surgeon’s Photograph Exposed. Essentially, it was a toy submarine with a head and neck made of plastic wood, built by Christian Spurling. - -Spurling was the son-in-law of Marmaduke Wetherell, a big game hunter who had been publicly ridiculed in the Daily Mail, the newspaper that employed him. Spurling claimed that to get revenge, Marmaduke Wetherell committed the hoax. His co-conspirators were Spurling (a sculpture specialist), his son Ian Marmaduke, who bought the material for the fake Nessie, and Maurice Chambers (an insurance agent). Chambers asked surgeon Robert Kenneth Wilson to offer the pictures to the Daily Mail. - -The hoax story was disputed by Henry Bauer. Unfortunately for Bauer, he claimed that plastic wood did not exist in 1934, when actually it was a popular DIY and modelling material from the 1920s. - -No animal has ever been discovered in the loch which resembles the mythical monster. - -Other websites - nessie.co.uk - -References - -Scotland -Cryptozoology" -19156,72516,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coco%20Lee,Coco Lee,"Coco Lee (; born Ferren Lee, 17 January 1975, Hong Kong) is a Hong Kong-American pop, dance and urban contemporary singer. Her real name is Ferren Lee-Kelly and 李美林 Lǐ Měi Lín in Chinese (although she also uses the stage name 李玟 Lǐ Wen when she writes songs). She sings Cantonese, Mandarin and English. - -Biography -CoCo Lee was born in Hong Kong to a Chinese Indonesian father and a Hong Kong Chinese mother. Her father died when she was young, and CoCo moved at age 10 with her mother, and her 2 sisters to California, United States. She went through school while trying out her singing voice and she followed her older sisters in entering many local singing contests. CoCo Lee went to high school in San Francisco, California. CoCo later went for a short time to the University of California, Irvine. CoCo is close to her mother, who has at times managed her career. - -After Lee's high school graduation in 1993, she went on holiday in Hong Kong, probably seeing her two sisters Carol and Nancy Lee take part in the Miss Hong Kong Pageant, and while there, she became runner-up in the 12th Annual New Talent Singing Awards. The following day, the local record label Capital artists Records contacted her. - -Record companies -CoCo Lee appeared in some compilations with other singers with Capital artists. Then, in 1994 she worked with Fancy Pie Records and recorded four albums with them. She later signed with another record company in 1996 by Sony Music, who has continued to represent her until 2008. After that, she changed her record company and decided to work with Warner Music (Taiwan). - -World fame - -CoCo sang the song A Love Before Time for the action-drama movie Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. People around the world could see her when she sang this song live at the 2001 Academy Awards ceremony. - -In 2002, CoCo was the star singer at a Houston Rockets basketball game. She became the first East Asian singer to ever sing the American National Anthem at a major world sporting event. - -Aside from her fame in singing Mandarin music, CoCo's English-language songs have also become famous. Her love song Before I Fall In Love was included in the soundtrack of the romance movie Runaway Bride. - -Walt Disney Pictures also hired her to sing the title song and be the voice of the heroine Fa Mulan in the Mandarin version of Mulan. She recorded the song Reflections, which she also sang at the 2005 opening of the Hong Kong Disneyland with Lea Salonga. A Reflections PV was also filmed. She also sang an English version which appears on her maxi single Take a chance on love. - -CoCo has been getting into acting part-time. She co-starred in the Chinese comedy movie Master of Everything (Bamboo Shoot) with John Lone, which won the Best Foreign Film award at the 2005 Beverly Hills Film Festival. While in character within the movie, she sings one of her own songs, Di da di. - -In the world of fashion, CoCo was an Omega Global Ambassador in 2004, and Chanel named CoCo its first ""Asian-Pacific Celebrity Ambassadress"" in 2001. She got her nickname ""CoCo"" from being an admirer of CoCo Chanel. - -In June 2005, CoCo's engagement to Canadian millionaire businessman Bruce Rockowitz was made public, although it seems to have happened some months earlier. Even though Rockowitz is 18 years older than she, her mother approved the marriage. - -CoCo returned to the San Francisco bay area in 2007 for a live concert at the Shoreline Amphitheatre on 22 September 2007 with special guest Alex To. It was her first live performance in her hometown in several years. - -In 2008, Coco was chosen to sing one of the Olympic songs, ""Forever Friends"", opposite Sun Nan. - -On July 17 2009, she had a solo concert at Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. She's the first Chinese singer to ever performed in this place. She notably sang 3 Michael Jackson's songs Gone too soon, Rock with you and The way you make me feel in homage to her idol. - -On August 14, she released her new Mandarin album East to west with Warner Music. The main hit singles are Party time, Beautiful theme song and Turn. It also contains the cover of Jay Sean's Maybe called Love now and BYOB, a song to encourage people to bring and recycle their own shopping bags to save the environment. - -She recorded the song Smile Shanghai (微笑上海) with other artists including JJ Lin, Andy Lau, Jam Hsiao or Jane Zhang for Shanghai World Expo 2010. - -On March, 27 2010, Lee began her ""East2West"" World Tour Concert in Taipei at Taipei Arena. She pursued at the Encore Theatre in Wynn Casino in Las Vegas on July 3 and 4, then in Singapore Indoor Stadium in Singapore on October 2 and in Nanning on December 16. - -Voice -CoCo Lee's voice has been favourably compared with that of Mariah Carey and other western artistes, due to her tonality, strength and vocal range. Her voice is classified as a mezzo-soprano, with a vocal range of three octaves. Her lowest recorded note is an E3 and highest recorded note is E6. Her highest chest voice note is F6 in the song Before I Fall in Love. - -Current career - -In March 2011, Lee was one of many artists participating in the recording of ""Artists 311 Love Beyond Borders"" (愛心無國界311燭光晚會) official theme song called Succomb not to sorrow (不要輸給心痛) in Cantonese version. - -On April 7, 2011, her song Dreams on oriental seas (梦在东方的海上) featuring Sun Nan was broadcasted. It has been named as he theme for the 14th FINA world championships, that will take place in Shanghai on July 2011. - -On June 8, 2011, Lee announced that she recently set up her own studio. That way, she's more free to write and produce music that she loves. Her new album is planned for Summer 2011. - -On June 25, her song Four seas alliance (四海盟約), the theme song for the 2011 China television drama Water Margin (水滸傳), was broadcasted. - -Discography - -Studio albums - -Fancy Pie Records releases - June 1994: Love from Now On - December 1994: Promise Me - June 1995: Brave Enough to Love - September 1995: Woman in Love - December 1995 : You are in my heart concert - August 1996 : Beloved Collection - May 1997: Dance with the wind -Sony Music releases - March 1996: CoCo Lee (or Love me longer) - November 1996: CoCo's Party - June 1997: Sincere - November 1997: CoCo Lee (Cantonese album) - January 1998: DiDaDi (HMV Music Chart: #1) - July 1998: Sunny Day - December 1998 : Million fans concert - May 1999: Today Until Forever -550 Music release - November 1999: Just No Other Way (HMV Music Chart: #1) -Sony Music releases - January 2000 : The Best of My Love - August 2000: True lover you and Me - October 2001: Promise - June 2002 : D. IS CoCo -Sony BMG releases - March 2005: Exposed (HMV Music Chart: #1) - September 2006: Just Want You (HMV Music Chart: #1) - May 2008 : 1994–2008 Best Collection -Warner Music releases - August 2009: East To West - -Maxi singles - -Sony Music releases - April 1998 : Di da di color remix - August 1998 : Take a chance on love -550 Music releases - 1999 : Do you want my love - 2000 : Wherever you go - -Compilations -Capital Artists releases - June 1993 : Red hot hits 93' Autumn edition (火熱動感93'勁秋版) -Capital Artists and Fancy Pie releases - September 1994 : Red hot hits 94' Love Party (火熱動感94'戀愛Party) - November 1994 : Statement of love, duet songs (愛情宣言, 情歌對唱) - December 1994 : Merry Christmas (聖誕禮讚) - - 1995 : I'm still your lover (best of Love from now on and Promise me) - -Asian Chart-topping hits and singles -Not exhaustive - ""Yesterday's passion"" - ""Di Da Di"" - ""Take a Chance on Love"" - ""Do You Want My Love"" Hot Dance Music/Club Play: #49 - ""Before I Fall in Love"" - ""Wherever You Go"" - ""A Love Before Time"" (English and Mandarin for the soundtrack of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon) - ""Reflection"" - ""No Doubt"" feat. Blaaze - ""All Around the World"" - ""So Good"" - ""Hip-Hop Tonight"" - ""Brave Enough to Love"" - ""Another Sad Love Song"" (Dance Version) - ""The Ninth Night"" - ""Dangerous Lover"" - ""I Have a Dream"" (2008 Single) - ""Bring Your Own Bag (BYOB)"" (Recycling Jingle) - ""Party time"" - ""Turn"" - ""Beautiful theme song"" - -Videography - -Fancy Pie releases - 1995 : Foot print (VCD) - 1995 : You're in my heart concert (VCD) -Sony Music releases - 1996 : Coco's workout camp (VCD) - 1998 : Coco in Italy (VCD + photo book) - 1998 : Di da di (VCD) - 1998 : Sunny day (VCD) - 1999 : Million fans concert (VCD/DVD) -550 Music releases - 2000 : Just no other way, The Video Collection (VCD) -Sony Music releases - 2002 : Coco so crazy (VCD) - 2002 : All my Coco (DVD) - 2004 : Master of everything (DVD/VCD) - -References - -Other websites - Coco's Facebook fans page - Her Twitter - listen to her songs online - official forum - Buy her albums - http://www.cocolee.com - http://www.cocofans.com - http://www.cocolee.net - - Miss Teen Chinatown 1991 profile at San Francisco Chinatown web site - Coco Lee Interview - Coco Lee's Lyrics and Pinyin Translation - Coco Lee & Alex To live in Mountain View,CA September 23,2007 - -1975 births -Living people -Singers from Hong Kong -C-pop singers -American composers -Singer-songwriters from California -Actors from Hong Kong" -4726,14915,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bison,Bison,"Bison are large, even-toed ungulates. They are bovines, similar to cows. They are often called buffalo, but are not closely related to African buffalo or water buffalo. - -Bison live in the northern part of the world. The American bison lives in North America where they formerly wandered around the prairies in huge herds. The wisent lives in Europe. Bison can also live in rugged areas. - -American -They are the biggest mammals in North America. There used to be as many as 30 million bison in the United States, but because of hunting, by 1890, only 1,000 bison were left. Through conservation efforts, there are now more American bison than there used to be, but still far fewer than there were before the 1800s. - -European -European bison (wisent) tend to live in lightly wooded to fully wooded areas and areas with increased shrubs and bushes, though they can also live on grasslands and plains. - -Taxonomy -They are classified in the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. - Genus Bison - American bison (Bison bison) - Wisent or European bison (Bison bonasus) - -Life -They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their ""hump"" or horns, which both males and females have. After shedding their light colored hair, and with their horns, they are grown at 2 to 3 years of age, but the males keep growing slowly until about age seven. Adult bulls are very dominant in mating season. Adult bison usually have one or two baby bison. - -References - -Bovines -Mammals of North America -Mammals of Europe" -3893,11621,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Mugabe,Robert Mugabe,"Robert Gabriel Mugabe (21 February 1924 – 6 September 2019) was a Zimbabwean politician. He was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987 to 2017. Before that, he was Prime Minister, the head of government, after being elected in 1980. For many years before he resigned, Mugabe ruled his country in the style of a dictator. - -Presidency -His first years as leader were prosperous. He introduced land reforms, which were supposed to give the land owned by white people back to the ""original"" black owners. This has had a serious impact on how the country is seen from outside. In recent years, Mugabe has allowed violence against the white citizens of the country as well as to opposition leaders of all races. The reforms were done in 1998. In 2001, the United Nations imposed sanctions against Zimbabwe. This was done because human rights abuses came to the attention of the United Nations. - -On November 15, 2017, he was placed under house arrest as Zimbabwe's military took control in a coup. On November 21, 2017, Mugabe resigned as President of Zimbabwe. It ended his rule of 40 years. - -Death -Mugabe was hospitalized in April 2019, making the last of several trips to Singapore for medical treatment. He died on 6 September 2019 at a Singapore hospital, at the age of 95. The cause of death was prostate cancer. - -References - -Other websites - -1924 births -2019 deaths -Deaths from prostate cancer -Former dictators -Former members of the Order of the Bath -Presidents of Zimbabwe -Prime Ministers of Zimbabwe -Roman Catholics -African Union chairpersons" -7767,25385,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1590,1590," - -Events - March 14 – Battle of Ivry – Henry IV of France again defeats the forces of the Catholic League under the Duc de Mayenne. - May – August – Unsuccessful siege of Paris by Henry IV of France. Henry is forced to raise the siege when the Duke of Parma comes to its relief with a Spanish army. - May 17 – Anne of Denmark is crowned queen of Scotland. - August 18 – John White, the governor of the Colony of Roanoke, returns from a supply-trip to England and finds his settlement deserted. - September 15 – Pope Urban VII succeeds Sixtus V. - December 5 – Pope Gregory XIV succeeds Urban VII. - Coptic Pope Gabriel VIII succeeds Yoannis XIV. - Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Meletius I succeeds Silvester. - Japan is united by Toyotomi Hideyoshi" -20766,79875,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeward%20Islands,Leeward Islands,"The Leeward Islands are the northern islands of the Lesser Antilles chain of islands, part of the West Indies. They are where the Caribbean Sea meets the western Atlantic Ocean. The western Leewards are the Virgin Islands. - -The southern part of the Lesser Antilles chain is called the Windward Islands. - -Caribbean islands" -3411,10127,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin,Mandarin,"Mandarin might mean: - -Mandarin language, a language from China -Mandarin orange, a citrus fruit -Mandarin Duck, a breed of duck -Mandarin Airlines, an airline from Taiwan" -7366,23662,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteration,Transliteration,"Transliteration is a conversion of a text from one script to another. It swaps letters (thus trans- + liter-) in predictable ways (such as α → a, д → d, χ → ch, ն → n or æ → ae. - -Transliteration is not about the sounds of the original. It is about the type or written characters, mostly the letters. - -Example: the name for Russia in Cyrillic script, """", is usually transliterated as ""Rossiya"". -So, 'сс' is transliterated as 'ss', but pronounced /s/. - -Transliteration typically goes grapheme to grapheme. Most transliteration systems are one-to-one, so a reader who knows the system can reconstruct the original spelling. - -Transliteration is opposed to transcription, which maps the sounds of one language into a writing system. - -Related pages - Romanization - Diacritic - Romanization of Bulgarian - -Other websites - Unicode -Translit Ru/En Online Russian-English Transliteration - -References - -Language -Romanization" -2426,7798,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic%20retrofit,Seismic retrofit,"Seismic retrofitting is the modification of buildings that already exist to make them resistant to earthquakes. Seismic retrofitting techniques can be applied to other kinds of natural disasters such as tornadoes and strong winds from thunderstorms. - -Seismic retrofit performance objectives -Main levels of retrofitted building structure performance objectives may vary, namely: - To protect human lives. - To protect a structure from total failure. - To preserve a structure's functionality after a strong earthquake. - To make a structure, practically, unaffected by any earthquake. - -References - -Earthquake engineering" -21800,83054,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evol%C3%A8ne,Evolène,"Evolène is a municipality of the district of Hérens in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. - -Other websites - Official website - Official tourisme website - -Municipalities of Valais" -4353,13540,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersey%20Beat,Mersey Beat,"The Mersey Beat or Mersey Sound or Liverpool Sound is the name for a type of music that came out in the city of Liverpool, England in the early 1960s. - -Maybe the first group to be thought of as a part of genre were Kingsize Taylor and the Dominoes. The most famous group of this genre were The Beatles. Other important groups include Gerry and the Pacemakers, The Searchers and the female singer Cilla Black. - -Other websites -http://www.merseybeat.co.uk/ -http://www.merseybeatnostalgia.co.uk/ -http://www.merseybeatabd.co.uk/ -Newsreel footage of The Fourmost -Short news story on Mersey Sound - -Music genres -The Beatles -Liverpool, Merseyside" -24409,94090,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Anderson,Joe Anderson,"Joe Anderson (born 1982) is an English actor. - -He attended Richmond upon Thames College and later the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London. Both his parents work in the movie industry. Anderson has acted professionally since childhood. His skills include photography, guitar and gymnastics. - -Anderson has worked in movie, television and on the stage at the Chichester Festival Theatre. He appeared in Copying Beethoven, playing Ludwig van Beethoven's nephew. He also appeared in Across the Universe as Max, an American teenager drafted into the Vietnam War. Anderson is also starring as Joy Division bass player Peter Hook in Anton Corbijn's 2007 movie Control. - -Filmography - - The Crazies (2010) - Rogues Gallery (2009) - Amelia (2009) - Brand New Day (2009) - High Life (2009) - The 27 Club (2008) - The Ruins (2008) - Across the Universe (2007) - Control (2007) - Becoming Jane (2007) - Little Box Of Sweets (2006) - Copying Beethoven (2006) - Silence Becomes You (2005) - Afterlife (2005), 1 episode - Midsomer Murders (2005), 1 episode - Creep (2004) - -Other websites - -Agency CV -Joe Anderson Online - -1982 births -Living people -English movie actors -English television actors -English stage actors" -8015,26684,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze,Bronze,"Bronze is a metal alloy. Bronze is mostly copper, with some tin added (usually between 5% and 20% tin) to make it stronger. When an alloy is bronze, it means it is made of copper and tin. - -Other bronzes are: - Aluminum bronze - Leaded bronze - Silicon bronze - Phosphor bronze - -Bronze should not be confused with brass which is a different alloy of copper and zinc. - -History -Bronze was the first alloy that was used by humans. The first nation that used bronze was Egypt about 3500 years B.C. This gave the name for the Bronze Age. - -Bronze is stronger than copper or tin alone. Bronze lasts longer than copper. Pure copper can be oxidized by air and also by water. When copper is oxidized by air or water, it turns green (the color of ""copper oxide""), and falls apart. - -When people learned how to make and work iron, the Bronze Age ended, and the Iron Age started. Iron can be made harder than bronze, but is susceptible to corrosion (see rust). Iron also wears away faster than bronze, when different pieces are moving against each other. Iron is very common, and easy to make. For this reason, iron costs less than bronze. This is the reason why iron is now used where bronze used to be used. - -Current use -Bronze is still used to make many parts of machines. We use bronze when the part must last for a long time around water and air, or must not wear away. The main things that are made out of it are pump parts, bearings, bells, electrical components, gears, valves, and other things. - -Bronze parts are usually cast in a foundry. After they are cast, bronze parts can also be worked in a lathe or milling machine, or drilled. Bronze is not normally worked with a hammer as iron is. - -Pictures - -Alloys -Metallurgy" -21020,80699,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius,Genius,"A genius is a person who is exceptionally intelligent. People may have different ideas of how clever one has to be in order to be called a “genius”. A genius may be extremely clever at maths or science or games such as chess, or they may be creative geniuses who are brilliant writers, musicians or artists. - -Albert Einstein is perhaps the world’s most famous genius. He was extraordinarily good at math, but in other areas, such as languages, he was not particularly good. Leonardo da Vinci and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe were geniuses who can also be described as polymaths because they were brilliant in lots of different subjects. Geniuses are usually child prodigies, i.e., they already show they are a genius when they are young children. - -Genius is not quite the same as talent. Talent means the ability to learn a particular skill very quickly. A genius, on the other hand, is also very creative and able to do things that no one else has thought of. - -Some geniuses, such as Goethe, are very sensible, reliable people who are good at organizing their lives. However, there are many geniuses who have unusual personalities. They may be very absent-minded, they may not have much common sense, or they may suffer at times from depression and changes of mood. - -Intelligence" -3722,11245,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1495,1495,"Year 1495 (MCDXCV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. - -Births - March 28 – Mary Tudor, Queen of France (died 1533)" -4090,12544,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Preston,Billy Preston,"Billy Preston (September 2, 1946 - June 5, 2006) was an American R&B musician. He is best known for his piano and organ playing. - -Preston began playing piano when he was three years old. He worked with many other musicians including Aretha Franklin, Sammy Davis Jr., Quincy Jones, Eric Clapton, the Jackson 5 and the Rolling Stones. - -He worked on The Beatles's last album, Let It Be, in 1969, including the song ""Get Back"". Many people thought that Preston would join the group, but the Beatles broke up shortly afterwards. He later worked with George Harrison, who had been a Beatle. - -Preston's biggest success also came from working with another musician. He did a with Syreeta Garrett on ""With You I'm Born Again"" in 1979. It sold over a million copies and reached Number 2 in the United Kingdom singles chart. - -Preston was gay. He died of respiratory failure after being in a coma from a heart infection. - -References - -African American musicians -American funk musicians -American gospel musicians -American pianists -American R&B singers -American rock musicians -American soul musicians -Deaths from respiratory failure -Deaths from myocarditis -Disease-related deaths in the United States -LGBT African Americans -Gay men -LGBT musicians -Musicians from Houston, Texas -The Beatles -1946 births -2006 deaths" -20198,77571,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian%20litas,Lithuanian litas,"Lithuanian litas (Lithuanian: Litas) was the national currency of the Republic of Lithuania. Litas became a currency of Lithuania in 1922, then again in 1993. In present days, there are 8 coins (1, 2, 5, 10, 50 cents and 1, 2 and 5 LTL) and 6 banknotes (10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 LTL) in use. It stopped being in use in 2015. - -General information - - ISO 4217 Code: LTL - Inflation: 3.6 % (2006 estimate) - Subunit: 1/100 (1 cent (centas)) - Symbol: Lt - Central bank: Bank of Lithuania - -Former currencies of Europe -Litas" -3298,9995,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898,1898,"The year of 1898 was a common year (a year that had 365 days), and began on a Saturday. - -Events - -January - January 1 – New York City creates the City of Greater New York. - -February - February 12 – Henry Lindfield dies in England, and is the first person to die from a car accident. - -March - March 24 – Robert Allison of Port Carbon, Pennsylvania becomes the first person to buy a car built in America. - March 26 – The Sabi Game Reserve is created in South America, and becomes the first official game reserve. - -April - April 25 – The United States declares war on Spain. - -June - June 12 – The Republic of the Philippines declares official independence from Spain during the Spanish-American War. - -Deaths - March 16 – Aubrey Beardsley - March 27 – Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur" -16467,63237,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20%28chess%29,King (chess),"The king is the most valuable chess piece in a game of chess. It can move left, right, up, down or diagonally. It can only move one square at a time. When recording chess games, king is shortened to K. - -The object of the game is to checkmate (capture the king). If a player's king is attacked by an opponent's piece, it is called check. The player with the attacked king must move so that the king is no longer in check. If the king cannot do this, it is in checkmate, and that side loses the game. - -Castling -With a rook, the king may make a special move called 'castling'. This is when the king moves two squares toward one of its rooks and then the rook is placed on the other side of the king. Castling consists of moving the king two squares on its first rank toward either one of the first rooks, then moving the rook onto the square over which the king crossed. Castling is only allowed when the king nor the castling rook has moved already, when no squares between them are occupied, when the king is not in check, and when the king will not move across or end its movement on a square that puts the king in check. - -Check and Checkmate -If a player's move places the opponent's king under attack, that king is in check, and the player in check is made to stop the attack. There are three possible ways to remove the king from check: - Moving the king to an adjacent non-threatened square - Blocking the check with another piece between the king in check and the attacking piece in order to break the line of threat (not possible when the attacking piece is a knight, or when in double check). - Capturing the attacking piece (not possible in double check, unless the king captures) - -If none of these three ways are possible, the player's king has been checkmated and the player with the checkmated king loses the game. - -Stalemate -A stalemate is when the player to move has no legal move, but is not in check. - -Advice -In the opening and middlegame, the king will mostly not play an active role in the development of an attacking or defensive position. Instead, a player will usually castle and find safety on the edge of the board behind pawns. In the endgame, however, the king may comes out of hiding to play an active role as an offensive piece as well as helping in the promotion of their remaining pawns. - -References - - - - -King" -6030,19409,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1607,1607," - -Births - January 10 – Isaac Jogues, Jesuit missionary to Native Americans (died 1646) - March 20 – Lady Alice Boyle, Irish noblewoman (died 1667) - March 24 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (died 1676) - July 13 – Václav Hollar, Bohemian etcher (died 1677) - November 1 – Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, German poet (died 1658) - November 15 – Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (died 1701) - November 26 – John Harvard, American clergyman (died 1638) - Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (died 1661) - Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (died 1691) - John Boys, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (died 1664) - John Dixwell, English judge and regicide (died 1689) - Jan Kazimierz Krasinski, Polish nobleman (died 1669) - Claude de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, French courtier (died 1693) - Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (died 1667) - Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi, Japanese samurai (died 1650) - Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Spanish dramatist (died 1660)" -16034,61583,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism,Anglicanism,"Anglicanism is a denomination within Christianity. It is made up of the Church of England and the Anglican Communion (a group of Anglican churches from many other countries). The term Anglicanism includes those who have accepted the English Reformation as embodied in the Church of England or in the offshoot Churches in other countries that have followed closely to its doctrines and its organisation. - -In the English Reformation, the English Church kept the early Catholic ministry of bishops, priests, deacons, and most of the doctrine and liturgy. The event that led to the Anglican Church was the outright rejection of the Pope. This meant they also rejected the Catholic Church as an organisation. - -It is sometimes seen as being the middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. That is why it is not always thought of as Protestantism. - -The term Anglican comes from the phrase ecclesia anglicana. This is a Medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246. It means 'the English Church'. The noun Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions, churches, traditions and ideas developed by the state established Church of England and the Anglican Communion, a theologically broad and often divergent affiliation of thirty-eight provinces that are in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury. - -Worship -Anglicans can have many different beliefs. For example, there are a range of beliefs about Holy Communion. Some Anglicans believe that the bread and wine becomes the actual Body and Blood of Christ. Other Anglicans think that Holy Communion is about remembering the life of Jesus Christ and his death on the Cross. The first ('High Church') is in the minority. It is similar to the belief of Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The second (the majority 'Low Church') is like the belief of most Protestants. It is fundamentally a Protestant church because the Bible is the source of authority, not the Pope. - -Origin -The name Anglican for this Church comes from the Latin word for English because the Church started in England. In the British Isles, Anglicanism has been the official or State religion in all parts at one time or another. Anglican Church leaders, and the State, worked together in what is called the alliance of Throne and Altar or Church and State. Together, they tried to make the Anglican denomination as broad and welcoming as possible to a wide range of Christian believers. - -They did this to try to get as many citizens as they could to worship in the official church. - -Origin in Britain -When Henry VIII wanted to divorce from Catherine of Aragon, the Pope refused to divorce him. As a result, King Henry split from the Roman Catholic Church and started the Church of England. The English Parliament, through the Act of Supremacy, declared King Henry VIII to be the ""Supreme Head of the Church of England"" in order to fulfill the ""English desire to be independent from continental Europe religiously and politically."" This act said that the king, not the pope was the head of the Church of England. With this act, Henry VIII was not only free to divorce his wife and remarry, he also made England free from the interference of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. - -Although now separate from Rome, the English Church, at this point in history, continued to maintain the Roman Catholic theology on many things, such as the sacraments. Over time the Church of England was reformed even more, in what is known as the English Reformation, which it gained a number of characteristics which has finally formed the modern day Anglican Communion. - -In the British Isles, and early British colonies, this was done to try to defeat both the followers of the Roman Catholic Church and all the kinds of Protestants too by including their best ideas, traditions, and practices in the Anglican Church. Now, the only place in the United Kingdom where Anglicanism is still the official religion is England, where the monarch, Queen Elizabeth II is the Supreme Governor on Earth of the Church of England. The effective government of the Church is by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the legal Church Parliament known as the General Synod. - -Spread of Influence -In the rest of the world, Anglicanism was spread by overseas colonisation, settlement, and missionary work. It functions there as an ordinary denomination of Christianity without special status. Anglicans around the world join together in a group of national churches in countries where there are Anglican Churches to make the world-wide Anglican Communion. There are more than 80 million Anglicans in the world today. Most live in Africa and Asia and are not of British ethnic heritage anymore. - -Issues -The Anglican Communion is struggling today with questions about the role of women and gay people in the Church. As the Anglican Communion deals with these serious issues, some have split into liberal and conservative groups. Already, there are Anglicans who have broken from the main Churches to form their own separate groups of believers. Some use the term Anglican combined with the word Catholic, Christian, Reformed, or Episcopal. - -At the same time, leaders from the Anglican Communion hold talks with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches to try to work toward Christian unity. At times, there has been some progress. Also, the Anglican and Lutheran Churches have agreed to a high level of shared beliefs, leadership, and practices called intercommunion. - -Related pages - History - Protestantism - Catholicism - English Reformation - Movements and denominations - Methodism - Prominent Anglican Thinkers - T. S. Eliot - C. S. Lewis - John Wesley - -References - -Bibliography - Hein, David, ed. (1991) Readings in Anglican Spirituality. Cincinnati: Forward Movement. - -Other websites - - Anglican Communion - The official site of the Anglican Communion. - What it means to be an Anglican: Official Church of England site - Anglican Historical Texts - Anglicans Online - An unofficial site of the Anglican Communion. One of the biggest resources of Anglicanism in the world. - Anglicanism: ReligionFacts.com - Articles on Anglican history, ritual, and organisation, plus an image gallery of people and places." -19294,73256,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company%20of%20Heroes,Company of Heroes,"Company of Heroes is a strategy video game where you control soldiers in order to win. It is based on World War II. - -2006 video games -Real-time strategy video games" -20562,79022,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetamide,Acetamide,"Acetamide is a mineral that is either colorless or gray in color, and is made of a crystalline crust on black shale. It is named for acetic acid and ammonia. It can be found in Russia and is not radioactive. - -References - -Minerals" -6394,20296,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20bass,Black bass,"A black bass is a type of fresh water fish. The black basses are found throughout a large area east of the Rocky Mountains in North America, from the Hudson Bay basin in Canada to northeastern Mexico. Several species, notably the Largemouth and Smallmouth, have been very widely introduced throughout the world. Black bass of all species are highly sought-after game fish, and bass fishing is an extremely popular sport. These fish are well known as strong fighters, and taste good. - -Description (by species) - The Largemouth bass is a fish which generally has greenish to brownish sides with a dark line which goes from the head to the tail. It's the largest member of the sunfish family. The upper jaw of a largemouth bass extends back beyond the eye. - - The Smallmouth bass (also called the bronzeback, brownie, and smallie) is generally brown with red eyes. It has dark brown vertical bands, rather than a horizontal band along the side. There are 13–15 soft rays in the dorsal fin. The upper jaw of smallmouth bass extends to the middle of the eye. - - The Spotted bass (or Kentucky bass) resembles the largemouth bass in coloring, but has a smaller mouth. The upper jaw of spotted bass extends to the front of the eye. - -Habitat - -Black bass are found in running and still waters, with or without aquatic vegetation (plants that live in water). they need food and some form of cover. Generally, they can tolerate a wide range of water clarities and bottom types. Most prefer water temperatures from 20 to 30°C, and are often found at depths less than 20 feet. Smallmouth prefer clear water and usually like deeper water than Largemouth. - -Feeding habits - -The feeding habits of bass change with its size. Young fish mainly feed on microscopic animals (plankton). Fingerling bass eat insects and small fishes. Adult bass will eat whatever is available, including fish, crabs, frogs, salamanders, snakes, mice, turtles, and even birds. - -Age and growth - Growth rates are highly variable with differences attributed mainly to their food supply and length of growing season. Female bass live longer than males and are much more likely to reach trophy size. By age two or three, females grow much faster than male bass. At five years of age females may be twice the weight of males. The oldest bass from Florida whose age has been determined by fisheries' biologists was 16 years of age. - -Sporting qualities - -The largemouth bass is a very popular fresh water game fish. Much of its popularity is due to its aggressive attitude and willingness to strike a bait with explosive force. They can be caught with almost every bait. The value of the largemouth as a sport fish has prompted a movement toward catch and release fishing. - -A bass of 22 pounds, 4 ounces was caught in Montgomery Lake, Georgia (U.S. state) in 1932. - -Economic impact - -Sport fishing for Black bass, particularly largemouth and smallmouth, has seen extraordinary growth in popularity. In Texas alone, fishermen spent $28 billion on equipment, licenses and fishing trips in 1996. That same year Texas sport fishing was responsible for creating 80,000 jobs and brought in over $180 million to the state in taxes. Many talented fishermen have turned the sport of bass fishing into a business by becoming a professional and competing in tournaments. Kevin VanDam is the top-rated money winner in professional bass fishing, having earned more than $5.6 million. - -References - -Perciformes -Centrarchidae -Teleosts" -13165,48244,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Foxe,John Foxe,"John Foxe (1516/1517 – 18 April 1587), is remembered as the author of Foxe's Book of Martyrs. - -Education and Resignation from Oxford -Foxe was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, England into a prominent family. In 1535 Foxe was admitted to Magdalen College School. He became a fellow in July 1539. -Foxe resigned from his college in 1545, after referring to it as ""a prison."" During his time at Oxford he became an evangelical, meaning that he converted to Protestant beliefs not accepted by the Church of England under Henry VIII. As he wanted to leave Oxford, Foxe looked to other evangelicals for help but received only advice and a little money. Foxe married Agnes Randall on February 3, 1547. - -Life in London under Edward VI -With the death of Henry VIII in January of 1547 Foxe's prospects (and those of the evangelical cause generally) changed for the better. Foxe was ordained deacon by Nicholas Ridley on June 24, 1550. - -Marian Exile -In the fall of 1554 Foxe moved to Frankfurt, where he lived with Anthony Gilby in the English colony of Protestant refugees. -Foxe then removed to Basel where he lived and worked with John Bale and Lawrence Humphrey. - -Return to England -In 1559, when Mary I had died Foxe returned to England. He lived for some time at Aldgate, London, in the house of his former pupil, Thomas Howard. Foxe started publishing works of religious controversy and worked on a new martyrology, which would become the Foxe's Book of Martyrs. -Foxe was ordained priest by Edmund Grindal, now Bishop of London, on January 25, 1560, and he moved to Norwich to live with its bishop, John Parkhurst. On March 23 of the following year the first edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs was published. - -Foxe was one of the earliest students of Anglo-Saxon, and he and Day published an edition of the Saxon gospels with the help of Archbishop Parker. - -Foxe died on 8 April 1587 and was buried at St. Giles's, Cripplegate. - -References - -Other websites - - Foxe's Book of Martyrs (Actes and Monuments) Variorum Edition Online , from the Humanities Research Institute of The University of Sheffield - Thomas Freeman, John Foxe: A Biography - -1516 births -1587 deaths -Alumni of the University of Oxford -Boston, Lincolnshire -English historians -British Protestants -Christian ministers -Writers from Lincolnshire" -22909,86956,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon%20Czolgosz,Leon Czolgosz,"Leon Czolgosz (May 5, 1873 - October 29, 1901) was an American assassin and an anarchist best known as the murderer of William McKinley. He was born in Alpena, Michigan to Polish Catholic immigrant parents. Czolgosz shot President William McKinley in Buffalo, New York on 6 September 1901. The President died from his injury on September 14, 1901, 8 days later. Czolgosz shot the president because he believed the President committed war crimes in the American Philippines war (1899-1913) and was an enemy of the people. He was influenced by Emma Goldman. Some people have questioned the sanity of Czolgosz. - -Czolgosz was found guilty of murder in a very fast trial. He was executed by electric chair in Auburn prison, New York on October 29, 1901. - -1873 births -1901 deaths -American anarchists -American people executed for murder -Anarchists -Assassins -Criminals from Michigan -People executed by electric chair -William McKinley" -21429,82009,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%20%28mythology%29,Gram (mythology),"The unit of measurement is at gram -In Norse mythology, Gram is the name of the sword of Sigurd (Siegfried). He used it to kill the dragon Fafnir. It was forged by Weyland the Smith and originally belonged to his father, Sigmund, who received it in the hall of the Volsung after pulling it out of a log into which Odin had stuck it–nobody else could pull it out. The sword was destroyed and reforged at least once. After it was reforged, it clove an anvil in half. See Sigurd for more details on the story of Siegfried and Fafnir. - -In the Nibelungenlied, Siegfried's sword is called Balmung; in Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle, it is called Nothung (Notung in more modern German). - -Norse mythology -Mythological swords" -18293,68689,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoths,Visigoths,"The Visigoths (Western Goths) were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe (the Ostrogoths were the other). Both were among the loosely-defined Germanic tribes that fought the Roman Empire during the Migration Period. - -Most famously, a Visigothic force, led by King Alaric I, succeeded in storming Rome in 410 AD. Later Visigothic kings ruled southern Gaul, and Hispania after they had taken it from the Alans and the Vandals. - -After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths played a major role in southwestern Europe for another 250 years and adopted Roman culture and clothing. - -Other websites - Visigothic Law Code: text. The preface was written in 1908 and should be read with reservations. - -Germanic tribes -History of France -History of Spain" -9900,33884,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linz,Linz,"Linz is a city in Austria with nearly 200,000 inhabitants. It has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification). It is the third largest city in Austria, after Vienna and Graz. Linz is the capital city and a district of Upper Austria. There is the famous artcenter ""Lentos"" or the ""Brucknerhaus"" for concerts. - -Education - AeronautX Luftfahrtschule - -Other websites - Linz a picture tour through Linz - - -Districts of Upper Austria" -11140,40182,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Mahler,Gustav Mahler,"Gustav Mahler (born Kalischt (now Kalište), Bohemia, July 7 1860; died Vienna, May 18 1911) was a Czech-Austrian composer and conductor. He was one of the last great composers of the Romantic period. He wrote ten symphonies (he left the tenth symphony unfinished) and several collections of songs with orchestral accompaniment. He was very interested in German folk song and he found new ways to use folk song in large orchestral symphonies. His work Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) is one his greatest works, combining song with the sonata form of a symphony. He was also a great conductor and helped to make the Vienna Opera world famous. - -Life - -Childhood -Gustav Mahler was born on 7 July 1860 into a Jewish family. He was the second of 12 children and the first one of the six who were to survive childhood and grow up to adults. His father worked hard to build up his business. He owned a distillery and seven taverns in Iglau to where the family moved in the autumn of 1860. There he heard a lot of music: military music, folk music and different kinds of art music. He learned the piano and performed in public in 1870 and started to compose. - -In 1875 he went to study at the Vienna Conservatory. After a while he gave up studying the piano and concentrated on composition and conducting. He was very interested in Wagner’s ideas about philosophy and politics, and he studied philosophy at the University of Vienna. He started to earn some money by teaching. His first important composition was a cantata called Das klagende Lied. - -Early career -Mahler’s first job as a conductor was at Bad Hall in Upper Austria. The small opera company there was not very good and the music they sang was just light operetta. Mahler soon found another job at Laibach (now called Ljubljana). They sang better music there, but he only stayed one year. His next job was in Olmütz (now called Olomouc). The standard of singing was not very good, but Mahler was very strict. Although the singers did not like him at first he helped them to become better. Then he got a job in Kassel, but he had to conduct a lot of operettas. He had an unhappy love affair with one of the singers. This inspired him to write a collection of orchestral songs Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen and he started his first symphony. - -In 1885 he got a conducting job in Prague. For the first time he was able to conduct works for which he was to become famous: operas by Mozart, Wagner, and music by Beethoven. However, Mahler had arguments with the people he worked with and so he left Prague. - -Mahler’s next job was in Leipzig. The orchestra of the Neues Stadttheater was larger and much better than any he had worked for until then. One of the conductors who worked there was Arthur Nikisch. He was very famous, and the young Mahler was often criticized because he was very different to Nikisch and the way he conducted. When Nikisch was ill Mahler conducted Die Walküre and Siegfried. This helped him to show that he was a great conductor. He met the grandson of the composer Carl Maria von Weber who gave him sketches for an opera Die Drei Pintos which Weber had left unfinished. The sketches were very difficult to read, but Mahler completed the opera and performed it. He also worked at his own compositions and he met Richard Strauss who was to remain a close friend until his death. - -Rising fame: Budapest and Hamburg - -In 1888 Mahler got a job at the Royal Opera in Budapest. Although it was a good theatre they were in financial problems. The Hungarians wanted Mahler to make it a Hungarian national opera using Hungarian singers as much as possible. However, there were not many good Hungarian singers. The opera company did not like German operas, preferring light opera and ballet. He did not have much time to compose because he was too busy with administrative jobs. So he left Budapest. By this time both his parents had died. - -From 1891-1897 Mahler had a conducting post at Hamburg. Here there was an opera company of international standard. Mahler soon became world famous. He conducted many operas as well as orchestral concerts. He conducted in London in 1892 and was invited back again but he did not accept because he wanted time to compose. He spent the summer months composing, writing his music down in short score (not showing the orchestration) and during the theatre season he would revise and orchestrate them. The performance of his Second Symphony in Berlin in 1895 was a huge success. - -Since the death of his parents Mahler had supported his two sisters. He had encouraged his brother Otto to become a musician, but Otto committed suicide. Mahler continued to support his two sisters until they married two famous brothers: Eduard and Arnold Rosé in 1898 and 1902. - -Mahler was becoming very famous. In 1897 he went on tour to Moscow, Munich and Budapest. However, he really wanted a job in Vienna, but because he was Jewish it was going to be very hard for him to find work there, so he became a Roman Catholic. Soon afterwards he became Kapellmeister in Vienna. - -Vienna 1897-1907 -In Vienna Mahler soon became famous for his conducting of Wagner and Mozart. His friend Guido Adler paid for the publication of his First and Third Symphonies. Mahler replaced Hans Richter as conductor of the Philharmonic Concerts. Mahler attracted bigger audiences, but he had disagreements with the players. They did not like some of his unusual ideas and he was very strict. After an illness in 1901 he resigned. He bought a house in Maiernigg in Carinthia where he spent his summers composing. In 1901 he fell in love with Alma Schindler whose father Anton Schindler was a famous landscape painter. She was nearly twenty years younger than Mahler. She was studying composition, but Mahler made her give up composing so that she could devote herself to being a good wife. This made the relationship between them rather difficult. In 1910 Mahler went to see the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Freud helped him to understand not only his marriage problems but also his creative nature. He now felt a deeper love for Alma than he ever had before. - -At the Hofoper Mahler conducted many of the great operas, but not many new ones. He wanted to conduct Richard Strauss’s new opera Salomé, but the censors did not allow it to be performed. Nevertheless, Mahler’s years conducting in Vienna were very important because he had many new ideas. Through his wife he met many artists, especially those connected with the Sezession movement. One of them, Alfred Roller, designed the sets for a new production of Tristan und Isolde. He became Mahler’s chief stage designer. At last Mahler could work closely with someone who shared his views. They staged many operas together: Fideleo, Don Giovanni , Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Le Nozze di Figaro, Die Zauberflöte and Iphigénie en Aulide. - -Mahler felt much more secure now that he was married. This made him more creative. He composed his Eighth Symphony very quickly. It needs a huge orchestra and choir, which is why it is often called ""Symphony of a Thousand"". Mahler thought it was his best work. - -Mahler never became a teacher, but he gave a lot of encouragement to young composers such as Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, Anton Webern and Alexander Zemlinsky. However, there were music critics in Vienna who were anti-Jewish and made things difficult for him. In 1907 his elder daughter Maria died from scarlet fever. More bad news followed when Mahler was found to have a bad heart. The doctor said he must give up his favourite pastimes: going for walks, cycling and swimming. Mahler had done a tremendous amount for the cultural life of Vienna, but he decided it was time to leave. The last thing he conducted in Vienna was his Second Symphony. - -Final years: New York and Europe -Mahler was invited to go to America to conduct the Metropolitan Opera in New York City. It was very different from what he had been used to in Europe. Instead of working with a group of singers who worked together as a team, the operas at the Metropolitan Opera were sung by great operatic stars. Mahler did not try to change this. He even agreed to make cuts to Wagner operas. Then he was invited to be the conductor of the New York Philharmonic so he resigned from the Metropolitan. The last time he conducted there was as a guest artist. - -In 1909 he finished his Ninth Symphony. He was very busy conducting in Europe. In January 1911 he conducted his Fourth Symphony in New York. Then he became ill and decided to go to Vienna. He arrived there on 12 May but he died a few weeks later at the age of 50. - -His music -Mahler was one of the last composers who belonged to the great musical tradition of Germany and Austria. Although many German composers had written great symphonies (e.g. Beethoven), Mahler found something new to say in his music. His symphonies often have long melodies and he uses folk song as well as new sounds in the orchestra. Mahler worked most of his life in the theatre, and this influences his musical language. A good example is Symphony No.4 which starts in the happy key of G major where the music describes the early life, but finishes in E major where the soprano soloist sings about the heavenly pleasures. - -Mahler became very interested in German folksong and he composed several sets of orchestral songs. He took poems from the collection called Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Boy’s Magic Horn). These songs were originally medieval, but Mahler made them feel very different by interpreting them through his own personality. The language of his songs is heard in his symphonies, four of which use singing (nos 2, 3, 4 and 8). He wrote nine symphonies and started a tenth, but died before it was finished. - -Mahler was a great orchestrator. Some of his later works need a very large orchestra. He often used unusual effects, e.g. in his First Symphony there is a double bass solo playing very high notes, accompanied by timpani. - -His set of orchestral songs Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) are like a symphony, but he did not call it a symphony. This was for superstitious reasons: several great composers, including Beethoven, had written nine symphonies and then died. - -His conducting -As a conductor Mahler had a tremendous influence on musical life in Europe. He often conducted his own works. When he conducted works by other composers he played it according to his own ideas. He even made changes to the orchestration of some works by Beethoven. He was not the sort of conductor who tried to make the music as close as possible to what the composer had wanted. He always wanted the music to sound very clear. - -References - The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; - -1860 births -1911 deaths -Austrian composers -Austrian conductors -Austrian Jews -Jewish musicians -Jews who converted to Christianity -Romantic composers" -1249,4597,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,Bristol,"Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary. - -Geography -It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council. - -History -The Bristol name means ""the place where the bridge is"" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth. - -Historical sites -It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton. - -Bristol was a centre for the slave trade. During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour. - -Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here. - -It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop., with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky. - -Notable people -Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include: - - Banksy - graffiti artist - Stephen Merchant - writer and comedian - Russell Howard - comedian and television presenter - -References - -Other websites - - - -Unitary authorities - -Ceremonial counties of England -Ports and harbours of the United Kingdom" -8391,28313,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldovan%20language,Moldovan language,"Moldovan () is the official language of Moldova. It is almost the same as Romanian. The main difference is that Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet because Moldova was part of the Soviet Union until 1989. In 1989, Moldova became its own country and started to use the Latin alphabet, which is used in Romania. On 5 December 2013, the Moldovan government chose Romanian as the official language. - -In the unrecognized state of Transnistria, one of the official languages is still Moldovan and is still written with the Cyrillic alphabet. The other official languages are Russian and Ukrainian. - -Romance languages -Moldova -Romania -Languages of Europe" -11625,42718,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottle%20cap,Bottle cap,"Bottle caps are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead. - -The original bottle cap was called Crown cork. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener. - -In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required. - -Other websites - -Tools" -24593,96074,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat%20fragmentation,Habitat fragmentation,"Habitat fragmentation happens when large habitats are divided into smaller ones, separating all the species that lived there and depended on each other. - -Causes -Habitat fragmentation is not good because it involves some amount of habitat destruction. Plants and other organisms in these areas are destroyed and mobile animals escape from those places to find another habitat causing an excessive crowding and possible competitions among different animals. - -Habitats" -21687,82649,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20current%20heads%20of%20state%20and%20government,List of current heads of state and government,"This page lists the national rulers in the world. They are heads of state and heads of government. - -In some cases they are de facto leaders not occupying either of those positions or prime ministers who are not heads of government. 195 states (193 UN members + Vatican City + Taiwan) are the basic list. - -Also there are leaders of 10 other national entities (quasi and unrecognized states, and of 7 in exile and/or alternative governments (only in exile governments that exercised power or succeeded governments that exercised power). - -For local rulers, for example rulers of dependencies and of the main administrative divisions, such as autonomous regions, insular or peninsular regions, successors of historical regions or regions with strong identity, regions in the news, etc.) see List of the main local rulers. - -Member and observer states of the United Nations - -Other states -The following states control their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state. - -The following states control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states. - -Other governments -These alternative governments are recognized as legitimate by at least one UN member. - -Other entities - -Notes - -Heads of government - -National rulers" -3770,11332,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grevena,Grevena,"Grevena is a Greek city and it is one of 51 prefectures of Greece. Grevena is a small city which is in the west of Macedonia. Its population is 12,037 inhabitants according to 2001 census. It is built at a height of 500 meter approximately. West of Grevena is the mountain range of Pindos with many forests and with a ski center which it is named Vasilitsa. This ski center has a lot of snow throughout the winter. - -Prefectures of Greece" -5090,16213,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full%20Metal%20Jacket,Full Metal Jacket,"Full Metal Jacket is a 1987 British-American war drama movie directed by Stanley Kubrick. It is based on the Gustav Hasford book The Short-Timers. The name of the movie comes from the full-metal jacketed bullets used in the military. The movie follows soldiers who are drafted to fight in the Vietnam War. The story is set in the late 1960s and follows the characters from their time in recruit training and them fighting in the war. - -Release dates - -Other websites - - Full Metal Jacket at the Internet Movie Database (IMDb) - Full Metal Jacket screenplay - -1987 drama movies -1980s war movies -American drama movies -American war movies -British drama movies -British war movies -English-language movies -Movies based on books -Movies directed by Stanley Kubrick -Movies set in the 1960s -Murder-suicide in movies -Multilingual movies -Vietnam War movies -Warner Bros. movies" -16560,63497,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian%20Legion,Armenian Legion,"The Armenian Legion () or Armenische Legion was the name given to the 812th Armenian Battalion which was a foreign unit comprised of several thousand men. - -Leaders Kanayan and Garegin Njdeh counted the support of over 18,000 Armenians. - -In addition to this exclusively Armenian unit, Nazi Armenians also served in the thirty eight other SS divisions, including the elite Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler. - -Related pages -French Armenian Legion - -Military of Armenia -Nazi Germany -History of Armenia -1944" -18313,68730,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4stmanland,Västmanland,"Västmanland is a historical Swedish province, or landskap, in middle Sweden. It borders Södermanland, Närke, Värmland, Dalarna and Uppland. - -The name comes from ""West men"", referring to the people west of Uppland, the core province of early Sweden. - -Provinces of Sweden" -19566,74912,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfons%20Schuhbeck,Alfons Schuhbeck,"Alfons Schuhbeck was born on 2 May 1949 in Traunstein, Upper Bavaria, Germany. He is one of Germany’s top chefs, as well as being a writer, restaurateur, TV cook and businessman. - -Born as Alfons Karg, he trained as a telecommunications engineer, but was not happy. When he stopped at the Bavarian holiday resort of Waging, he ran into the restaurateur Sebastian Schuhbeck. He began working for Schuhbeck, and Sebastian Schubeck later adopted Alfons, and made him his heir. - -Alfons quickly became a very good chef. The village inn he worked at soon became a favourite restaurant of the richer people of Munich and Salzburg. - -He did more training in Salzburg, Geneva, Paris, London and Munich as well as Feinkost Käfer, Dallmayr and in the Restaurant Aubergine of Eckart Witzigmann. He also studied at the College of Hotel Management in Bad Reichenhall in Bavaria. He finally took over the Kurhausstüberl in Waging in 1980. - -In 1983 he got a star in the Michelin Guide. The Gault Millau restaurant guide gave him 17 points and in 1989 he was elected cook of the year. - -Since 1990 Schubeck has operated an outside catering service, which has catered for many high-class events like the Federal Chancellor’s celebration, the Ball des Sports and the German music industry’s ECHO award ceremony. - -In 2003 he opened a new restaurant, the Südtiroler Stuben at the Platzl in Munich. In December of that year he was won his second Michelin star, and in November 2005 he was awarded got a star once again in December 2003, the Five Star Diamond Award by the American Academy of Hospitality Sciences. - -His great popularity has resulted in his publishing over 20 books, as well as many TV shows. Bayerischer Rundfunk has broadcast his programme Schuhbecks since 1993, and he remains a regular guest in many talk and other TV shows. - -Scandal -During the 1990s Schuhbeck had DM 60 million for capital investments. Because he was the only person in charge of millions of DM in Monte Carlo, Monaco Schuhbeck was taken to court on the suspicion of fraud. Although unusual, what he did was not illegal, and he was exonerated. - -Businesses -At the end of the 1990s he set up Schuhbecks GmbH at the Platzl. This company now includes the restaurant Schuhbeck, a wine bistro, the party service, a cookery school, a spice shop and an ice-cream parlour. These are all based in Munich. Schuhbeck Check Inn GmbH was formed in 2001 to manage the Check Inn restaurant and the bar in Egelsbach (south Hesse). - -References - -Other websites - - Official Website - Alfons Schuhbeck Palazzo Munich - Schuhbeck´s Check Inn GmbH - Schuhbeck´s Onlineshop - TV Bavaria's Biography - Schuhbecks Cookery School - Who is Who der Köche - Portrait über Alfons Schuhbeck - - -1949 births -Living people -Chefs -German entertainers -German television personalities -People from Bavaria -Restaurateurs" -20140,77161,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyre,Lyre,"A lyre (pronounce to rhyme with ""fire"") is an instrument which is like a mixture between a harp and a guitar. It is held in one hand and the strings are strummed using the other hand. Lyres were among the first string instruments to be invented. - -Plucked string instruments -Early musical instruments" -9405,32160,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1677,1677," - -Events - May 29 – Treaty of Middle Plantation establishes peace between the Virginia colonists and the local Indians. - May 31 – Danish ships clash with Swedish ships under Niels Iuel between Fehmarn and Warnemünde – Danish defeat the Swedish and capture number of ships. - November 16 – French troops occupy Freiburg." -20893,80340,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1450,1450,"1450 was a common year in the 15th century. - -Events - May 8 – Kentishmen revolt against King Henry VI. - June 18 – rebels are driven from London by loyal troops, bringing about the collapse of the rebellion. - Wolves enter Paris and kill 40 citizens - Age of Discovery starts. - A revolt ends Mayapan's rule over all of the Yucatán. - -Births - Bartolomeu Dias, Portuguese explorer (d. 1500)" -2600,8260,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935,1935," - -Events - April 15 – Roerich Pact signed in Washington D.C. - June 5 - Lucy the Mouse cartoons by Walt Disney and Roy Oliver Disney on 20th Century Fox and for Twentieth Century Pictures. Lucy the Mouse cartoon character and the mascot of 20th Century Fox. - -Births -January 8 – Elvis Presley, musician (d. 1977) -February 5 – Hank Aaron, professional baseball player -March 31 – Herb Alpert, musician -July 17 – Donald Sutherland, actor -August 30 - John Phillips, American guitarist (The Mamas & the Papas) (d. 2001) -September 29 – Jerry Lee Lewis, muisican -October 12 - Luciano Pavarotti, opera singer (The Three Tenors) (d. 2007) -December 1 – Woody Allen, movie maker - -Nobel Prizes -Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Hans Spemann, a German doctor and zoologist. - -Movies released -The Turn of the Tide - -Hit songs - ""Lullaby of Broadway"" – by Al Dubin and Harry Warren, from the movie Gold Diggers of 1935, won the Academy Award for the best song." -21000,80662,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Badr,Battle of Badr,"The Battle of Badr (), was fought March 17, 624 CE of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia). It was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraysh in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory because of divine intervention. Also, it is attributed to the genius of Muhammad. Although it is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Muslim holy book, the Qur'an, virtually all contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, written decades after the battle. - -Related pages - Battle of Uhud - Jihad - Islam - -Footnotes - -References - -Books and articles - -Online references - -Other websites - - Manaqib Ashab al-Badriyyin A prayer citing the virtues and exploits of the Muslims who took part in the battle. - Badr at IslamAnswers.Net - The Battle of Badr at Al-Islam.Org - The first battle of Islam at Badr: Islamic Occasions Network - Hope Springs Eternal A nice multimedia presentation at IslamOnline.Net - MSN Virtual Earth: A modern-day satellite image of Badr, now called ""Badr Hunayn"". - Tafsir (Sura 8: verse 11 to 18) - Battle of Badr: Analysis of Qur'anic verses by Irshaad Hussain. - -History of Islam -Badr" -13279,48765,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20League,National League,"The National League (or NL) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). As of 2016, the NL has 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the ""post-season"" where one will win the National League championship. The champions of the National League plays against the champions of the American League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball. - -Differences -The only big difference between the National League and the American League (AL) is that the AL uses the ""Designated Hitter"" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the pitcher. The NL does not use the Designated Hitter, and all players on the team must bat and field for themselves. - -Related pages -American League" -23418,90008,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham%20Small%20Arms%20Company,Birmingham Small Arms Company,"The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) was a British company that started making guns and bicycles in the 19th century. From 1910 the company started making motorcycles. At one time, It was the most popular maker of motorcycles in the world. Over half a million of the company's most popular model, the Bantam, were sold. The company went out of business in the 1970s. It has started again as a gun making company. - -1861 establishments in the United Kingdom -Birmingham -Companies of the United Kingdom -Firearm manufacturers" -12433,45846,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saparmurat%20Niyazov,Saparmurat Niyazov,"Saparmurat Niyazov (February 19, 1940 - December 21, 2006) was the first President of Turkmenistan. He served from 1993 to 2006. Saparmurat Niyazov also called himself Türkmenbaşy, which means leader of the Turkmen people. He tried to make a cult of personality, which means that he put many pictures and statues of himself around his country to make himself seem important. While he was president, Niyazov made doing many things against the law, such as growing a beard or ballet dancing. He died from a heart attack on December 21, 2006, and Gurbanguly Berdimuhammedow became the new president of Turkmenistan. - -1940 births -2006 deaths -Deaths from myocardial infarction -Presidents of Turkmenistan -Former dictators" -23553,90777,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnaut%20Dani%C3%A8l,Arnaut Danièl,"Arnaut Daniel de Riberac (today Arnaut Danièl) wrote and performed music and poetry in the 12th century. He was Occitan. - -References - Eusebi, Mario (1995). L'aur'amara. Parma: Pratiche Editrice. . - Pound, Ezra (1910). The Spirit of Romance. New Direction Books (1968 reprinting). - -French writers -Poets -12th-century births" -24625,96322,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Rimbaud,Arthur Rimbaud,"Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud (20 October 1854 – 10 November 1891) was a French poet, born in Charleville. He wrote his best works when he was 15–18 years old. He was and moved around the world a lot. He was homosexual. He died of bone cancer just after his 37th birthday. - -Works - Le Soleil Était Encore Chaud (1866) - Poésies (c. 1869–1873) - Soleil et chair (1870) - Le bateau ivre (1871) - Proses Évangeliques (1872) - Une Saison en Enfer (1873) – published by Rimbaud himself as a small booklet in Brussels. Although ""a few copies were distributed to friends in Paris... Rimbaud almost immediately lost interest in the work."" - Illuminations (1874) - Lettres (1870–1891) - -References - -Other websites - Arthur Rimbaud, his work in audio version - THE QUIET LIFE A collection of photos and drawings of Arthur RİMBAUD Edited by Beyaz Arif AKBAS Yalnizgoz BOOKS/Edirne 2011 USA - -Deaths from bone cancer -Cancer deaths in France -French poets -French LGBT people -LGBT writers -1854 births -1891 deaths" -14206,52766,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal%20%28biology%29,Signal (biology),"A signal in biology is any kind of coded message sent from one organism to another, or from one place in an organism to another place. - -Vocal calls -Some social behaviours -Chemical signals -inside organisms -nerve transmission -hormones -inside cells -between organisms - -In biology, especially in electrophysiology, a signal or biopotential is an electric quantity (voltage or current or field strength), that is caused by chemical reactions of charged ions. Biological signals can also be seen as an example of signal (electrical engineering). - -Another use of the term lies in the transfer of information between and within cells, as in signal transduction. - -Related pages - Signal transduction - -Physiology -Ethology" -5160,16524,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1540,1540," - -Events - January 6 – Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife." -6147,19759,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20color,Primary color,"Primary colors (or primary colours) are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. The primary colors are those which cannot be created by mixing other colors in a given color space. - -For subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes for printing, the CMYK set of primaries is often used. In this system the primary colors are cyan, magenta,and yellow. Other sets include the RYB system of red, yellow, blue, especially used by artists. - -For additive combination of colors, as in overlapping projected lights or in television and computer screens, the primary colors normally used are red, green, and blue. - -Biological basis -Primary colors are not a fundamental property of light but are related to the physiological response of the eye to light (the way the eye works). For humans, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic. - -Fundamentally, light is a continuous spectrum of the wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye, an infinite-dimensional stimulus space. However, the human eye normally contains only three types of color receptors, called cone cells. Each color receptor respond to different ranges of the color spectrum. Humans and other species with three such types of color receptors are known as trichromats. - -The additive primaries are red, green, -and blue. Because of the response curves of the three different color receptors in -the human eye, these colors are optimal in the sense that the largest range -of colors — a gamut — visible by humans can be generated by mixing light of these colours. -Additive mixing of red and green light, produce shades of yellow or orange. Mixing green and blue produces shades of cyan, and mixing red and blue produces shades of purple and magenta. Mixing equal proportions of the additive primaries results in shades of grey; when all three colors are fully saturated, the result is white. The color space that is generated is called the RGB (""red, green, blue"") color space. - -Subtractive primaries - -Media that use reflected light and colorants to produce colors are using the subtractive color method of color mixing. In the printing industry, to produce the varying colors, apply the subtractive primaries yellow, cyan, and magenta together in varying amounts. Subtractive color works best when the surface or paper, is white, or close to it. - -Mixing yellow and cyan produces shades of green; mixing yellow with magenta produces shades of red, and mixing magenta with cyan produces shades of blue. In theory, mixing equal amounts of all three pigments should produce shades of grey, resulting in black when all three are fully saturated, but in practice they tend to produce muddy brown colors. For this reason, a fourth ""primary"" pigment, black, is often used in addition to the cyan, magenta, and yellow colors. - -The color space generated is the so-called CMYK color space. The abbreviation stands for ""Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black"" — K stands for ""Kohle"" (German for coal) and is used to represent black as 'B' could be confused with 'Blue'. - -In practice, mixtures of actual materials like paint tend to be less precise. Brighter, or more specific colors can be created using natural pigments instead of mixing, and natural properties of pigments can interfere with the mixing. For example, mixing magenta and green in acrylic creates a dark cyan - something which would not happen if the mixing process were perfectly subtractive. - -Reference - -Color" -2837,8945,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyan,Cyan,"Cyan is the color halfway between blue and green on the color wheel. It is one of the primary (main) colors of ink in an inkjet printer, along with black, yellow and magenta. - -Cyan is a secondary color of light, along with magenta and yellow. The primary colors of light are: blue, red and green. Cyan is made by mixing green and blue light. - -Cyan is the opposite of red and is halfway between green and blue. - -Meaning of cyan - Cyan is associated with making someone feel better and protection, as well as being associated with good health from getting exercise by going swimming. This is because the water in a swimming pool is usually colored cyan from having a plaster white bottom that reflects the blue sky. The tiles of a swimming pool are often colored cyan, which makes the cyan color of the water in a swimming pool even more intense. - - Cyan is a restful, calming color that symbolizes relaxation, especially that shade of cyan known as bright turquoise (shown below) which can be the color of the water in lagoons in tropical countries where people go swimming on their vacation. - - The shade of Cyan called medium aquamarine (shown below) is used for the uniforms of nurses and surgeons and also used to paint rooms in hospitals because it is regarded as a color that calms and relaxes the patients. - -Tones of the Cyan color comparison chart - -Related pages - List of colors - Aqua - Aquamarine - Blue-green - Electric blue - Teal - Turquoise - Viridian" -19475,74235,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man%20%28movie%29,Spider-Man (movie),"Spider-Man is an American 2002 superhero movie. It was made from the story of the Marvel Comics superhero, Spider-Man. It was the first in the Spider-Man movie series. It was written by David Koepp and directed by Sam Raimi. Tobey Maguire starred as Peter Parker / Spider-Man. Kirsten Dunst played the girl Peter loves, Mary-Jane Watson, and Willem Dafoe played the bad guy, Norman Osborn. - -Plot -At the start of the movie, Peter Parker, a very smart teenager, is accidentally bitten by a spider that had been mutated (changed) in a science study. This allows him to climb up walls, make spider webs come from his wrists, jump high, move fast and become very strong. Peter lives with his aunt and uncle. His Uncle Ben teaches him that ""with great power comes great responsibility."" He uses these powers to win a wrestling competition. However, he does not get paid what he thought he would get paid. A criminal steals a lot of money from the cashier and runs off. Peter does not try to catch the criminal, as revenge for not getting paid as much as he wanted to be. The criminal then steals Ben's car and Ben dies. From then on, Peter becomes Spider-Man and vows to fight crime, using Ben's words to their fullest. - -Meanwhile, Peter's friend Harry's father is in trouble. Norman is the CEO or head of his own company, but the executive board kicks him off. He tests a new kind of formula and becomes the Green Goblin. Norman also has a device that lets him fly around. Spider-Man and the Green Goblin begin to fight in various places. During a fire at a building, the Green Goblin uses his voice and pretends to be someone trapped. When Spider-Man goes to rescue the person, he finds the Green Goblin. During the fight, Spider-Man's arm is cut. Peter, Norman, Harry, Peter's friend Mary Jane Watson, and Peter's aunt then meet at Peter's apartment for Thanksgiving. Norman notices Peter's cut on his arm and realizes that Peter Parker is Spider-Man. - -Norman then starts planning to hurt Peter. He scares Peter's Aunt May so badly that she has to go to the hospital. There, Peter realizes that the Green Goblin knows that he likes Mary Jane Watson, so he calls her up, but the Green Goblin has already taken her. Spider-Man goes out to a bridge in New York. The Green Goblin has Mary Jane in one arm and a group of kids in a bus on the other hand. He wants Spider-Man to fail at doing something – to choose between the person he loves and innocent civilians. He then drops both at once. Spider-Man grabs Mary Jane first and uses his webbing to save the kids. The Green Goblin is angry and attacks Spider-Man. A bunch of New York people start to throw trash and knock the Green Goblin off balance. - -The Green Goblin then grabs Peter and they start to fight inside an abandoned building. The fight is very violent and Spider-Man starts to bleed. Finally, after Spider-Man knocks the Green Goblin down, the Green Goblin says that he is Norman Osborn. Spider-Man is very surprised. Norman then distracts Peter and talks to him as he tries to get his flying device to move and to kill Peter. Spider-Man ducks at the last second and the flying device impales Norman, killing him. Dying, Norman asks Peter not to tell Harry that he was the Green Goblin. - -The last scene is at a cemetery for the funeral of Norman. During the ceremony, Harry tells Peter that he swears that Spider-Man will die because Spider-Man killed his father. Mary Jane implies that she loves Peter, but Peter tells her that he will always be a friend and be there for her, and that is all he can give to her. - -Production -A trailer containing original footage was shown for screenings of the 2001 movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within. The trailer shows a group of bank robbers flying in a helicopter and land on a giant web between the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center. The trailer was recalled following the September 11 attacks. As a response, a scene where New Yorkers throw food at the Green Goblin and wave their flags while yelling ""You mess with one of us, you mess with all of us"" was added for reshoots. - -Reception -After the movie was kept from being made for almost 25 years, it was shown in theaters on May 3, 2002. Critics liked it a lot and it broke many movie records. It made more money than any other movie in the year 2002. As of late 2007, Spider-Man is the seventh highest grossing movie in the United States and 17th highest world wide. It made enough money and two sequels have been made, Spider-Man 2 (2004) and Spider-Man 3 (2007). - -Cast - Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider-Man - Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin - Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane Watson - James Franco as Harry Osborn - Cliff Robertson as Uncle Ben Parker - Rosemary Harris as Aunt May Parker - J. K. Simmons as J. Jonah Jameson - Gerry Becker as Maximilian Fargas - Bill Nunn as Joseph ""Robbie"" Robertson - Jack Betts as Henry Balkan - Stanley Anderson as General Thomas Slocum - Ron Perkins as Dr. Mendel Stromm - Joe Manganiello as Flash Thompson - -References - -Other websites - -2002 movies -2000s superhero movies -English-language movies -Impact of the September 11 attacks -Movies composed by Danny Elfman -Movies directed by Sam Raimi -Spider-Man (2002 movie series) -Spider-Man movies -Columbia Pictures movies" -2972,9329,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vengaboys,Vengaboys,"The Vengaboys are a Dutch pop music group. The group is made up of DJ Danski and DJ Delmondo. They toured Spanish beach parties in a bus. The group formed in 1992. They added four dancers in 1995-1996 and toured through Europe. Their first song was Up & Down. It was released in March 1997. The group is popular across Europe and have had some popularity in the United States. Their music is Eurodance. - -Other websites - -1990s Dutch music groups -2000s Dutch music groups -2010s music groups -Dance music groups -Musical groups established in 1997 -Pop music groups" -12466,45930,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative,Relative,"Relative can refer to: - Kinship, If two people are connected by birth, they are said to be relatives - -Physics - Relativity, an idea in physics (for example Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity) - Relative angular momentum, astronomy - Relative density - Relativity drive, propulsion - Relative humidity, meteorology/physics - Relative decibel, acoustics - Relative effectiveness factor, demolitions - Relative intensity noise, optics - Relative motion, kinematics - Relative permeability, fluid dynamics - Relative pressure - Relative thermal resistance - Relative velocity - Relative viscosity - Relative wind, aeronautics - -Math - Relatively complemented lattice, lattice theory - Relative risk, statistics and epidemiology - Relative standard deviation, statistics - Grothendieck's relative point of view, category/scheme theory - -Topology - Relatively compact subspace - Relative homology - Relative interior - -Philosophy - Knowledge relativity, relativity as a philosophical concept, opposed to absolute - Relativism - -Economics/Finance - Relative deprivation, socioeconomics - Relative investment performance - Relative price - Relative strength index - Relative valuation - Relative value - -Music - Relative key - Relative pitch - -Popular culture -Film and television - Relatively Speaking (play), 1965 British play - Relatively Speaking, late 1980s television game show - Everything's Relative, 2000 Japanese anime Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters episode - Relative Values, 2000 film - It's All Relative, 2003-4 comedy television series - -Literature - The Relativity of Wrong, 1988 Isaac Asimov essay - Relative Heroes, 2000 DC comic book series - Time and Relative, 2001 Doctor Who book - Relative Dementias, 2002 Doctor Who book series - -Music - Relative Degree, late 1990s rock band of Linkin Park members - Friends & Relatives, 1999 compilation album - Dead Relatives, 2000 music album by Canadian Emm Gryner - Relative Ways, 2001 music album by ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead - Relative Theory Records, 2003 record store in Norfolk, Virginia, USA - -Other - Positive relative accommodation, ophthamalogy - Relative bearing indicator, aviation - Relative addressing, computer science - Relative dating, archaeology, geology - Relative direction, orientation - Relative gain (international relations) - Relative location, geography - Luminance (relative) - Relative survival, epidemiology - -Related pages - Relativity" -8879,30051,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakat,Zakat,"Zakat () is one of the five most important aspects of Islam. Zakat means giving charity to the poor. Generally, a Muslim is expected to give zakat as long as they are able. Through Zakat wealth reaches to the poor class of the society. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to help those in need and eliminate inequality. It is often 2.5% of what the Muslim has. - -References - -Related pages - Altruism - Five Pillars of Islam - -Islam -Giving" -22583,85429,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appenzell%20%28district%29,Appenzell (district),"Appenzell is a district of the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden in Switzerland. The district of Appenzell contains part of the town Appenzell, as well as Rinkenbach, Kau and Meistersrüte. - -References - -Other websites -Appenzell Tourism -Appenzell - -Districts of Appenzell Innerrhoden -Municipalities of Appenzell Innerrhoden" -2193,7404,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think%20Quest,Think Quest,"ThinkQuest was an educational website. It was used by students of schools in the United States and other countries. It was run by the Oracle Education Foundation. - -As of July 1, 2013, ThinkQuest was discontinued. - -References - -Other websites -ThinkQuest library archive - -Websites" -7709,25192,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartar,Tartar,"Tartar could mean: -The Tatars, an ethnic group in present-day Russia -Hardened dental plaque (see calculus (dental)) -Tartar sauce -Salts of tartaric acid: -Cream of tartar -Tartar emetic" -23539,90728,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New-age%20music,New-age music,"New-age music is a type of music which is often related to New Age belief. It is usually soft and instrumental; it means, only few New Age music pieces have a singer. New Age music is good for resting, thinking and meditation. - -One of the first people in this genre was Stephen Halpern. He created music to be used for meditation. He could not find a record company for his works, so he published them himself and sold them in New Age stores. His music is very relaxing and has a slow rhythm. - -Some of the famous artists who work in this field are Yanni, Kitarō, Jean Ven Robert Hal, Loreena McKennitt, Vangelis, Enya and George Winston. - -References - -New Age music" -17507,66324,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1366,1366," - -Events - Thomas Fraser obtains lands in Aberdeenshire, upon which he starts the building of a towerhouse that would later be known as Muchalls Castle. - Henry II deposes his half-brother, Pedro of Castile, to become King of Castile. - Muhammed V builds the Granada Hospital in the Granada (in present-day Spain). - War continues between the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire and the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate in present-day southern India. Tens of thousands of civilians massacred by each side. - Dmitri Donskoi, ruler of Moscow & Vladimir, makes peace with Dmitri Konstantinovich, former ruler of Vladimir. - Abu Faris Abdul Aziz succeeds assassinated Abu Zayyan as Sultan of the Marinid Empire in Morocco. - Foundation of the Stella Artois brewery in present-day Belgium. - -Births - March 22 – Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, English politician (d. 1399) - July 11 – Anne of Bohemia, queen of Richard II of England (died 1394) - Lady Elizabeth FitzAlan, English noblewoman (died 1425) - Miran Shah, governor of Azerbaijan (died 1408) - -Deaths - January 25 – Henry Suso, German mystic - Simon Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury - Petrus Torkilsson, Archbishop of Uppsala - Ming Yuzhen, founder of the rebel empire of Daxia" -2413,7777,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board%20game,Board game,"A board game is a game usually played with pieces on a board, or some area with marked spaces. - -Most board games use pieces that may be moved, placed, or traded depending on the rules of the game. These pieces may be money, chips, pawns, or other objects. Board games may often involve some random chance with dice or cards. There are many board games with a long history in some cultures. Examples of these games are chess, checkers, backgammon, parqués, and go. There are also a great number of popular board games that have been created more recently, in the past hundred years. Among these games are Scrabble and Monopoly. - -Chess, and most versions of checkers, are played on a 8x8 square board with 32 white squares and 32 black squares. International checkers is played on a 10x10 square board. - -Older than chess, but not by much, is tafl (pronounced 'tabl'), later called ""hneftafl"". This is an old Norse board game with just two types of pieces. Its pieces, when found in Britain, have often been wrongly ascribed to chess. In chess, of course, the board is different, and there are six kinds of pieces. - -References - -Other websites - -Information about thousands of different board games" -807,3485,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideboard,Sideboard,"A sideboard is a piece of furniture. It is often placed in a dining room with a long table and cupboard below to hold dishes, glasses, and other things. - -Furniture" -24756,96994,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max%20Weber,Max Weber,"Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (pronounced: maks ˈveːbɐ) (21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. - -Works -He began his career at the University of Berlin, and later worked at Freiburg University, University of Heidelberg, University of Vienna and University of Munich. He had influence on German politics of his time, because he was an advisor to Germany's at the Treaty of Versailles and to the commission that drafted the Weimar Constitution. - -Weber is known for his work in the sociology of religion. His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. - -He disagreed with Karl Marx's view that class structure was the way to view how society worked. He believed that human values affected how people acted throughout history. - -Other websites - -Texts of Weber works - Large collection of the German original texts - Large collection of the German original texts - Large collection of English translations - Another collection of English translations - A comprehensive collection of English translations and secondary literature - English translations of many of Weber's works, merged into one very long unformatted file - Max Weber Reference Archive - - About Weber - Biography entry and link section - Weber on Ideal Types - Max Weber – The person - More of Weber on Ideal Types - An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science - Max Weber: On Capitalism As above, but on capitalism - Some of Weber concepts in the form of a list - Max Weber's HomePage ""A site for undergraduates"" - Mises versus Weber on Bureaucracy and Sociological Method by William P. Anderson - Weber My Premium Essay by William P. Anderson - -1864 births -1920 deaths -19th-century German philosophers -20th-century German philosophers -German academics -German economists -German sociologists -People from Erfurt" -6785,21442,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salary,Salary,"A salary is a type of payment a person gets for work done for a job. A salary is usually paid for a fixed period of time, such as a month or a week. Generally, it does not matter how many hours are worked, the salary remains the same. If someone is not a salaried employee, they are generally an ""hourly"" employee and are paid a certain amount for each hour's which is known as ""wages."" - -Related pages -Minimum wage -Worker - -Employment -Income" -20786,79934,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital%20record,Vital record,"Vital records are records of life events. They include birth certificates, marriage licenses, and death certificates. In some jurisdictions, vital records may also include records of civil unions or domestic partnerships. In modern times these would be state-held records, though prior to civil registration these were often church-held records. - -Other websites -Where to Write for Vital Records in the US - National Center for Health Statistics - -Documents" -7867,25806,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportionality,Proportionality,"A proportionality relationship happens when two quantities or numbers x and y are related multiplicatively by a fixed number. This can occur when either their ratio x/y is a fixed number (direct proportionality), or their product xy is a fixed number (inverse proportionality). If x is directly proportional to y, then we write . The fixed number of a proportionality relationship is called the constant of proportionality. - -Related pages -Relation (mathematics) - Function (mathematics) - -References - -Mathematics" -17603,66519,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes,ITunes,"iTunes is a media player made by Apple. It came out on January 10, 2001, at the Macworld Expo in San Francisco. iTunes is used for playing and sorting music and video files. It also lets users see and change what is on their iPod or iPhone. -iTunes is a free download for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows from Apple's website. The download is also included with QuickTime, a program used to play videos. It also comes with all Apple Macintosh computers, and some HP and Dell computers. However, on 3 Jun 2019, Apple announced that iTunes would not be available on macOS Catalina. - -iTunes Store - -The iTunes Store is an online store built into iTunes. iTunes can connect to the iTunes Store if there is an internet connection to buy and download music, music videos, television shows, iPod games, audiobooks, podcasts, and movies. The files from the iTunes Store used to use Digital Rights Management (DRM) to prevent piracy. However, iTunes now sells music and videos called iTunes Plus, which are higher quality and have no DRM. - -Some singers and bands do not have most of their music on iTunes yet: The KLF, Garth Brooks, Bob Seger, Def Leppard, King Crimson and Tool. - -For a long time, you could not get music by The Beatles on iTunes due to a legal conflict between Apple Inc. and Apple Records. Starting in November 2010, you can now get music by the Beatles. It is very popular nowadays. There is a lot of advertisement by Apple for Beatles music. - -Beginning -Bill Kincaid had developed SoundJamMP which was released later in the year of 1999. It was later renamed iTunes which was then purchased by Apple in 2000. - -As SoundJam was being worked on throughout the years, the interface of the site was changed to make it easier for people to understand how to use it. And added the ability to burn CDs, and removed its recording feature and skin support. - -On January 9, 2001, iTunes 1.0 was released at Macworld San Francisco. Macintosh users immediately began to dig through iTunes’s resource fork where they discovered that there were so many other strings and other resources that indicated iTunes was a re-engineered SoundJam MP. Casady & Greene ceased distribution of SoundJam MP on June 1, 2001 at the request of the developers. - -References - - - -IPod -Apple software" -11788,43239,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia,Macedonia,"Macedonia or Macedonian may refer to: - -Places - Macedonia (region) as a complete region including the whole Macedonia - Republic of North Macedonia, a Balkan, land-locked country - Macedonians, a Slavic people who live in the Republic of North Macedonia - Macedonian language, a Slavic language spoken in the Republic of North Macedonia - Macedonia (Greece), the biggest region of Greece - Blagoevgrad, a province in Bulgaria sometimes called 'Pirin Macedonia' - Macedonia, Iowa, a city in the U.S. state of Iowa - Macedonia, Ohio, a city in the U.S. state of Ohio - -Former places - The ancient Macedonian Empire, a place in today's Greek Macedonia - Macedonia (Roman province), a province of the early Roman Empire - -Other - Macedonians (ethnic group) - Macedonia (food), a fruit-vegetable salad" -12993,47690,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Chamond,Saint-Chamond,"Saint-Chamond is a town in France. It is near Saint-Paul-en-Jarez and Saint-Jean-Bonnefonds. - -Communes in Loire" -23802,91866,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghetto,Ghetto,"Originally the word 'ghetto' meant the Jewish quarter of Venice, and later of any European town. Many places had a ghetto. The term ""ghetto"" is now commonly used to refer to any poverty-stricken urban area with a concentration of minority groups. The word has a few possible sources: - ""getto"", the Venetian word for foundry slag, because the Jews were only allowed in the area where the iron foundries were. - Others believe it is from the Italian word borghetto, meaning a little borgo or ‘borough’. - -It is also used to refer to areas that are considered to be undesirable. - -References - -Human rights" -10476,37205,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%20Eight,Group of Eight,"The Group of Eight (G8) was a group made up of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia (suspended), the United Kingdom and the United States. The European Commission is also represented in the committee. The group has conferences or meetings throughout the year, it researches policies, and has a summit meeting once a year. The heads of government of each G8 country attend the summit meeting. - -Each year a different country takes over the presidency of the group for the duration of the year. The country that holds the presidency sets the agenda for the year and hosts the summit for that year. The first G6 meeting was in 1975. Canada joined in 1976, making G7. Russia made it G8 in 1997. - -The organization's official 2014 summit was not held in Moscow as previously planned, due to the invasion and takeover of Crimea. In March 24, 2014, all seven member nations voted to suspend Russia from the G-8. The meeting was held in Brussels instead, and the G8 will be called G7 since there are now seven leaders. - -Overview -The G8 is not considered an international organization because it does not have administrative structure. This means that besides the president, there are no official titles for the members, they are all considered equal. Their meetings are not formal. The goal is to talk about global topics and problems in a relaxed manner. - -There are many global problems and issues that can be discussed at meetings. Some common topics of discussion include: health, law enforcement, labor, economic and social development, energy, environment, foreign affairs, justice, terrorism, and trade. - -Yearly summit -The annual meeting of G8 leaders is attended by the heads of government and other invited guests. It is usually held for three days in the middle of the year. Each year one of the G8 countries is considered the G8 president. The country of the G8 presidency is responsible for organizing and hosting a summit during that year. The first summit meeting was held in November of 1975 in France. - -Economic power -The eight countries that make up the G8 represent about 14% of the people in the world but produce over 65% of the world's economic output measured by gross domestic product (GDP). - -Source: World Development Report 2006, World Bank - -References - -Other page -World Economic Forum - -Other websites - G8 research group, ""G8 Research Group's Information Centre"", utoronto.ca - ""Special Report: G8"", Guardian Unlimited - ""Profile: G8"", BBC News - ""We are deeply concerned. Again"", New Statesman, 4 July 2005, - G8 development concerns since 1977 - - -1975 establishments" -15508,59121,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Palace%20of%20Madrid,Royal Palace of Madrid,"The Palacio Real de Madrid (Royal Palace of Madrid) is the official home of the King of Spain. It is located in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest palaces in western Europe. - -King Felipe V had the palace built to replace the Alcazar that was burned down. It is made of limestone and granite. It was supposed to look a little like the Palace of Versailles in France. Juan Bautista Sachetti was in charge of building the palace. They started to build it in 1738. Carlos III moved into the palace in 1764. It took a hundred years to decorate all the rooms. - -Spanish kings lived there until 1931 when King Alfonso XIII was forced to leave Spain. The Royal Palace is still used for special ceremonies. Letizia was supposed to walk on a red carpet from the Royal Palace to the cathedral for the wedding with Prince Felipe but it rained so she was taken in car. - -Fifty of the rooms in the palace are open for public visits. Visitors enter the palace from the Plaza de la Armería. Some of the rooms that can be seen are: the 'porcelain' room, 'throne' room and 'clock' room. There is a royal army museum in the palace. - -Location -The Almudena Cathedral is nearby the palace. - -The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was originally on the site. - -References - -Palaces in Spain -Buildings and structures in Madrid" -20912,80433,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/2007%20S%203,S/2007 S 3,"S/2007 S 3 is an unnamed moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 1, 2007, from observations taken between January 18 and April 19, 2007. - -S/2007 S 3 is about 5 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 20,518,500 kilometres in about 1100 days, at an inclination of 177.22° to the ecliptic, with an eccentricity of 0.130. - -References - Institute for Astronomy Saturn Satellite Data - MPEC 2007-J09: S/2007 S 2, S/2007 S 3 May 1 2007 (discovery and ephemeris) - IAUC 8836: S/2007 S 1, S/2007 S 2, and S/2007 S 3 (subscription-only) May 11 2007 (discovery) - -Saturn's moons" -19258,73096,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sursk,Sursk,"Sursk (, 53°05'N 45°42'E) is town in Penza Oblast, Russia. Its population is near 7,500 (2005). The town was founded in 1860. - -Sursk is located on the Sura River's left bank. It is 92 km from Penza. - -Other websites - Site about Sursk - -Towns in Russia -1860 establishments -19th-century establishments in Russia" -22314,84504,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adell%2C%20Wisconsin,"Adell, Wisconsin","Adell is a village of Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, United States. The population is 517 people as of 2000. Adell has an area of .5 square miles, thanks to the United States Census Bureau. - -Hildegarde, an American cabaret singer, was born in Adell. - -References - -Villages in Wisconsin -Sheboygan County, Wisconsin" -18139,68197,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coxless%20pair,Coxless pair,"In rowing, a coxless pair consists of a pair of rowers, each having one oar, one on the stroke side (rower's right hand side) and one on the bow side (rower's lefthand side). As the name suggests, there is no cox on such a boat, and the two rowers must co-ordinate steering and the proper timing of oar strokes between themselves. - -Rowing" -8225,27478,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biscuit,Biscuit,"A biscuit is a type of food. They are small baked breads or cakes. - -Biscuits in British usage - -In British English, Australian English, Canadian English and New Zealand English, biscuits are usually sweet and can be eaten with tea, milk or coffee. In North America these are called ""cookies"". - -In spite of the difference, this is the meaning in the name of the United States' most famous maker of cookies and crackers, National Biscuit Company (now called Nabisco). - -Biscuits in American usage - -In American English, a ""biscuit"" is a small form of bread, similar to scones, made with baking powder or baking soda as a leavening agent rather than yeast. (Biscuits, soda breads, and corn bread, among others, are sometimes referred to all together as ""quick breads"" to show that they do not need time to rise before baking.) - -Breads -Desserts" -24562,95920,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet%20%26%20Clank%3A%20Going%20Commando,Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando,"Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando (Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded in Europe, Australia and New Zealand) is a 3D platform/shooter for the PlayStation 2. It was developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony in 2003. It is the second game in the Ratchet & Clank series. The words Going Commando are a phrase, or set of words, for wearing pants with no underwear. - -Similar to Ratchet & Clank, Going Commando got high review scores, and has a 92% on Game Rankings, and a 90% from Metacritic. IGN gave the game a score of 9.4/10, and Gamestats gave it a 9.1/10. Game Informer magazine called it Game of the Month when it was released. Going Commando was given a 4/5 from Gamespy and a 5/5 from X-Play. - -References - -Other websites - Official site - Official Insomniac Games website - -2003 video games -PlayStation 2 games -3D platform games -Ratchet & Clank" -19553,74831,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSV%20Schwieberdingen,TSV Schwieberdingen,"TSV Schwieberdingen is a German football club. It is in Schwieberdingen, Baden-Württemberg. The club was founded in 1906. Today it has over 2,200 people. - -The football team is playing in the Oberliga Baden-Württemberg (IV). Their stadium is the Felsenberg-Arena. - -Other websites -Official website - -German football clubs -Sport in Baden-Württemberg" -8416,28398,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20international%20Cartoon%20Network%20channels,List of international Cartoon Network channels,"Cartoon Network is an international cartoon television channel for children owned by Turner Broadcasting. - -Channels - -Current - -Americas -Cartoon Network Canada -Cartoon Network South America - -Europe -Cartoon Network Europe -Cartoon Network Central & Eastern Europe -Cartoon Network Russia and Southeastern Europe -Cartoon Network France -Cartoon Network Germany -Cartoon Network Italy -Cartoon Network Nordic -Cartoon Network Turkey -Cartoon Network United Kingdom - -Asia -Cartoon Network Southeast Asia -Cartoon Network Japan -Cartoon Network Korea -Cartoon Network Pakistan -Cartoon Network Philippines -Cartoon Network Taiwan -Cartoon Network Thailand -Cartoon Network Vietnam - -Pacific -Cartoon Network Australia -Cartoon Network New Zealand - -Former - -Cartoon Network Spain - closed in 2013 along with Cartoonito to make way for Boing - -Other websites -Cartoon Network America -Cartoon Network South America -Cartoon Network Europe -Cartoon Network Asia - -Cartoon Network -Television lists" -16879,64249,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica%20Biel,Jessica Biel,"Jessica Claire Biel (born March 3, 1982) is an American actress, Vocalist and former fashion model. - -Biel became known for her early television role of Mary Camden in the long-running family drama series 7th Heaven. She is perhaps best known for appearing in several Hollywood movies. These include Summer Catch, the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and The Illusionist. - -Biel is also known for her beauty and is considered a sex symbol. In 2005 Esquire magazine declared her the ""Sexiest Woman Alive"". In 2007 she was voted number 1 in a poll by Stuff magazine. - -In 2012, she married singer Justin Timberlake. Their son, Silas Randall Timberlake, was born on April 11, 2015. - -Movies - -References - -Other websites - - - - - -1982 births -Living people -American movie actors -American television actors -Actors from Minnesota" -8643,29272,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lever,Lever,"A lever is a simple machine. It is something that can be used in a lot of ways. One way is by measuring things, or by seeing which weighs more. A lever is supported by a fulcrum which it uses to lifts weights. It is one of six simple machines. There are three types of levers: first-class, second-class and third-class. - -Early -The earliest remaining writings about levers are from the 3rd century BC. They were written by Archimedes. ""Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the earth."" is a famous quote from Archimedes who stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria). - -Types of levers -There are three kinds of levers. The difference between them is where the fulcrum is and where the forces are. - -First class - -A first-class lever is a lever where the fulcrum is in between the effort and resistance (the load). Seesaws and crowbars are examples of first class levers. - -Second class -A second-class lever is where the resistance is between the effort and the fulcrum. Wheel barrows and wrenches are examples of second class levers. - -Third class -A third class lever is where the effort is between the resistance and the fulcrum. Staplers and your forearm are examples of third class levers. - -References - -Engineering -Tools" -11432,41494,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/899,899,"Year 899 (DCCCXCIX) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. - -Events - Edward the Elder becomes King of England. - Gorm the Old becomes King of Denmark. - Regino of Prüm is expelled from Prüm and becomes abbot of St. Martin's in Trier." -20017,76639,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20%28state%29,Miranda (state),"Estado Miranda is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. The state capital is Los Teques. - -Miranda State covers a total surface area of 7,950 km². It is the second largest state in population after Zulia Venezuela, approximately 3,028,965 (2011). - -Administrative divisions - -Municipalities and municipal seats - -Miranda state is sub-divided into 21 municipalities,. given below with their areas, populations and administrative seats: - -Other important towns - -Geography - -Hidrography - -Rivers - -El principal río del estado es el río Tuy. Nace a 2.100 m de altitud y recorre de 250 km. Otros ris del estado son: Guaire, Grande, Curiepe, Capaya, Guapo, Chupaquire, Panapo, Uchire, Chuspa and Aricagua. - -Lagoons - -In the state there are various gaps: Laguna de Tacarigua, Merecuere, Agua salud, El Conflicto y el Rosario. - -National parks - - El Ávila National Park. - Guatopo National Park. - Laguna de Tacarigua National Park. - Macarao National Park. - -Natural monuments - Cueva Alfredo Jahn. - Pico Codazzi. - Cuevas del Indio Park. - -Other sites of interest - - Acuario Agustín Codazzi. - Birongo. - El Pueblo El Jarillo. - Higuerote. - Playa de Carenero. - Playa de Chirimena. - Playas de Barlovento. - Playas de Buche y Los Totumos. - Puerto Francés. - Tren El Encanto. - -References - -Other websites - - Gobernación del Estado Miranda - Instituto Autónomo de Bibliotecas e Información del Estado Miranda - Estación Meteorológica de los altos mirandinos - Information about the region of the Tuy Valley - Notices about the region of Barlovento at Barloventoardiente.com - Guatire.net - Guarenas.com - -States of Venezuela" -16764,63962,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite,Sprite,"Sprite is a lemon-lime soda, similar to 7 UP and Sierra Mist. It is made by the Coca-Cola Company. It has no caffeine. In 2009, its logo was changed. - -Variants -There are many variants of Sprite. The two popular Sprite variants are: - Sprite, lemon-lime carbonated drink with no caffeine - Sprite Zero, the no calorie and no sugar added version of Sprite - -Soft drinks" -12931,47529,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennel,Fennel,"Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a kind of herb. It is native to the Mediterranean and some parts of Asia. Its bulb, leaves, and seeds may be eaten. Dried fennel seeds are used as a spice for flavoring food. Fennel was used to make the spiced wine, claret, in the Middle Ages. Their flavor is like anise. - -Images - -Other websites - Fennel - nutrition and uses - -Herbs -Spices -Apiaceae" -986,3889,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorimeter,Calorimeter,"A calorimeter is a tool that measures the amount of thermal energy contained in a substance, or released in a reaction. A commonplace use is to measure heat of combustion. - -Laboratory equipment -Measuring tools" -6092,19551,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Souter,David Souter,"David Hackett Souter (; born September 17, 1939) is a retired Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He served from October 1990 until his retirement in June 2009. Appointed by President George H. W. Bush to fill the seat left by William J. Brennan, Jr., Souter sat on both the Rehnquist and Roberts courts and came to vote reliably with the court's liberal members. - -Pre-Supreme Court -He was the only Justice during his time on the Court with court experience outside of a federal appeals court. He served as a prosecutor (1966–1968), in the New Hampshire Attorney General's office (1968–1976), as the Attorney General of New Hampshire (1976–1978), as an Associate Justice of the Superior Court of New Hampshire (1978–1983), as an Associate Justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court (1983–1990) and briefly as a Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (1990). - -Retirement -Following Souter's retirement announcement in May 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Sonia Sotomayor as his replacement. - -Related pages -Supreme Court of the United States - -References - -United States Supreme Court justices -Lawyers from Massachusetts -1939 births -Living people -US Republican Party politicians -Politicians from Massachusetts" -17670,66818,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentation,Documentation,"Documentation is something that people read for instructions or information on how to -do or use things. Documentation may consist of one or more documents on paper, a web page, -a file, and other media. - -Written communication" -10552,37559,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin,Heroin,"Heroin is a drug. It is also known as Diacetylmorphine or Diamorphine. Heroin was originally a trade name. It is an opioid - a type of drug which acts like morphine in the body. Heroin is called a semi-synthetic opioid. This means it is made from an opiate that occurs in nature. For Heroin, that natural opiate is morphine. - -Heroin is a white or brown powder made from the sap of the poppy plant. It is a painkiller. A painkiller is an analgesic drug. Its effects are like other drugs that come from the poppy plant sap. These include opium and morphine. - -People smoke or inject heroin to get a calm feeling of relaxation. It is called ""being high"". The extreme happiness is known as euphoria. Heroin is a very addictive drug. This means that once a person starts taking heroin, they will want to take more and more. They will want to continue even when they know it is making them sick and harming them. Heroin is an illegal drug in many countries, unless it is used to treat a medical problem. - -Drugs like cocaine, marijuana, and heroin have been decriminalized in numerous countries. To date, these include somewhere between 25 and 30 countries. - -Legality -It is illegal to make, sell, and use heroin in most countries, unless a doctor has prescribed it to a person to treat a medical problem. Many people smuggle heroin and sell it illegally on the streets to make money. - -Effects -If people use heroin, they may overdose (take too much), which can make them very sick or even kill them. - -When people take heroin, they get ""high,"" or intoxicated (like being drunk on alcohol). When a person is intoxicated, they can get hurt if they drive a car or other vehicle. Also, when a person is intoxicated, they may do dangerous things, like having unsafe sex or being violent towards others. - -Another danger is ""withdrawal"", which can happen when a person stops using heroin. As with other addictions, withdrawal is a painful, unpleasant process that involves physical and mental symptoms. Withdrawal is most common when people stop using heroin suddenly, or when a person who has been using heroin for a while tries to stop. However, a person can have withdrawal symptoms even after using heroin for just 3 days. Physical symptoms often include bad body aches, hot and cold sweats, chills, restlessness, diarrhea, and problems with eating and sleeping. These withdrawl symptoms are sometimes called cold turkey. Sometimes withdrawal feels like a very bad case of the flu. People can also have very strong psychological symptoms of withdrawal, like depression and strong cravings for heroin. Many heroin users are very afraid of withdrawal. Withdrawal - and fear of withdrawal - is one of the most common reasons why people have trouble quitting heroin. Medications like methadone and Suboxone are sometimes used to treat or prevent withdrawal symptoms, and to decrease cravings for heroin. - -Injecting heroin can be very dangerous. A person can get infections by using a needle that has not been cleaned properly. People who share the same needle can infect each other with diseases that travel in the blood, like HIV or hepatitis C. They can also do other dangerous things while high on heroin. - -Signs of an Overdose - - Extremely shallow and slow breathing. - Clammy skin. - Profound confusion. - Convulsions. - Cyanosis (bluish tint) of the fingernails and lips. - Dangerously slowed heart rate. - Coma. - Death. - -Detoxification -The primary objective of detoxification is to help the addict overcome a state of physical dependence on heroin by allowing time for the heroin and related toxins to exit the body. The body will adjust to the lack of heroin by reacting in various ways which may include pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, insomnia and other withdrawal symptoms. During detox, the patient will be provided with medications, therapy and treatment that will help to ease or eliminate withdrawal symptoms in a safe and effective manner. - -While detox is not actually a treatment for heroin addiction because it only focuses on providing treatment for the physical dependence that surrounds the addiction and does not place any focus on the psychological elements of the chemical dependency, it is a necessary first step to the recovery process. When detoxification is the first step of a lengthy heroin addiction treatment process which includes counseling and behavioral therapy, the process often leads to long-term success in recovery from heroin addiction. - -Street names -There are many slang names, or street names, for heroin. These names are different in different places. Some of the most common are Dope, Horse, Junk, H, Brown, Black Magic, Juice and Smack, number 4. - -Heroin history -In 1874, an English researcher, C.R. Wright, first synthesized heroin by boiling morphine and acetic anhydride. His early testing of heroin – then known as diacetylmorphine – showed undesirable side effects such as anxiety, sleepiness and vomiting immediately following administration. Accordingly, he discontinued his research. Over 20 years later in 1895, German scientist Heinrich Dreser and his colleagues at the pharmaceutical company Bayer continued Wright’s studies and declared diacetylmorphine successful in treating many common respiratory ailments. - -Heroin was first made in 1898, by the Bayer Company in Germany. At first, it was used as a cough medicine and a painkiller. People thought that heroin would help decrease morphine and opium addiction. But after twelve years, doctors realized that people became strongly addicted to heroin. In 1914, the United States passed the Harrison Act. This was the first of many attempts to control the use of heroin. - -The word heroin comes from the German word heroisch, which means powerful and heroic. - -References - -Illegal drugs" -24904,97773,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nanny,The Nanny,"The Nanny was an American sitcom starring Fran Drescher. It first showed in 1993 and ended in 1999. - -Starring - Fran Drescher - Charles Shaughnessy - Daniel Davis - Lauren Lane - Nicholle Tom - Benjamin Salisbury - Madeline Zima - Renée Taylor - Rachel Chagall - Ann Morgan Guilbert - -Characters - Fran Fine - Maxwell Sheffield - Niles - C. C. Babcock - Maggie Sheffield - Brighton Sheffield - Grace Sheffield - Sylvia Fine - Yetta Rosenberg - Val Toriello - -Story -Fran Fine is a bridal consultant at Danny's Parisian Brides for Less. Thinking her boyfriend of three years will propose at any minute, she stays with him. But in the series premier, he dumps her for Heather Biblow. He fires her so Heather Biblow can take her job. Fran is forced to take a job as a door-to-door cosmetics saleswoman for Shades of the Orient cosmetics. When she knocks on the door of the Sheffield residence, the man at the door, who turns out to be the butler, mistakes her for an applicant for the nanny position. After meeting the man of the house, Maxwell Sheffield, he is none to thrilled with her unorthodox manners and lack of experience. Out of desperation, he takes her on as nanny on a trial basis. - -The girls, Maggie, the oldest, and Gracie the youngest quickly warm up to her, but not Maxwell's son, the middle boy Brighton. He was the hardest to win over, and eventually she becomes an integral part of the Sheffield home, and she becomes best friends with the butler Niles. - -The series showed many hints of the growing attraction between Miss Fine and Mr Sheffield, even so far as Mr Sheffield saying he loved her....then taking it back. Eventually they do get married after a lot of ups and downs. Near the end of the series, Fran gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl. The Sheffields (Maxwell, Fran, Grace, Jonah, Eve) move to California. Maggie and Brighton take a trip to Europe. The last scene of the show is of Fran finding her Shades of the Orient case from the series premiere, looking at the case and the house with loving memories and walking out the door for the last time. - -Impact - -Reception -The show performed poorly in its first year. When it was almost canceled, Sagansky stepped in. According to Jacobson: ""At all those affiliate meetings, he used to say, 'Stick by The Nanny!' He knew it was something special."" The sitcom was the first new show delivered to CBS for the 1993 season. It was the highest-tested pilot at the network in years. The series was also very successful internationally. In Australia, it was one of the highest-rated programs during the mid-to-late 1990s. - -Ratings - -Related pages - List of The Nanny episodes - -References - -American sitcoms -English-language television programs" -10311,36056,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tainan,Tainan,"Tainan City () is a city in Southern Taiwan. It is the fifth largest city after Taipei, Kaohsiung, New Taipei City and Taichung City. Tainan was the capital of Taiwan in 1661 when Koxinga took the island from Dutch colonial rule. In 1684, the Qing Dynasty conquered Taiwan and created ""Taiwan Fu"" (the first local government in Taiwan). This was later renamed to ""Tainan Fu"" in 1885. Because it was the capital of Taiwan, Tainan is also called Fu-cheng (Government City). Tainan was also the capital of the Republic of Formosa. Tainan is one of the oldest cities in Taiwan, with the Dutch port at An-ping (安平) in 1624. It is also one of Taiwan's cultural capitals, as it built the First Confucian School/Temple on the island. There are remains of the Northern and Southern gates of the old city, and other old monuments. Tainan is the city with the most Buddhist and/or Taoist temples on Taiwan. Tainan City is surrounded by Tainan County to the north and east and the South China Sea to the west and south. - -History -Tainan is famous with its 300-year history and buildings with old designs. Before the year of 1700, there were only the earliest people living there. But everything changed after the Dutch got to Tainan and made Fort Zeelandia (also called Anping Fort) in Anping. Then in 1661, the Dutch were kicked out by Koxinga, who followed the ideas of the Ming Dynasty, and his army. He ended 38 years of Dutch rule in Taiwan. - -Twenty-two years later, the chief town of Taiwan moved to Tainan and Taiwan became a part of China under the Qing Dynasty’s rule. But the Qing Dynasty didn’t care much about Tainan. Afterwards, Japan took over Taiwan and built ""the Office of the Governor-General"" in Taipei. From then on, Taipei became more important than Tainan. After World War II, Taiwan is no longer under Japanese people's rule. Even though Tainan is not the chief town of Taiwan anymore, Tainan is still called ”Taiwan's cultural capital” because of its long history in Taiwan. - -Districts -Tainan City once had six districts: Anping, Annan, East, West Central, South, and North districts. Annan district was originally the An-Shun township of Tainan County, and was added into Tainan City in 1946. In December 25, 2010, it got merged with Tainan county, and upgraded into a special municipality. Its name remains Tainan City. Now the great Tainan City has 31 districts, and the central government want those districts incorporated into 10 to 12 districts in the future. But people in every township are not very positive about this. Because people are afraid that their budget would be downsized while every administrative area become much larger. For the central and local city government, there is a long way to go. - -Landmarks - -Tainan has a lot of popular scenic spots, such as: - Sicau Green Tunnel - Anping Treehouse - Chimei Museum - Black-faced Spoonbill Reserve - Cigu Salt Mountains - Chihkan Tower - Koxinga Shrine - Tainan Confucius Temple - -Twin towns and sister cities -Tainan has 28 twin towns and sister cities worldwide. Tainan signed the agreements with 9 cities in the US between 1965 and 1991. They are: - Monterey, California (1965) - San Jose, California (1977) - Kansas City, Missouri (1987) - Columbus, Ohio (1980) - Orlando, Florida (1982) - Fairbanks, Alaska (1983) - Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (1986) - Huntsville, Alabama (1986) - Carbondale, Illinois (1991) - -Related pages - List of counties of Republic of China - -References - -Other websites - - International students @ Tainan English city-guide - -Cities in Taiwan" -22542,85279,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brione%20%28Verzasca%29,Brione (Verzasca),"Brione is a former municipality of the district of Locarno in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -On 17 October 2020 the former municipalities of Brione (Verzasca), Corippo, Frasco, Sonogno and Vogorno merged to form the new municipality of Verzasca. - -References - -Former municipalities of Ticino" -10181,35262,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont%20Blanc,Mont Blanc,"Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco in Italian) is a mountain in the Alps. Its height is 4810.90 metres. When Mount Elbrus (5,642 m) in the Caucasus is left out, Mont Blanc is often considered the highest point in Europe. - -Mont Blanc is on the Italy/France border. - -References - -Other websites - - - -Alps -Mountains of France -Mountains of Italy" -24597,96089,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass%20clarinet,Bass clarinet,"The bass clarinet is a type of clarinet, and is a woodwind single-reed instrument. The earliest record of a bass clarinet is called a 'bass tube' invented in Paris in 1772 by G. Lott. It usually has a B-flat pitch. It plays an octave lower than the normal clarinet. This means that when a Bass Clarinet makes a note, the note that actually sounds is an octave and a whole tone lower. There are some bass clarinets that have an A or C pitch as well as E flat, but there are not very many of these. - -References - -Other websites - - -Woodwind instruments" -8857,29967,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holi,Holi,"Holi is one of the major festivals of Hindus. It is celebrated in South Asian countries, especially in India and Nepal. Hiranyanaksap wanted to kill his son, so he called his sister, Holika. She had a magic robe. This robe had the power to save the wearer from burning in fire. Hiranyakashyap ordered his sister to sit on a burning fire along with Prahlad. He thought that his sister would not be harmed by the fire of the magic robe and Prahlad would be burnt to death. But the result was the opposite of what the evil demon king planned. - -Thus Prahlad came out of the burning fire safely and Holika was burnt to death. Holi is the festival of colours. It is celebrated with colors to mark the victory of virtue and goodness over evil. - -The festival is celebrated for two days. The 2nd day, Rang Panchami marks the closing day of the Holi festival. - -People are seen with different varieties of colors on Holi. They put colors on each other, sing, dance. They worship Lord Krishna and put colors on his idol. - -Families gather together and Parvi the whole day. - -References - -Other websites - - How to practice safe Holi, Government of India - Holi in pictures from The Guardian - -Hindu festivals -Indian culture -Maharashtra -Religious holidays -Sikhism -Suriname" -18673,70047,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%20art,Rock art,"Rock art is a term in archaeology for any markings that were made on natural stone by human beings. They can be divided into: - -Petroglyphs – carvings into stone surfaces -Pictographs – rock and cave paintings - -In addition, there is rock art made by aligning or piling natural stones. The stones themselves are used as large markings on the ground. - -Location -One can find petroglyphs and pictographs on the walls of a cave or on rock in open-air. - -Similar terms -Rock art has also been described as rock records, rock sculptures, rock inscriptions, rock carvings, rock paintings, rock engravings, rock drawings, rock pictures, - -Gallery - -Related pages -Cave painting -Upper Palaeolithic - -References - -Further reading -Malotki, Ekkehart and Weaver, Donald E. Jr., 2002, Stone Chisel and Yucca Brush: Colorao Plateau Rock Art, Kiva Publishing Inc., Walnut, CA, (cloth). For the ""general public"", this book has well over 200 color prints with commentary on each site where the photos were taken; the organization begins with the earliest art and goes to modern times. -Rohn, Arthur H. and Freguson, William M, 2006, Puebloan ruins of the Southwest, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM, (pbk, : alk. paper). Adjunct to the primary discussion of the ruins, contains color prints of rock art at the sites, plus interpretations. -Schaafsma, Polly, 1980, Indian Rock Art of the Southwest, School of American Research, Sana Fe, University of New Mexico press, Albuquerque, NM, . Scholarly text with 349 references, 32 color plates, 283 black and white ""Figures"", 11 Maps, and 2 Tables. - -Other websites - Ekaterina, Devlet. 2001. Rock Art and the material culture of Siberian and central Asian shamanism. In The Archaeology of Shamanism. 43-54. 01/04/2007. - Rock Art studies - A Bibliographic database at the Bancroft Library containing over 10,000 citations to the world's rock art literature. - The website of Rock Art Foundation - Native American Rock Art - Trust for African Rock Art - British Rock Art Collection - ARARA American Rock Art Research Association. - Rupestre.net A rock art site, mainly devoted to Valcamonica and Alpine Rock Art. - EuroPreArt The database of European Prehistoric Art. - Art and Archaeology of the Dampier Archipelago - Bradshaw Foundation Supports dissemination of information on rock art, migration, and the study of artistic man around the world. -Rock Art in South Africa http://rockart.wits.ac.za/origins/ - UNESCO World Heritage: Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka - -Art -Painting -Ancient history -Stone Age" -21797,83050,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetic%20Republic,Helvetic Republic,"The Helvetic Republic was a state lasting for five years, from 1798 to 1803. Its name came from the Helvetii people. - -Former countries in Europe" -6337,20189,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palma%20de%20Mallorca,Palma de Mallorca,"Palma de Mallorca is the capital of the Balearic Islands and the Mallorca island, in the Mediterranean Sea, in front of the Iberian Peninsula. The city, with a population of 410,000, is the ninth-largest of Spain. It is a very important tourist center in the world, and is famous for its historic architecture. It has one university, a subway, and the international airport lies just southwest of the city. - -Capital cities in Spain" -19004,71641,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhasa%20Apso,Lhasa Apso,"The Lhasa Apso is a small breed of dog. It originated in Lhasa, Tibet, which it is named after. Male Lhasas generally weigh about 14 to 18 pounds, and female Lhasas weigh 12 to 14 pounds. Lhasas have developed a thick coat of fur because they were bred in Tibet, which can get very cold. Their coat comes in many different colors, and they usually have dark brown eyes and a black nose. Lhasas generally live long lives, some surviving into their twenties. Lhasa Apsos do tend to develop arthritis in their legs, which is due to the fact they are excitable, energetic dogs. - - Behavior problems are minimal, but the Lhasa Apso can be a little headstrong and stubborn, which may make it slightly difficult to train. The coat can also require a lot of effort to maintain. - -Other websites - Lhasa World Forum - -Dog breeds" -23756,91618,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden%20Government%20Region,Dresden Government Region,"Dresden is one of the three Regierungsbezirke of the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It is found in the south-eastern part of the state. - -Saxony is divided into urban (meaning in the city) and rural (meaning in the country) districts like all German states. The districts are grouped into government areas (regierungsbezirke) as well. - -Other websites - Official website" -13900,51422,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Dunkirk,Battle of Dunkirk,"The Battle of Dunkirk (French: Bataille de Dunkerque) (Also known as Operation Dynamo) was a major battle during World War II. It lasted from the 26 May until 4 June 1940. The Allied forces were split in two by a German armoured advance to the Channel coast at Calais. The British and French commanders had been taken by surprise at the speed of the advance. The northern part of the army was surrounded In Dunkirk, France, a port on the English Channel. There they made a perimeter and waited for an evacuation. The majority were able to escape. French troops elsewhere continued the Battle of France. - -References - -Other websites - WW2DB: Invasion of ''France and the Low Countries - -1940 in France -Dunkirk -Dunkirk -Dunkirk -Dunkirk -Dunkirk -Hauts-de-France -May 1940 events -June 1940 events" -15173,57331,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aston%20Martin,Aston Martin,"Aston Martin Lagonda Limited is a luxury car company that was started in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford. - -The company name is derived from the Aston Clinton hill climb and one of the company's founders, Lionel Martin. - -The company went in and out of business a few times between World War I and World War II. Lionel Martin left the company in 1926. The company was sold from one person to another many times until 1947, when David Brown bought it. David Brown also bought Lagonda, and used Lagonda engines in his cars. Aston Martin cars built when David Brown owned the company had the letters ""DB"" in the name. An Aston Martin won the 24-hour race at Le Mans in 1959. - -David Brown sold the company again. The company was having trouble staying open in the 1970s. Victor Gauntlett bought part of the company and kept it going with help from buyers of other parts of the company. In 1991 the Ford Motor Company bought Aston Martin and started making DB cars again. Ford owned Aston Martin until 2007 when they sold it to Investment Dar and Adeem Investments. - -References - -British automobile companies -1913 establishments in Europe -1910s establishments in the United Kingdom" -15983,61391,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Sharks,San Jose Sharks,"The San Jose Sharks are an ice hockey team that plays in the National Hockey League (NHL). The team is based in San Jose, California and was founded on May 9th, 1990. It started playing in the NHL in autumn 1991. The team colours are pacific teal, grey, burnt orange and black. Because of this it is often called ""Team Teal"". - -The Sharks host their games at SAP Center at San Jose and are coached by Peter DeBoer. Before that, Todd McLellan was their coach from 2008 to 2015. Some famous players for the Sharks are Joe Pavelski, Joe Thornton, Jonathan Cheechoo, Rob Blake, Evgeni Nabokov, Dan Boyle and Patrick Marleau. - -On May 25, 2016, the San Jose Sharks went to their first Stanley Cup by beating the St. Louis Blues 5-2 in 6 games but however, on June 12, 2016, they lost to the Pittsburgh Penguins which was also in 6 games. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - - -1990 establishments in California" -19653,75291,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater%20Hesse,Greater Hesse,"Greater Hesse () was a part of the American Occupation Zone of Germany after World War II - -The German Empire broke up after World War I. The Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt () became the People's State of Hesse () on 2 March 1919. - -After World War II, on 19 September 1945, the American Military Government joined Hesse-Darmstadt (except for Rheinhessen) with parts of the Prussian provinces of Kurhessen and Nassau to form Greater-Hesse. - -On 18 December 1946 the state was renamed Hesse, and in 1949 became a part of the Federal Republic of Germany. - -Hesse -1945 establishments in Germany -1946 disestablishments in Europe -World War II -Former states in Germany -1940s disestablishments in Germany" -3261,9950,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%208,September 8," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. - 1380 - Battle of Kulikovo: Russian forces defeat a mixed army of Tatars and Mongols, stopping their advance. - 1504 – Michelangelo's David statue is unveiled in Florence. - 1514 - Battle of Orsha: In one of the biggest battles of the century, Lithuanians and Poles defeat the Russian army. - 1565 - The Knights of Malta end the Turkish Siege of Malta that began on May 18. - 1665 - Warsaw falls without resistance to a small force under Charles X Gustav of Sweden. - 1727 - A barn fire during a puppet show in the village of Burwell in Cambridgeshire, England, kills 78 people, most of them children. - 1761 – King George III of the United Kingdom marries Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. - 1796 - French Revolutionary Wars: The French defeat Austrian forces in Bassano, Venetia, present-day Italy. - 1831 – William IV of the United Kingdom is crowned king. - 1860 - The steamship Lady Elgin sinks on Lake Michigan, killing around 300 people. - 1863 – American Civil War: At the Second Battle of Sabine Pass, the Confederates prevent an attempt from the Union army to enter Texas. - 1883 - The Northern Pacific Railway is completed in a ceremony at Gold Creek, Montana, United States. - 1888 - Jack the Ripper killings: The body of Annie Chapman is found. - 1888 - in England, the first six Football League matches are played. - 1892 – The American Pledge of Allegiance is recited for the first time. - 1900 – In Galveston, Texas, a hurricane kills around 8,000 people. - -1901 2000 - 1914 - World War I: Private Thomas Highgate becomes the first British soldier to be executed for desertion during the war. - 1923 - Honda Point disaster: Nine United States Navy destroyers run aground on the California coast. Seven are lost and 23 sailors are killed. - 1926 – Germany is admitted to the League of Nations. - 1928 - Uruguay is given the right to host the 1930 FIFA World Cup. - 1934 - Off the New Jersey coast, a fire aboard the passenger liner SS Morro Castle kills 135 people. - 1935 - United States Senator Huey Long from Louisiana is fatally shot the state's capitol building. - 1941 - World War II: The Siege of Leningrad begins. - 1943 – World War II: US General Dwight D. Eisenhower publicly announces the allied armistice with Italy. - 1944 - London is hot by a V-2 rocket for the first time. - 1945 - United States troops arrive to partition South Korea after the Soviet occupation of the northern part. - 1962 – Algeria adopts its constitution. - 1966 – The First episode of Star Trek airs. - 1966 - The Severn Bridge in southwestern England is officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II. - 1974 – Gerald Ford pardons former US President Richard Nixon. - 1986 - The Oprah Winfrey Show is broadcast for the first time on US television. - 1988 - Yellowstone National Park is closed for the first time in its history due to ongoing fires. - 1989 - Partnair Flight 394 crashes in the North Sea, killing 55 people. - 1991 – The Republic of Macedonia becomes independent. - 1994 - USAir Flight 427, on approach to Pittsburgh International Airport, suddenly crashes, killing all 132 on board. - -From 2001 - 2004 - NASA's unmanned spacecraft Genesis crash-lands in Utah when its parachute fails to open. - 2005 - Two EMERCOM II-76 aircraft land at a disaster aid staging area at Little Rock Air Force Base in Arkansas - the first time Russia has flown such a mission to North America. - 2013 - Eleven people die in a train crash in Iasi County, Romania. - 2018 - US Open: Naomi Osaka becomes the first Japanese tennis player to win a Grand Slam title, in a match dominated by her opponent Serena Williams' disputes with the umpire. - 2019 - US Open: Rafael Nadal defeats Daniil Medvedev in five sets to win his 19th Grand Slam singles title, putting him just one behind Roger Federer's total of 20. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 801 Ansgar, German Christian archbishop (d. 865) - 1157 King Richard I of England (d. 1199) - 1207 King Sancho II of Portugal (d. 1248) - 1380 Saint Bernardino of Siena, Italian Franciscan missionary (d. 1444) - 1413 Catherine of Bologna, Italian nun, writer, mystic, teacher, artist and saint (d. 1463) - 1474 Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet (d. 1533) - 1588 Marin Mersenne, French mathematician (d. 1648) - 1611 Johann Friedrich Gronovius, German philologist (d. 1671) - 1621 Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Conde, French general (d. 1686) - 1624 Murad Baksh, son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal (d. 1661) - 1633 Ferdinand IV of Germany (d. 1654) - 1749 Gabrielle de Polastron, duchesse de Polignac, French aristocrat (d. 1793) - 1749 Marie-Louise, princesse de Lamballe, French aristocrat (d. 1792) - 1750 Tanikaze Kajinosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler (d. 1795) - 1752 Carl Stenborg, Swedish opera singer (d. 1813) - 1767 August von Schlegel, German poet (d. 1845) - 1778 Clemens Brentano, German poet (d. 1842) - 1779 Mustafa IV, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1808) - 1783 Nicolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig, Danish writer and philosopher (d. 1872) - 1814 Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, French archaeologist, ethnographer and historian (d. 1874) - 1815 Giuseppina Strepponi, Italian operatic soprano (d. 1897) - 1819 Fontes Pereira de Melo, Portuguese statesman (d. 1887) - 1822 Karl von Ditmar, German geologist and explorer (d. 1892) - 1828 Joshua Chamberlain, American general, politician and 32nd Governor of Maine (d. 1914) - 1830 Frédéric Mistral, French poet (d. 1914) - 1831 Wilhelm Raabe, German writer (d. 1910) - 1841 Antonín Dvořák, Czech composer (d. 1904) - 1841 Charles J. Guiteau, assassin of US President James A. Garfield (d. 1882) - 1851 John Jenkins, American-born Premier of South Australia (d. 1923) - 1852 Emperor Gwangmu of Korea (d. 1919) - 1857 Georg Michaelis, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1936) - 1872 George Dern, Governor of Utah (d. 1936) - 1873 David O. McKay, American Mormon leader (d. 1970) - 1881 Harry Hillman, American athlete (d. 1945) - 1881 Refik Saydam, 5th Prime Minister and Turkey (d. 1942) - 1886 Siegfried Sassoon, British poet (d. 1967) - 1886 Ninon Vallin, French soprano (d. 1961) - 1887 Jacob L. Devers, American general (d. 1979) - 1887 George, Crown Prince of Serbia (d. 1972) - 1889 Robert Alphonso Taft, American politician (d. 1953) - 1897 Jimmie Rodgers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1933) - 1900 Claude Pepper, American politician (d. 1989) - -1901 1950 - 1901 Hendrik Verwoerd, South African politician (d. 1966) - 1906 Andrei Kirilenko, Soviet politician (d. 1990) - 1910 Jean-Louis Barrault, French actor and director (d. 1994) - 1914 Patriarch Demetrios I of Constantinople (d. 1991) - 1918 Derek Harold Richard Barton, British chemist (d. 1998) - 1919 Gianni Brera, Italian journalist and author (d. 1992) - 1919 Maria Lassnig, Austrian painter (d. 2014) - 1921 Harry Secombe, Welsh tenor and actor (d. 2001) - 1922 Sid Caesar, American comedian and actor (d. 2014) - 1922 Lyndon LaRouche, American politician (d. 2019) - 1923 Joy Laville, British-Mexican artist (d. 2018) - 1924 Fred Jarvis, British trade unionist - 1924 Wendell H. Ford, American politician, 53rd Governor of Kentucky (d. 2015) - 1925 Peter Sellers, British actor (d. 1980) - 1929 Christoph von Dohnanyi, German conductor - 1930 Mario Adorf, Swiss-German actor - 1930 Nguyen Cao Ky, South Vietnamese air force chief and Prime Minister (d. 2011) - 1930 Robert W. Firestone, American psychologist and author - 1932 Patsy Cline, American singer (d. 1963) - 1933 Paul M. Fleiss, American pediatrician (d. 2014) - 1934 Alan Dundes, American folklorist (d. 2005) - 1937 Joe Carolan, Irish footballer (d. 2018) - 1938 Wibke Bruhns, German journalist and writer (d. 2019) - 1939 Carsten Keller, German field hockey player - 1941 Ito Giani, Italian sprinter (d. 2018) - 1941 Bernie Sanders, American politician - 1944 Margaret Hodge, English politician - 1944 Terry Jenner, Australian cricketer and coach - 1945 Ron ""Pigpen"" McKernan, American musician (Grateful Dead) (d. 1973) - 1945 Rogie Vachon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach - 1946 Aziz Sancar, Turkish-American biochemist and molecular biologist, Nobel laureate - 1947 Halldor Asgrimsson, Icelandic politician, former Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 2015) - 1947 Valery Afanassiev, Russian politician - 1948 Great Kabuki, Japanese wrestler - 1950 Ian Davidson, Scottish politician - -1951 1975 - 1951 John McDonnell, English politician - 1952 David R. Ellis, American director, actor and stuntman (d. 2013) - 1954 Anne Diamond, English journalist - 1955 Julian Richings, English-Canadian actor - 1956 David Carr, American journalist and writer (d. 2015) - 1957 Walt Easley, American football player (d. 2013) - 1957 Ricardo Montaner, Argentine-Venezuelan singer - 1958 Mitsuru Miyamoto, Japanese voice actor - 1959 Judy Murray, Scottish tennis coach - 1960 Aimee Mann, American musician - 1960 Stefano Casiraghi, Italian businessman, married into Monegasque royalty (d. 1990) - 1963 Danny Frawley, Australian footballer (d. 2019) - 1963 Brad Silberling, American television and movie director - 1966 Carola, Swedish singer - 1967 Eerik-Niiles Kross, Estonian politician and diplomat - 1968 Louise Minchin, English journalist - 1969 Gary Speed, Welsh footballer and coach (d. 2011) - 1970 Latren Sprewell, American basketball player - 1970 Nidal Malik Hassan, American soldier and murderer - 1971 David Arquette, American actor - 1971 Martin Freeman, English actor - 1972 Markus Babbel, German footballer - 1973 Khamis Al-Owairan, Saudi footballer - 1975 Richard Hughes, English musician (Keane) - 1975 Chris Latham, Australian rugby player - 1975 Lee Eul-Yong, South Korean footballer and manager - 1975 Elena Likhovtseva, Russian tennis player - -From 1976 - 1976 Sjeng Schalken, Dutch tennis player - 1976 Gerald Drummond, Costa Rican footballer - 1976 Jervis Drummond, Costa Rican footballer - 1979 Pink, American singer - 1980 Mbulaeni Mulaudzi, South African runner (d. 2014) - 1980 Kristian Kjelling, Norwegian handball player - 1981 Morten Gamst Pedersen, Norwegian footballer - 1983 Diego Benaglio, Swiss footballer - 1984 Peter Whittingham, English footballer - 1984 Vitaly Petrov, Russian racing driver - 1986 Joao Moutinho, Portuguese footballer - 1987 Wiz Khalifa, American rapper - 1987 Alexandre Bilodeau, Canadian freestyle skier - 1987 Marcel Nguyen, German gymnast - 1987 Dom Parsons, English skeleton racer - 1988 Chantal Jones, American model and actress - 1989 Avicii, Swedish DJ and producer (d. 2018) - 1989 Gylfi Sigurdsson, Icelandic footballer - 1990 Matt Barkley, American football player - 1991 Ignacio González Espinoza, Mexican footballer - 1991 Joe Sugg, English YouTuber, author and vlogger - 1994 Bruno Fernandes, Portuguese footballer - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 394 Arbogast, Frankish general - 701 Pope Sergius I - 780 Leo IV the Khazar, Byzantine Emperor (b. 750) - 1100 Antipope Clement III (b. 1029) - 1134 Alfonso I of Aragon and Navarre (b. 1073) - 1397 Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, English politician (b. 1355) - 1425 King Charles III of Navarre (b. 1361) - 1613 Carlo Gesualdo, Italian composer (b. 1566) - 1637 Robert Fludd, English physician, mathematician and cosmologist (b. 1574) - 1644 John Coke, English politician (b. 1563) - 1645 Francisco de Quevedo, Spanish poet and politician (b. 1580) - 1682 Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (b. 1606) - 1780 Enoch Poor, American general (b. 1736) - 1784 Ann Lee, American religious leader (b. 1736) - 1811 Peter Simon Pallas, German zoologist and botanist (b. 1741) - 1882 Joseph Liouville, French mathematician (b. 1809) - 1888 Annie Chapman, victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1841) - 1894 Hermann von Helmholtz, German physician and physicist (b. 1821) - -1901 2000 - 1916 Friedrich Baumfelder, German pianist, composer and conductor (b. 1836) - 1933 King Faisal I of Iraq (b. 1883) - 1944 Richard Strauss, German composer (b. 1864) - 1963 Maurice Wilks, English automotive engineer (b. 1904) - 1965 Dorothy Dandridge, American actress and singer (b. 1922) - 1965 Hermann Staudinger, German chemist (b. 1881) - 1969 Bud Collyer, American actor and game show host (b. 1908) - 1970 Percy Spencer, inventor (b. 1894) - 1978 Ricardo Zamora, Spanish footballer (b. 1901) - 1979 Jean Seberg, American actress (b. 1938) - 1980 Willard Libby, American chemist (b. 1908) - 1981 Roy Wilkins, American civil rights activist (b. 1901) - 1981 Hideki Yukawa, Japanese physicist (b. 1907) - 1981 Nisargadatta Maharaj, Indian guru, philosopher and educator (b. 1897) - 1983 Antoine Magne, French cyclist (b. 1904) - 1985 John Franklin Enders, American scientist - 1989 Sgt. Barry Sadler, American soldier, writer and songwriter (b. 1940) - 1999 Moondog, American composer, musician and poet (b. 1916) - -From 2001 - 2003 Leni Riefenstahl, German movie maker (b. 1902) - 2003 Jaclyn Linetsky, Canadian voice actress (b. 1986) - 2004 Delfín Benítez Cáceres, Paraguayan footballer (b. 1910) - 2006 Thomas Lee Judge, 18th Governor of Montana (b. 1934) - 2009 Aage Niels Bohr, Danish physicist (b. 1922) - 2010 Israel Tal, Israeli military (b. 1924) - 2011 Vo Chi Cong, former President of Vietnam (b. 1912) - 2012 Bill Moggridge, English-American designer, author and educator (b. 1943) - 2012 Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist and academic (b. 1920) - 2013 Louise Currie, American actress (b. 1913) - 2014 George Zuverink, American baseball player (b. 1924) - 2014 Gerald Wilson, American jazz trumpeter (b. 1918) - 2014 Magda Olivero, Italian operatic soprano (b. 1910) - 2014 Bobby Fong, American academic (b. 1950) - 2014 Sean O'Haire, American professional wrestler, mixed martial artist and kickboxer (b. 1971) - 2015 Andrew Kohut, American political scientist (b. 1942) - 2015 Joost Zwagerman, Dutch author (b. 1963) - 2015 Ebby Halliday, American businesswoman (b. 1911) - 2016 Prince Buster, Jamaican musician (b. 1938) - 2017 Pierre Bergé, French businessman and activist (b. 1930) - 2017 Isabelle Daniels, American sprinter (b. 1937) - 2017 Catherine Hardy Lavender, American sprinter (b. 1930) - 2017 Blake Heron, American actor (b. 1982) - 2017 Jerry Pournelle, American science fiction author (b. 1933) - 2017 Karl Ravens, German politician (b. 1927) - 2017 Don Williams, American country music singer-songwriter (b. 1939) - 2018 Jonas Algirdas Antanaitis, Lithuanian politician (b. 1921) - 2018 Gennadi Gagulia, Abkhazian politician, Prime Minister of Abkhazia (b. 1948) - 2018 Chelsi Smith, American singer and beauty pageant winner (b. 1973) - 2019 Chris Dobson, British chemist (b. 1949) - 2019 Ram Jethmalani, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1923) - 2019 Yisrael Kessar, Yemeni-born Israeli politician (b. 1931) - 2019 Lito Legaspi, Filipino actor (b. 1941) - 2019 Christopher James, 5th Baron Northbourne, British aristocrat (b. 1926) - 2019 Joseph P. Kolter, American politician (b. 1926) - 2019 Camilo Sesto, Spanish singer-songwriter (b. 1946) - 2019 Olav Skjevesland, Norwegian Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1942) - 2019 Carlos Squeo, Argentine footballer (b. 1948) - -Observances - National Holiday (Andorra and Republic of Macedonia) - International Literacy Day (UNESCO) - Victory Day (Pakistan) - Nativity of the Virgin (Christianity) - -September 08" -22244,84302,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleujouse,Pleujouse,"Pleujouse is a former municipality in the district of Porrentruy in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. Since 1 January 2009, it is part of the new municipality of La Baroche - -Former municipalities of Jura" -9049,30978,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetology,Cetology,"Cetology is a type of science. It is the study of the cetaceans. It includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises. - -Cetology is the branch of marine mammal science which studies approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. The term was created in the mid-19th century from the Greek cetus (""whale"") and -ology (""study""). -Cetologists, or those who study it, seek to understand and explain cetacean evolution, distribution, morphology, behavior, community dynamics, and other topics. - -References - -Branches of zoology" -10548,37531,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Deakin,Alfred Deakin,"Alfred William Deakin (3 August 1856 – 7 October 1919) was the second Prime Minister of Australia. - -He was born in Collingwood, Melbourne, Australia, the second child of William Deakin. In the 1890s he helped Australia become a country. He was Australia's first Attorney-General (head lawyer) when Edmund Barton was Prime Minister and then became Prime Minister after Barton left. He introduced the Bill to start Australia's High Court, began planning for a railway to cross Australia, took over control of New Guinea from Britain, and introduced old age pensions. - -Deakin married Elizabeth Brown on 3 April 1882. They had three children. - -When he was old he had Alzheimer's disease which made him forget a lot of things. -Alfred Deakin died on the 7 October 1919 in South Yarra, Victoria.He was buried at St.Kilda Cemetery. - -References - -1856 births -1919 deaths -Deaths from Alzheimer's disease -Prime Ministers of Australia -Politicians from Melbourne -Attorneys General of Australia -Leaders of the Opposition (Australia) -Commonwealth Liberal Party politicians -Protectionist Party politicians -Australian ministers for Foreign Affairs -Members of the Australian House of Representatives" -17241,65267,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthouse%20of%20Alexandria,Lighthouse of Alexandria,"The Lighthouse of Alexandria, or the Pharos, was a tall tower built between 285 and 247 BCE. It was built on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt to serve as a lighthouse for sailors. The top of the tower had a mirror that reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night. - -The word for ""lighthouse"" in some languages is pharos or its equivalent. - -Construction -Legend holds that Ptolemy I Soter would not allow Sostratus to put his name on the tower, but the architect left the following inscription on the base's walls: -
    ΣΟΣΤΡΑΤΟΣ ΔΕΞΙΦΑΝΟΥ ΚΝΙΔΙΟΣ ΘΕΟΙΣ ΣΩΤΕΡΣΙΝ ΥΠΕΡ ΤΩΝ ΠΛΩΙΖΟΜΕΝΩΝ. (Sostratus of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods protecting those upon the sea.)
    -These words were hidden under a layer of plaster, on top of which was chiseled another inscription honoring Ptolemy the king as builder of the Pharos. After centuries the plaster wore away, revealing the name of Sostratus. - -With a height estimated at between 115 and 145 meters (384 – 469 ft), it was among the tallest man-made structures on Earth for many centuries. It was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by Antipater of Sidon. It was the third tallest building after the two Great Pyramids (of Khufu and Khafra). It was destroyed by earthquakes. - -Recent archaeological research -Divers discovered remains of the lighthouse in fall 1994 on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour. Some of these remains were brought up and were lying at the harbour on public view at the end of 1995. An episode of the PBS television series Nova chronicled the discovery. Later satellite imaging has revealed further remains. It is possible to go diving and see the ruins. - -References - -Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt -Seven Wonders of the World -Alexandria -Lighthouses -Transport in Egypt -3rd-century BC establishments -Establishments in Egypt" -11704,42999,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braveheart,Braveheart,"Braveheart is an American historical movie war drama movie starring Mel Gibson and Sophie Marceau. It is loosely based around the life of 13th century Scottish warrior William Wallace, who fought against the English when they occupied Scotland. - -Actors in Leading Roles - Mel Gibson - as William Wallace - Sophie Marceau - as Princess Isabelle - Patrick McGoohan - as King Edward I - -Release dates - -Other websites - - - -1990s biographical movies -1995 drama movies -1990s war movies -Academy Award winning movies -American biographical movies -American drama movies -American epic movies -American war movies -Best Picture Oscar -English-language movies -Historical movies -Movies set in Scotland -Movies directed by Mel Gibson" -23694,91297,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%20Pearson,April Pearson,"April Janet Pearson (born 23 January 1989 in Bristol) is an English actress. - -In early 2007, Pearson appeared in the first series of Skins on E4 as Michelle Richardson. She has appeared in Casualty, playing four different characters. - -April currently lives in Bristol. She was head girl at Colston's Girls' School. - -References - -Other websites - -April Pearson Interview at The National Student Magazine - -1989 births -Living people -Actors from Bristol -British child actors -English movie actors -English television actors" -19129,72369,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrod,Nimrod,"Nimrod (; , an-Namrūd) according to the Bible was the son of Cush, grandson of Ham and a ""mighty hunter before the Lord"" who built cities at Akkad, Erech (Uruk), and Babel. According to many legends, and as told by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, he became an evil tyrant who forced all his subjects to bake bricks for the Tower of Babel. - -References - -Old Testament people" -8943,30365,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s%20University,Queen's University,"Queen's University is a public university in Kingston, Ontario, Canada. Queen's University was started on October 16, 1841. - -References - -Colleges and universities in Canada" -5455,17760,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oder-Neisse%20line,Oder-Neisse line,"The Oder-Neisse line (named after the Oder and Neisse rivers) is the border between Germany and Poland since the end of the Second World War. As a result of the defeat Germany lost a part of its territory to Poland. Previously, the German Empire had to cede the former Prussian provinces of Posen and Westpreußen, as well as parts of upper Silesia, to the newly founded Polish state after the First World War in 1919. In earlier centuries these territories were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They were annexed to the Kingdom of Prussia, as a result of the tripartite partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the Kingdom Prussia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire. - -Most of the ethnically-German part of the population of these provinces, alongside most of the German minority population in what was Poland before the Second World War (741,000 people), either fled before the Red Army to central and western Germany or were forcibly resettled later. It should be noted here that German citizens of Polish descent and ethically-Polish residents of these regions and other parts of Germany faced systematic discrimination, internment in concentration camps, property-confiscations, forced-resettlement and expulsion under the Nazi administration. - -Geography of Germany -History of Germany -Geography of Poland -History of Poland -World War II" -2357,7684,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes,Cannes,"Cannes () is a commune and the prefecture of Alpes-Maritimes. - -It is most famous for the Cannes Film Festival, which takes place every summer. Many famous people come to the movie festival from around the world to promote their movies and to see other peoples' movies too. -Photos, videos, paintings of Cannes and Cannes film festival -Life in Cannes has always been glamorous -a tiny fishing village once existed were Cannes States today - -(french/english and more) -cannes population is 70,400" -23767,91657,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein%2C%20Saxony,"Frankenstein, Saxony","Frankenstein is a former municipality in the Mittelsachsen Rural District, in Saxony, Germany. - -About 1200 people live in the village. - -With effect from 1 January 2012, it has been incorporated into the town of Oederan. - -Former municipalities of Germany -Settlements in Saxony -Mittelsachsen Rural District" -3054,9574,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20Russia,President of Russia,"The President of Russia is the head of state and head of the executive of the central government of Russia and the commander in chief of the Russian Armed Forces. The current president is Vladimir Putin. Boris Yeltsin was the first president of Russia, Vladimir Putin was second and fourth, and Dmitry Medvedev was the third. His duties are listed in the 1993 Russian Constitution. The president directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation. - -The first inauguration took place on 10 July 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev having to resign sealed the fate of the Soviet Union. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the Russian federation. - -Inauguration of the President of Russia is done six years after the last inauguration (since 2000, this 7 May). - -In case if the President dies, resigns or is removed from office, the Prime Minister serves as acting President until a replacement is appointed. - -List of presidents - -Living former Presidents -As of , there is only one living former president. The only death of a former president was that of Boris Yeltsin (1991–1999) on April 23, 2007, aged 76. - -References - -Other websites -Official site of the President of Russia - -Presidents of Russia" -3924,11702,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn,Tallinn,"Tallinn is the capital of Estonia. It is on the north-eastern coast of Estonia and borders the Gulf of Finland. The city is next to many lakes. The largest of these lakes is called Lake Ülemiste, and most Tallinnites get their drinking water from this lake. - -Tallinn's Old Town, which is the historic town center, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - -History - -Tallinn first appeared on a map in 1154, when the cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, calling the city Qlwn, added it to his map of the world. After being conquered by the Danes, the city was known as Reval until Estonia became an independent nation in the 1920s. - -In 1285, the city became a part of the Hanseatic League. As a result, in the Middle Ages Tallinn was an important stop on the trade routes between Europe and Russia. During its history Estonia has been ruled at times by Sweden and by Russia. It became independent in 1918 after World War I, but after World War II it was ruled by the USSR. In March 1944 Tallinn was bombed by Soviet Air Force, killing 436 civilians and totally destroying 5073 buildings. Since 1991, Tallinn has been the capital of an independent Estonia. - -Today more than 400,000 people live in Tallinn, which is one third of the population of Estonia. It is a big sea port. Its food and textile industries are important. The town has many pretty, old buildings. - -Climate -The chart below shows the climate of Tallinn. - -Gallery - -References - -World Heritage Sites in Europe" -2105,7209,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20Oddity,Space Oddity,"David Bowie's first big hit record was the single ""Space Oddity"" in 1969. This album though only really sold well when he became more famous in 1973. Many of the songs are very melodic, with good tunes, and are unusual. - -The songs on this album are: - Space Oddity - Unwashed And Somewhat Slightly Dazed - Letter To Hermione - Cygnet Committee - Janine - An Occasional Dream - Wild Eyed Boy From Freecloud - God Knows I'm Good - Memory Of A Free Festival - -1969 albums -Rock albums -Folk albums -David Bowie" -20607,79280,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/22%20%28number%29,22 (number),"Twenty-two is a number. It comes between twenty-one and twenty-three, and is an even number. It is divisible by 1, 2, 11, and 22. - -In Roman numerals, 22 is written as XXII. - -Integers" -10547,37529,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Roeper,Richard Roeper,"Richard Roeper (born October 17, 1959 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American movie critic, television personality, journalist, and historian. He starred on the American television program ""At the Movies"" with Roger Ebert from 2000 to 2008 as Gene Siskel's successor. Roeper also writes about movies for an American newspaper, the Chicago Sun-Times. - -References - -Other websites - - Biography from TV Tome - - -1959 births -Living people -American journalists -American historians -Movie critics from Chicago -Writers from Chicago" -22475,85012,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedron,Icosahedron,"An icosahedron is a Platonic solid that is made of triangles and has twenty sides. - -There are many kinds of icosahedra, with some being more symmetrical than others. The best known is the Platonic, convex regular icosahedron. - -Regular icosahedra - -There are two objects, one convex and one concave, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have icosahedral symmetry. The term ""regular icosahedron"" generally refers to the convex variety, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron. - -Convex regular icosahedron -The convex regular icosahedron is usually referred to simply as the regular icosahedron, one of the five regular Platonic solids, and is represented by its Schläfli symbol {3, 5}, containing 20 triangular faces, with 5 faces meeting around each vertex. - -Its dual polyhedron is the regular dodecahedron {5, 3} having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex. - -Great icosahedron - -The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. Its Schläfli symbol is {3, }. Like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges. - -Its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron (, 3), having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex. - -Stellated icosahedra -Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron. It is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure. - -In their book The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra, Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron. - -Of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them. - -Other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are often referred to as such. - -Platonic solids -Polyhedra" -12097,44557,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Brother%20%28TV%20series%29,Big Brother (TV series),"Big Brother is a TV reality show. People known as housemates, enter a house and they do not bring any of their belongings except clothes. They are bored and the people behind the cameras who call themselves Big Brother announce things through the loudspeaker. Housemates would get a task to do so that they can get food. There is also a celebrity version of Big Brother. - -Big Brother around the world - -The series was developed by Endemol, and the first season was shown in the Netherlands. The show's format has since been copied in over forty countries, including Brazil, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Spain, India, United Kingdom and US. It also used to be in Australia, It was originally cancelled in 2008, later came back in 2012-2014 and will return again in 2020 - -Special editions -In some countries, there are also special editions of the show, for example Big Brother VIP or Big Brother: All Stars. -Usually, some of the rules in these special editions are a little bit different from the original ones. - -Big Brother VIP / Celebrity Big Brother -Big Brother VIP is the name of the special edition of the show, in which all the housemates are famous people. It has been released in many of the countries airing Big Brother, for example Bulgaria - VIP Brother; Mexico - Big Brother VIP; UK - Celebrity Big Brother. -The duration of the show is often only a month and in some countries the nominations and evictions are twice a week. -Sometimes the big prize is given for charity or there is no big prize at all. - -Big Brother series -, Big Brother has produced 506 winners in over 55 franchises. - - Currently airing (2) - An upcoming season (14) - Status unknown (9) - No longer airing (35) - -References - -1999 television series debuts -1990s television series -2000s television series -2010s television series" -2842,9042,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938,1938," - -Events -January 3 – The March of Dimes is established by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. -January 11 – Frances Moulton is the first woman to become president of a US national bank. -January 20 – Wedding of King Farouk I of Egypt and Queen Farida Zulficar in Cairo -January 28 – The first ski tow in America begins operation in Vermont. -January 31 – Crown princess Beatrix is born in Netherlands -February 4 – Thornton Wilder's play Our Town opens (New York City). -February 10 – Carol II of Romania takes dictatorial powers -February 12 – World War II: German troops enter Austria -February 24 – A nylon bristle toothbrush becomes the first commercial product to be made with nylon yarn. -March 3 – Oil is discovered in Saudi Arabia. -March 12 – Anschluss: German troops occupy Austria; annexation declared the following day. -March 15 – Soviet Union announces officially that Nikholai Bukharin has been executed -March 18 – Mexico nationalizes all foreign-owned oil properties within its borders. -April 12 – Edouard Daladier becomes president of France -April 28 – The towns of Dana, Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott in Massachusetts are disincorporated to make way for the Quabbin Reservoir. -May 5 – Vatican recognizes Franco's government in Spain -June 1 – Action Comics issues the first Superman comic. -June 11 – Fire destroys 212 buildings in Ludes, Latvia -June 23 – The Civil Aeronautics Act is signed into law, forming the Civil Aeronautics Authority in the United States. -June 23 – Marineland opens near St. Augustine, Florida. -June 25 – Dr Douglas Hyde is elected the first President of Ireland. -June 28 – A 450-tonne meteorite struck the earth in an empty field near Chicora, Pennsylvania -November 9-10: Kristallnacht happens in Nazi Germany. The Nazis deport about 30,000 Jews to concentration camps, and destroy over 1,500 synagogues. - -Births -January 1 - Frank Langella, American actor -January 5 - Juan Carlos of Spain -January 31 - Beatrix of the Netherlands -February 21 - Lester Bird, former Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda -April 26 – Duane Eddy, American guitarist -May 22 - Richard Benjamin, American actor and director -May 31 - John Prescott, British politician -July 13 - David Mitton, English model-maker (d. 2008) -August 21 – Kenny Rogers, American singer (d. 2020) -August 29 – Elliott Gould, American actor -October 23 – H. John Heinz III, American Senator (d. 1991) -October 29 - Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, President of Liberia -November 17 – Gordon Lightfoot, Canadian singer -November 19 - Hank Medress, American singer (The Tokens) (d. 2007) -December 29 - Jon Voight, American actor - -Deaths - January 20 – Émile Cohl, French caricaturist and animator (b. 1857) - January 21 – Georges Méliès, French movie director (b. 1861) - January 28 – Bernd Rosemeyer, German racing driver (b. 1909) - February 2 – Frederick William Vanderbilt, American railway magnate (b. 1856) - February 7 – Harvey Firestone, American manufacturer (b. 1868) - February 18 – David King Udall, American politician (b. 1851) - February 19 – Edmund Landau, German mathematician (b. 1877) - March 1 – Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian writer, war hero, and politician (b. 1863) - March 2 – Ben Harney, American composer and pianist (b. 1871) - March 13 – Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin, Soviet politician (b. 1888) -March 13 – Clarence Darrow, American attorney (b. 1857) - April 8 – Joe ""King"" Oliver, American musician (b. 1885) - April 12 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian bass (b. 1873) - April 16 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer (b. 1874) - April 21 – Muhammad Iqbal, Pakistani philosopher and poet (b. 1877) - April 26 – Edmund Husserl, Austrian philosopher (b. 1859) -May 4 – Carl von Ossietzky, German pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1889) - May 9 – Thomas B. Thrige, Danish industrialist (b. 1866) - May 13 – Charles Edouard Guillaume, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1861) - May 26 – John Jacob Abel, American pharmacologist (b. 1857) - August 1 – Edmund Charles Tarbell, American artist (b. 1862) - 18 July - Marie of Romania Queen of Romania wife of King Ferdinand I of Romania - August 7 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor (b. 1863) -August 14 – Hugh Trumble, Australian Test Cricketer (b. 1876) - August 16 – Robert Johnson, American musician (b. 1911) - September 17 – Bruno Jasieński, Polish poet (b. 1901) - October 22 – May Irwin, Canadian actress and singer (b. 1862) - October 24 – Ernst Barlach, German sculptor and poet (b. 1870) - October 27 – Lascelles Abercrombie, English poet and critic (b. 1881) - November 9 – Vasily Blyukher, Soviet military commander (b.1889) - November 10 – Kemal Atatürk, President of Turkey (b. 1881) - November 30 – Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Romanian fascist, leader of the Iron Guard (executed along other Guard activists) (b. 1899) -December 11 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1869) - December 25 – Karel Čapek, Czech writer (b. 1890) - December 28 – Florence Lawrence, Canadian actress (b. 1886) - -Movies released -The Adventures of Robin Hood - Errol Flynn -Jezebel - Bette Davis (Best Actress Academy Award) - -Hit songs - ""Thanks For The Memory"" – by Leo Robin and Ralph Rainger, from the movie Big Broadcast 1935, won the Academy Award for the best song. - -Nobel Prize - Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine won by Belgian doctor, Corneille Heymans" -22292,84463,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ell%20%28disambiguation%29,Ell (disambiguation),"Ell or ELL may refer to: - -In science and technology: - Ell, a measure of length - Ell (Scottish length), a Scottish measure of length - Ell (architecture), a wing of a building - -In places: - Ell, Luxembourg, a commune and town in Luxembourg - Ell (Netherlands), a Dutch town - -In people: - Henry Ell (1862 - 1934), New Zealand politician - Carl Stephens Ell, American academic - -In transport: -East London Line, a line of the London Underground - -In other: -English Language Learners, a term in English language learning and teaching" -24005,92703,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raisin%20bread,Raisin bread,"Raisin bread is a type of bread that has raisins in it. Sometimes it has cinnamon in it. It can be eaten as toast or as a dessert. Raisin bread is normally sold pre-sliced and often eaten in Northern Europe and the United States. Raisin bread is normally brown in color from the cinnamon. It is normally dryer than normal bread. - -Related pages -Bread -Sweetbread -Cake -Raisin - -Sweet breads" -11759,43171,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian%20Mountains,Appalachian Mountains,"The Appalachian Mountains (French: les Appalaches) are a large group of North American mountains. They are partly in Canada, but mostly in the United States. They form an area from to wide, running from the island of Newfoundland in Canada to central Alabama in the United States. - -The individual mountains average around 3,000 ft (900 m) in height. The highest is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina (6,684 ft or 2,037m). Mt. Mitchell is also the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River as well as the highest point in eastern North America. - -The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel. Ridgelines and valleys run north-south and travelers must climb them again and again. Only a few mountain passes run east-west. The Erie Canal was built through one of them. In most places the Appalachians are the watershed between the drainage basins of the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean. - -The term Appalachia is used to refer to the mountain range and the hills and plateau region around it. The term is often used to refer to areas in the central and southern, but not northern, Appalachian Mountains. These areas usually include all of West Virginia and parts of the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina, and sometimes extending as far south as northern Georgia and western South Carolina, as far north as Pennsylvania, and as far west as southeastern Ohio. In 1965 the United States Congress created an Appalachian Regional Commission to include these areas and more, as far west as Mississippi. - -The Appalachian Trail in the US is about 3,500km (2,190 miles) long and goes through 14 states from Georgia to Maine. - -History of the range - -The Appalachians today are the worn-down remains of a once huge mountain chain. They first formed about 480 million years ago during the Ordovician. They once were as high as the Alps, the Rocky Mountains and the Atlas Mountains. - -The birth of the Appalachian ranges, some 480 million years ago (mya), was the first of several mountain-building plate collisions as the supercontinent Pangaea formed. The Appalachians were at the center of the newly formed Pangaea. North America and Africa were connected, and the Appalachians were part of the same mountain chain as the ""Anti-Atlas"" or Little Atlas Mountains in Morocco. This mountain range, known as the Central Pangean Mountains, extended into Scotland, from the North America/Europe collision (see Caledonian orogeny). - -References - -Other websites" -22502,85087,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioggio,Bioggio,"Bioggio is a municipality of the district of Lugano, in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -Bioggio was created on 4 April 2004 from the merger of Bosco Luganese and Cimo. On 20 April 2008, Iseo used to be part of the municipality of Bioggio. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -10966,39470,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1653,1653,"The year 1653 was a common year which started on Wednesday. - -Events - February 2 – New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated." -14047,52034,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra%20Nevada,Sierra Nevada,"Sierra Nevada, meaning ""snowy range"" in Spanish, is the name of at least three mountain ranges: - - Sierra Nevada (Spain) protected by the Sierra Nevada National Park, in Andalusia - Sierra Nevada (US) in California and Nevada, United States - Trans-Mexican volcanic belt in Mexico - -There are also two single mountains named Sierra Nevada in the Andes which are volcanoes: - - Sierra Nevada (stratovolcano) - Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas - -Other mountains: - - Sierra Nevada de Mérida, protected by the Sierra Nevada National Park (Venezuela) in Mérida and Barinas. - Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia) - -Sierra Nevada may also refer to beer produced by Sierra Nevada Brewing Company, a California brewery." -12411,45802,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine,Tangerine,"A tangerine is citrus fruit related to the mandarin orange. Tangerines are smaller and easier to peel than common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, but sweeter and stronger, than that of an orange. - -Very often, tangerines are simply peeled and eaten by hand, but they are sometimes also used as an ingredient of salads. In Sichuan cuisine, the dried peel of tangerines is used as an ingredient. - -Clementines are sometimes considered as alternatives to tangerines. - -References - - -Citrus" -24278,93617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarbr%C3%BCcken%20%28district%29,Saarbrücken (district),"The Regionalverband Saarbrücken is a Kommunalverband besonderer Art, that is, it is a special mix of a rural district and a district free city. It is located in the south of the Saarland, Germany. - -History -The district Saarbrücken was originally created in 1816. -In 1974 the district and the district-free city Saarbrücken were merged, and the new administrative body was named Stadtverband Saarbrücken. Although it's not a district like others, most of its administrative tasks are same as those of a district. - -Geography -The Saar River flows through the district, through the city Saarbrücken in the centre of the district. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German)" -15089,56919,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourgish%20language,Luxembourgish language,"Luxembourgish is a West Germanic language. A lot of people in Luxembourg speak the language. It is quite similar to German and French. Outside Luxembourg, not many people speak it, and inside Luxembourg many people speak other languages, too. - -Other websites - -West Germanic languages -Languages of Europe" -23659,91174,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjet,Scramjet,"Scramjet is a type of jet engine. Like other jets it pushes mixed air and gas out of the back to make it go. Like other ramjets it doesn't use a mechanical compressor. Engineers have experimented with it since the 1950s. They hope a scramjet will work someday at 15 times the speed of sound (mach 15). - -Mechanics - -de:Staustrahltriebwerk#Überschallverbrennung im Scramjet" -13975,51788,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPS,UPS,"UPS may means: - - Uninterruptible power supply, an emergency electricity source - United Parcel Service, an American shipping company" -2887,9149,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%208,April 8," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 217 – Roman emperor Caracalla is assassinated (and succeeded) by his Praetorian Guard prefect, Marcus Opellius Macrinus. - 1093 - The new Winchester Cathedral is dedicated. - 1139 - Roger II of Sicily is excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church. - 1730 – Shearith Israel, the first synagogue in New York City, is dedicated. - 1740 - War of Jenkins' Ear: Three British ships capture the Spanish third-rate HMS Princess. - 1742 – The first performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah, in Dublin. - 1767 – Ayutthaya kingdom fell to Burmese invaders. - 1784 - William Herschel discovers six Galaxies. - 1820 – The Venus de Milo is discovered on the Aegean island of Melos. - 1832 – Black Hawk War: Around 300 United States 6th Infantry troops leave Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis to fight the Sauk Native Americans. - 1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Mansfield - Union General Nathaniel Banks' Red River Campaign is thwarted by Confederate General Richard Taylor's forces at Mansfield, Louisiana. - 1866 - Italy and Prussia ally against the Austrian Empire. - 1886 - William Ewart Gladstone introduces the first Irish Home Rule Bill into the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. - 1893 – First recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the New Brighton YMCA. - 1899 – Martha Place becomes the first woman to be executed in an electric chair. - -1901 2000 - 1904 – France and the United Kingdom sign the Entente cordiale. - 1904 – Longacre Square in Midtown Manhattan is renamed Times Square after The New York Times. - 1906 - Auguste Deter, the first-recorded Alzheimer's disease patient, dies at the age of 56. - 1908 - Harvard University votes to establish the Harvard Business School. - 1910 – The Los Angeles Motordome opened near Playa del Rey, California. - 1911 - Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovers superconductivity. - 1913 – The Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified requiring direct election of Senators. - 1916 – In Corona, California, auto racer Bob Burman crashed through a crowd barrier at the last Boulevard Race, killing himself, his mechanic and a track policeman, and badly injuring five spectators. - 1918 – World War I: Actors Douglas Fairbanks and Charlie Chaplin sell war bonds on the streets of New York City's financial district. - 1924 - Sharia courts are banned in Turkey, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's reforms. - 1929 – Indian independence movement: At Delhi Central Assembly, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw handouts, and bombs in a corridor not to cause injury and courted arrest. - 1933 - A majority of voters in Western Australia chooses to secede from Australia in a referendum; the result is not recognised. - 1935 – The Works Progress Administration is formed when the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 becomes law. - 1942 – World War II: Siege of Leningrad - Soviet Union forces open a much-needed railway link to Leningrad. - 1952 – In a radio address to the nation from the White House, President Harry S. Truman calls for the seizure of all steel mills in the United States in order to prevent a nationwide strike. - 1953 – Mau Mau leader Jomo Kenyatta is convicted by Kenya's British rulers. - 1954 - A Royal Canadian Air Force Canadair Harvard aircraft collides with a Trans-Canada Airlines Canadian North Star aircraft over Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, killing 37 people. - 1954 - South African Airways Flight 201 crashes into the sea near Naples, Italy, killing 21 people. - 1960 - The Netherlands and West Germany sign an agreement to negotiate the return of German land annexed by the Dutch. - 1961 - A large explosion on board the MV Dara in the Persian Gulf kills 238 people. - 1967 – In Vienna, Austria, Sandie Shaw wins the twelfth Eurovision Song Contest for the United Kingdom singing ""Puppet on a String"". - 1970 - Israeli bombers strike an Egyptian school, killing 46 children. - 1971 – a 6-pound meteorite struck a house on Spring Street in Wethersfield, Connecticut. - 1973 - Painter and sculptor Pablo Picasso dies in Mougins, France, at the age of 91. - 1974 – At the Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium, Hank Aaron breaks baseball great's Babe Ruth's record by hitting his 715th home run. - 1975 – Frank Robinson of the Cleveland Indians manages his first game as major league baseball's first African American manager. - 1975 – Vietnam War: After spending a week in South Vietnam, U.S. Army Chief of Staff Frederick Weyand gives a report to the U.S. Congress that South Vietnam will fall without additional military aid. - 1985 – Bhopal disaster: India files suit against Union Carbide for the disaster which killed an estimated 2,000 and injured another 200,000. - 1986 – Clint Eastwood is elected mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California receiving 72% of the vote (voter turnout was also doubled over the previous mayoral election). - 1987 – Los Angeles Dodgers executive Al Campanis resigns amid great controversy over racially-charged remarks he had made while on Nightline. - 1989 – South Africa In Johannesburg, the Progressive Federal Party, Independent party, National Democratic Movement and the force of ""Ontevrede Afrikaners"" or dissatisfied Afrikaners merged to form the Democratic Party. - 1990 – Twin Peaks premieres. - 1992 – Retired tennis great Arthur Ashe announces to the world that he has AIDS, acquired from blood transfusions during one of his two heart surgeries. - 1993 - The Republic of Macedonia joins the UN. - 1994 – The body of Kurt Cobain is discovered in his Washington home. He was 27 years old. - 2000 – A U.S. Marine Corps V-22 Osprey crashes during landing at Marana, Arizona killing 19. - -From 2001 - 2002 – Ed McMahon files a US$20 million lawsuit against his insurance company and others regarding a toxic mold infecting McMahon's Beverly Hills, California home. - 2004 – Darfur conflict: The Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement is signed by the Sudanese government and two rebel groups. - 2005 – Funeral of Pope John Paul II. - 2008 – Yo So-yeon becomes the first Korean woman in space. - 2013 - Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher dies aged 87 of complications from a stroke. See Death and funeral of Margaret Thatcher. - 2013 - The self-proclaimed Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant extremist group is created. - 2018 - A suspected chemical attack in Douma, Syria, kills at least 50 people. - 2018 - Hungary's general election results in Viktor Orbán winning a third term in office as Prime minister. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 563 BC – Gautama Buddha, religious leader (d. 483 BC) - 1320 – King Peter I of Portugal (d. 1367) - 1533 - Claudio Merulo, Italian composer (d. 1604) - 1536 - Barbara of Hesse (d. 1597) - 1541 - Michele Mercati, Italian physician (d. 1593) - 1605 – King Philip IV of Spain (d. 1665) - 1641 - Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney, English statesman (d. 1704) - 1692 - Giuseppe Tartini, Italian composer (d. 1770) - 1732 - David Rittenhouse, American astronomer, inventor and mathematician (d. 1796) - 1761 - William Joseph Chaminade, French priest (d. 1850) - 1783 - John Claudius Loudon, Scottish botanist and garden designer (d. 1843) - 1793 - Karl Zell, German statesman and philologist (d. 1873) - 1798 - Dionysios Solomos, Greek poet (d. 1857) - 1815 - Andrew Graham, Irish astronomer (d. 1908) - 1818 – King Christian IX of Denmark (d. 1906) - 1818 - August Wilhelm von Hofmann, German chemist (d. 1892) - 1826 - Pancha Carrasco, Costa Rican soldier (d. 1890) - 1827 - Ramon Emeterio Betances, Puerto Rican politician, doctor and diplomat (d. 1898) - 1842 – Elizabeth Bacon Custer, wife of George Armstrong Custer (d. 1933) - 1859 – Edmund Husserl, Austrian-German philosopher (d. 1938) - 1865 – Charles W. Woodworth, Entomologist (d. 1940) - 1869 - Harvey Williams Cushing, American neurologist (d. 1939) - 1871 - Clarence Hudson White, American photographer (d. 1925) - 1872 – Ivan Bloch, physician (d. 1922) - 1874 – Stanisław Taczak, Polish general (d. 1960) - 1875 – King Albert I of Belgium (d. 1934) - 1885 - Dimitrios Levidis, Greek composer (d. 1951) - 1888 - Dennis Chavez, American politician (d. 1962) - 1889 - Blanche Stuart Scott, American pilot (d. 1970) - 1889 – Sir Adrian Boult, English conductor (d. 1983) - 1892 – Mary Pickford, Canadian-born actress, studio founder (d. 1979) - 1892 - Richard Neutra, Austrian architect (d. 1970) - 1898 - Achille Van Acker, 33rd Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1969) - 1899 - John Christie, English serial killer (d. 1953) - -1901 1950 - 1902 – Andrew Irvine, British mountaineer (d. 1924) - 1904 – Ron Hicks, British economist (d. 1989) - 1904 - Yves Congar, French cardinal (d. 1995) - 1905 – Helen Joseph, South African anti-apartheid activist (d. 1992) - 1908 - Hugo Fregonese, Argentine director and screenwriter (d. 1987) - 1910 – George Musso, American football player (d. 2000) - 1911 – Emil Cioran, Romanian philosopher and essayist (d. 1995) - 1911 – Melvin Calvin, American chemist, 1961 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1997) - 1912 – Sonja Henie, Norwegian Olympic and World Champion figure skater (d. 1969) - 1912 - Julian Berrendero, Spanish cyclist (d. 1995) - 1912 – Alois Brunner, Austrian Nazi (date of death unknown, possibly 2001, 2009 or 2010) - 1913 – Sourou-Migan Apithy, President of Benin (d. 1989) - 1914 – María Félix, Mexican actress (d. 2002) - 1915 - Ivan Supek, Croatian physicist, philosopher and activist (d. 2007) - 1917 - Hubertus Ernst, Dutch bishop (d. 2017) - 1917 - Grigori Kuzmin, Russian-Estonian astronomer (d. 1988) - 1918 – Betty Ford, First Lady of the United States (d. 2011) - 1919 – Ian Smith, Prime Minister of Rhodesia (d. 2007) - 1919 – Virginia O'Brien, American actress (d. 2001) - 1920 - Carmen McRae, American singer, composer, pianist and actress (d. 1994) - 1921 – Franco Corelli, Italian tenor (d. 2003) - 1923 – Edward Mulhare, Irish actor (d. 1997) - 1923 - George Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 2003) - 1926 – Jürgen Moltmann, German theologian - 1926 – Shecky Greene, American comedian - 1926 - Henry N. Cobb, American architect - 1926 - Jean-Jacques Pauvert, French publisher and author (d. 2014) - 1928 – Leah Rabin, wife of Israeli Premier Yitzhak Rabin (d. 2000) - 1929 – Walter Berry, Austrian bass-baritone (d. 2000) - 1929 – Jacques Brel, Belgian singer and composer (d. 1978) - 1929 - Renzo De Felice, Italian historian (d. 1996) - 1930 – Carlos-Hugo of Bourbon-Parma, Spanish aristocrat (d. 2010) - 1930 - Miller Williams, American poet (d. 2015) - 1931 - John Gavin, American actor and diplomat (d. 2018) - 1932 – Iskandar of Johor, 8th Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King) of Malaysia (d. 2010) - 1932 - József Antall, Hungarian politician (d. 1993) - 1933 – Fred Ebb, composer (d. 2004) - 1934 - Kisho Kurokawa, Japanese architect (d. 2007) - 1938 – Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat, former United Nations Secretary-General (d. 2018) - 1938 - John Hamm, Canadian physician and politician, 25th Premier of Nova Scotia - 1939 - Edwin Frederick O'Brien, American cardinal - 1939 - Manolis Angelopoulos, Greek singer (d. 1989) - 1940 – John Havlicek, American basketball player (d. 2019) - 1941 – Vivienne Westwood, English fashion designer - 1942 - Douglas Trumbull, American director, producer and special effects artist - 1943 – Miller Farr, American football player - 1943 – Michael Bennett, American dancer, choreographer, theater director (d. 1987) - 1943 – Tony Banks, British politician (d. 2006) - 1943 - James Herbert, British writer (d. 2013) - 1944 - Tariana Turia, New Zealand politician - 1944 - Hywel Bennett, Welsh actor (d. 2017) - 1946 – Catfish Hunter, American baseball pitcher (d. 1999) - 1946 – Tim Thomerson, American actor - 1947 – Tom DeLay, American politician - 1947 - Steve Howe, English rock guitarist - 1947 - Robert Kiyosaki, American author - 1947 - Pascal Lamy, French politician - 1947 - Larry Norman, American musician (d. 2008) - 1948 - Danuta Hübner, Polish politician - 1949 – John Madden, director - 1949 - Joe Royle, English footballer and manager - 1950 – Grzegorz Lato, Polish footballer - -1951 1975 - 1951 – Geir Haarde, former Prime Minister of Iceland - 1951 - Joan Sebastian, Mexican singer and actor (d. 2015) - 1954 – Gary Carter, American baseball catcher - 1955 – Barbara Kingsolver, novelist - 1955 – Gerrie Coetzee, South African boxer - 1955 - Jim Fleeting, Scottish footballer - 1955 - Kane Hodder, American stuntman and actor - 1957 – Andrea Ypsilanti, German politician - 1960 – John Schneider, actor - 1960 - Gordon Chisholm, Scottish footballer and manager - 1961 - Brian McDermott, English footballer and manager - 1962 – Izzy Stradlin, American musician - 1963 – Julian Lennon, English musician and singer - 1963 – Alec Stewart, English cricketer - 1964 - Dordi Nordby, Norwegian curler - 1966 - Charlotte Dawson, New Zealand-Australian television personality (d. 2014) - 1966 – Robin Wright, American actress - 1966 – Mazinho, Brazilian footballer - 1966 - Iveta Bartosova, Czech singer and actress (d. 2014) - 1968 – Patricia Arquette, American actress - 1968 - Susana Harp, Mexican musician - 1970 - Care Santos, Catalan writer - 1972 - Lisa Cameron, Scottish politician - 1972 – Paul Gray, American musician (Slipknot) (d. 2010) - 1972 - Sergei Magnitsky, Russian lawyer (d. 2009) - 1973 - Khaled Badra, Tunisian footballer - 1973 - Emma Caulfield, American actress - 1974 - Holger Hott, Norwegian orienteering competitor - 1974 - Nnedi Okorafor, Nigerian-American writer - 1975 - Anouk, Dutch singer - -From 1976 - 1977 – Mark Spencer, computer programmer - 1980 – Manuel Ortega, Austrian singer - 1980 - Katee Sackhoff, American actress - 1981 - Nikolay Kruglov, Jr., Russian biathlete - 1981 – Taylor Kitsch, Canadian actor and model - 1981 - Kelly Schafer, Scottish curler - 1982 - Gennady Golovkin, Kazakhstani boxer - 1983 - Allu Arjun, Indian actor - 1983 – Edson Braafheid, Dutch footballer - 1984 – Taran Noah Smith, American actor - 1986 - Erika Sawajiri, Japanese actress and model - 1986 - Bridget Kelly, American singer and songwriter - 1986 – Igor Akinfeev, Russian footballer - 1987 – Royston Drenthe, Dutch footballer - 1987 - Dario Vidosic, Australian footballer - 1987 - Abdelhamid Abaaoud, Belgian-Moroccan terrorist (d. 2015) - 1988 - Jenni Asserholt, Swedish ice hockey player - 1989 - Hitomi Takahashi, Japanese actress and singer - 1989 - Gabriella Wilde, English actress and model - 1990 - Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer-songwriter, dancer and actor (d. 2017) - 1990 - Karim Bellarabi, German footballer - 1991 - Minami Takahashi, Japanese actress and singer - 1993 - Trent Sullivan, Australian actor - 1999 - Ty Panitz, American actor - 2002 - Skai Jackson, American actress - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 -217 – Caracalla, Roman Emperor (b. 188) -622 - Prince Shotoku of Japan (b. 574) -632 - Charibert, Frankish king (b. 607) -956 - Gilbert, Duke of Burgundy -1143 - John II Komnenos, Emperor of the Byzantine Empire (b. 1087) -1364 - King John II of France (b. 1319) -1450 - Sejong the Great, King of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea (b. 1397) -1461 - Georg Purbach, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1423) -1551 - Oda Nobuhide, Japanese warlord (b. 1510) -1586 - Martin Chemnitz, Lutheran reformer and theologian (b. 1522) -1612 - Anne Catherine of Brandenburg (b. 1575) -1691 - Carlo Rainaldi, Italian architect (b. 1611) -1704 - Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney, English statesman (b. 1641) -1735 - Francis II Rakoczi, Hungarian aristocrat (b. 1676) -1835 - Wilhelm von Humboldt, Prussian statesman (b. 1757) -1848 – Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (b. 1797) -1861 - Elisha Otis, American inventor (b. 1811) -1870 - Charles Auguste de Bériot, Belgian violinist and composer (b. 1802) -1894 - Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Indian author (b. 1838) - -1901 2000 -1906 – Auguste Deter, first-recorded victim of Alzheimer's disease (b. 1850) -1919 - Lorand Eotvos, Hungarian physicist (b. 1848) -1931 – Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish writer (b. 1864) -1936 – Robert Bárány, Austrian doctor, won the 1914 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1876) -1950 - Vaslav Nijinsky, Polish-Russian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1890) -1958 - Ethel Turner, Australian writer (b. 1872) -1962 - Juan Belmonte, Spanish bullfighter (b. 1892) -1973 – Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1881) -1974 - Ferruccio Novo, Italian football manager (b. 1899) -1978 - Ford Frick, American baseball commissioner (b. 1894) -1981 – Omar Bradley, American general (b. 1893) -1983 - Isamu Kosuga, Japanese actor and director (b. 1904) -1984 – Pyotr Kapitsa, Russian physicist (b. 1894) -1986 - Yukiko Okada, Japanese actress, singer and model (b. 1967) -1990 - Ryan White, American activist (b. 1971) -1992 – Daniel Bovet, Swiss pharmacologist (b. 1907) -1993 – Marian Anderson, American contralto (b. 1897) -1994 – Kurt Cobain, American musician (Nirvana) (b. 1967) -1997 - Laura Nyro, American singer, pianist and composer (b. 1967) - -From 2001 -2002 - María Félix, Mexican actress (b. 1914) -2009 – Piotr Morawski, Polish mountaineer (b. 1976) -2010 – Malcolm McLaren, British music manager (b. 1946) -2010 – Abel Muzorewa, Zimbabwean politician (b. 1924) -2012 - Jack Tramiel, Polish-born American entrepreneur and computer pioneer (b. 1928) -2013 - Sara Montiel, Spanish actress and singer (b. 1928) -2013 - Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1925) -2013 - Annette Funicello, American actress and singer (b. 1942) -2014 - Karlheinz Deschner, German writer and activist (b. 1924) -2014 - Emmanuel III Delly, Iraqi Patriarch (b. 1927) -2014 - The Ultimate Warrior, American professional wrestler (b. 1959) -2015 - Jayakanthan, Indian Tamil author (b. 1934) -2015 - Jean-Claude Turcotte, Canadian cardinal (b. 1936) -2016 - Mircea Albulescu, Romanian actor and writer (b. 1934) -2016 - Wei Chueh, Taiwanese Buddhist monk (b. 1928) -2016 - Dick Alban, American football player (b. 1929) -2017 - Fishman, Mexican professional wrestler (b. 1951) -2017 - Georgy Grechko, Russian cosmonaut (b. 1931) -2017 - Brian Matthew, English radio and television presenter (b. 1928) -2017 - Donald Sarason, American mathematician (b. 1933) -2018 - Leila Abashidze, Georgian actress, film director and screenwriter (b. 1929) -2018 - Michael Goolaerts, Belgian racing cyclist (b. 1994) -2018 - Juraj Herz, Slovakian film director, actor and screenwriter (b. 1934) -2018 - Chuck McCann, American actor (b. 1934) -2018 - John Miles, British racing driver (b. 1943) -2019 - Josine Ianco-Starrels, Romanian-American art curator (b. 1926) -2019 - Vasily Likhachyov, Russian politician (b. 1952) -2019 - Nadja Regin, Serbian actress (b. 1931) -2020 - Rick May, Canadian-American actor and voice actor (b. 1940) - -Observances - Buddha's Birthday (Japan) - International Day of the Roma - -April 08" -7000,22097,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight,Twilight,"Twilight means either dawn (in the morning) or dusk (in the evening). - -In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away. - -The following have been defined: -Civil twilight is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening. -Dark twilight is when the sun is between 6° and 9° below the horizon. -Black twilight is when the sun is between 9° and 12° below the horizon. -Astronomical twilight is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon. -For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level. - -Other websites - -Definition of Twilight, US Naval Observatory -Twilight time calculator -Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner - -Parts of a day" -8255,27568,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest,Chest,"The chest is the front part of the torso. It is between the neck and abdomen. - -In mammals, the parts that make up the thorax are the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs. It starts from the neck and stops at the diaphragm. - -In insects and crustaceans, it is the middle of the three main body sections. The walking legs are usually on the thorax. - -Torso" -17745,67026,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamie%20Lee%20Curtis,Jamie Lee Curtis,"Jamie Lee Curtis, Lady Haden-Guest (born November 22, 1958) is an American actress and author. Although at the beginning of her career she was known as “The one girl” because of her roles in many horror movies beginning in her first ever movie Halloween (1978) as Laurie Strode, Curtis has since worked in a lot of different movie genres. She has received an Grammy Award nomination and two Golden Globe Awards. Her 1998 book, Today I Feel Gross, and Other Grammy That Make My Day, made the best-seller list in The New York Times. - -In late the 2010s, Curtis returned as Strode in the horror movie Halloween (2018) and in the upcoming sequels Halloween Kills (2020) and Halloween Ends (2021). She also played Linda Drysdale in the mystery comedy movie Knives Out (2019). - -Early life -Curtis was born in Santa Monica, California. She is the daughter of actor Tony Curtis and actress Janet Leigh. Her paternal grandparents were Hungarian Jewish immigrants and two of her maternal great-grandparents were Danish. Curtis's parents divorced in 1962, after which her mother married Robert Brandt. Curtis has an older sister, Kelly Curtis, who is also an actress, and several half-siblings (all from her father's remarriages), Alexandra, Allegra, Ben, and Nicholas Curtis (who died in 1994 of a drug overdose). Curtis attended Westlake School (now Harvard-Westlake School) in Los Angeles and Beverly Hills High School, and graduated from Choate Rosemary Hall. Returning to California in 1976, she attended the University of the Pacific in Stockton, California. She considered majoring in social work, but quit after one semester to pursue an acting career. - -Personal life -She is married to actor Christopher Guest (Baron Haden-Guest) and, as the wife of a Baron, she has the title Baroness Haden-Guest and she could be called The Lady Haden-Guest, but she chooses not to use the title nor the style when in the United States. - -Movie - -References - -Other websites - - - Jamie Lee Curtis interview - - Jamie Lee Curtis Fansite - -Actors from Santa Monica, California -American movie actors -American television actors -Jewish American actors -BAFTA Award winning actors -Golden Globe Award winning actors -1958 births -Living people" -22832,86636,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean%20Girls,Mean Girls,"Mean Girls is a 2004 American teen comedy movie starring Lindsay Lohan. - -Plot - -It's about a teenage girl, Cady Heron, who used to be home schooled in Africa but moves to the United States and has to go to a normal high school in Evanston, Illinois. On her first day at school, she hates it. She thinks it is a bit weird because she cannot go to the toilet when she wants, cannot write in green ink and has to stay in the same seat everytime she goes into a lesson. On the second day it becomes more successful as she makes new friends, Janice and Damian. When they skip a lesson, Janice and Damian give her a map of the school eating area. It is arranged into different sorts of people and their personalities. At lunch time Cady is on her way to sit with her new friends but is interrupted, then Regina, Gretchen and Karen (""The Plastics"") ask her to sit with them and so she sits with them. - -Soon, Cady joins the Plastics, and Janice devises a plan to shatter them. Cady convinces Regina to eat these bars that will make her gain weight instead of lose weight. - -However, Cady gets too much into the Plastics, and throws a party at her parents' house without their permission. She tries to hook up with Regina's boyfriend, but he does not like her because she's just like a Plastic now. Janice tells Cady that she's just one of the Plastics now. Low grades in calculus class force Cady to rethink her plans. She joins the decathlon team. - -Cast -Lindsay Lohan as Cady Heron -Rachel McAdams as Regina George -Tina Fey as Ms. Sharon Norbury -Tim Meadows as Mr. Ron Duvall -Amy Poehler as Mrs. George -Ana Gasteyer as Mrs. Heron -Lacey Chabert as Gretchen Wieners -Amanda Seyfried as Karen Smith -Lizzy Caplan as Janis Ian -Daniel Franzese as Damian -Neil Flynn as Mr. Heron -Jonathan Bennett as Aaron Samuels - -Sequel -Mean Girls 2 was released in 2011 on DVD. None of the actors from Mean Girls were in it apart from Tim Meadows. - -Other websites - - - -2004 comedy movies -2000s coming-of-age movies -2000s LGBT movies -2000s teen comedy movies -American coming-of-age movies -American LGBT movies -American teen comedy movies -English-language movies -High school movies -LGBT comedy movies -Movies about bullying -Movies based on books -Movies set in Illinois" -13761,50951,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity%20market,Commodity market,"Commodity markets are markets where raw or primary products are exchanged. These raw commodities are traded on regulated commodities exchanges, in which they are bought and sold in standardized contracts. - -This article focuses on the history and current debates regarding global commodity markets. It covers physical product (food, metals, electricity) markets but not the ways that services, including those of governments, nor investment, nor debt, can be seen as a commodity. Articles on reinsurance markets, stock markets, bond markets and currency markets cover those concerns separately and in more depth. One focus of this article is the relationship between simple commodity money and the more complex instruments offered in the commodity markets. - -See List of traded commodities for some commodities and their trading units and places. - -History -The modern commodity markets have their roots in the trading of agricultural products. While wheat and corn, cattle and pigs, were widely traded using standard instruments in the 19th century in the United States, other basic foodstuffs such as soybeans were only added quite recently in most markets. For a commodity market to be established, there must be very broad consensus on the variations in the product that make it acceptable for one purpose or another. - -The economic impact of the development of commodity markets is hard to over-estimate. Through the 19th century ""the exchanges became effective spokesmen for, and innovators of, improvements in transportation, warehousing, and financing, which paved the way to expanded interstate and international trade."" - -Early history of commodity markets -Historically, dating from ancient Sumerian use of sheep or goats, or other peoples using pigs, rare seashells, or other items as commodity money, people have sought ways to standardize and trade contracts in the delivery of such items, to render trade itself more smooth and predictable. - -Commodity money and commodity markets in a crude early form are believed to have originated in Sumer where small baked clay tokens in the shape of sheep or goats were used in trade. Sealed in clay vessels with a certain number of such tokens, with that number written on the outside, they represented a promise to deliver that number. This made them a form of commodity money - more than an ""I.O.U."" but less than a guarantee by a nation-state or bank. However, they were also known to contain promises of time and date of delivery - this made them like a modern futures contract. Regardless of the details, it was only possible to verify the number of tokens inside by shaking the vessel or by breaking it, at which point the number or terms written on the outside became subject to doubt. Eventually the tokens disappeared, but the contracts remained on flat tablets. This represented the first system of commodity accounting. - -However, the Commodity status of living things is always subject to doubt - it was hard to validate the health or existence of sheep or goats. Excuses for non-delivery were not unknown, and there are recovered Sumerian letters that complain of sickly goats, sheep that had already been fleeced, etc. - -If a seller's reputation was good, individual ""backers"" or ""bankers"" could decide to take the risk of ""clearing"" a trade. The observation that trust is always required between market participants later led to credit money. But until relatively modern times, communication and credit were primitive. - -Classical civilizations built complex global markets trading gold or silver for spices, cloth, wood and weapons, most of which had standards of quality and timeliness. Considering the many hazards of climate, piracy, theft and abuse of military fiat by rulers of kingdoms along the trade routes, it was a major focus of these civilizations to keep markets open and trading in these scarce commodities. Reputation and clearing became central concerns, and the states which could handle them most effectively became very powerful empires, trusted by many peoples to manage and mediate trade and commerce. - -Forward contracts - -Commodity and Futures contracts are based on what’s termed ""Forward"" Contracts. Early on these ""forward"" contracts (agreements to buy now, pay and deliver later) were used as a way of getting products from producer to the consumer. These typically were only for food and agricultural Products. Forward contracts have evolved and have been standardized into what we know today as futures contracts. Although more complex today, early “Forward” contracts for example, were used for rice in seventeenth century Japan. Modern ""forward"", or futures agreements, began in Chicago in the 1840s, with the appearance of the railroads. Chicago, being centrally located, emerged as the hub between Midwestern farmers and producers and the east coast consumer population centers. - -Hedging -""Hedging"", a common (and sometimes mandatory) practice of farming cooperatives, insures against a poor harvest by purchasing futures contracts in the same commodity. If the cooperative has significantly less of its product to sell due to weather or insects, it makes up for that loss with a profit on the markets, since the overall supply of the crop is short everywhere that suffered the same conditions. - -Whole developing nations may be especially vulnerable, and even their currency tends to be tied to the price of those particular commodity items until it manages to be a fully developed nation. For example, one could see the nominally fiat money of Cuba as being tied to sugar prices, since a lack of hard currency paying for sugar means less foreign goods per peso in Cuba itself. In effect, Cuba needs a hedge against a drop in sugar prices, if it wishes to maintain a stable quality of life for its citizens. - -Delivery and condition guarantees -In addition, delivery day, method of settlement and delivery point must all be specified. Typically, trading must end two (or more) business days prior to the delivery day, so that the routing of the shipment (which for soybeans is 30,000 kilograms or 1,102 bushels) can be finalized via ship or rail, and payment can be settled when the contract arrives at any delivery point. - -Standardization -U.S. soybean futures, for example, are of standard grade if they are ""GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No. 2 yellow soybeans of Indiana, Ohio and Michigan origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo),"" and of deliverable grade if they are ""GMO or a mixture of GMO and Non-GMO No. 2 yellow soybeans of Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin origin produced in the U.S.A. (Non-screened, stored in silo)."" Note the distinction between states, and the need to clearly mention their status as ""GMO"" (""Genetically Modified Organism"") which makes them unacceptable to most ""organic"" food buyers. - -Similar specifications apply for orange juice, cocoa, sugar, wheat, corn, barley, pork bellies, milk, feedstuffs, fruits, vegetables, other grains, other beans, hay, other livestock, meats, poultry, eggs, or any other commodity which is so traded. - -The concept of an interchangeable deliverable or guaranteed delivery is always to some degree a fiction. Trade in commodities is like trade in any other physical product or service. No magic of the commodity contract itself makes ""units"" of the product totally uniform nor gets it to the delivery point safely and on time. - -Regulation of commodity markets -Cotton, kilowatt-hours of electricity, board feet of wood, long distance minutes, royalty payments due on artists' works, and other products and services have been traded on markets of varying scale, with varying degrees of success. One issue that presents major difficulty for creators of such instruments is the liability accruing to the purchaser: - -Unless the product or service can be guaranteed or insured to be free of liability based on where it came from and how it got to market, e.g. kilowatts must come to market free from legitimate claims for smog death from coal burning plants, wood must be free from claims that it comes from protected forests, royalty payments must be free of claims of plagiarism or piracy, it becomes impossible for sellers to guarantee a uniform delivery. - -Generally, governments must provide a common regulatory or insurance standard and some release of liability, or at least a backing of the insurers, before a commodity market can begin trading. This is a major source of controversy in for instance the energy market, where desirability of different kinds of power generation varies drastically. In some markets, e.g. Toronto, Canada, surveys established that customers would pay 10-15% more for energy that was not from coal or nuclear, but strictly from renewable sources such as wind. - -Proliferation of contracts, terms, and derivatives -However, if there are two or more standards of risk or quality, as there seem to be for electricity or soybeans, it is relatively easy to establish two different contracts to trade in the more and less desirable deliverable separately. If the consumer acceptance and liability problems can be solved, the product can be made interchangeable, and trading in such units can begin. - -Since the detailed concerns of industrial and consumer markets vary widely, so do the contracts, and ""grades"" tend to vary significantly from country to country. A proliferation of contract units, terms, and futures contracts have evolved, -combined into an extremely sophisticated range of financial instruments. - -These are more than one-to-one representations of units of a given type of commodity, and represent more than simple futures contracts for future deliveries. These serve a variety of purposes from simple gambling to price insurance. - -The underlying of futures contracts are no longer restricted to commodities. - -Oil and fiat -Building on the infrastructure and credit and settlement networks established for food and precious metals, many such markets have proliferated drastically in the late 20th century. Oil was the first form of energy so widely traded, and the fluctuations in the oil markets are of particular political interest. - -Some commodity market speculation is directly related to the stability of certain states, e.g. during the Gulf War, speculation on the survival of the regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq. Similar political stability concerns have from time to time driven the price of oil. Some argue that this is not so much a commodity market but more of an assassination market speculating on the survival (or not) of Saddam or other leaders whose personal decisions may cause oil supply to fluctuate by military action. - -The oil market is, however, an exception. Most markets are not so tied to the politics of volatile regions - even natural gas tends to be more stable, as it is not traded across oceans by tanker as extensively. - -Commodity markets and protectionism -Developing countries (democratic or not) have been moved to harden their currencies, accept IMF rules, join the WTO, and submit to a broad regime of reforms that amount to a ""hedge"" against being isolated. China's entry into the WTO signalled the end of truly isolated nations entirely managing their own currency and affairs. The need for stable currency and predictable clearing and rules-based handling of trade disputes, has led to a global trade hegemony - many nations ""hedging"" on a global scale against each other's anticipated ""protectionism"", were they to fail to join the WTO. - -There are signs, however, that this regime is far from perfect. U.S. trade sanctions against Canadian softwood lumber (within NAFTA) and foreign steel (except for NAFTA partners Canada and Mexico) in 2002 signalled a shift in policy towards a tougher regime perhaps more driven by political concerns - jobs, industrial policy, even sustainable forestry and logging practices. - -Non-conventional commodities - -Nature's commodity outputs - -Commodity thinking is undergoing a more direct revival thanks to the theorists of ""natural capital"" whose products, some economists argue, are the only genuine commodities - air, water, and calories we consume being mostly interchangeable when they are free of pollution or disease. Whether we wish to think of these things as tradeable commodities rather than birthrights has been a major source of controversy in many nations. - -Most types of environmental economics consider the shift to measuring them inevitable, arguing that reframing political economy to consider the flow of these basic commodities first and foremost, helps avoids use of any military fiat except to protect ""natural capital"" itself, and basing credit-worthiness more strictly on commitment to preserving biodiversity aligns the long-term interests of ecoregions, societies, and individuals. They seek relatively conservative sustainable development schemes that would be amenable to measuring well-being over long periods of time, typically ""seven generations"", in line with Native American thought. - -Weather trading -However, this is not the only way in which commodity thinking interacts with ecologists' thinking. Hedging began as a way to escape the consequences of damage done by natural conditions. It has matured not only into a system of interlocking guarantees, but also into a system of indirectly trading on the actual damage done by weather, using ""weather derivatives"". For a price, this relieves the purchaser of the following types of concerns: - -""Will a freeze hurt the Brazilian coffee crop? Will there be a drought in the U.S. Corn Belt? What are the chances that we will have a cold winter, driving natural gas prices higher and creating havoc in Florida orange areas? What is the status of El Niño?"" - -Emissions trading -Weather trading is just one example of ""negative commodities"", units of which represent harm rather than good. - -""Economy is three fifths of ecology"" argues Mike Nickerson, one of many economic theorists who holds that nature's productive services and waste disposal services are poorly accounted for. One way to fairly allocate the waste disposal capacity of nature is ""cap and trade"" market structure that is used to trade toxic emissions rights in the United States, e.g. SO2. This is in effect a ""negative commodity"", a right to throw something away. - -In this market, the atmosphere's capacity to absorb certain amounts of pollutants is measured, divided into units, and traded amongst various market players. Those who emit more SO2 must pay those who emit less. Critics of such schemes argue that unauthorized or unregulated emissions still happen, and that ""grandfathering"" schemes often permit major polluters, such as the state governments' own agencies, or poorer countries, to expand emissions and take jobs, while the SO2 output still floats over the border and causes death. - -In practice, political pressure has overcome most such concerns and it is questionable whether this is a capacity that depends on U.S. clout: The Kyoto Protocol established a similar market in global greenhouse gas emissions without U.S. support. - -Community as commodity? -This highlights one of the major issues with global commodity markets of either the positive or negative kind. A community must somehow believe that the commodity instrument is real, enforceable, and well worth paying for. - -A very substantial part of the anti-globalization movement opposes the commodification of currency, national sovereignty, and traditional cultures. -The capacity to repay debt, as in the current global credit money regime anchored by the Bank for International Settlements, does not in their view correspond to measurable benefits to human well-being worldwide. They seek a fairer way for societies to compete in the global markets that will not require conversion of natural capital to natural resources, nor human capital to move to developed nations in order to find work. - -Some economic systems by green economists would replace the ""gold standard"" with a ""biodiversity standard"". It remains to be seen if such plans have any merit other than as political ways to draw attention to the way capitalism itself interacts with life. - -Is human life a commodity? -While classical, neoclassical, and Marxist approaches to economics tend to treat labor differently, they are united in treating nature as a resource. - -The green economists and the more conservative environmental economics argue that not only natural ecologies, but also the life of the individual human being is treated as a commodity by the global markets. A good example is the IPCC calculations cited by the Global Commons Institute as placing a value on a human life in the developed world ""15x higher"" than in the developing world, based solely on the ability to pay to prevent climate change. - -Is free time a commodity? -Accepting this result, some argue that to put a price on both is the most reasonable way to proceed to optimize and increase that value relative to other goods or services. This has led to efforts in measuring well-being, to assign a commercial ""value of life"", and to the theory of Natural Capitalism - fusions of green and neoclassical approaches - which focus predictably on energy and material efficiency, i.e. using far less of any given commodity input to achieve the same service outputs as a result. - -Indian economist Amartya Sen, applying this thinking to human freedom itself, argued in his 1999 book ""Development as Freedom"" that human free time was the only real service, and that sustainable development was best defined as freeing human time. Sen won The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1999 (sometimes incorrectly called the ""Nobel Prize in Economics"") and based his book on invited lectures he gave at the World Bank. - -Related pages -Currency market -Stock market - -Other websites - National Futures Association -Futures Quotes & Charts - -Commerce" -5214,16851,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000,1000,"1000 (M) in the Gregorian Calendar was the last year of the 10th century and the 1st millennium in the Christian era ending on December 31. According to the then used Julian Calendar, 1000 AD was a leap year starting on Monday. In the Gregorian Calendar (not invented at the time) the year would have been a common year starting on Wednesday. - -It is one of only seven years to use just one Roman numeral. The seven are 1 AD (I), 5 AD (V), 10 AD (X), 50 AD (L), 100 AD (C), 500 AD (D), and 1000 AD (M). - -Events - Leif Ericson becomes the first European to visit America - Gunpowder is invented in China. - Dhaka, Bangladesh, is started. - -Births - July 5 – Robert I, Duke of Normandy, French nobleman; father to William the Conqueror (died 1035) - King Stephen I of Hungary, Hungarian royal (died 1038) - Pope Clement II (died 1045) - Pope Damasus II (died 1047) - Pope Sylvester IX (died 1049) - Saint Herfast, French bishop; first Lord Chancellor of England (died 1085)" -2448,7859,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mork%20%26%20Mindy,Mork & Mindy,"Mork and Mindy is an American television sitcom which ran from 1978-1982. It stars Robin Williams and Pam Dawber as the title characters. The series was made by Garry Marshall. Comedian Jonathan Winters has a recurring role in the series. Mork and Mindy is a spin-off from Marshall's other popular TV series, Happy Days. The plot of the series is that alien named Mork from a planet called Ork who travels to Earth and becomes friends with a woman named Mindy in Boulder, Colorado. - -Other websites - -1978 television series debuts -1982 disestablishments in the United States -1982 television series endings -1970s American television series -1980s American television series -American science fiction television series -American sitcoms -Television series set in Colorado -Boulder, Colorado -Television spin-offs -1978 establishments in the United States -ABC network shows -English-language television programs" -16257,62505,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grosse%20Ile%20Township%2C%20Michigan,"Grosse Ile Township, Michigan","Grosse Ile Township is a town in Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The township is coterminous with the island in the Detroit River called Grosse Ile. The name comes from French, meaning ""Big Island"". The population was 10,894 at the 2000 census. It is part of the collection of communities known as Downriver. - -References - -Townships in Michigan" -7844,25730,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant%20Reformation,Protestant Reformation,"The Protestant Reformation was a series of events that happened in the 16th century in the Christian Church. Because of corruption in the Catholic Church, some people saw that the way it worked needed to change. People like Erasmus, Huldrych Zwingli, Martin Luther and John Calvin saw the corruption and tried to stop it. This led to a split in the church, into Catholics and various Protestant churches. The Protestant reformation triggered the Catholic Counter-Reformation. - -Martin Luther's posting of The Ninety-Five theses at Wittenberg is seen as the start of the Protestant Reformation. This happened in the year 1517. John Knox brought Luther's ideas to Scotland and founded the Presbyterian Church. As various countries adopted Protestant ideas, wars broke out between Catholic and Protestant factions and countries. Many people died in these wars, which included the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War. These wars were not just about religion. Since most countries have recognized (state) religion, many of the disputes were political. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 recognized Protestants when the signers agreed not to interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. This included their chosen religion. - -The recent invention of the printing press helped spread awareness of the Church's abuses. A start was made in translating the Bible into various local languages. For example, John Wycliffe and William Tyndale worked on translating it into the English language. Much of Tyndale's translation was used in the King James version of the Bible. Luther translated the Bible into German. - -Causes of Reformation -The start of the 16th century, many events led to the Protestant reformation. Clergy abuse caused people to begin criticizing the Catholic Church. The greed and scandalous lives of the clergy had created a split between them and the peasants. Furthermore, the clergy did not respond to the population's needs, often because they did not speak the local language, or live in their own diocese. The papacy lost prestige. - -However, the split was more over doctrine than corruption. The main points of criticism were: - -The Bible was only printed in Latin, and not in the local language. And printing was controlled by the church by a system of censorship. Catholic Mass, the Church's chief religious service, was also in Latin. This meant the people could not check whether what the priest said was actually correct. -The church sold tickets of indulgences (forgiveness) from sins for money. This suggested that the rich could buy their way into Heaven while the poor could not - quite the opposite of what the Bible says. (See Gospel of Matthew 19:24) -Religious posts were often sold to whoever was willing to pay the most money for them, see Simony. This meant many priests did not know enough about Christianity. So they told the people many different things. Some of the things had little to do with what was written in the Bible. - -In 1515, the Pope started a new indulgence campaign to raise money for the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, a church in Rome. Preachers came to Germany to sell the indulgences, promising that money could release souls from purgatory. Martin Luther, a German Catholic monk thought this went too far. On October 31, 1517, he sent his 95 theses to the local archbishop in protest. It is said he nailed a copy to the door of a church in Wittenberg. These theses, written in Latin, were points that Luther wanted to debate. Most of them related to the problems caused by the sale of indulgences. Luther said that the idea the money could buy forgiveness prevented people from turning away from sins. He said that it also made people give less money to the poor. Luther did not attack the Pope. He blamed the abuses on others. Nevertheless, his ideas implied that the pope was corrupt also. Without Luther's permission, the 95 Theses were translated into German and sent to many places. Many people agreed with Luther. The Catholic Church tried to stop these new ideas, but without much result. Luther was considered an enemy of the Pope, and when he refused to change his ideas he was excommunicated (put out of the church). In the beginning, Luther had not planned to separate from the Catholic Church or to create a new religion; he wanted to reform the Catholic Church. - -Consequences -In many countries, Christians put the needed reforms listed by Luther into practice. People began to read the Bible in their own language, and many could see for themselves how the Catholic Church had let the Christian faith become corrupted. Many who stayed in the Catholic Church adopted some of Luther's ideas. The Pope reestablished the Inquisition to combat heresy. The Catholic Church responded to the Protestant reformation with the counter-reformation. Between 1545 and 1563 the Council of Trent met to decide what to do. Some of the worst abuses were eliminated but many of the old teachings were kept. The Inquisition tried to force people to keep those ideas. Finding force not very successful, the Pope created new religious orders like the Jesuits. These new religious orders were told to combat Protestantism by educating the population to Catholicism. The Pope made the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, a list of banned books. It had a big influence in its first centuries and was not ended until the 1960s. The Catholic Church used baroque art to touch the religious feeling of the faithful and bring them to the Catholic religion. - -In addition to the conflict in the churches, there were political consequences. Common people were made more open to questioning their leaders. In 1524-1525, millions of peasants rebelled against the nobles in the name of equality of humanity in front of God. Many countries in Europe choose Protestantism as the state religion and so Europe was divided by religion. This brought religious wars such as the French Wars of Religion. For a short time, Protestant and Catholic had managed to live with one another and with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. This Peace recognized the confessional division of the German states and gave the right to Protestants to practice their religion. - -Longer Term Impacts -Catholic countries such as Spain and Italy for a long time didn't allow Protestants to live there, and Protestant countries kept out Catholics. With the American Revolution the idea of freedom of religion began to expand. Protestants are influential in the United States and the English Canada. Quebec was a (formerly French) Catholic province of Canada. After the Seven Years War the British imposed the Quebec Act granting freedom of religion in Quebec, while including in Quebec some of the present day United States, for example Ohio and Michigan. Catholics were granted religious freedom in those areas. Protestant colonists saw this as one of the Intolerable Acts. In later centuries, many Protestant churches were established in the province of Quebec. Many Catholic churches began in Ohio and Michigan. Eventually most Christian countries allowed some religious freedom. - -Churches based on Reformation ideas have multiplied into different forms, especially in historically Protestant countries. Even in much of Latin America, which is historically Catholic, Evangelical churches, which follow many of the Protestant ideas have greatly expanded. In the 20th century, some countries still had state churches, but also allowed full freedom of religion. In these countries, conflict between Protestant and Catholic Christians have become less important. They have to work together to confront a more secular society. In 2016 Pope Francis praised Luther in a prayer service commerating the 500th anniversary of the Refomatiom. In turn, some Protestant churches have embraced some Catholic worship traditions, and others have praised them for their stand on social issues. - -Related pages -Protestantism - -References" -8795,29808,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okeanos,Okeanos,"Okeanos (Latin: Oceanus) is a Titan in Greek mythology. He is titan of the earth-encircling river Okeanos. His parents are Gaia and Uranos. With his sister Tethys his children are the river gods, the sea and spring nymphs, the Okeanids. - -Titans" -16615,63658,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona%20Sahlin,Mona Sahlin,"Mona Ingeborg Sahlin (born Andersson on March 9, 1957 in Sollefteå, Sweden) is a former leader for the Swedish Social Democratic Party, when she replaced Göran Persson after his ten years as leader, she was the first woman to do so. She was the minister responsible for the handling of the Heart 2 Art Exhibition in Stockholm 2002. Toblerone Scandal or Sahlin Scandal is the name of a Swedish scandal, in which there in October 1995 came to public attention that the Socialist politician Mona Sahlin during her time as Minister for Employment, 1990-1991, on several occasions used its credit cards for private expenses. - -Other websites -Social democratic homepage - -1957 births -Living people -Government ministers of Sweden" -6626,20864,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2030s,2030s,"The 2030s (pronounced ""twenty-thirties"") will begin on January 1, 2030 and will end on December 31, 2039. - -The decade as a whole - -This decade will be called ""the twenty-thirties"". The Roman number will be MMXXX. - -Events to happen - Voyager 2 will stop transmitting back to Earth. - January 19, 2038 - 32-bit clocks will return to 1970. - September 1, 2039 will be the 100th anniversary of Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland (the start of World War II). - -References" -19900,76144,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan,Vulcan,"Vulcan could mean: - -Mythology -Vulcan (mythology), the blacksmith god of fire and volcanoes in Roman mythology -Hephaestus, the Greek god of smiths identified with Vulcan. - -Fiction - Vulcan (Star Trek), a race in the fictional Star Trek universe - Vulcan (Star Trek planet), home of the Vulcans - Vulcan!, a 1978 Star Trek novel by Kathleen Sky - Vulcan (DC Comics), a character from DC Comics - Vulcan (comic), Ipc Comic produced in England from 1975-1976 - Vulcan (Marvel Comics), a character in the Marvel Comics universe - Black Vulcan, a fictional African American superhero on the animated series Super Friends - Vulcan, a fictional planet featured in the Doctor Who serial The Power of the Daleks - Vulcan Raven, a character in Metal Gear Solid - -Places - Vulcan, Alberta, Canada - Vulcan Airport - Vulcan, Romania, in Hunedoara County in the Jiu Valley - Vulcan, Braşov, also in Romania in Braşov County - Vulcan, Michigan, United States - Vulcan, Missouri, United States - Vulcan (volcano), a volcano in Papua New Guinea - Vulcano, a small volcanic island in the Tyrrhenian Sea - -Companies - Vulcanair, an Italian based manufacturer of light twin-engined aircraft that took over Partenavia - Vulcan (cars), a Southport, England based car manufacturer - Vulcan Corporation, a materials manufacturing company in Clarksville, Tennessee - Vulcan Foundry, a former British locomotive builder - Vulcan Iron Works, a former United States locomotive builder - Vulcan Materials Company, a construction materials company headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama - Vulcan Inc., an investment company formed by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen - Stettiner Vulcan AG, a former shipyard in Hamburg, Germany - Vulcan (shipyard) (1857–1944), the shipyard in Szczecin, Poland - Vulcan Media, an educational software company from Poland - Vulcan Software, a British computer game company - Vulcan Stoves, a maker of commercial ranges, ovens, steam equipment, fryers griddles and broilers - -Vehicles - Avro Vulcan, British delta-wing subsonic bomber aircraft - Vickers Vulcan, a single engined biplane of the 1920s - Ford Vulcan engine, a 3.0L V6 automobile engine - Kawasaki Vulcan, a cruiser-type motorcycle - Kawasaki Vulcan 400 Classic - Kawasaki Vulcan 800 Drifter - M167 Vulcan, a towed short-range air defense gun - M163 VADS (Vulcan Air Defense System), a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun - Vulcan (1874-1892), one of the ten South Devon Railway Buffalo class steam locomotives - Vulcan (1951-1967), one of the BR 'Britannia' Class locomotives -Vulcan Railcars are a type of railcar found in preservation in New Zealand. - HMS Vulcan, either one of two Royal Navy ships, or a Royal Navy shore establishment at Dounreay, Scotland, dedicated to the development of nuclear power - -Science - Vulcan (hypothetical planet), a hypothetical planet between Mercury and the Sun, and Vulcanoid asteroids, hypothetical minor planets in the same place - Vulcanization, a chemical process to improve the strength and durability of rubber - Vulcan laser, the most intensely focused in the world, based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Chilton, Oxfordshire. - -Computing - Vulcan processor, a type of central processing unit - VULCAN (operating system), an operating system for some 24-bit Datacraft/Harris Corporation minicomputers - Vulcan (programming language), a programming language, now known as dBase - -Other uses - The ""Vulcans"" are the nickname of California University of Pennsylvania's sports teams. - Vulcan statue, the largest cast iron statue in the world and the symbol of Birmingham, Alabama - Vulcan of the alchemists, the patron deity associated with Paracelsian alchemy - Birmingham Vulcans, a 1975 World Football League team - M61 Vulcan, a 20mm six-barreled gatling gun - Vulcan M-11-9, a semi-automatic, closed bolt pistol manufactured by Vulcan Armament - The Vulcans, an informal name of George W. Bush's foreign policy advisory team for the 2000 U.S. presidential election - The Vulcan, an occasional magazine from various organizations within the Young Fine Gael, the youth wing of the Irish Fine Gael political party - Vulcan, the title of an EP and a song by the rock band Snake River Conspiracy - Operation Vulcan, Allied action in Tunisia during World War II - -Related pages - Vulcana - Welsh female bodybuilder - Volcano" -23946,92508,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embargo,Embargo,"An embargo is when a government refuses to trade with a country or a certain part of a country. This is usually because of a political problem inside the country. It differs from a blockade in not requiring a state of war or obliging other countries to stop trading. - -As with other economic sanctions, an embargo stops trade between countries. This means that the countries in question will get poorer. The hope is that the problem within the country will stop. - -Economic policy" -23988,92644,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickup%20truck,Pickup truck,"A pickup truck is a type of vehicle that is designed to move things. - -Form -The back of the truck is open, like some other types of trucks. It is very powerful for its small size. Pickup trucks have different shapes, sizes, and uses. Sometimes people would go ride in the back of the trucks to work. The back of the truck where the goods are placed is called a cargo bed. The cargo bed may be covered with a tonneau cover made of cloth, metal or plastic, to protect the cargo from rain and dirt. - -Pickup trucks are easy to load and unload. They are especially popular in the countryside, where they are used to carry various agricultural cargo or tools. - -Pickup trucks often have the same chassis as vans. Usually, pickup trucks are same size as normal cars. You usually may drive a pickup truck with the same driver's license as an ordinary car, but heavy pickup trucks may require a light truck license. The smallest pickup trucks are made from scooters by replacing the rear seat and rear wheel with an axle and cargo bed, and some have only three wheels. - -A pickup truck can be turned into an improvised military vehicle by installing a machine gun or a light cannon on the cargo bed. Such cars are called ""technicals"", and they are especially popular in Africa. - -Related pages - Van - Truck" -8609,29180,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre%20of%20ancient%20Greece,Theatre of ancient Greece,"The theatre of ancient Greece was at its best from 550 BC to 220 BC. It was the beginning of modern western theatre, and some ancient Greek plays are still performed today. They invented the genres of tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC) and satyr plays. - -The city-state of Athens was a great cultural, political and military power during this period. Drama was at its centre. Theatre was part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. In the Dionysia, the playwrights presented their work to an audience. It was a competition, with a winner and prizes. These two main genres were never mixed: they each had their own typical structure. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote their way of life. - -Only men were allowed as actors. The chorus were men, as were the actors. Technically, they had to be citizens of Athens, which only applied to free-born men plus a few special cases. The actors wore masks, so that the people would know which persona (character) the actor played. - -The best known writers of plays are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides for tragedies, and Aristophanes for comedies. - -Origins -Some think early Greek religion and theatre were influenced by Central Asian shamanistic practices. A large number of Orphic graffiti discovered in Olbia seems to show that the colony was a major point of contact. Eli Rozik points out that the shaman can be seen as an early type of actor influencing the rituals of early Greek theatre. - -Greek tragedy as we know it was made in Athens some years before 532 BC, when Thespis was the earliest recorded playwright. He won the first theatrical contest held at Athens, so he was the leader of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica. Dithyrambs were ancient hymns sung in praise of the god of wine and fertility, Dionysus. They had a wild and ecstatic nature. - -By Thespis' time the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. It had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Because of this Thespis is often called the ""Father of Tragedy"". The statesman Solon is said to have created poems in which characters speak with their own voice. Spoken recitations, known as rhapsodes, of Homer's epics were popular in festivals before 534 BC. Thespis's contribution to drama is unclear, but his name is remembered in the common term for performer—a 'thespian'. - -The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the Dionysian festival. This was organized perhaps to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica. These had been recently created by Cleisthenes, who founded Greek democracy. The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. - -Phrynichus was the first poet known to use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus, 493, told the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers). - -Until the Hellenistic period, all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once, so that today we only have the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when repetition of old tragedies became fashion. - -Classical period -After the Great Destruction of Athens by the Persian Empire in 480 BC, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became an even more major part of Athenian culture and civic pride. The centre-piece was the competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus, twice a year. Each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic, burlesque version of a mythological subject). From 486 BC, each playwright also submitted a comedy. Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor, and that Sophocles introduced the third. Apparently the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors. - -Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr's plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner. However, as they were written over a century after the Athenian Golden Age, it is not known whether dramatists such as Sophocles and Euripides would have thought about their plays in the same terms. - -Hellenistic period -The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans. From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the Hellenistic period (the period following Alexander the Great's conquests in the fourth century BC). The main Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but 'New Comedy', comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only playwright from the period whose work has survived is Menander. One of New Comedy's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence. - -Buildings and performances -The plays originally had a chorus of up to 50 people, who performed the plays in verse accompanied by music, beginning in the morning and lasting until the evening. - -The performance space was a simple semi-circular space, the orchestra, where the chorus danced and sang. The orchestra was on a flattened terrace at the foot of a hill, the slope of which produced a natural theatron, (watching place). Later, the term ""theatre"" came to be applied to the whole area of theatron, orchestra, and skené (scene). - -The theatres were made very large. Audiences might have up to fourteen thousand people. Actors' voices needed to be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greeks' understanding of acoustics compares well with the current state of the art. - -In 465 BC, the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind the orchestra, which also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. It was known as the skênê (scene). In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia, became a common supplement to skênê in the theatres. The proskenion (""in front of the scene"") was columned, and was similar to the modern day proscenium. - -Greek theatres also had entrances for the actors and chorus members called parodoi. They were tall arches that opened onto the orchestra, through which the performers entered. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the skênê, the back wall, was two stories high. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion. - -Scenic elements -There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre: -makhina, a crane that gave the impression of a flying actor (thus, deus ex machina, meaning, 'the god from the machine'). -ekkyklema, a wheeled wagon used to bring dead characters for the audience to see -trap doors, or similar openings in the ground to lift people onto the stage -Pinakes, pictures hung to create scenery -Thyromata, more complex pictures built into the second-level scene (3rd level from ground) -Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolising fertility in honor of Dionysus. - -Greek chorus - -Although in the early days the chorus was much larger, the numbers settled down to 12 or 15 in tragedies and 24 in comedies. They usually play a group character, such as 'the old men of Argos'. The chorus offers background information, summaries and comments. In many of these plays, the chorus expresses to the audience what the main characters cannot say, such as their hidden fears or secrets. - -The chorus might sing, or might speak in unison (say the same thing together). The chorus made up for the fact that there were only one, two or three actors, who played several parts each (changing masks). - -Before the introduction of several actors by Aeschylus, the Greek chorus was the main performer opposite a solitary actor. The importance of the chorus declined after the 5th century BC, when the chorus began to be separated from the dramatic action. Later dramatists depended less on the chorus. - -Masks -The mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus in the 6th century AD. It is one of the typical things they did in classical Greek theatre. Masks were also used in the worship of Dionysius, and that is probably how the tradition started. - -Most of the evidence comes from a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC which depict actors preparing for a Satyr play. No physical evidence survived: the masks were made of organic materials. They were not considered permanent objects, and were dedicated to the altar of Dionysus after performances. There are, however, examples of statues of actors carrying a mask in hand. - -Masks were made for the actors and for the chorus, who help the audience know what a character is thinking. The chorus all wear the same mask, because they represent the same character. - -Mask functions -In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, the masks brought the characters' face closer to the audience, as they had exaggerated features and expressions. An actor could appear and reappear in different roles, since the audience did not identify the actor with one character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status. Also, they could show a change in a character’s appearance, for example, Oedipus after blinding himself.p70 Unique masks were also create characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus’ Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides’ The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, a sort of multi-voiced persona or single organism. - -References - -Ancient Greece -Theater" -19795,75719,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%20Eben,Petr Eben,"Petr Eben (Žamberk, 22 January 1929; died Prague 24 October 2007) was a Czech composer and organist. Many musicians think of him as the most important Czech composer of the late 20th century. He was known world wide for his organ playing. He was especially good at improvisation. - -His Life - -Eben grew up in Český Krumlov in south Bohemia. He learned to play the piano, and later the cello and organ. Because his father was a Jew he had to leave school in 1943 and spent the rest of the war years in concentration camp in Buchenwald. In the camp he saw many terrible things, including graves into which the Nazis were throwing lots of murdered Jews. These terrible things influenced his music in later years. He had a strong faith and this helped him to survive during 40 years of living in Czechoslovakia under communist rule. - -After the war he went to Prague Academy for Music where he studied the piano with František Rauch and composition with Pavel Bořkovec. In 1955 he got a job as lecturer at Charles University in Prague. He stayed there until 1990. He was the country’s best composer, and he should have had promotion, but the communist politicians did not allow this. He went to church every Sunday with his family. This did not help his career in a communist state. - -After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, when his country became free from the Soviet Union, he started to become a national hero. He was made Professor of Composition and president of the Prague Spring Music Festival. Many music festivals performed his compositions, and he traveled to hear the concerts in spite of the fact that he was starting to become ill. His music was often played in England, where he had spent two years as professor of composition at the Royal Northern College of Music in Manchester from 1978 to 1979. In March 2007 the BBC Symphony Orchestra under their Czech conductor Jiří Bělohlávek performed his Vox Clamantis, a work he had written in 1968 which shows the Czech people’s longing to be free. - -His compositions - -Eben continued during his lifetime to develop the style of music in which he wrote. He was interested in Czech folk music and he wrote down many folk songs that he heard in Moravia. He listened to plainchant in church music. All this helped him to develop his own style of composition. He is best-known abroad for his organ music, especially works such as Musica Dominicalis (Sunday Music) which includes a popular piece called Moto Ostinato. Other organ works include Faust (1980), Job (1987) and A Festive Voluntary which is a set of variations on the tune of Good King Wenceslas, written for the reopening in 1986 of the organ at Chichester Cathedral which had just been restored. He also wrote a lot of music for orchestra as well as chamber music. He composed some beautiful music for children’s choir, including church music called Liturgical Songs. - -References - -1929 births -2007 deaths -Czech composers -Organists -20th-century composers" -15866,60801,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaconomist,Pharmaconomist,"Pharmaconomist means expert in pharmaceuticals (expert in medicine). - -A pharmaconomist is a Danish person who works in a pharmacy. Just like pharmacists, pharmaconomists have to be trained to work there, and have lots of knowledge about the drugs and treatments that they give out. - -Related pages -Pharmacist -Pharmacy - -Sources and other links -The Danish College of Pharmacy Practice -The Danish Association of Pharmaconomists -The Danish Pharmaceutical Association -The Danish Executive Order on the Education of Pharmaconomists — June 27, 2007 -Information about pharmaconomists - -Pharmacology -Drugs -Care -Healthcare occupations" -10915,39184,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896%20Summer%20Olympics,1896 Summer Olympics,"The 1896 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, were held at Athens in Greece. - -The games took place from April 6 to 15, 1896. It was the first international Olympic Games held in the Modern era. As Ancient Greece was the birthplace of the Olympic Games, Athens was an appropriate choice to stage the inaugural modern Games. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was also instituted during this congress. - -The 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success even though there were many obstacles and setbacks. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. The Panathinaiko Stadium, the only Olympic stadium used in the 19th Century, overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event. The highlight for the Greeks was the marathon victory by Spyridon Louis. The most successful competitor was German wrestler and gymnast Carl Schuhmann, who won four events. - -After the Games, Rhys Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by several prominent figures including Greece's King George and some of the American competitors in Athens, to hold all the following Games in Athens. However, the 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, except for the Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the 2004 Summer Olympics, some 108 years later. - -The stories about the events and people of these Games were in the 1984 NBC miniseries, The First Olympics: Athens, 1896 – starring David Ogden Stiers as William Milligan Sloane and Louis Jourdan as Pierre de Coubertin. - -Reviving the Games - -In the 18th century, several small-scale sports festivals in Europe were named after the Ancient Olympic Games. The 1870 Olympics at the Panathenaic stadium had 30,000 people. Coubertin took Dr William Penny Brooke's idea to have a multi-national and multi-sport event—the ancient games were in a sense international, because various Greek city-states and colonies were represented, but only free male athletes of Greek origin were allowed to participate. In 1890, Coubertin wrote an article in La Revue Athletique, which talked about the importance of Much Wenlock—a rural market town in the English county of Shropshire. It was here that, in October 1850, the local physician William Penny Brookes started the Wenlock Olympian Games, a festival of sports and recreations that included athletics and team sports, such as cricket, football and quoits. Coubertin also took inspiration from the earlier Greek games organized under the name of Olympics by businessman and philanthropist Evangelos Zappas in 1859, 1870 and 1875. The 1896 Athens Games was funded by the legacies of Evangelos Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas and by George Averoff who had been specifically requested by the Greek government, through crown prince Constantine, to sponsor the second refurbishment of the Panathinaiko Stadium. The Greek government did fix the stadium even though the cost of refurbishing the stadium in marble had already been funded in full by Evangelos Zappas forty years earlier. - -On June 18, 1894, Coubertin put together a group at the Sorbonne, in Paris, to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries. After his proposal's acceptance by the congress, a date for the first modern Olympic Games needed to be chosen. Coubertin suggested that the Games be held at the same time as the 1900 Universal Exposition of Paris. Concerned that a six-year wait might lessen public interest, congress members instead chose 1896. With a date established, members of the congress turned to the choice of a host city. Since Greece was the original home of the Olympics, all the congress approved the decision of Athens. Vikelas was then elected the first president of the newly established International Olympic Committee (IOC). - -Venues - -Opening ceremony - -On April 6 (March 25 according to the Julian calendar then in use in Greece), the games of the First Olympiad were officially opened; it was Easter Monday for both the Western and Eastern Christian Churches and the anniversary of Greece's independence. The Panathinaiko Stadium was filled with an estimated 80,000 spectators, including King George I of Greece, his wife Olga, and their sons. Most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organizing committee, Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games: - -""I declare the opening of the first international Olympic Games in Athens. Long live the Nation. Long live the Greek people."" - -Afterwards, nine bands and 150 choir singers performed an Olympic Hymn, composed by Spyridon Samaras, with words by poet Kostis Palamas. Thereafter, a variety of musical offerings provided the backgrounds to the Opening Ceremonies until 1960, since which time the Samaras/Palamas composition has become the official Olympic Anthem (decision taken by the IOC Session in 1958). Other elements of current Olympic opening ceremonies were started later: the Olympic flame was first lit in 1928, the first athletes' oath was sworn at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and the first officials' oath was taken at the 1972 Olympic Games. - -Events -At the 1894 Sorbonne congress, a large roster of sports were suggested for the program in Athens. The first official announcements regarding the sporting events to be held featured sports such as football and cricket, but these plans were never finalized, and these sports did not make the final list for the Games. Rowing and yachting were scheduled, but had to be canceled due to poor weather on the planned day of competition. - -Athletics -The athletics events had the most international field of any of the sports. The major highlight was the marathon, held for the first time in international competition. Spyridon Louis was the only Greek athletics champion and a national hero. Although Greece had been favored to win the discus or the shotput, the best Greek athletes finished just behind the American Robert Garrett in both events. - -No world records were set, as few top international competitors had elected to compete. In addition, the curves of the track were very tight, making fast times in the running events hard. Despite this, Thomas Burke, of the United States, won the 100 meter race in 12.0 seconds and the 400 meter race in 54.2 seconds. was the only one who used the ""crouch start"" (putting his knee on soil), confusing the jury. Eventually, he was allowed to start from his ""uncomfortable position"". - -Cycling - -The rules of the International Cycling Association were used for the cycling competitions. The track cycling events were held at the newly built Neo Phaliron Velodrome. Only one road event was held, a race from Athens to Marathon and back (87 kilometers). - -In the track events, the best cyclist was Frenchman Paul Masson, who won the one lap time trial, the sprint event, and the 10,000 meters. In the 100 kilometers event, Masson entered as a pacemaker for his compatriot Léon Flameng. Flameng won the event, after a fall, and after stopping to wait for his Greek opponent Georgios Kolettis to fix a mechanical problem. The Austrian fencer Adolf Schmal won the 12-hour race, which was completed by only two cyclists, while the road race event was won by Aristidis Konstantinidis. - -Fencing - -The fencing events were held in the Zappeion, which, built with money Evangelos Zappas had given to revive the ancient Olympic Games, was not used before. Unlike other sports (in which only amateurs were allowed to take part at the Olympics), professionals were allowed to compete in fencing, though in a separate event. These professionals were considered gentlemen athletes, just as the amateurs. - -Four events were scheduled, but the épée event was cancelled for unknown reasons. The foil event was won by a Frenchman, Eugène-Henri Gravelotte, who beat his countryman, Henri Callot, in the final. The other two events, the sabre and the masters foil, were won by Greek fencers. Leonidas Pyrgos, who won the latter event, became the first Greek Olympic champion in the modern era. - -Gymnastics - -Gymnastics was at the infield of the Panathinaiko Stadium. Germany sent an 11-man team, which won five of the eight events, including both team events. In the team event on the horizontal bar, the German team was unopposed. Three Germans added individual titles: Hermann Weingärtner won the horizontal bar, Alfred Flatow won the parallel bars; and Carl Schuhmann, who also competed successfully in wrestling, won the vault. Louis Zutter, a Swiss gymnast, won the pommel horse, while Greeks Ioannis Mitropoulos and Nikolaos Andriakopoulos were victorious in the rings and rope climbing events, respectively. - -Shooting -Held at a range at Kallithea, the shooting competition was five events—two using a rifle and three with the pistol. The first event, the military rifle, was won by Pantelis Karasevdas, the only competitor to hit the target with all of his shots. The second event, for military pistols, was dominated by two American brothers: John and Sumner Paine became the first siblings to finish first and second in the same event. In order to avoid embarrassing their hosts, the brothers decided that only one of them would compete in the next pistol event, the free pistol. Sumner Paine won that event. - -The Paine brothers did not compete in the 25 meter pistol event, as the event judges determined that their weapons were not of the required caliber. In their absence, Ioannis Phrangoudis won. The final event, the free rifle, began on the same day. However, the event was not completed due to darkness and was finalized the next morning, when Georgios Orphanidis was crowned the champion. - -Swimming - -The swimming competition was held in the open sea. Nearly 20,000 spectators lined the Bay of Zea off the Piraeus coast to watch the events. The water in the bay was cold, and the competitors suffered during their races. There were three open events (men's 100 metre freestyle, men's 500 metre freestyle, and men's 1200 metre freestyle), in addition to a special event open only to Greek sailors, all of which were held on the same day (April 11). - -For Alfréd Hajós of Hungary, being on the same day meant he could only compete in two of the events. He won the two events in which he swam, the 100 and 1200 meter freestyle. Hajós later became one of only two Olympians to win a medal in both the athletic and artistic competitions, when he won a silver medal for architecture in 1924. The 500 meter freestyle was won by Austrian swimmer Paul Neumann, who defeated his opponents by more than a minute and a half. - -Tennis -Although tennis was already a major sport by the end of the 19th century, none of the top players turned up for the tournament in Athens. The competition was at the courts of the Athens Lawn Tennis Club, and the infield of the velodrome used for the cycling events. John Pius Boland, who won the event, was entered in the competition by a fellow-student of his at Oxford. In the first round, Boland defeated Friedrich Traun, a promising tennis player from Hamburg, who had been eliminated in the 100 meter sprint competition. Boland and Traun decided to team up for the doubles event, in which they reached the final and defeated their Greek and Egyptian opponents after losing the first set. - -Weightlifting - -The sport of weightlifting was still young in 1896, and the rules differed from those in use today. Competitions were held outdoors, in the infield of the main stadium, and there were no weight limits. The first event was held in a style now known as the ""clean and jerk"". Two competitors stood out: Scotsman Launceston Elliot and Viggo Jensen of Denmark. Both of them lifted the same weight; but the jury, with Prince George as the chairman, ruled that Jensen had done so in a better style. The British delegation, unfamiliar with this tie-breaking rule, lodged a protest. The lifters were eventually allowed to make further attempts, but neither lifter improved, and Jensen was declared the champion. - -Elliot won in the one hand lift event, which was held immediately after the two-handed one. Jensen had been slightly injured during his last two-handed attempt, and was no match for Elliot, who won the competition easily. The Greek audience was charmed by the Scottish victor, whom they considered very attractive. A curious incident occurred during the weightlifting event: a servant was ordered to remove the weights, which appeared to be a difficult task for him. Prince George came to his assistance; he picked up the weight and threw it a considerable distance with ease, to the delight of the crowd. - -Wrestling - -No weight classes existed for the wrestling competition, held in the Panathinaiko Stadium, which meant that there would only be one winner among competitors of all sizes. The rules used were similar to modern Greco-Roman wrestling, although there was no time limit, and not all leg holds were forbidden (in contrast to current rules). - -Apart from the two Greek contestants, all the competitors had previously been active in other sports. Weightlifting champion Launceston Elliot faced gymnastics champion Carl Schuhmann. The latter won and advanced into the final, where he met Georgios Tsitas, who had previously defeated Stephanos Christopoulos. Darkness forced the final match to be suspended after 40 minutes; it was continued the following day, when Schuhmann needed only a quarter of an hour to finish the bout. - -Closing ceremony -On the morning of Sunday April 12, King George organized a banquet for officials and athletes (even though some competitions had not yet been held). During his speech, he made clear that, as far as he was concerned, the Olympics should be held in Athens permanently. The official closing ceremony was held the following Wednesday, after being postponed from Tuesday due to rain. Again the royal family attended the ceremony, which was opened by the national anthem of Greece and an ode composed in ancient Greek by George S. Robertson, a British athlete and scholar. - -Afterwards, the king awarded prizes to the winners. Unlike today, the first-place winners received silver medals, an olive branch and a diploma. Athletes who placed second received copper medals, a branch of laurel and a diploma. Third place winners did not receive a medal. Some winners also received additional prizes, such as Spyridon Louis, who received a cup from Michel Bréal, a friend of Coubertin, who had conceived the marathon event. Louis then led the medalists on a lap of honor around the stadium, while the Olympic Hymn was played again. The King then formally announced that the first Olympiad was at an end, and left the Stadium, while the band played the Greek national hymn and the crowd cheered. - -Like the Greek king, many others supported the idea of holding the next Games in Athens; most of the American competitors signed a letter to the Crown Prince expressing this wish. Coubertin, however, was heavily opposed to this idea, as he envisioned international rotation as one of the cornerstones of the modern Olympics. According to his wish, the next Games were held in Paris, although they would be somewhat over-shadowed by the concurrently held Universal Exposition. - -Participating nations -A total of 14 nations sent athletes to compete at the Athens games. - -Notes - -References - -More reading - -Other websites - - Athens 1896 at Olympic.org - -Olympics -19th century in Greece -Summer Olympic 1896 -Summer Olympics in Europe -1890s in Europe" -20827,80170,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthey%20%28district%29,Monthey (district),"Monthey is a district of the canton of Valais in Switzerland. - -It contains the following municipalities: - - Champéry - Collombey-Muraz - Monthey - Port-Valais - Saint-Gingolph - Troistorrents - Val-d'Illiez - Vionnaz - Vouvry - -Districts of Valais" -24127,93062,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gevelsberg,Gevelsberg,"Gevelsberg is a town in the district of Ennepe-Ruhr Rural District the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. - -Geography -Schwelm is in the southeast of the Ruhr Area of Germany. - -Bürgermeister/Mayor - 1886 – 1911 : Fritz Knippschild - 1911 – 1919 : Walter Leinberger - 1919 – 1929 : Hermann Müller - 1930 – 1933 : Konrad Rappold - 1933 : Heinrich Hanholz - 1933 – 1945 : Günter Albitz - 1945 : Hermann Hußmann - 1945 – 1961 : Gustav Trost - 1961 – 1991 : Helmut vom Schemm - 1991 – 2004 : Klaus Solmecke - since 2004: Claus Jacobi - -References - -Other websites - - www.gevelsberg.de - -Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia -Ennepe-Ruhr Rural District" -3428,10197,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown,Brown,"Brown is a color. There are many ways to make the color brown - it can be a mixture of orange and black, of red, blue, and yellow, of red and green, of orange and blue, of purple and yellow, or of orange and black paint. - -Brown is the color of: - Some chocolate - Wood - Toast - Some hair - Coffee - Tree bark - -Tones of brown color comparison chart - -Related pages - - List of colors - -Basic English 850 words" -24796,97114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahn-Dill-Kreis,Lahn-Dill-Kreis,"Lahn-Dill is a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany. - -History -In 1977 the district Gießen was merged with the districts Wetzlar and Dillkreis to the new Lahn-Dill-Kreis. However this big district was not popular, so in 1979 Giessen was split from it. - -Geography -The main rivers of the district are the Lahn and the Dill, which also gave it the name. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German) - Official Online-Community (German) - -Districts of Hesse" -10933,39248,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabio%20Cannavaro,Fabio Cannavaro,"Fabio Cannavaro (born 13 September 1973) is an Italian retired football player. He was the captain of Italy's winning FIFA World Cup squad in 2006. He is considered on of the best defenders in history. - -Cannavaro had originally played several famous football club in Italy, such as Napoli, Parma, Internazionale Milano and Juventus. He won several champions of Italian Serie A in the past, and a UEFA Cup in 1999. In 2006, he turned to Spain to join the Spanish giant Real Madrid, as a defender of the team. - -Cannavaro is a famous defender who represent Italy national team for over 100 times, joining three times of FIFA World Cup. In 2006 he led the national team to win the champion of World Cup, and then won the World Footballer of 2006. As few defenders can be very popular, some people comment that Cannavaro has excellent talent, just like German legend Franz Beckenbauer. - -Club career statistics - -|- -|1992/93||rowspan=""3""|Napoli||rowspan=""3""|Serie A||2||0||1||0||colspan=""2""|-||3||0 -|- -|1993/94||27||0||2||0||colspan=""2""|-||29||0 -|- -|1994/95||29||1||4||0||3||0||36||1 -|- -|1995/96||rowspan=""7""|Parma||rowspan=""7""|Serie A||29||1||1||0||6||0||36||1 -|- -|1996/97||27||0||1||0||2||0||30||0 -|- -|1997/98||31||0||6||0||7||0||44||0 -|- -|1998/99||30||1||7||0||8||0||45||1 -|- -|1999/00||31||2||3||0||9||1||43||3 -|- -|2000/01||33||0||7||0||6||0||46||0 -|- -|2001/02||31||0||5||0||9||0||45||1 -|- -|2002/03||rowspan=""2""|Internazionale Milano||rowspan=""2""|Serie A||28||0||0||0||12||1||40||1 -|- -|2003/04||22||2||3||0||9||0||34||2 -|- -|2004/05||rowspan=""2""|Juventus||rowspan=""2""|Serie A||38||2||0||0||9||1||47||3 -|- -|2005/06||36||4||3||0||9||0||48||4 - -|- -|2006/07||rowspan=""3""|Real Madrid||rowspan=""3""|La Liga||32||0||1||0||6||0||39||0 -|- -|2007/08||33||0||1||0||6||0||40||0 -|- -|2008/09||29||0||1||0||7||0||37||0 - -|- -|2009/10||Juventus||Serie A|||||||||||||||| -394||13||43||0||89||3||526||16 -94||0||3||0||19||0||116||0 -488||13||46||0||108||3||642||16 -|} - -International career statistics - -|- -|1997||12||0 -|- -|1998||11||0 -|- -|1999||8||0 -|- -|2000||14||0 -|- -|2001||9||0 -|- -|2002||12||0 -|- -|2003||10||0 -|- -|2004||6||1 -|- -|2005||8||0 -|- -|2006||15||0 -|- -|2007||8||0 -|- -|2008||8||1 -|- -|2009||10||0 -|- -|2010||5||0 -|- -!Total||136||2 -|} - -References - -1973 births -Living people -1998 FIFA World Cup players -2002 FIFA World Cup players -2006 FIFA World Cup players -2010 FIFA World Cup players -Italian footballers -People from Naples" -14223,52811,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch,Pitch,"Pitch can mean: - - Pitch (music), a term in music - Pitch (card game) - Pitch (resin), a substance from plants or from petroleum - Pitch (baseball), a throw of a baseball from the pitcher to the catcher - A field of play, usually outdoors. A lawn. - Association football pitch - Cricket pitch - Rugby pitch - Sales pitch - Pitch (movie)" -22295,84468,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6hlin,Möhlin,"Möhlin is a municipality of the district of Rheinfelden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Aargau -Cities in Switzerland" -9690,33030,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak%20language,Slovak language,"Slovak is the language spoken in Slovakia, a country in Central Europe. It is a language from Slavic language family. It is very similar to Czech, and Czechs and Slovaks understand each other quite well when they speak their own language. Polish and Sorbian are also quite similar. All of them belong to the western branch of Slavic languages. Slovak is spoken by more than 5 million people. - -Pronunciation -Slovak is written using the Latin alphabet, but some letters have special signs (called diacritics). - -The letters č, š, ž and dž are like the English sounds in chin, shin, vision and juice. - -The letters ď, ľ, ň, and ť are called “soft consonants” and are pronounced with the blade of the tongue at the roof of the mouth. - -The letters c, dz and j are also soft, like ts in bats, ds in rods, and y in yes. - -Signs over a vowel show that the vowel is pronounced long: á, é, í, ó, ý ú. A long vowel is never followed in the next syllable by a short vowel. - -The letter ô is like English woman, and ä is the same as the letter e. - -The letter ch is like ch in Scottish loch. V is more like English w. - -The letters b, d, ď, dz, dž, g, h, z, ž are voiceless when they are at the end of a word (for example, 'd' will sound like 't'). - -The accent is always on the first syllable of the word. That is different from Russian, for example, in which the stress can be anywhere. - -Like other Slavic languages, Slovak is difficult for English-speakers to pronounce., especially because several consonants often come together. In the sentence: “Strč prst skrz krk!” there is not one single vowel (it means: “Stick a finger through your neck!”)! - -Grammar -The grammar is similar to Russian, but there are some differences. Slovak, unlike Russian, has a separate word for “to be”: - Ja som Angličan (I am English). - -Unlike English, Slovak does not have articles (such as “the” and “a”). - -There are three genders in Slovak, therefore it is important to know whether a noun is masculine, feminine or neuter. There is no article to make it obvious (unlike in German), but it changes the adjective's ending. - -Like many other European languages, Slovak verbs agree with the person, and there are different forms for 'I', 'you', 'he', etc. Verbs have different aspects to show whether or not the action is complete. There are also different cases that show how a word is used in a sentence. Different prepositions use different cases. All of that makes grammar quite complicated for English-speakers. - -Sample words and phrases -The numbers from 1 to 10 are . - -Use the familiar form when talking to a child, and the polite form when talking to an adult. - –Hello - –Good morning - –Good day (Used during the day) - –Good evening - –Good night - –Welcome! (familiar form) - –Welcome! (polite form) - - My name is John (Literally: I call myself John) - –What is your name? (Familiar form) - –What is your name? (Polite form) - –I am American (If speaker is male) - –I am American (If speaker is female) - –How are you? (familiar form) - –How are you (polite form) - –Thank you, I am well - –Not too bad - –Bad! - –Please - –Thank you - – You are welcome (this is a reply to “Ďakujem”) - - Enjoy your meal -\ - -References - -Slavic languages -Languages of Europe" -22006,83745,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/121%20Hermione,121 Hermione,"121 Hermione is a very big asteroid of the dark C spectral type, orbiting in the Cybele group in the farther part of the main belt. As a C-type, it is probably made of carbonate. - -Hermione was found by J. C. Watson on May 12, 1872, and named after Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen in Greek mythology. Hermione is a Cybele asteroid and orbits beyond most of the main belt asteroids. - -The asteroid has an odd shape, as evidenced by adaptive optics images, the first of which were taken in December 2003, with the Keck telescope. Of many proposed shape models that agreed with the images, a ""snowman""-like shape was found to best fit the seen precession rate of Hermione's moon. - -Observation of the moon's orbit has made possible a correct determination of Hermione's mass. For the best-fit ""snowman"" model, the density is found to be 1.8 ± 0.2 g/cm³. This gives a porosity of the order of 20%. This could be because the main asteroids are fractured solid bodies, but not a rubble pile (an asteroid that has been broken up by a collision and pulled back together by gravity). - -Occultations by Hermione have been successfully seen three times so far, the last time in February 2004. - -Moon (S/2002 (121) 1) - -A moon of Hermione was found in 2002 with the Keck II telescope. The moon is currently called S/2002 (121) 1. It has not yet been officially named, but the name ""LaFayette"" has been suggested by a group of astronomers. This is after the ship used in secret by the Marquis de Lafayette to reach America to help the Americans during the American Revolutionary War. - -References - -Other websites - 121 Hermione and S/2002 (121) 1, orbit data website maintained by F. Marchis. Includes adaptive optics images, orbit diagrams, and shape models. - Data on (121) Hermione from Johnston's archive (maintained by W. R. Johnston) - Tally of Asteroids Harboring Moons Grows Beyond 30 (Space.com, 3 October 2002) - -Asteroids" -15079,56872,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th%20Century%20Studios,20th Century Studios,"20th Century Studios, Inc. (formerly known from 1914 to 1931 as Fox Film, 1933 to 1935 as 20th Century Pictures 1935 to 1985 and 1985 to 2020 (and informally) as Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation or Twentieth Century Fox or 20th Century Fox Film Corporation) is a large American company that makes movies (""motion picture studio""). It is in the Century City area of Los Angeles, California, USA, just west of Beverly Hills. - -Before 2013, 20th Century Fox was a subsidiary of News Corporation before it was split into two companies. After that, one of those companies, 21st Century Fox, became the studio's owner. On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company said that it has acquired many of 21st Century Fox's subsidiaries, including 20th Century Fox. Thus, the studio is now owned by Disney and became 20th Century Studios. - -20th Century Studios was formed in 1935 when Fox Film Corporation and Twentieth Century Pictures joined together to form the company. 20th Century Fox Television is a part of the company that makes television series. - -History of 20th Century Studios -In 1935, Twentieth Century Pictures, Inc. and Fox Film Corporation merged together to form ""Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation"" (the hyphen between ""Century"" and ""Fox"" was dropped in 1985), or simply ""20th Century Fox"". During the Golden Age of Hollywood it was one of the ""Big Five"" studios (the other were MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO Radio Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures). From 2013-2019, it was a subsidiary of 21st Century Fox Inc., which was a company formed when News Corporation split up into two companies. As of July 2018, their two most financially successful films are Avatar, released in 2009, and Titanic (under international rights), released in 1997. Both films were directed by James Cameron. Fox's most highly acclaimed film, according to review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes (jointly owned by Universal and Warner Bros.), is All About Eve, released in 1950 and directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. In December 2017, Disney announced its plans to buy most of 21st Century Fox's assets, which included a bidding war with Comcast; the acquisition process was completed on March 20, 2019, with the last pre-Disney release from the studio being Alita: Battle Angel, released on February 14, 2019. The remaining assets Disney didn't acquire, notably the Fox network and Fox News, were spun-off into a new company called Fox Corporation. On January 17, 2020, Disney announced that it would be dropping the word ""Fox"" from the company name, presumably to avoid confusion with Fox Corporation, renaming it to ""Twentieth Century Studios,"" along with Searchlight Pictures. However, the studio was still legally incorporated and traded as Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation until December 4, 2020. As of December 4, 2020, the company has been using 20th Century Studios, Inc. as copyright for 20th Century Studios and Searchlight Pictures, while the company has been using 20th Television, Inc. for the copyright of 20th Television productions as a Disney subsidiary. - -Related pages - List of 20th Century Studios movies - -References - -Other websites - - 20th Century Studios at the Internet Movie Database - -Movie studios -Companies based in Los Angeles -1935 establishments -Disney" -1375,4866,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head%20of%20state,Head of state,"The head of state is the figurehead of a state, who represents the unity of the state. However, the head of state may not have very much real power. - -In a modern republic, the head of state is a president, usually elected by the people or by a parliament. In a monarchy, the head of state is the king or queen. Some countries have different systems - for example Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey is both the Head of State and Head of Government which is known as an executive system. - -In a modern monarchy, the head of state usually has little real power. Instead, the most powerful person is the head of government. This is usually the leader of the political party that wins the most seats in an election. In these cases, the king is considered to be the leader of the country, but must always take the decisions that the head of government advises them to make. The king or queen carries out national ceremonies. The United Kingdom works like this, with the Prime Minister heading the government. - -A president may be the most powerful person in the country. This is true in the United States. However, sometimes there is a head of government, as well as a president. The president then acts very much like a king or queen, leaving the real decisions to the head of government. The Republic of Ireland works like this. - -In older times, and in some modern countries, the head of state has absolute power, this called an absolute monarchy which the Pope in the Vatican has." -2631,8379,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/September%2019,September 19," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 1356 In the Battle of Poitiers, the English defeat the French, and capture King John II of France. - 1676 Jamestown, Virginia is burned to the ground by forces of Nathaniel Bacon. - 1692 Giles Corey is executed in Salem, Massachusetts after not pleading at the Salem Witch Trials. - 1777 American Revolutionary War: British forces win a tactically expensive victory over the Continental Army in the First Battle of Saratoga. - 1778 The Continental Congress passes the first United States budget. - 1796 George Washington's Farewell address is printed across the United States in an open letter to the public. - 1799 French Revolutionary Wars: French-Dutch victory against the Russians and British in the Battle of Bergen. - 1862 American Civil War: Battle of Iuka - Union troops under William Rosecrans defeat a Confederate force under General Sterling Price. - 1863 American Civil War: The Battle of Chickamauga is fought. - 1864 American Civil War: Third Battle of Winchester, Virginia - Union troops under General Philip Sheridan defeat a Confederate force commanded by General Jubal Early. - 1870 Franco-Prussian War: The Siege of Paris begins, resulting in January 1871 in the surrender of Paris and a decisive Prussian victory. - 1870 Having invaded the Papal States a week earlier, the Italian Army lays siege to Rome. - 1879 The Blackpool Illuminations are switched on for the first time. - 1881 President of the United States James Garfield dies aged 49, after being shot by Charles J. Guiteau on July 2. Chester A. Arthur succeeds him to become the 21st President of the United States. - 1893 Women in New Zealand are given the right to vote. - -1901 2000 - 1934 Bruno Hauptmann is arrested for the kidnapping and murder of Charles Lindbergh, Jr., the infant son of Charles Lindbergh and Anne Morrow Lindbergh, which occurred in 1932. - 1944 World War II: Armistice between Finland and the Soviet Union is signed. - 1945 William Joyce (Lord Haw-Haw) is sentenced to death in London for spreading pro-German propaganda. - 1946 The Council of Europe is founded. - 1946 The first Cannes Film Festival is held in Cannes, France. - 1957 The US carries out its first underground nuclear bomb test. - 1959 Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, on a visit to the United States, is barred from visiting Disneyland, due to security concerns. - 1970 The first Glastonbury Festival is held in Glastonbury, Somerset, England. - 1972 A parcel bomb sent to the Israeli Embassy in London kills one diplomat. - 1973 Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden has his investiture as king. - 1975 The TV show Fawlty Towers premieres in the United Kingdom - 1976 A plane crash in Turkey kills 155 people. - 1976 The governing Social Democratic Party loses Sweden's parliamentary election. - 1978 The Solomon Islands join the UN. - 1981 Simon & Garfunkel re-unite for a free concert in New York City's Central Park. - 1982 Scott Fahlman posts the first documented emoticons :) and :( on the Carnegie Mellon University Board Systems. - 1983 Saint Kitts and Nevis becomes independent from the United Kingdom. - 1985 1985 Mexico City earthquake: A magnitude 8 earthquake centred near Acapulco kills thousands, and destroys many buildings, around 400 in Mexico City alone. - 1988 Hurricane Gilbert dissolves over Texas. - 1989 UTA Flight 772: A terrorist bomb explodes on a plane over Niger, killing 171 people. - 1991 German tourists discover Otzi the Iceman near the Austrian-Italian border. - 1995 The New York Times and Washington Post publish the Unabomber's manifesto. - 1997 The Guelb El-Kebir massacre in Algeria kills 53 people. - -From 2001 - 2006 The Thai military stages a coup in Bangkok, overthrowing Thaksin Shinawatra. The Constitution is revoked, and martial law is instated. - 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill: The leaking oil well is sealed, having leaked oil into the Gulf of Mexico since April 20, when the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded. - 2014 Alex Salmond announces his intention to resign as First Minister of Scotland and leader of the Scottish National Party after a 55%-45% defeat in the Scottish independence referendum, 2014. - 2015 Rugby union World Cup: Japan, as rank outsiders, pull off one of the biggest surprises in the sport's history, by beating two-time champions South Africa 34-32. - 2017 Hurricane Maria sweeps across the Eastern Caribbean, including the islands of Dominica, Martinique and Guadeloupe. - 2017 2017 Puebla earthquake: A major earthquake strikes central Mexico, including Mexico City, on the 32nd anniversary of the 1985 earthquake, killing at least 220 people. It is Mexico's second earthquake in less than two weeks. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 86 Antoninus Pius, Roman Emperor (d. 161) - 866 Leo VI, Byzantine Emperor (d. 912) - 1377 Albert IV, Duke of Austria (d. 1404) - 1551 King Henry III of France (d. 1589) - 1683 Lorenz Heister, German anatomist, surgeon and botanist (d. 1758) - 1721 William Robertson, Scottish historian (d. 1793) - 1737 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1832) - 1749 Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, French astronomer (d. 1822) - 1754 Louis Claude Richard, French botanist (d. 1821) - 1774 Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, Italian hyperpolyglot (d. 1849) - 1778 Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux, English politician (d. 1868) - 1790 René Caillé, French explorer (d. 1838) - 1796 Hartley Coleridge, English poet (d. 1849) - 1799 René Caillié, French explorer (d. 1838) - 1802 Lajos Kossuth, Hungarian lawyer and regent-President, national hero of Hungary (d. 1894) - 1803 Maria Anna of Savoy, Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia (d. 1884) - 1803 Maria Teresa of Savoy (d. 1879) - 1806 William Dyce, Scottish artist (d. 1864) - 1813 Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters, German-American astronomer (d. 1890) - 1822 Joseph R. West, American general and politician (d. 1898) - 1826 Antonio Raimondi, Italian-Peruvian geographer and scientist (d. 1890) - 1828 Fridolin Anderwert, Swiss politician (d. 1880) - 1840 Galen Spencer, American archer (d. 1904) - 1853 Miguel, Duke of Braganza, Portuguese royal (d. 1927) - 1862 Arvid Lindman, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1936) - 1864 Ragna Wettergreen, Norwegian actress (d. 1958) - 1869 Ben Turpin, American silent movie comedian (d. 1940) - 1883 Hjalmar Bergman, Swedish writer and playwright (d. 1931) - 1883 Mabel Vernon, American activist (d. 1975) - 1887 Lovie Austin, American jazz pianist (d. 1972) - 1888 J. W. Alexander, American mathematician (d. 1971) - 1889 Sarah Louise Delany, American physician and author (d. 1999) - 1898 Giuseppe Saragat, President of Italy (d. 1988) - 1900 Ricardo Cortez, American actor, singer and director (d. 1977) - -1901 1950 - 1901 Joe Pasternak, Hungarian-born movie producer (d. 1991) - 1901 Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Austrian biologist (d. 1972) - 1905 Theodor Blank, German politician (d. 1972) - 1908 Mika Waltari, Finnish writer (d. 1979) - 1909 Ferdinand Anton Ernst Porsche, Austrian automobile designer and entrepreneur (d. 1998) - 1910 Margaret Lindsay, English actress (d. 1981) - 1911 William Golding, English writer (d. 1993) - 1912 Kurt Sanderling, German conductor (d. 2011) - 1913 Frances Farmer, American actress (d. 1970) - 1914 Rogers Morton, American politician (d. 1979) - 1915 Johann Hafstein, Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1980) - 1921 Paulo Freire, Brazilian educator and writer (d. 1997) - 1922 Dana Zátopková, Czech athlete - 1922 Emil Zátopek, Czech athlete (d. 2000) - 1922 Damon Knight, American science fiction writer (d. 2002) - 1924 Vern Benson, American baseball player and manager (d. 2014) - 1924 Don Harron, Canadian comedian, actor, writer and composer (d. 2015) - 1926 Carlo Fruttero, Italian writer, journalist and translator (d. 2012) - 1926 Masatoshi Koshiba, Japanese physicist - 1926 James Lipton, American actor - 1926 Nini Rosso, Italian jazz trumpeter and composer (d. 1994) - 1927 Harold Brown, American physicist and politician, former United States Secretary of Defense - 1927 William Hickey, American actor (d. 1997) - 1928 Adam West, American actor (d. 2017) - 1928 Wolfram Siebeck, German food critic and journalist (d. 2016) - 1929 Charles Gordon-Lennox, 10th Duke of Richmond, British peer (d. 2017) - 1929 Marge Roukema, American politician (d. 2014) - 1929 Luigi Taveri, Swiss motorcycle racer (d. 2018) - 1929 Gertrude Baniszewski, American murderer (d. 1990) - 1930 Antonio Margheriti, Italian movie maker (d. 2002) - 1930 Muhal Richard Abrams, American educator, composer and musician - 1931 Hiroto Muraoka, Japanese footballer (d. 2017) - 1931 Jean-Claude Carrière, French author and screenwriter - 1932 Mike Royko, American journalist (d. 1997) - 1932 Stefanie Zweig, German writer (d. 2014) - 1933 David McCallum, Scottish actor - 1934 Brian Epstein, English musical group manager (the Beatles) (d. 1967) - 1935 Nick Massi, American musician - 1935 Milan Antal, Slovakian astronomer (d. 1999) - 1936 Al Oerter, American athlete (d. 2007) - 1939 Moshe Weinberg, Israeli weightlifting coach (d. 1972) - 1940 Bill Medley, American singer and songwriter (The Righteous Brothers) - 1941 Mariangela Melato, Italian actress (d. 2013) - 1941 Umberto Bossi, Italian politician - 1941 Cass Elliot, American singer (d. 1974) - 1944 Edmund Joensen, 9th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands - 1944 Anders Björck, Swedish politician - 1945 Kate Adie, English journalist - 1947 Tanith Lee, English writer (d. 2015) - 1947 Lol Creme, English musician - 1948 Mykhaylo Fomenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager - 1948 Mihai Timofti, Moldovan actor, director and composer - 1948 Jeremy Irons, English actor - 1949 Twiggy, English model - 1949 Sally Potter, English movie director and screenwriter - 1949 Ernie Sabella, American actor - 1950 Michael Proctor, English physicist, mathematician and academic - 1950 Erkki Liikanen, Finnish politician - -1951 1975 - 1951 Ian Hudghton, Scottish politician - 1952 Gunnar Hökmark, Swedish politician - 1952 Nile Rodgers, American musician and composer - 1952 Jackie McNamara Sr., Scottish footballer - 1954 Mark Drakeford, Welsh politician, First Minister of Wales - 1954 Michael Wolff, American jazz pianist, composer, producer and actor - 1955 Rex Smith, American singer and actor - 1956 Juan Manuel Fangio II, Argentine racing driver - 1958 Lita Ford, British rock music singer and guitarist - 1958 Kevin Hooks, American actor and director - 1960 Mario Batali, American chef and author - 1960 Yolanda Saldivar, American murderer - 1962 Cheri Oteri, American actress - 1963 Jarvis Cocker, English musician - 1963 David Seaman, English footballer - 1964 Simon Singh, English journalist, author and producer - 1965 Sabine Paturel, French singer and actress - 1965 Sunita Williams, American captain, pilot and astronaut - 1966 Heiko Maas, German politician - 1966 Eric Rudolph, American criminal - 1967 Aleksandr Karelin, Russian Greco-Roman wrestler - 1970 Victor Williams, American actor - 1972 Ashot Nadanian, Armenian chess player - 1973 Cristiano da Matta, Brazilian racing driver - 1974 Jimmy Fallon, American actor and comedian - 1974 Victoria Silvstedt, Swedish model, actress and singer - -From 1976 - 1977 Tasha Danvers, British athlete - 1978 Mariano Puerta, Argentine tennis player - 1980 Dimitri Yachvili, French rugby player - 1980 Amber Lancaster, American model and actress - 1980 Linda Ikeji, Nigerian blogger, writer, actress and model - 1982 Eleni Daniilidou, Greek tennis player - 1982 Jordan Parise, American ice hockey player - 1982 Columbus Short, American actor, singer, dancer and choreographer - 1982 Jesse Blaze Snider, American singer-songwriter, author and illustrator - 1983 Eamon, American singer - 1984 Kavya Madhavan, Indian actress - 1984 Lydia Hearst, American model, actress, blogger and heiress - 1984 Amber Rayne, American pornographic actress (d. 2016) - 1985 Alun Wyn Jones, Welsh rugby player - 1985 Song Soong-ki, South Korean actor, model and television host - 1985 Woodrow West, Belizean footballer - 1986 Leon Best, English-Irish footballer - 1986 Lauren Goodger, English model, singer and television personality - 1986 Gerald Ciolek, German cyclist - 1987 Danielle Panabaker, American actress - 1987 Carlos Quintero, Colombian footballer - 1988 Katrina Bowden, American actress - 1988 Faye Reagan, American pornographic actress - 1989 Tyreke Evans, American basketball player - 1990 Sako Fukuda, Japanese singer - 1990 Evgeny Novikov, Russian racing driver - 1990 Kieran Trippier, English footballer - 1991 C. J. McCollum, American basketball player - 1992 Deyver Vega, Costa Rican footballer - 1992 Diego Antonio Reyes, Mexican footballer - 1996 Haruka Kodama, Japanese singer - 1996 Pia Mia, American singer, actress and model - -Deaths - -Up to 1950 - 643 Goeric of Metz, Frankish bishop - 690 Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 602) - 1123 Emperor Taizu of Jin of China (b. 1068) - 1339 Emperor Go-Daigo of Japan (b. 1288) - 1356 Peter I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1311) - 1356 Walter I, Count of Brienne (b. 1304) - 1692 Giles Corey, American farmer killed in the Salem Witch Trials (b. 1612) - 1693 Janez Vajkard Valvasor, Slovenian polymath (b. 1641) - 1710 Ole Romer, Danish astronomer (b. 1644) - 1781 Tobias Furneaux, English explorer (b. 1735) - 1812 Mayer Amschel Rothschild, German banker (b. 1744) - 1833 Mary Jemison, American frontierswoman (b. 1743) - 1843 Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, French mathematician, engineer and scientist (b. 1792) - 1868 William Sprague, American minister and politician (b. 1809) - 1881 James Garfield, 20th President of the United States (b. 1831) - 1893 Alexander Tilloch Galt, Canadian politician (b. 1817) - 1902 Masaoka Shiki, Japanese poet, author and critic (b. 1867) - 1905 Thomas John Barnardo, Irish philanthropist (b. 1845) - 1907 Jacob Morenga, Namibian uprising leader (b. 1875) - 1914 Charles de Vendeville, French swimmer (b. 1882) - 1927 Michael Peter Ancher, Danish painter (b. 1849) - 1935 Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskii, Russian rocket scientist (b. 1857) - 1936 Vishnu Narayan Bhatkande, Indian singer (b. 1860) - 1938 Pauline Frederick, American actress (b. 1883) - 1949 Will Cuppy, American humorist (b. 1884) - -1951 2010 - 1954 Miles Franklin, Australian writer (b. 1879) - 1967 Zinaida Serebriakova, Russian painter (b. 1884) - 1968 Chester Carlson, American physicist (b. 1906) - 1968 Red Foley, American singer (b. 1910) - 1969 Rex Ingram, American actor (b. 1895) - 1985 Italo Calvino, Italian writer (b. 1923) - 1987 Einar Gerhardsen, Norwegian politician and Prime Minister of Norway (b. 1897) - 1989 Willie Steele, American long jumper (b. 1923) - 1992 Jacques Pic, French chef (b. 1932) - 1995 Orville Redenbacher, American botanist and businessman (b. 1907) - 2002 Robert Guéï, leader of Ivory Coast (b. 1941) - 2003 Slim Dusty, Australian singer (b. 1927) - 2004 Skeeter Davis, American singer (b. 1931) - 2009 Eduard Zimmermann, German broadcaster (b. 1929) - -From 2011 - 2011 Dolores Hope, American singer and philanthropist (b. 1909) - 2011 George Cadle Price, 1st Prime Minister of Belize (b. 1919) - 2013 Hiroshi Yamauchi, Japanese businessman (Nintendo) (b. 1927) - 2013 Saye Zerbo, Burkina Faso politician (b. 1932) - 2013 John D. Vanderhoof, American politician, 37th Governor of Colorado (b. 1922) - 2014 Avraham Heffner, Israeli filmmaker (b. 1935) - 2014 Elaine Lee, South African-Australian actress (b. 1939) - 2014 U. Srinivas, Indian mandolin player (b. 1969) - 2014 Francisco Feliciano, Filipino composer and conductor (b. 1941) - 2014 Iain MacCormick, Scottish politician (b. 1939) - 2014 Audrey Long, American actress (b. 1922) - 2015 Mishael Cheshin, Israeli judge (b. 1936) - 2015 Masajuro Shiokawa, Japanese politician (b. 1921) - 2015 Jackie Collins, English novelist (b. 1937) - 2017 Bernie Casey, American actor and football player (b. 1939) - 2017 Jake LaMotta, American boxer (b. 1922) - 2017 David Shepherd, British artist (b. 1931) - 2017 Brian Barder, British diplomat (b. 1934) - 2017 Leonid Kharitonov, Russian opera singer (b. 1933) - 2017 José Salcedo, Spanish film editor (b. 1949) - 2018 Jon Burge, American police officer (b. 1947) - 2018 Bunny Carr, Irish television presenter (b. 1927) - 2018 Kondapalli Koteswaramma, Indian Communist revolutionary and writer (b. 1918) - 2018 Marilyn Lloyd, American politician (b. 1929) - 2018 Arthur Mitchell, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1934) - 2018 Denis Norden, English comedy writer and television presenter (b. 1922) - 2018 Gamil Ratib, Egyptian-French actor (b. 1926) - 2019 Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, President of Tunisia (b. 1936) - 2019 Irina Bogacheva, Russian mezzo-soprano (b. 1939) - 2019 Wim Crouwel, Dutch graphic designer (b. 1928) - 2019 Marco Feingold, Austrian Holocaust survivor (b. 1913) - 2019 Maurice Ferré, American politician (b. 1935) - 2019 Charles Gérard, French actor (b. 1922) - 2019 Bert Hellinger, German psychotherapist (b. 1925) - 2019 Barron Hilton, American businessman (b. 1927) - 2019 Sandie Jones, Irish singer (b. 1951) - 2019 Harold Mabern, American jazz pianist and composer (b. 1936) - 2019 María Rivas, Venezuelan Latin jazz singer (b. 1960) - 2019 Levente Riz, Hungarian politician (b. 1974) - 2019 Larry Wallis, English songwriter and guitarist (b. 1949) - -Observances - National holiday in Saint Kitts and Nevis, commemorating independence from the United Kingdom in 1983 - International Talk like a Pirate Day - Armed Forces Day (Chile) - -Days of the year" -13245,48610,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Anglia,East Anglia,"East Anglia is a region of eastern England, named after one of the ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, which was named after the homeland of the Angles, Angeln in northern Germany. The kingdom consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk (""North folk"" and ""South folk"") but the region's borders are vague. - -Farming and gardening are very successful in this fertile country. The landscape has been heavily influenced by Dutch technology. - -Regions of England -Petty kingdoms of England" -9987,34114,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vojvodina,Vojvodina,"The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina (Serbian: Аутономна Покрајина Војводина or Autonomna Pokrajina Vojvodina) is one of the two autonomous provinces in Serbia. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian plain. Its capital and the largest city is Novi Sad and the second largest city is Subotica. - -Vojvodina is ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse, with more than 26 different ethnic groups and six official languages. - -Serbia -Provinces" -12679,46667,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincy%2C%20Illinois,"Quincy, Illinois","Quincy is a city in the state of Illinois in the United States. In 2000 the number of people in the city was 40,366. The town was an important stop of the underground railroad during the 1800s. The town also has many German-style buildings. - -Cities in Illinois -County seats in Illinois -John Quincy Adams" -22002,83734,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpnach,Alpnach,"Alpnach is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - -Official Website of Alpnach - -Municipalities of Obwalden" -3368,10075,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/October%2015,October 15," - -Events - -Up to 1900 - 533 – Byzantine general Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Vandals. - 1066 - After the Battle of Hastings, Edgar the AEtheling is proclaimed King of England, but is never crowned. - 1529 - The Siege of Vienna ends, as the Austrians defeat the invading Ottoman Turks. - 1552 – Khanate of Kazan is conquered by troops of Ivan Grozny. - 1582 – Pope Gregory XIII implements the Gregorian Calendar. In Italy, Poland, Portugal, and Spain, October 4 of this year is followed directly by October 15. - 1764 – Edward Gibbon observes a group of friars singing in the ruined Temple of Jupiter in Rome, which inspires him to begin work on The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. - 1783 - The Montgolfier brothers' hot-air balloon marks the first human flight in this mode of transport, by Jean-Jacques Pilatre de Rozier. - 1793 – Marie Antoinette is sentenced to death, being executed the next day. - 1815 – Napoleon I of France begins his exile on St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. - 1863 – American Civil War: The first successful submarine, the CSS Hunley sinks during a test, killing its inventor. - 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Glasgow, Glasgow, Missouri. The town surrenders its garrison to the Confederacy. - 1878 – The Edison Electric Company begins operation. - 1880 – Mexican soldiers kill Victorio, one of the greatest Apache military strategists. - 1883 – The Supreme Court of the United States declares part of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to be unconstitutional. - 1888 - Investigators receives the ""From Hell"" letter, believed to have been written by the unidentified serial killer known as Jack the Ripper. - 1894 – Alfred Dreyfus is arrested for spying – Dreyfus affair begins. - -1901 2000 - 1904 – The Russian Baltic Fleet leaves Reval, Estonia for Port Arthur, Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese War. - 1917 – World War I: At Vincennes outside of Paris, Dutch dancer Mata Hari is executed by firing squad for spying for Germany. - 1928 - Airship Graf Zeppelin completes its first flight across the Atlantic Ocean when it lands at Lakehurst, New Jersey. - 1932 – Tata Airlines (later to become Air India) makes its first flight. - 1934 - The Soviet Republic of China collapses. - 1939 – The New York Municipal Airport (later renamed La Guardia Airport) is dedicated. - 1940 – The Great Dictator, a satiric social commentary movie by and starring Charlie Chaplin, is released. - 1944 - The Arrow Cross Party, allied to Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, takes power in Hungary. - 1945 – World War II: Former premier of Vichy France, Pierre Laval, is executed by firing squad for treason. - 1946 – Nuremberg Trials: Founder of the Gestapo and recently convicted Nazi war criminal, Hermann Göring, poisons himself hours before his scheduled execution. - 1951 – Television sitcom I Love Lucy premieres. - 1953 – British nuclear test Totem 1 detonated at Emu Field, South Australia. - 1954 - Hurricane Hazel strikes the eastern United States, killing 95 people. - 1956 - Fortran, the first modern computer language, is first shared in the coding community. - 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis: A stand-off ensues between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba. - 1963 - German Federal Chancellor Konrad Adenauer officially resigns. - 1965 – Vietnam War: The National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam stages the first public burning of a draft card in the United States. - 1966 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs a bill creating the United States Department of Transportation. - 1969 – Vietnam War: Hundreds of thousands of people take part in National Moratorium antiwar demonstrations across the United States. - 1970 – Thirty-five construction workers are killed when a section of the new West Gate Bridge in Melbourne collapses. - 1979 - A military junta takes over in El Salvador, after the overthrow of President Carlos Humberto Romero. - 1981 – Professional cheerleader Krazy George Henderson leads what is thought to be the first audience wave in Oakland, California. - 1982 - The first 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar ends. This date is therefore on exactly the same week-day as the same date in 1582 (the day it was first introduced). - 1987 – The Great Storm of 1987 hits France and England in the night to October 16. - 1989 – Wayne Gretzky becomes the all-time leading points scorer in the NHL. - 1990 – Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev is given the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to lessen Cold War tensions and open up his nation. - 1991 – Following a bitter confirmation hearing that involved allegations of sexual misconduct, the United States Senate votes to confirm Judge Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court of the United States. - 1992 – In Russia, Andrei Chikatilo is found guilty of 52 serial murders. - 1993 - Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk win the Nobel Peace Prize. - 1995 – Saddam Hussein gains 99.96% of votes in Iraq's presidential elections. - 1997 – The first supersonic land speed record is set by the ThrustSSC team from the United Kingdom. - 1997 – The Cassini probe launches from Cape Canaveral, Florida on its way to Saturn. - -From 2001 - 2001 – NASA's Galileo spacecraft passes within 112 miles of Jupiter's moon Io. - 2003 – China launches Shenzhou 5, their first manned space mission. - 2003 – Ilham Aliyev becomes President of Azerbaijan succeeding his father Heydar Aliyev. - 2006 - The first Lusophone Games, for countries and territories speaking the Portuguese language, end in Macao. - 2008 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average drops by 733.08 points in a single day. - 2011 – Occupy Wall Street Campaign: In 951 cities in 82 countries, people protest against economic mismanagement. - 2012 - British Prime Minister David Cameron and Scottish First Minister Alex Salmond sign a deal on the terms and conditions of the referendum on Scottish independence, due to be held on September 18, 2014. - 2013 - A magnitude 7.2 earthquake strikes the Philippines, killing at least 215 people. - 2016 - 150 nations meeting at the UNEP summit in Kigali, Rwanda, agree to slowly get rid of hydrofluorocarbons. - -Births - -Up to 1900 - 70 BC – Virgil, Roman poet (d. 19 BC) - 1265 - Temur Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan-China (d. 1307) - 1471 – Konrad Mutian, German humanist (d. 1526) - 1542 - Akbar the Great, Mughal Emperor of India (d. 1605) - 1607 - Madeleine de Scudéry, French writer (d. 1701) - 1608 – Evangelista Torricelli, Italian physicist (d. 1647) - 1686 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (d. 1758) - 1701 - Marie-Marguerite d'Youville, Canadian nun and saint (d. 1771) - 1711 - Elisabeth Teresa of Lorraine, Queen of Sardinia (d. 1741) - 1762 - Samuel Adams Holyoake, American composer (d. 1820) - 1784 - Thomas Robert Bugeaud, Marshal of France (d. 1849) - 1785 – José Miguel Carrera, Chilean general (d. 1821) - 1795 – Frederick William IV of Prussia (d. 1861) - 1801 - Seabury Ford, 20th Governor of Ohio (d. 1855) - 1802 - Louis-Eugene de Cavaignac, French general (d. 1857) - 1814 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian writer (d. 1841) - 1818 - Alexander Dreyschock, Bohemian composer (d. 1869) - 1825 – Marie of Prussia (d. 1889) - 1829 – Asaph Hall, American astronomer (d. 1907) - 1831 - Horace Austin, Governor of Minnesota (d. 1905) - 1836 – James Tissot, French artist (d. 1902) - 1840 - August Mau, German archaeologist (d. 1909) - 1844 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosopher (d. 1900) - 1852 - Yamamoto Gonnohyoe, Japanese admiral and politician (d. 1933) - 1858 – John L. Sullivan, boxing champion (d. 1918) - 1869 - Francisco Largo Caballero, Spanish politician (d. 1946) - 1872 – Wilhelm Miklas, President of Austria (d. 1956) - 1872 - August Nilsson, Swedish athlete (d. 1921) - 1872 - Edith Wilson, First Lady of the United States (d. 1961) - 1874 - Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1899) - 1878 - Paul Reynaud, French politician (d. 1966) - 1879 - Jane Darwell, American actress (d. 1967) - 1881 – P. G. Wodehouse, British comic novelist (d. 1975) - 1885 – Johannes Sveinsson Kjarval, Icelandic painter (d. 1972) - 1890 - Homer M. Adkins, Governor of Arkansas (d. 1964) - 1893 – King Carol II of Romania (d. 1953) - 1894 – Moshe Sharett, second Prime Minister of Israel (d. 1965) - 1897 - Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician (d. 1960) - 1898 – Boughera El Ouafi, Algerian athlete (d. 1951) - 1900 – Mervyn LeRoy, movie director (d. 1987) - -1901 1925 - 1905 – Angelo Schiavio, Italian footballer (d. 1990) - 1906 – Hiram Leong Fong, Hawaiian politician (d. 2004) - 1907 – Varian Fry, rescuer of Jewish and other intellectuals from Marseilles in 1940 (d. 1987) - 1908 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian economist (d. 2006) - 1909 - Jesse Leonard Greenstein, American astronomer (d. 2002) - 1909 – Robert Trout, reporter (d. 2000) - 1911 - John S. McKiernan, Governor of Rhode Island (d. 1997) - 1913 - Xi Zhongxun, Chinese Communist revolutionary and politician (d. 2002) - 1914 – Mohammed Zahir Shah, King of Afghanistan (d. 2007) - 1915 – Yitzhak Shamir, Israeli politician and Prime Minister of Israel (d. 2012) - 1916 - Hassan Gouled Aptidon, 1st President of Djibouti (d. 2006) - 1917 – Arthur Schlesinger Jr., American political commentator and writer (d. 2007) - 1917 – Jan Miner, American actress (d. 2004) - 1919 - Malcolm Ross, American balloonist and physicist (d. 1985) - 1920 – Mario Puzo, American novelist (d. 1999) - 1920 – Chris Economaki, American Indianapolis 500 reporter (d. 2012) - 1920 - Heinz Barth, German SS officer and war criminal (d. 2007) - 1923 – Italo Calvino. Italian writer (d. 1985) - 1924 – Lee Iacocca, industrialist - 1924 – José Quintero, stage director - 1924 – Mark Lenard, actor (d. 1996) - -1926 1950 - 1926 – Michel Foucault, French philosopher (d. 1984) - 1926 – Evan Hunter (Ed McBain, Curt Cannon), American writer (d. 2005) - 1926 – Jean Peters, American actress (d. 2000) - 1926 – Karl Richter, German conductor (d. 1981) - 1926 - Agustin Garcia Calvo, Spanish philosopher (d. 2012) - 1927 - Jeannette Charles, English actress - 1927 - Bill Henry, American baseball player (d. 2014) - 1927 - B. S. Abdur Rahman, Indian entrepreneur (d. 2015) - 1930 - FM-2030, Iranian philosopher (d. 2000) - 1930 - Ned McWherter, Governor of Tennessee (d. 2011) - 1931 – Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, Indian scientist and former President of India (d. 2015) - 1931 - Pauline Perry, Baroness Perry of Southwark, English academic and politician - 1935 – Bobby Joe Morrow, American athlete - 1935 - Dick McTaggart, British boxer - 1935 - Maria Teresa Mirabal, Dominican activist (d. 1960) - 1937 – Barry McGuire, singer - 1937 - Linda Lavin, American actress, singer, director and producer - 1938 – Fela Kuti, Nigerian musician (d. 1997) - 1939 - Telesphore Toppo, Indian cardinal - 1939 - Carmelo Bossi, Italian boxer (d. 2014) - 1939 - Anna Maria Gherardi, Italian actress (d. 2014) - 1940 – Peter C. Doherty, Australian immunologist - 1940 – Benno Ohnesorg, German student (d. 1967) - 1942 – Penny Marshall, actress, comedienne, movie director - 1942 - Eric Charden, French singer (d. 2012) - 1943 - John F. Street, American politician - 1943 - Stanley Fischer, American economist and teacher - 1944 – Sali Berisha, Albanian politician - 1944 – David Trimble, Northern Irish politician, Nobel Peace Prize winner - 1945 – Jim Palmer, American baseball player - 1945 - Neophyte of Bulgaria, Bulgarian patriarch - 1945 - Antonio Cañizares Llovera, Spanish cardinal - 1946 – Richard Carpenter, singer, pianist, composer (Carpenters) - 1946 - Stewart Stevenson, Scottish politician - 1948 – Chris de Burgh, Irish singer - 1948 - Renato Corona, Filipino jurist (d. 2016) - 1950 - Candida Royalle, American pornographic actress, director and producer (d. 2015) - -1951 1975 - 1951 - Roscoe Tanner, American tennis player - 1951 - Abdel Moneim Aboul Fotouh, Egyptian politician - 1953 – Tito Jackson, American musician (Jackson 5) - 1953 - Günther Oettinger, German politician - 1954 - Princess Friederike of Hanover - 1954 - Jere Burns, American actor - 1955 - Tanya Roberts, American actress (d. 2021) - 1955 - Kulbir Bhaura, Indian field hockey player - 1956 - Soraya Post, Swedish politician - 1956 - Jaime David Fernandez Mirabal, 36th Vice President of the Dominican Republic - 1957 – Mira Nair, Indian director - 1957 - Stacy Peralta, American director - 1959 – Sarah Ferguson, Duchess of York - 1959 – Emeril Lagasse, American chef - 1959 – Todd Solondz, director - 1964 – Roberto Vittori, Italian astronaut - 1966 - Jorge Campos, Mexican footballer - 1966 - Dave Stead, English musician (Beautiful South) - 1966 - Dougie Vipond, Scottish broadcaster and drummer (Deacon Blue) - 1968 – Jyrki 69, Finnish musician - 1968 – Didier Deschamps, French footballer - 1968 - Vanessa Marcil, American actress - 1969 – Dominic West, British actor - 1969 - Vitor Baia, Portuguese footballer - 1970 – Eric Benét, singer - 1971 – Andy Cole, British footballer - 1971 - Niko Kovac, Croatian footballer and coach - 1972 – Sandra Kim, Belgian singer, Eurovision Song Contest winner - 1972 - Fred Hoiberg, American basketball player - 1974 - Bianca Rinaldi, Brazilian actress - 1975 – Ginuwine, American singer - -From 1976 - 1977 – David Trezeguet, French footballer - 1979 – Paul Robinson, English footballer - 1979 – Maris Verpakovskis, Latvian footballer - 1981 – Elena Dementieva, Russian tennis player - 1981 - Keyshia Cole, American singer - 1982 - Sachiko Yamada, Japanese swimmer - 1983 - Holly Montag, American television personality - 1983 - Bruno Senna, Brazilian racing driver - 1983 – Andreas Ivanschitz, Austrian footballer - 1986 - Lee Donghae, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress - 1986 - Carlo Janka, Swiss skier - 1987 - Chantal Strand, Canadian voice actress and singer - 1988 – Mesut Oezil, German footballer - 1989 - Anthony Joshua, English boxer - 1989 - Fedez, Italian rapper and singer - 1990 - Jeon Ji-yoon, South Korean singer and actress - 1990 - Kiko Mizuhara, American-Japanese model, actress and singer - 1995 - Billy Unger, American actor - 1996 - Zelo, South Korean rapper and dancer - 1999 - Bailee Madison, American actress - 2005 – Prince Christian of Denmark - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 - 412 - Pope Theophilus of Alexandria - 767 – Constantine II, Patriarch of Constantinople (executed) - 898 - Lambert, Holy Roman Emperor - 1002 – Otto-Henry, Duke of Burgundy (b. 949) - 1174 - Petronilla of Aragon (b. 1135) - 1326 - Walter de Stapledon, English bishop (b. 1261) - 1389 – Pope Urban VI (b. 1318) - 1564 - Andreas Vesalius, Flemish anatomist (b. 1514) - 1582 – Saint Teresa of Avila, Spanish Carmelite nun and poet (b. 1515) - 1715 - Humphry Ditton, English mathematician (b. 1675) - 1811 – Sir Nathaniel Dance-Holland, English painter (b. 1735) - 1817 - Tadeusz Kosciuszko, Lithuanian-Polish military figure (b. 1746) - 1819 - Sergey Vyazmitinov, Russian general and statesman (b. 1744) - 1837 - Ivan Dimitriev, Russian poet and statesman (b. 1760) - 1865 - Andrés Bello, Venezuelan polymath (b. 1781) - 1880 – Victorio, Apache leader - 1891 – Gilbert Arthur a Beckett, British writer (b. 1837) - 1900 – Zdenek Fibich, Czech composer (b. 1850) - -1901 2000 - 1904 - George, King of Saxony (b. 1832) - 1917 – Mata Hari, Dutch exotic dancer and spy (b. 1867) - 1918 - Sai Baba of Shirdi, Indian guru and national saint of India (b. 1838) - 1933 - Nitobe Inazo, Japanese diplomat (b. 1862) - 1934 – Raymond Poincaré, French statesman (b. 1860) - 1945 – Pierre Laval, premier of Vichy France (b. 1860) - 1946 – Hermann Göring, German air force commander (b. 1893) - 1948 - Edythe Chapman, American actress (b. 1863) - 1955 - Fumio Hayasaka, Japanese composer (b. 1914) - 1959 - Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian politician (b. 1909) - 1960 - Clara Kimball Young, American actress and producer (b. 1890) - 1964 – Cole Porter, American composer (b. 1891) - 1965 – Abraham Fraenkel, Israeli mathematician (b. 1891) - 1976 - Carlo Gambino, Italian-American crime boss (b. 1902) - 1980 - Mikhail Lavrentyov, Russian physicist and mathematician (b. 1900) - 1980 - Apostolis Nikolaidis, Greek footballer and volleyball player (b. 1896) - 1987 – Thomas Sankara, Burkina Faso politician (b. 1949) - 1988 – Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, Indian composer and classical pianist (b. 1892) - 1990 - Delphine Seyrig, French actress (b. 1932) - 1994 - Sarah Kofman, French philosopher (b. 1934) - 1995 - Marco Campos, Brazilian racing driver (b. 1976) - 1998 - Colette Darfeuil, French actress (b. 1906) - 2000 – Konrad Emil Bloch, German-American biochemist (b. 1912) - -From 2001 - 2001 – Zhang Xueliang, Chinese warlord and military figure (b. 1901) - 2003 – Ben Metcalfe, environmental activist (b. 1919) - 2005 - Jason Collier, American basketball player (b. 1977) - 2011 - Betty Driver, English actress (b. 1920) - 2012 - Norodom Sihanouk, King of Cambodia (b. 1922) - 2012 - Claude Cheysson, French politician (b. 1920) - 2013 - Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss politician (b. 1923) - 2013 - Hans Riegel, German businessman (b. 1923) - 2014 - Marie Dubois, French actress (b. 1937) - 2014 - Giovanni Reale, Italian historian and philosopher (b. 1931) - 2014 - Robert Tiernan, American politician (b. 1929) - 2015 - Kenneth D. Taylor, Canadian diplomat (b. 1934) - 2015 - Nate Huffman, American basketball player (b. 1975) - 2015 - Sergei Filippenkov, Russian footballer (b. 1971) - 2015 - Larry N. Vanderhoef, American biochemist (b. 1941) - 2015 - Neill Sheridan, American baseball player (b. 1921) - -Observances - Global Handwashing Day - National Tree Planting Day (Sri Lanka) - Teachers' Day (Brazil) - -Days of the year" -12372,45667,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume,Ume,"An ume (Prunus mume) is a type of Korean and Japanese plum of the family Rosaceae. It starts out as a white flower like an almond. It is also native to China but it is not called ""ume"" in Chinese. - -A lot of people have painted pictures of ume. It is often painted with bamboo next to it. - -References - -Rosaceae -Plums" -7621,24872,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth,Childbirth,"Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies leaves the uterus by passing through the vagina or by Caesarean section. In 2015, there were about 135 million births globally. - -About 15 million were born before 37 weeks of gestation, while between 3 and 12 percent were born after 42 weeks. - -Birth rate is important in determining the population growth rate. - -Related pages -Premature birth - -References - -Life" -3272,9961,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2023,August 23," - -Events - -Up to 1900 -30 BC - After a successful invasion of Egypt, Octavian has Marcus Antonius Antyllus and Caesarion executed. -79 - Mount Vesuvius starts to show activity, a day before it erupted, destroying Pompeii and Herculaneum. -406 - Gothic king Radagaisus is executed after he is defeated by Roman general Stilicho. -476 - Odoacer, chieftain of the Germanic tribes, is proclaimed King of Italy by his troops. -1244 - Siege of Jerusalem: The city's citadel, the Tower of David, surrenders to the Kharezmian Empire. -1305 – William Wallace is executed. -1328 – Battle of Kassel: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers -1328 – King Philip VI of France is crowned. -1382 - Siege of Moscow: The Golden Horde led by khan Tokhtamysh lays siege to the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. -1521 - Christian II of Denmark is deposed as King of Sweden and Gustav Vasa is elected regent. -1540 – French explorer Jacques Cartier lands near Quebec City in his third voyage to Canada. -1566 – Calvinists are granted rights in the Netherlands. -1592 - Japanese invasions of Korea: Yeongwon Castle is besieged by the Japanese Fourth Division, led by Ito Suketaka. -1614 – The University of Groningen is established. -1617 – In London, the first one-way street is established. -1628 - George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham is assassinated by John Felton. -1651 – Charles II enters Worcester and starts a battle. -1655 - Battle of Sobota: The Swedish Empire led by Charles X Gustav defeats the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. -1784 – Eastern Tennessee declares itself an independent state under the name of Franklin; the step is rejected by Congress one year later. -1793 – French Revolution: a levée en masse was decreed by the National Convention. -1799 – Napoleon leaves Egypt for France en route to seize power. -1813 – At the Battle of Grossbeeren, the Prussians under Von Bulow repulse the French army. -1821 – Mexico gains its independence from Spain. -1833 – Slavery abolished in the British colonies. -1839 – The UK captures Hong Kong. -1858 - The Round Oak rail accident occurs in Brierley Hill in the Black Country, England. -1864 – The Union Navy captures Fort Morgan, Alabama, thus breaking Confederate dominance of all ports on the Gulf of Mexico. -1866 – Austro-Prussian War ends with the Treaty of Prague. -1873 - The Albert Bridge is opened across the Thames in Chelsea, London, England, United Kingdom. -1889 – First wireless message from a ship to the shore received. -1896 - Start of the Philippines Revolution. - -1901 1950 -1904 – The automobile tire chain is patented. -1913 – A statue of the Little Mermaid is put up in Copenhagen. -1914 – World War I: Japan declares war on Germany and bombs Qingdao, China. -1921 - British airship R-38 experiences a structural failure over Kingston-Upon-Hull and crashes into the Humber estuary. -1924 – The distance between Earth and Mars is the smallest since the 10th century. -1927 – Italian anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti are executed in Boston, Massachusetts. -1929 – Arabs attack Jews in Israel. -1938 - English cricketer Len Hutton sets the world record for the highest individual test innings of 364, against Australia. -1939 – World War II: Germany and the Soviet Union sign a non-aggression treaty, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. In a secret addition to the pact, Baltic states, Finland and Poland are divided between the two nations. -1940 – World War II: The Germans start bombing London. -1942 – World War II: Beginning of the Battle of Stalingrad -1943 – World War II: Kharkov liberated. -1944 – World War II: Marseille liberated. -1944 – World War II: King Michael of Romania dismisses the pro-Nazi government of General Antonescu. Romania switches sides from the Axis to the Allies. -1944 – A US Army Air Force B-24 Liberator bomber crashes into a school in Freckleton, England killing 61 people. -1944 – World War II: Ion Antonescu, Prime Minister of Romania, is arrested and a new government is established. Romania exits the war against Russia joining the Allies. -1946 - Three states are created in the British occupation zone of post-World War II Germany: North Rhine-Westphalia, Schleswig-Holstein, and the short-lived state of Hanover. -1947 – The Maynard Midgets beat Lock Haven 16-7 to win the first-ever Little League World Series championship. -1948 – World Council of Churches is formed. -1950 - The Subansiri Dam break in India kills 532 people. - -1951 2000 -1952 – The Arab League goes into effect. -1958 – Chinese Civil War: The Second Taiwan Strait crisis begins with the People's Liberation Army's bombardment of Quemoy. -1960 – In Equatorial Guinea, the world's largest frog (3.3 kg) is caught. -1962 – First live television connection between the United States and Europe, via the Telstar satellite. -1966 – Lunar Orbiter 1 takes the first photograph of Earth from orbit around the Moon. -1968 – Ringo Starr temporarily quits The Beatles -1973 – The Intelsat communication satellite is launched. -1973 - Salvador Allende, President of Chile, named Augusto Pinochet as Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army. Just 19 days later, Pinochet takes power in a coup, overthrowing Allende, who is killed. -1975 – Successful Communist coup in Laos -1976 – A major earthquake in China kills thousands of people. -1979 – Soviet dancer Alexander Godunov defects to the United States. -1982 - Bachir Gemayel is elected President of Lebanon during his country's civil war. He will not become President, as he is killed on September 14, before he can take office. -1985 – Hans Tiedge, top counter-spy of West Germany, defects to East Germany. -1987 – Heavy rains and floods in Bangladesh kill hundreds of victims. -1989 – Singing Revolution: two million people from Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania stand on the Vilnius-Tallinn road, holding hands (Baltic way). -1989 – All of Australia's 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign after the airlines threaten to sack them and sue them over a dispute. -1990 – Saddam Hussein appears on Iraqi state television with a number of Western ""guests"" (actually hostages to try to prevent the Gulf War). -1990 – Armenia declares its independence from the Soviet Union. -1990 – West Germany and East Germany announce that they will unite on October 3. -1991 - Tim Berners-Lee opens the World Wide Web to new users. -1992 – Hurricane Andrew hits South Florida. -1993 - The Galileo spacecraft discovers a moon orbiting around an asteroid; Dactyl orbits around the asteroid 243 Ida. -1999 – The Federal Republic of Germany is governed from Berlin from this day. -2000 – A Gulf Air Airbus A320 crashes into the Persian Gulf near Manama, Bahrain, killing 143 people. -2000 – Nicaragua becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty. This basically replaced the Buenos Aires Convention treaty, because as of this date, all members of the BA Convention were also signatories to Berne. - -From 2001 -2005 – Hurricane Katrina forms as a tropical depression. -2006 – In Austria, Natascha Kampusch manages to escape from 8 years of captivity. Her captor Wolfgang Priklopil commits suicide soon after. -2010 – Nine people, including the hostage taker, are killed in a hostage crisis on board a bus in Manila, Philippines. -2011 - 2011 Virginia earthquake: A magnitude 5.8 earthquake strikes near Mineral, Virginia, and is felt all the way along the eastern seaboard of the United States. No one is killed, but damage is reported on buildings, including monuments in Washington, DC. -2018 - Sexual harassment allegations against former First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond are made public. - -Births - -Up to 1900 -686 Charles Martel, grandfather of Charlemagne (d. 741) -963 Richard II, Duke of Normandy (d. 1027) -1486 Sigismund von Herberstein, Austrian diplomat and historian (d. 1566) -1517 Francis I of Lorraine (d. 1545) -1524 François Hotman, French lawyer and writer (d. 1590) -1623 Stanisław Lubieniecki, Polish astronomer (d. 1675) -1724 Abraham Yates, American Continental Congressman (d. 1796) -1740 Tsar Ivan VI of Russia (d. 1764) -1741 Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, French explorer (d. 1788) -1754 King Louis XVI of France (d. 1792) -1756 Francois Chabot, French priest and politician (d. 1794) -1757 Marie Magdalene Charlotte Ackermann, German actress (d. 1775) -1769 Georges Cuvier, French biologist and statesman (d. 1832) -1783 William Tierney Clark, English civil engineer (d. 1852) -1785 Oliver Hazard Perry, American naval officer (d. 1819) -1797 Adhemar Jean Claude Barre de Saint-Venant, French scientist (d. 1886) -1805 Anton von Schmerling, Austrian politician and jurist (d. 1893) -1811 Auguste Bravais, French physicist (d. 1863) -1814 James Roosevelt Bayley, American archbishop (d. 1877) -1829 Moritz Cantor, German mathematician (d. 1920) -1836 Marie Henriette of Austria, Queen of Belgium (d. 1902) -1839 James Geikie, Scottish geologist (d. 1915) -1846 Alexander Milne Calder, American sculptor (d. 1923) -1847 Sarah Frances Whiting, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1927) -1849 William Ernest Henley, British poet, critic, and editor (d. 1903) -1850 John Cockburn, Scottish-Australian politician, 18th Premier of South Australia (d. 1929) -1852 Arnold Toynbee, English economist and social reformer (d. 1883) -1852 Clímaco Calderón, President of Colombia (d. 1913) -1854 Moritz Moszkowski, Polish composer and pianist (d. 1925) -1864 Eleftherios Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1936) -1868 Edgar Lee Masters, American writer (d. 1950) -1872 Tanguturi Prakasam, Indian politician (d. 1957) -1875 William Eccles, English radio pioneer (d. 1966) -1880 Alexander Grin, Russian writer (d. 1932) -1883 Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV, American general (d. 1953) -1884 Will Cuppy, American humorist (d. 1949) -1887 Albert Gutterson, American athlete (d. 1965) -1887 Friedrich Zander, Baltic German rocket engineer (d. 1933) -1890 Harry Frank Guggenheim, American businessman and publisher (d. 1971) -1896 Jacques Rueff, French politician (d. 1978) -1900 Ernst Krenek, Austrian-born composer (d. 1991) - -1901 1950 -1901 John Sherman Cooper, U.S. Senator from Kentucky (d. 1991) -1902 Ida Siekmann, German victim of the Berlin Wall (d. 1961) -1903 William Primrose, Scottish violist (d. 1982) -1905 Constant Lambert, British composer (d. 1951) -1909 Leila Danette, American actress (d. 2012) -1910 Giuseppe Meazza, Italian footballer (d. 1979) -1911 Birger Ruud, Norwegian athlete (d. 1998) -1911 Betty Robinson, American athlete (d. 1999) -1912 Gene Kelly, American dancer and actor (d. 1996) -1912 Alexey Sudayev, Russian inventor (d. 1946) -1912 Ed Benedict, American animator (d. 2006) -1913 Bob Crosby, American singer, actor and bandleader (d. 1993) -1917 Tex Williams, American singer (d. 1985) -1917 Antonio Innocenti, Italian cardinal (d. 2008) -1918 Bernard Fisher, American surgeon (d. 2019) -1919 Vladimir Rokhlin, Soviet mathematician (d. 1984) -1921 Kenneth Arrow, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017) -1921 Franco Ossola, Italian footballer (d. 1949) -1922 Jean Darling, American actress and singer (d. 2015) -1922 George Kell, American baseball player (d. 2009) -1923 Edgar F. Codd, English computer scientist (d. 2003) -1924 Ephraim Kishon, Israeli writer (d. 2005) -1924 Robert Solow, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate -1925 Robert Mulligan, American movie director (d. 2008) -1926 Leo Leandros, Greek singer, composer and music producer -1927 Dick Bruna, Dutch illustrator (d. 2017) -1928 Marian Seldes, American actress (d. 2014) -1929 Vera Miles, American actress -1929 Peter Thomson, Australian golfer (d. 2018) -1930 Michel Rocard, former Prime Minister of France (d. 2016) -1931 Hamilton O. Smith, American microbiologist -1932 Houari Boumédiène, President of Algeria (d. 1978) -1932 Mark Russell, American comedian, musician, and political commentator -1933 Robert Curl, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate -1933 Pete Wilson, former Governor of California -1934 Barbara Eden, American actress -1934 Sonny Jurgensen, American football player -1934 Carlos Amigo Vallejo, Archbishop of Seville and cardinal -1936 Henry Lee Lucas, American serial killer (d. 2001) -1940 Thomas A. Steitz, American molecular biologist and biochemist (d. 2018) -1943 Donald Kalpokas, former Prime Minister of Vanuatu (d. 2019) -1943 Raúl Cubas Grau, former President of Paraguay -1943 Nelson DeMille, American novelist -1943 Pino Presti, Italian bass player, arranger, composer, conductor, record producer -1944 Antonia Novello, 14th Surgeon General of the United States -1945 Bob Peck, British actor (d. 1999) -1945 Rita Pavone, Italian singer -1945 Rayfield Wright, American football player -1946 Keith Moon, English singer and drummer (The Who) (d. 1978) -1947 David Robb, British actor -1947 Willy Russell, British playwright -1948 Andrei Plesu, Romanian philosopher, journalist and politician -1949 Shelley Long, American actress -1949 Rick Springfield, Australian singer and actor -1950 Luigi Delneri, Italian football manager -1950 Roza Otunbayeva, former President of Kyrgyzstan - -1951 1975 -1951 Queen Noor of Jordan -1951 Akhmad Kadyrov, President of Chechnya (d. 2004) -1951 Jimi Jamison, American rock music singer and songwriter (d. 2014) -1952 Vicky Leandros, Greek singer -1952 Santillana, Spanish footballer -1953 Bobby G, English singer (Bucks Fizz) -1953 Arturas Paulauskas, Lithuanian politician -1954 Marc Vann, American actor -1954 Halimah Yacob, 8th President of Singapore -1956 Andreas Floer, German mathematician (d. 1991) -1956 Valgerd Svarstad Haugland, Norwegian politician -1959 Edwyn Collins, Scottish singer -1959 Jorginho Putinatti, Brazilian footballer -1961 Alexandre Desplat, French composer -1961 Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, 54th Mayor of Tehran -1961 Gary Mabbutt, English footballer -1962 Martin Cauchon, Canadian lawyer and politician -1962 Shaun Ryder, British musician -1963 Park Chan-wook, South Korean film director, screenwriter and producer -1963 Richard Illingworth, English cricketer -1963 Kenny Wallace, American race car driver -1964 Johan Bruyneel, Belgian cyclist -1965 Richard Avary, Canadian movie and television producer, screenwriter and director -1966 Alberto Acosta, Argentine footballer -1966 Rik Smits, Dutch basketball player -1966 Charley Boorman, English actor and adventurer -1967 Jim Murphy, Scottish politician -1967 Ant, American comedian and actor -1968 Chris DiMarco, American golfer -1968 Laura Claycomb, American operatic soprano -1968 Hajime Moriyasu, Japanese footballer -1969 Tinus Linee, South African rugby player (d. 2014) -1970 Jay Mohr, American actor and comedian -1970 River Phoenix, American actor (d. 1993) -1971 Demetrio Albertini, Italian footballer -1971 Gretchen Whitmer, American politician, Governor of Michigan -1972 Souad Massi, Algerian singer and guitarist -1972 Mark Butcher, English cricketer -1973 Casey Blake, American baseball player -1973 Chelsi Smith, American singer and beauty pageant winner (d. 2018) -1974 Toni Brunner, Swiss politician -1974 Konstantin Novoselov, Russian-British physicist -1974 Ray Park, British actor -1974 Benjamin Limo, Kenyan athlete -1975 Eliza Carthy, English singer and fiddler - -From 1976 -1978 Kobe Bryant, American basketball player (d. 2020) -1978 Julian Casablancas, American musician -1979 Jessica Bibby, Australian basketball player -1980 Diamondog, Angolan rapper and journalist -1980 Nenad Vuckovic, Serbian handball player -1981 Carlos Cuellar, Spanish footballer -1982 Natalie Coughlin, American swimmer -1982 Trevor Wright, American actor -1983 Sun Ming Ming, Chinese basketball player -1983 James Collins, Welsh footballer -1983 J. C. Bailey, American professional wrestler (d. 2010) -1984 Glen Johnson, English footballer -1984 Ashley Williams, English-Welsh footballer -1986 SkyBlu, American rapper (LMFAO) -1986 Vic Wild, American-Russian snowboarder -1986 Neil Cicierega, American comedian, actor, singer and director -1988 Carl Hagelin, Swedish ice hockey player -1988 Vaani Kapoor, Indian actress -1988 Niki Leinso, Croatian singer and songwriter -1988 Jeremy Lin, American basketball player -1988 Kim Matula, American actress -1990 Reimond Manco, Peruvian footballer -1991 Jennifer Abel, Canadian diver -1994 Roberto Bellarosa, Belgian singer -1996 David Gore, American actor - -Deaths - -Up to 1900 -30 BC Marcus Antonius Antyllus, Roman soldier, eldest son of Mark Antony (b. 47 BC) -30 BC Caesarion, last king of Egypt's Ptolemaic Dynasty, son of Cleopatra -93 Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman Governor of Britain (b. 40) -406 Radagaisus, Gothic king -634 Abu Bakr, Arabian caliph -1106 Magnus, Duke of Saxony (b. 1045) -1176 Emperor Rokujo of Japan (b. 1164) -1305 William Wallace, Scottish patriot (executed) (b. 1272) -1329 Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1282) -1387 King Olav IV of Norway (b. 1370) -1498 Isabella, Princess of Asturias (b. 1470) -1507 Jean Molinet, French writer (b. 1435) -1519 Philibert Berthelier, Swiss patriot -1540 Guillaume Budé, French scholar -1591 Luis Ponce de León, Spanish poet and mystic (b. 1527) -1618 Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero, Dutch writer (b. 1585) -1628 George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English statesman (b. 1592) -1652 John Byron, 1st Baron Byron, English royalist politician (b. 1600) -1723 Increase Mather, New England Puritan minister (b. 1639) -1802 Corona Schröter, German singer and actress (b. 1751) -1806 Charles Augustin de Coulomb, French physicist (b. 1736) -1813 Alexander Wilson, Scottish-born ornithologist (b. 1766) -1819 Oliver Hazard Perry, American naval officer (b. 1785) -1838 Ferenc Kolcsey, Hungarian poet and politician (b. 1790) -1865 Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Austrian painter (b. 1793) -1866 Auguste Barthélémy, French poet (b. 1796) -1883 Sarah Yorke Jackson, First Lady of the United States (b. 1805) -1892 Deodoro da Fonseca, 1st President of Brazil (b. 1827) -1900 Kuroda Kiyotaka, 2nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1844) - -1901 2000 -1926 Rudolph Valentino, Italian actor (b. 1895) -1927 Nicola Sacco, Italian anarchist (executed) (b. 1891) -1927 Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Italian anarchist (executed) (b. 1888) -1933 Adolf Loos, Austrian architect (b. 1870) -1937 Albert Roussel, French composer (b. 1869) -1944 Abdülmecid II, Ottoman Caliph (b. 1868) -1958 Roger Martin du Gard, French writer (b. 1881) -1960 Oscar Hammerstein II, American lyricist (b. 1895) -1962 Walter Anderson, German folklorist (b. 1885) -1962 Hoot Gibson, American actor (b. 1892) -1966 Francis X. Bushman, American actor (b. 1883) -1977 Naum Gabo, Russian artist (b. 1890) -1982 Stanford Moore, American biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913) -1987 Didier Pironi, French racing driver (b. 1952) -1989 R. D. Laing, Scottish psychiatrist (b. 1927) -1997 John Kendrew, British molecular biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1917) -1997 Eric Gairy, 1st Prime Minister of Grenada (b. 1922) - -From 2001 -2001 Peter Maas, American novelist (b. 1929) -2002 Hoyt Wilhelm, baseball player (b. 1922) -2003 Imperio Argentina, Argentine singer and actress (b. 1906) -2003 Bobby Bonds, baseball player and manager (b. 1946) -2003 Jack Dyer, Australian footballer (b. 1913) -2005 Brock Peters, American actor (b. 1927) -2006 Wolfgang Priklopil, Austrian kidnapper (b. 1961) -2008 Thomas Huckle Weller, American bacteriologist and parasitologist (b. 1915) -2010 Satoshi Kon, Japanese movie director (b. 1963) -2012 Steve Van Buren, Honduran-born American football player (b. 1920) -2012 Jerry Nelson, American puppeteer (b. 1934) -2013 Gilbert Taylor, British cinematographer (b. 1914) -2014 Birgitta Stenberg, Swedish author (b. 1932) -2014 Annefleur Kalvenhaar, Dutch cyclist (b. 1994) -2014 Hajo Meyer, German-Dutch physicist (b. 1924) -2014 Jaume Vallcorba Plana, Spanish philologist (b. 1949) -2014 Dan Magill, American tennis coach (b. 1921) -2014 Ahti Pekkala, Finnish politician (b. 1924) -2014 Marcel Rigout, French politician (b. 1928) -2014 Philippine de Rothschild, French winemaker and baroness (b. 1933) -2014 Albert Ebossé Bodjongo, Cameroonian footballer (b. 1989) -2015 Guy Ligier, French rugby player and racing driver (b. 1930) -2015 Yosi Piamenta, Israeli musician (b. 1951) -2016 Steven Hill, American actor (b. 1922) -2016 Reinhard Selten, German economist (b. 1930) -2017 Joe Klein, American baseball executive (b. 1942) -2017 Eduardo Angeloz, Argentine politician (b. 1931) -2017 Viola Harris, American actress (b. 1926) -2017 Jack Rosenthal, Israeli-American journalist (b. 1935) -2017 Engelbert Jarek, Polish footballer (b. 1935) -2017 George A. Keyworth II, American physicist (b. 1939) -2017 Izak Parviz Nazarian, Iranian-American businessman (b. 1929) -2017 Jeannie Rousseau, French Allied intelligence agent (b. 1919) -2018 Russ Heath, American comic book artist (b. 1926) -2018 Dieter Thomas Heck, German actor and television presenter (b. 1937) -2018 Kuldip Nayar, Indian journalist (b. 1923) -2018 George Sheldon, American politician (b. 1947) -2018 George Walker, American composer (b. 1922) -2018 Franck Venaille, French poet and writer (b. 1936) -2018 Dominik Kalata, Slovakian Roman Catholic prelate (b. 1925) -2019 Amath Dansokho, Senegalese politician (b. 1937) -2019 Carlo Delle Piane, Italian actor (b. 1936) -2019 David Koch, American businessman (b. 1940) -2019 Roaring Lion, British-bred racehorse (b. 2015) -2019 Rick Loomis, American game designer (b. 1946) -2019 Massimo Mattioli, Italian cartoonist (b. 1943) -2019 Egon Zimmermann, Austrian ski racer and businessman (b. 1939) - -Observances - International Day for Abolition of Slave Trade (UNESCO) - European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Nazism and Stalinism (European Union) - Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day (Romania) - Flag Day (Ukraine) - Father's Day (Nepal) - -Days of the year" -19319,73381,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop%20%28chess%29,Bishop (chess),"A bishop () is a piece in the board game of chess. Each player starts the game with two bishops. One starts between the king's knight and the king, the other between the queen's knight and the queen. The pieces are called either the king's bishop or the queen's bishop. In chess notation the starting squares are c1 and f1 for White's bishops, and c8 and f8 for Black's bishops. - -History -The bishop first appeared in that form in medieval European chess. In Chaturanga he was represented as an armed attendant who sat on the back of an elephant. The Arabs called this figure ""al-fil"", which means ""elephant"". The problem was that in Central Europe elephants were not known, so they could not recognize the figure. The bishops were interpreted differently by the different nations. That is why the bishop is a ""Läufer"" (runner) in Germany, a ""fou"" (fool) in France and a ""alfiere"" (standard-bearer) in Italy. - -Using a bishop -The bishop moves diagonally, and can move as far as a player wants it to unless another piece blocks it. A bishop can never leave the color of square that it starts on, and so can only move to 32 squares of the board. - -Chess pieces" -24446,94217,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlfox,Marlfox,"Marlfox is a fantasy book written by Brian Jacques in 1998. It is the eleventh book in the Redwall series. Marlfox has been translated into two different languages other than English, including French and Italian. - -Redwall -1998 books -Fantasy books" -21283,81538,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9F-Berlin,Groß-Berlin,"Groß-Berlin or Greater Berlin was created by an act of the Prussian parliament made on 27 April 1920. The act was called the Greater Berlin Act () for short. Its full name was the ""Law Regarding the Reconstruction of the New Local Authority of Berlin"" (). - -The act said that on 1 October 1920 Greater Berlin should be taken away from the Province of Brandenburg and become a new district. - -The new district was made up of: - The city of Berlin (Alt-Berlin); - 7 towns that surrounded Berlin: - Charlottenburg, - Köpenick, - Lichtenberg, - Neukölln, - Schöneberg, - Spandau and - Wilmersdorf; - 59 rural areas and 27 estate districts from the surrounding districts of Niederbarnim, Osthavelland and Teltow; - and the grounds of the Berliner Stadtschloss (the Royal Palace) which had formed an estate district in its own right. - -The new Berlin was 13 times bigger than the old. Its area went from to and the population doubled from approximately 1.9 million to near 4 million, with almost 1.2 million of these new inhabitants coming from the 7 surrounding towns alone. - -Groß-Berlin was divided into 20 boroughs (Verwaltungsbezirke): - from Alt-Berlin: - Mitte, - Tiergarten, - Wedding, - Prenzlauer Berg, - Kreuzberg and - Friedrichshain; - one borough for each of the 7 previously-independent towns: - Charlottenburg, - Köpenick, - Lichtenberg, - Neukölln, - Schöneberg, - Spandau and - Wilmersdorf; - 7 new boroughs named after the largest village in the old areas: - Pankow, - Reinickendorf, - Steglitz, - Tempelhof, - Treptow, - Weißensee and - Zehlendorf - -Apart from minor changes, the city boundary defined in the law is the same as today, except for some changes made during the time of the Berlin Wall. During the 1970s and 1980s three new boroughs were made in East Berlin when other boroughs were split up. - -Other websites - text of the law (in German)" -11316,41078,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand%20II%20of%20Aragon,Ferdinand II of Aragon,"Ferdinand II the Catholic (, 10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516) was king of Aragon (1479–1516), Castile, Sicily (1468–1516), Naples (1504–1516), Valencia, Sardinia and Navarre and Count of Barcelona. His marriage to Isabella of Castile unified most of the Iberian Peninsula as Spain and started its move to become a great power. - -Biography -Ferdinand was the son of John II of Aragon by his second wife, the Aragonese noblewoman Juana Enriquez. He married Infanta Isabella, the sister by a different mother of Henry IV of Castile, on 19 October 1469 in Ocaña. He became Ferdinand V of Castile when Isabella succeeded her brother as Queen of Castile in 1474. The two young monarchs had to begin with a civil war against Juana, princess of Castile (also known as Juana la Beltraneja), who claimed to be the daughter of Henry IV. They won. Ferdinand succeeded his father as King of Aragon in 1479. This meant the Crown of Castile and the various territories of the Crown of Aragon were united in a personal union. For the first time since the 8th century this created a single political unit which might be called Spain, although the various territories were not properly administered as a single unit until the 18th century. - -The first decades of Ferdinand and Isabella's joint rule were taken up with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim enclave in the Iberian peninsula. This was completed by 1492 and then the Jews were expelled from both Castile and Aragon. The royal couple sent Christopher Columbus on his expedition which discover the New World. By the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the extra-European world was split between the crowns of Portugal and Castile by a north-south line through the Atlantic Ocean. - -Ferdinand was busy in the last decades of his life with the so-called Italian Wars. He was fighting with the Kings of France for control of Italy. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled Ferdinand's cousin, Alfonso II, from the throne of Naples. Ferdinand's alliance with various Italian princes and with Emperor Maximilian I, expelled the French by 1496 and installed Alfonso's son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne. In 1501, following the death of Ferdinand II of Naples and his succession by his uncle Frederick, Ferdinand of Aragon signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII. Louis had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, and they agreed to partition Naples between them, with Campania and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and Calabria. The agreement soon fell apart, and over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba conquered Naples from the French, by 1504. Another less famous ""conquest"" took place in 1502, when Andreas Paleologus, de jure Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, left Ferdinand and Isabella as heirs to the empire, thus Ferdinand became de jure Roman Emperor. - -After Isabella's death, her kingdom went to her daughter Joanna. Ferdinand served as the latter's regent during her absence in the Netherlands, ruled by her husband Archduke Philip. Ferdinand attempted to retain the regency permanently, but was rebuffed by the Castilian nobility and replaced with Joanna's husband, who became Philip I of Castile. After Philip's death in 1506, with Joanna mentally unstable, and her and Philip's son Charles of Ghent only six years old, Ferdinand resumed the regency, ruling through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros, the Chancellor of the Kingdom. - -In 1508, war resumed in Italy, this time against Venice. All the other powers on the peninsula, including Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II joined together against as the League of Cambrai. Although the French were victorious against Venice at the Battle of Agnadello, the League soon fell apart, as both the Pope and Ferdinand became suspicious of French intentions. Instead, the Holy League was formed, in which all the powers now joined together against France. - -In November 1511 Ferdinand and his son-in-law Henry VIII of England signed the Treaty of Westminster, pledging mutual aid between the two against France. Earlier that year, Ferdinand had conquered the southern half of the Kingdom of Navarre, which was ruled by a French nobleman, and annexed it to Spain. At this point to reinforce his claim to the kingdom, Ferdinand remarried with the much younger Germaine of Foix (1490–1538), a granddaughter of Queen Leonor of Navarre. The Holy League was generally successful in Italy, as well, driving the French from Milan, which was restored to its Sforza dukes by the peace treaty in 1513. The French were successful in reconquering Milan two years later, however. - -Ferdinand died in 1516 in Madrigalejo, Cáceres, Extremadura. He had made Spain the most powerful country in Europe. The succession of his grandson Charles, who inherited not only the Spanish lands of his maternal grandparents, but the Habsburg and Burgundian lands of his paternal family, would make his heirs the most powerful rulers on the continent. Charles succeeded him in the Aragonese lands, and was also granted the Castilian crown jointly with his insane mother, bringing about at long last the unification of the Spanish thrones under one head. - -Children -Ferdinand and Isabella had 5 children, Isabella of Asturias, Juan of Aragon, Joanna of Castile, Maria of Aragon, and Catherine of Aragon. Joanna and Catherine married with several European dynasties, setting the bases for the huge heritage of their grandson Charles V. His granddaughter was Queen Mary I of England. - -Miscellaneous - Ferdinand is entombed in the Capilla Real of Granada, alongside his wife, his daughter Joanna and her husband Philip, and his grandson Miguel. - During his joint reign with Queen Isabella, they used the motto ""Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando"" (""They amount to the same, Isabel and Ferdinand""). This was used to imply their equal power in both of their domains, as such an arrangement was uncommon in those times. - Some scholars argue that Ferdinand, and not the unfortunate Cesare Borgia, was the true inspiration for Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, in which he is frequently mentioned. - -Related pages - History of Spain - -1452 births -1516 deaths -Kings and Queens of Spain -People from Aragon" -4797,15201,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek%20and%20the%20Dominos,Derek and the Dominos,"Derek and the Dominos was an American blues rock band. The band's members were Eric Clapton, Carl Radle, Bobby Whitlock, Jim Gordon, and Duane Allman. They made the album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs. ""Layla"", with the well-known guitar riff, came from that same album. The band broke up after one album. - -Discography -Studio albums - Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs (1970) - -American rock bands -Blues bands -Musical groups from New York City" -2937,9254,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special%20relativity,Special relativity,"Special relativity (or the special theory of relativity) is a theory in physics that was developed and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. It applies to all physical phenomena, so long as gravitation is not significant. Special relativity applies to Minkowski space, or ""flat spacetime"" (phenomena which are not influenced by gravitation). - -Einstein knew that some weaknesses had been discovered in older physics. For example, older physics thought light moved in luminiferous aether. Various tiny effects were expected if this theory were true. Gradually it seemed these predictions were not going to work out. - -Eventually, Einstein (1905) drew the conclusion that the concepts of space and time needed a fundamental revision. The result was special relativity theory, which brought together a new principle ""the constancy of the speed of light"" and the previously established ""principle of relativity"". - -Galileo had already established the principle of relativity, which said that physical events must look the same to all observers, and no observer has the ""right"" way to look at the things studied by physics. For example, the Earth is moving very fast around the Sun, but we do not notice it because we are moving with the Earth at the same speed; therefore, from our point of view, the Earth is at rest. However, Galileo's math could not explain some things, such as the speed of light. According to him, the measured speed of light should be different for different speeds of the observer in comparison with its source. However, the Michelson-Morley experiment showed that this is not true, at least not for all cases. Einstein's theory of special relativity explained this among other things. - -Basics of special relativity - -Suppose that you are moving toward something that is moving toward you. If you measure its speed, it will seem to be moving faster than if you were not moving. Now suppose you are moving away from something that is moving toward you. If you measure its speed again, it will seem to be moving more slowly. This is the idea of ""relative speed""—the speed of the object relative to you. - -Before Albert Einstein, scientists were trying to measure the ""relative speed"" of light. They were doing this by measuring the speed of star light reaching the Earth. They expected that if the Earth was moving toward a star, the light from that star should seem faster than if the Earth was moving away from that star. However, they noticed that no matter who performed the experiments, where the experiments were performed, or what star light was used, the measured speed of light in a vacuum was always the same. - -Einstein said this happens because there is something unexpected about length and duration, or how long something lasts. He thought that as Earth moves through space, all measurable durations change very slightly. Any clock used to measure a duration will be wrong by exactly the right amount so that the speed of light remains the same. Imagining a ""light clock"" allows us to better understand this remarkable fact for the case of a single light wave. - -Also, Einstein said that as Earth moves through space, all measurable lengths change (ever so slightly). Any device measuring length will give a length off by exactly the right amount so that the speed of light remains the same. - -The most difficult thing to understand is that events that appear to be simultaneous in one frame may not be simultaneous in another. This has many effects that are not easy to perceive or understand. Since the length of an object is the distance from head to tail at one simultaneous moment, it follows that if two observers disagree about what events are simultaneous then this will affect (sometimes dramatically) their measurements of the length of objects. Furthermore, if a line of clocks appear synchronized to a stationary observer and appear to be out of sync to that same observer after accelerating to a certain velocity then it follows that during the acceleration the clocks ran at different speeds. Some may even run backwards. This line of reasoning leads to general relativity. - -Other scientists before Einstein had written about light seeming to go the same speed no matter how it was observed. What made Einstein's theory so revolutionary is that it considers the measurement of the speed of light to be constant by definition, in other words it is a law of nature. This has the remarkable implications that speed-related measurements, length and duration, change in order to accommodate this. - -The Lorentz transformations -The mathematical bases of special relativity are the Lorentz transformations, which mathematically describe the views of space and time for two observers who are moving relative to each other but are not experiencing acceleration. - -To define the transformations we use a Cartesian coordinate system to mathematically describe the time and space of ""events"". -Each observer can describe an event as the position of something in space at a certain time, using coordinates (x,y,z,t). -The location of the event is defined in the first three coordinates (x,y,z) in relation to an arbitrary center (0,0,0) so that (3,3,3) is a diagonal going 3 units of distance (like meters or miles) out in each direction. -The time of the event is described with the fourth coordinate t in relation to an arbitrary (0) point in time in some unit of time (like seconds or hours or years). - -Let there be an observer K who describes when events occur with a time coordinate t, and who describes where events occur with spatial coordinates x, y, and z. -This is mathematically defining the first observer whose ""point of view"" will be our first reference. - -Let us specify that the time of an event is given: by the time that it is observed t(observed) (say today, at 12 o'clock) minus the time that it took for the observation to reach the observer. -This can be calculated as the distance from the observer to the event d(observed) (say the event is on a star which is 1 light year away, so it takes the light 1 year to reach the observer) divided by c, the speed of light (several million miles per hour), which we define as being the same for all observers. - -This is correct because distance, divided by speed gives the time it takes to go that distance at that speed (e.g. 30 miles divided by 10 mph: give us 3 hours, because if you go at 10 mph for 3 hours, you reach 30 miles). So we have: - -This is mathematically defining what any ""time"" means for any observer. - -Now with these definitions in place, let there be another observer K' who is - moving along the x axis of K at a rate of v, - has a spatial coordinate system of x' , y' , and z' , -where x axis is coincident with the x axis, -and with the y' and z' axes - ""always being parallel"" to the y and z axes. - -This means that when K' gives a location like (3,1,2), the x (which is 3 in this example) is the same place that K, the first observer would be talking about, but the 1 on the y axis or the 2 on the z axis are only parallel to some location on the K' observer's coordinate system, -and - where K and K' ' are coincident at t = t' = 0 -This means that the coordinate (0,0,0,0) is the same event for both observers. -In other words, both observers have (at least) one time and location that they both agree on, which is location and time zero. - -The Lorentz Transformations then are - - - , and - . - -Define an event to have spacetime coordinates in system S and in a reference frame moving at a velocity v with respect to that frame, S′. Then the Lorentz transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the following way: -is the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in vacuum, and the velocity v of S′ is parallel to the x-axis. For simplicity, the y and z coordinates are unaffected; only the x and t coordinates are transformed. These Lorentz transformations form a one-parameter group of linear mappings, that parameter being called rapidity. - -Solving the above four transformation equations for the unprimed coordinates yields the inverse Lorentz transformation: - -Enforcing this inverse Lorentz transformation to coincide with the Lorentz transformation from the primed to the unprimed system, shows the unprimed frame as moving with the velocity v′ = −v, as measured in the primed frame. - -There is nothing special about the x-axis. The transformation can apply to the y- or z-axis, or indeed in any direction, which can be done by directions parallel to the motion (which are warped by the γ factor) and perpendicular; see the article Lorentz transformation for details. - -A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is known as a Lorentz scalar. - -Writing the Lorentz transformation and its inverse in terms of coordinate differences, where one event has coordinates and , another event has coordinates and , and the differences are defined as - -    -    - -we get - -    -    - -If we take differentials instead of taking differences, we get - -    -    - - Mass, energy and momentum -In special relativity, the momentum and the total energy of an object as a function of its mass are - -and - . - -A frequently made error (also in some books) is to rewrite this equation using a ""relativistic mass"" (in the direction of motion) of . -The reason why this is incorrect is that light, for example, has no mass, but has energy. If we use this formula, the photon (particle of light) has a mass, which is according to experiments incorrect. - -In special relativity, an object's mass, total energy and momentum are related by the equation - . -For an object at rest, so the above equation simplifies to . Hence, a massive object at rest still has energy. We call this rest energy and denote it by : -. - - History -The need for special relativity arose from Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, which were published in 1865. It was later found that they call for electromagnetic waves (such as light) to move at a constant speed (i.e., the speed of light). - -To have James Clerk Maxwell's equations be consistent with both astronomical observations[1] and Newtonian physics,[2] Maxwell proposed in 1877 that light travels through an ether which is everywhere in the universe. - -In 1887, the famous Michelson-Morley experiment tried to detect the ""ether wind"" generated by the movement of the Earth.[3] The persistent null results of this experiment puzzled physicists, and called the ether theory into question. - -In 1895, Lorentz and Fitzgerald noted that the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment could be explained by the ether wind contracting the experiment in the direction of motion of the ether. This effect is called the Lorentz contraction, and (without ether) is a consequence of special relativity. - -In 1899, Lorentz first published the Lorentz equations. Although this was not the first time they had been published, this was the first time that they were used as an explanation of the Michelson-Morley's null result, since the Lorentz contraction is a result of them. - -In 1900, Poincaré gave a famous speech in which he considered the possibility that some ""new physics"" was needed to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment. - -In 1904, Lorentz showed that electrical and magnetic fields can be modified into each other through the Lorentz transformations. - -In 1905, Einstein published his article introducing special relativity, ""On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"", in Annalen der Physik. In this article, he presented the postulates of relativity, derived the Lorentz transformations from them, and (unaware of Lorentz's 1904 article) also showed how the Lorentz Transformations affect electric and magnetic fields. - -Later in 1905, Einstein published another article presenting E = mc2. - -In 1908, Max Planck endorsed Einstein's theory and named it ""relativity"". In that same year, Hermann Minkowski gave a famous speech on Space and Time in which he showed that relativity is self-consistent and further developed the theory. These events forced the physics community to take relativity seriously. Relativity came to be more and more accepted after that. - -In 1912, Einstein and Lorentz were nominated for the Nobel prize in physics due to their pioneering work on relativity. Unfortunately, relativity was so controversial then, and remained controversial for such a long time that a Nobel prize was never awarded for it. - - Experimental confirmations - The Michelson-Morley experiment, which failed to detect any difference in the speed of light based on the direction of the light's movement. - Fizeau's experiment, in which the index of refraction for light in moving water cannot be made to be less than 1. The observed results are explained by the relativistic rule for adding velocities. - The energy and momentum of light obey the equation . (In Newtonian physics, this is expected to be .) - The transverse doppler effect, which is where the light emitted by a quickly moving object is red-shifted due to time dilation. - The presence of muons created in the upper atmosphere at the surface of Earth. The issue is that it takes much longer than the half-life of the muons to get down to Earth surface even at nearly the speed of light. Their presence can be seen as either being due to time dilation (in our view) or length contraction of the distance to the earth surface (in the muon's view). - Particle accelerators cannot be constructed without accounting for relativistic physics. - - Notes - [1] Observations of binary stars show that light takes the same amount of time to reach the Earth over the same distance for both stars in such systems. If the speed of light was constant with respect to its source, the light from the approaching star would arrive sooner than the light from the receding star. This would cause binary stars to appear to move in ways that violate Kepler's Laws, but this is not seen. - [2] The second postulate of special relativity (that the speed of light is the same for all observers) contradicts Newtonian physics. - [3] Since the Earth is constantly being accelerated as it orbits the Sun, the initial null result was not a concern. However, that did mean that a strong ether wind should have been present 6 months later, but none was observed. - -Related pages - General relativity - - References - - W. Rindler, Introduction to Special Relativity'', 2nd edition, Oxford Science Publications, 1991, . - Web article on the history of special relativity - Relativity Calculator - Learn Special Relativity Mathematics The mathematics of special relativity presented in as simple and comprehensive manner possible within philosophical and historical contexts. - -Other websites -http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/rocket.html - -Relativity -Albert Einstein -Basic physics ideas" -23400,89937,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suharto,Suharto,"Suharto (February 20, 1921 – January 27, 2008) was an Indonesian military and political leader. He was a military officer in the Indonesian Army. He is better known as the second President of Indonesia. He held the office for a long time, from 1967 to 1998. - -Political power -In the early morning of October 1, 1965, a group of soldiers claiming to be supported by the Indonesian Communist Party killed six generals in the army and one assistant because they thought he was a seventh. Many friends and supporters of Suharto claimed they were members of the communist party itself. The people of Indonesia then started killing anybody they thought was communist with Suharto's tacit approvement. Estimates range around half a million. Suharto then seized power from his predecessor, the first president of Indonesia Sukarno. For this, he used some force, but also took some political maneuvers. At the time, there was instability and unrest inside and outside of Indonesia. This helped him come to power. He took three decades to change the regime to work along militarist lines, with a strong central government. His movement was known as ""Orde Baru"". As he took an anti-communist position which he could defend, several Western governments supported him both in economic and political matters. This was during an era that is known as Cold War. For most of his three-decade rule, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialization. His rule, however, led to political purges and the deaths of about half a million of suspected Indonesian communists; many of them Chinese-Indonesians. He also made some laws against communist parties and ethnic Chinese. - -His New Order administration's authoritarian and increasingly corrupt practices led to much discontent in the 1990s. Suharto's almost unquestioned authority over Indonesian affairs slipped dramatically when the Asian financial crisis lowered Indonesians' standard of living. People inside the military and other institutions no longer supported him. There were some problems inside the country during the early 1990s. Suharto became more and more isolated, in a political way. After mass demonstrations in 1998, Suharto was forced to resign. Suharto had been the face of Indonesia for over 30 years. After retiring, he lived in seclusion. There were people who wanted to try him for genocide. This failed however, because he had a very bad health. His legacy remains hotly debated and contested both in Indonesia and abroad. - -Like many Javanese, Suharto has only one name. In contexts where his religion is being discussed he is sometimes called Haji or el-Haj Mohammed Suharto, but this Islamic title is not part of his formal name or generally used. The spelling ""Suharto"" has been official in Indonesia since 1947 but the older spelling Soeharto is still frequently used. - -Death - -Suharto was admitted to hospital on January 4; on 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as a sepsis infection spread through his body. His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm. He died at Pertamina Hospital in Jakarta, Indonesia of congestive heart failure. He was taken off life support. He was buried at a family mausoleum near Solo town. - -Sukarno, Suharto and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo/Slaughter of Indonesian ""Communists"" - -The balance of power was shifted in favour of anti-Communists in December 1965, when personnel from both the Army Para-commando Regiment and 5th Brawijaya Military Region units arrived in Bali after having carried out killings in Java. Led by Suharto's principal troubleshooter, Sarwo Edhie Wibowo who with Javanese military commanders permitted Balinese squads (led by Anwar Congo, Adi Zulkadry, Safit Pardede) to kill until reined in. In contrast to Central Java where the Army encouraged people to kill the ""Gestapu"", Bali's eagerness to kill was so tremendous and spontaneous that, having provided logistic support initially, the Army eventually had to step in to prevent chaos. Sukarno's choice of Bali's provincial governor, Suteja, was recalled from office and accused of preparing a communist uprising, and his relatives were tracked down and killed. A series of killings similar to those in Central and East Java were led by black-shirted PNI youth. For several months, militia death squads went through villages capturing suspects and taking them away. Hundreds of houses belonging to communists and their relatives were burnt down within one week of the reprisal crusade, with occupants being butchered as they ran from their homes. An early estimate suggested that 50,000 people, including women and children, were killed in this operation alone. The population of several Balinese villages were halved in the last months of 1965. All the Chinese shops in the towns of Singaraja and Denpasar were destroyed and many of their owners who were alleged to have financially supported the ""Gestapu"" killed. Between December 1965 and early 1966, an estimated 80,000 Balinese were killed, roughly 5% of the island's population at the time, and proportionally more than anywhere else in Indonesia. Most of the people killed had little to do with Communist Party or other allegations thrown at them. - -Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats. - -In January 1966, university students under the banner of KAMI, begin demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection. - -In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966). The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment of KAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops around Merdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee to Bogor Palace (60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major-General Basuki Rahmat, Brigadier-General M Jusuf, and Brigadier-General Amirmachmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (see Supersemar) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. - -Using the Supersemar letter, Suharto ordered the banning of PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers. The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint a new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of the MPRS (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service. - -In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of Marxism–Leninism, ratifying the Supersemar, and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year). Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces. - -By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces, and the MPRS decided to hold another session to impeach Sukarno. On 22 February 1967, Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency, and on 12 March, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power and named Suharto acting president. Sukarno was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace; little more was heard from him, and he died in near seclusion in June 1970. - -References - -Other websites -The Lasting Legacy of Suharto (at BBC) - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -|- - -1921 births -2008 deaths -Deaths from congestive heart failure -Deaths from sepsis -Presidents of Indonesia -Muslims" -21846,83210,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20browser,Mobile browser,"A mobile browser (also called a microbrowser or minibrowser) is a web browser made for use on a mobile device like a mobile phone or PDA. Mobile browsers are made to display internet content in the best way for small screens on mobile devices. - -Web browsers" -11159,40356,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience,Experience,"Experience is knowledge a person gets by doing something or watching someone else do it. Experience is learning through actions. - -Some religious groups and teaching methods value learning by experiencing. -For example, if someone wants to learn about the game chess, they would play several games. By making mistakes and learning from them, they learn more rather than just reading about playing. - -Types of experience -Experience is often divided into four types: - -Someone who experienced by watching or doing something himself is said to have first-hand experience. - -When one person tells another person, the other person has second-hand experience. - -When an experience is felt or enjoyed through imagined participation, the person has had a ""vicarious experience"". - -A religious experience is a spiritual event seen by someone. Holy books like the Bible talk about visions or dreams where men like Moses, Daniel or Jesus met God. Mystics also describe these events, and offer advice. William James wrote a famous book about the kinds of religious experience. - -Proverbs about Experience - ""Only the foolish learn from experience — the wise learn from the experience of others."" Romanian proverb. (Fools go out, make their own mistakes and learn from them. Smart people learn from others' mistakes.) - ""Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other."" Benjamin Franklin (Fools refuse to learn in school from textbooks or teachers. Fools choose to learn only from their own mistakes. They will not learn in a school classroom.) or (Experience is a great teacher and teaches many of life's most important lessons, but only fools will refuse to get new knowledge in other ways too. Examples of other ways to learn things are listening, reading, remembering, and reasoning.) - -Other websites - http://www.primeguru.com (Site discontinued) Learn from other's experiences and let others learn from your experiences - -Basic English 850 words" -22005,83737,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelberg,Engelberg,"Engelberg is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Engelberg Tourism - Titlis Glacier - -Municipalities of Obwalden" -10555,37576,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapellmeister,Kapellmeister,"Kapellmeister, (pronounce: Ka-PEL-my-ster), is a German word which means a musician who is in charge of music-making. The word comes from the Latin word for ""chapel"". In German ""Kapelle"" got the meaning: ""choir"" (because they sang in a chapel). ""Meister"" means ""master"". - -The French word is maître de la chapelle. In Italian he is Maestro di Capella. In English he might be called Chapel Master or, more generally, Director of Music. - -The Kapellmeister's job - -The word Kapellmeister is used to describe musicians in Germany who worked for a king, prince or rich nobleman. Until about 200 years ago, these people often had their own private orchestras. The Kapellmeister was like a Director of Music. He would be responsible for choosing any new musicians, rehearsing and conducting the orchestra, and composing any music that was needed. - -Many famous composers had jobs as Kapellmeister. Johann Sebastian Bach worked from 1717 to 1723 as Kapellmeister for Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen. George Frideric Handel was Kapellmeister for George, Elector of Hanover, who later became George I of Great Britain. Joseph Haydn worked for many years as Kapellmeister for the Eszterházy family, a very important noble family of the Austrian Empire. - -A Kapellmeister could also be the Director of Music for a church. Sometimes, this would be called ""Kantor"" in Germany. Johann Sebastian Bach was called ""Kantor"" when he was Director of Music at the church of St Thomas in Leipzig from 1723-1750. - -By the 19th century, society in Europe had changed. The nobility were not as rich as they had been before, and many composers started to make a living as a freelance composer. Beethoven, for example, never became a Kapellmeister. - -Sometimes, the word ""Kapellmeister"" is used in German today to mean the Director or conductor of an orchestra or choir. The title shows that they have to organize the orchestra or choir as well as conduct it. - -Musicians -Occupations" -5464,17810,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20wall,Cell wall,"A cell wall is the wall of a cell in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animal cells do not have cell walls, nor do protozoa. Cell walls protect the cells from damage. It is also there to make the cell strong, to keep its shape, and to control the growing of the cell and plant. - -The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is outside the cell membrane and gives these cells support and protection, as well as acting as a filter. The cell wall also acts as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell by osmosis. - -The material in the cell wall varies. In plants and algae, the cell wall is made of long molecules of cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. The cell wall has channels which let some proteins in and keeps others out. Water and small molecules can go through the cell wall and the cell membrane. - -Functions - -Strength -The cell wall has mechanical strength, and supports cell shape. This mechanical strength is its main function: -""Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus the [organisms] cell that have a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall"". -Although the plant cell wall is strong, it is not rigid or stiff. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop. - -Some plants add stiffening material to some of their cell walls. A secondary cell wall is an additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. More layers may be added containing lignin in xylem cell walls, or containing suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof. They make the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may get reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces. - -Permeability -Small molecules, including small proteins, can easily get through the primary plant cell wall. Water and carbon dioxide are distributed throughout the plant. The pH is an important factor in the transport of molecules through cell walls. - -Bacterial cell wall - -Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan, which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. - -The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls. - -Middle lamella -The middle lamella gives the cell shape, support, and strength. It is made of calcium and magnesium. Even though it is called middle lanella, it is the outer part of the cell. The middle lamella is the first wall of the cell to give protection. - -Animal cell membrane -Animal cells do not have cell walls. They have microfilaments (the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton). - -References - -Cell biology -Plant anatomy" -1006,3922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme,Enzyme,"An enzyme is a protein molecule in cells which works as a biological catalyst. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get used up in the process, therefore can be used over and over again. - -Almost all biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes. With an enzyme, chemical reactions go much faster than they would without the enzyme.p39 Other biocatalysts are catalytic RNA molecules, called ribozymes. - -The substances at the start of a reaction are called substrates. The substances at the end of a reaction are the products. Enzymes work on the substrates, and turn them into products. The study of enzymes is called enzymology. - -The first enzyme was found in 1833 by Anselme Payen. - -Enzyme structure - -There are thousands of different enzymes and each one is specific to the reaction which it catalyses. Enzymes have names which show what they do. Enzyme names usually end in –ase to show that they are enzymes. Examples of this include ATP synthase. It makes a chemical called ATP. Another example is DNA polymerase. It reads an intact DNA strand and uses it as a template to make a new strand. - -One example of an enzyme is amylase, found in saliva. It breaks down starch molecules into smaller glucose and maltose molecules. Another kind of enzyme is lipase. It breaks down fats into smaller molecules, fatty acids and glycerol. - -The proteases are a whole class of enzymes. They break down other enzymes and proteins back into amino acids. Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA or RNA, often in specific place in the molecule. - -Enzymes are not only for breaking large chemicals into smaller chemicals. Other enzymes take smaller chemicals and build them up into bigger chemicals, and do many other chemical tasks. The classification below lists the main types. - -Biochemists often draw a picture of an enzyme to use as a visual aid or map of the enzyme. This is hard to do because there may be hundreds or thousands of atoms in an enzyme. Biochemists can not draw all this detail. Instead, they use ribbon models as pictures of enzymes. Ribbon models can show the shape of an enzyme without having to draw every atom. - -Most enzymes will not work unless the temperature and pH are just right. In mammals the right temperature is usually about 37oC degrees (body temperature). The correct pH can vary greatly. Pepsin is an example of an enzyme that works best when pH is about 1.5. - -Heating an enzyme above a certain temperature will destroy the enzyme permanently. It will be broken down by protease and the chemicals will be used again. - -Some chemicals can help an enzyme do its job even better. These are called activators. Sometimes, a chemical can slow down an enzyme or even make the enzyme not work at all. These are called inhibitors. Most drugs are chemicals that either speed up or slow down some enzyme in the human body. - -Lock and key model -Enzymes are very specific. In 1894 Emil Fischer suggested that both the enzyme and the substrate have specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another. This is often referred to as ""the lock and key"" model. However, this model fails to explain what happens next. - -In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model. Since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is reshaped by interactions with the substrate. As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site. The amino acid side-chains of the active site are bent into positions so the enzyme does its catalytic work. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site. - -Function -The general equation for an enzyme reaction is: -Substrate + Enzyme –> Substrate:Enzyme –> Product:Enzyme –> Product + Enzyme - -Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction by forming an intermediary complex with the substrate. This complex is called an enzyme-substrate complex. - -For example, sucrase, 400 times the size of its substrate sucrose, splits the sucrose into its constituent sugars, which are glucose and fructose. The sucrase bends the sucrose, and strains the bond between the glucose and fructose. Water molecules join in and make the cleavage in a fraction of a second. Enzymes have these key features: - They are catalytic. They commonly increase the rate of reaction 10 billion-fold.p39 The enzyme itself is not changed by the reaction. - They are effective in tiny amounts. One enzyme molecule may convert 1000 molecules of substrate a minute, and some are known to convert 3 million in a minute.p39 - They are highly specific. One enzyme will only carry out one of the many reactions of which a substrate is capable. - -Control of enzyme activity - -There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell. - - Enzyme production (transcription and translation of enzyme genes) can be increased or reduced in response to changes in the cell's environment. This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction and inhibition. For example, in bacteria which are resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin, enzymes are induced which hydrolyse the penicillin molecule. - Enzymes can occur in different cellular compartments. For example, fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Then they are used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondria. - Enzymes can be regulated by their own products. For example, the end product(s) often inhibit one of the first enzymes of the pathway. Such a regulatory mechanism is called negative feedback, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration. This prevents the cells making too much enzyme. The control of enzyme action helps keep a stable internal environment in living organisms. - Enzymes can be regulated by being modified after their production. An example is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen. - Some enzymes may become activated when they move to a different environment (e.g. from high pH to low pH). For example, haemagglutinin in the influenza virus is activated by a change in shape. This is caused by the acidic conditions which occur inside the host cell's lysosome. - -Enzyme inhibitors -Inhibitors can be used to stop an enzyme from binding to a substrate. This may be done to slow down an enzyme-controlled reaction. The inhibitors fit loosely or partially into the enzyme's active site. This prevents or slows down an enzyme-substrate complex being formed. - -Denaturation -Denaturation is the irreversible alteration of an enzyme's active site, caused by an extreme change in temperature or pH. It will decrease the rate of reaction because the substrate molecule will not be able to fit into the active site, so products cannot be formed. - -Cofactors -Cofactors, or coenzymes, are helper molecules which are needed to make an enzyme work. They are not proteins, and may be organic or inorganic molecules. Both types of molecules sometimes contain a metal ion at the centre, such as Mg2+, Cu2+, Mn2+ or iron-sulphur clusters. This is because such ions may act as electron donors, and this is important in many reactions. The need of enzymes for various little helpers is the basic reason why animals, including ourselves, need trace elements and vitamins. - -Classification -Enzymes have been classified by the International Union of Biochemistry. Their Commission on Enzymes has grouped all known enzymes into six classes: - Oxido-reductases: catalyse transfer of electrons - Transferases: move functional group from one molecule to another - Hydrolases: add –OH (hydroxyl) group - Lyases: split chemical bonds, and often add double bond or ring structure - Isomerases: A –> B where B is an isomer of A - Ligases: join two large molecules: Ab + C –> A–C + b -The individual enzymes are given a four-figure number which classifies them in the database.p145 - -Uses of enzymes -Enzymes are used commercially for: - making baby food - pre-digesting food for babies - softening the centres of chocolates - biological washing powder - which contains protease enzymes to break down the grime and dirt. It breaks the large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules. It works at a lower temperature, so less energy is needed (thermostable) - -Related pages - Burst kinetics - -References - -Biochemistry -Molecular biology" -17183,65097,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless,Wireless,"The word wireless is used to refer to any type of electrical or electronic operation which is done without a ""hard wired"" connection. Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of wires. The distances involved may be short (when using a television remote control) or very long (thousands or even millions of kilometers for radio communications). - -Uses -One of the most popular wireless technology is the mobile phone, with more than 6.8 billion subscriptions worldwide as of 2013. The term wireless technology is generally used for mobile information technology (IT) equipment. Examples include mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), Global Positioning System (GPS) units, garage door openers, wireless computer mice and keyboards, satellite television and cordless telephones. - -History -The world's first wireless telephone conversation happened in 1880, when Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented photophone, a telephone that made conversations wirelessly using light beams. In 1946, a driver in Saint Louis, Mo. placed the first cell phone call in history. The cell phone was invented by Bell Labs and future AT&T CEO, H.I Romnes. - -References - -Related pages -Radio wave - -Technology -Radio - -de:Funkverkehr" -18483,69354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Across%20the%20Universe%20%28movie%29,Across the Universe (movie),"Across the Universe is a musical movie made in 2007. It is directed by Julie Taymor and written by Ian La Frenais and Dick Clement. The main characters are played by Evan Rachel Wood and Jim Sturgess. There are also other famous actors and singers who appear in the movie: Bono, who plays Dr. Robert, Eddie Izzard as Mr. Kite, Dana Fuchs as a musician called Sexy Sadie, and Salma Hayek as a nurse. - -The movie was released in North America on 12 October in 2007. - -Plot -The story starts in the early 1960s. A young ship builder from Liverpool named Jude (played by Jim Sturgess) travels by ship to the United States in search of his American G.I. father called Wes (Played by Robert Clohessy). They have never met and his father does not know Jude exists. While looking for his father at Princeton, Jude makes friends with somebody called Max (Played by Joe Anderson), a rebellious young man from a rich background, and Max's sister Lucy (Played by Evan Rachel Wood). When Max drops out of college and moves to New York City, Jude goes with him. Max works as a taxi driver, while Jude tries to find work as an independent artist. They become roommates in a bohemian area of the city where they share an apartment with other people, including a woman called Sadie (Played by Dana Fuchs) who is their landlady and who is also trying to become singer. Other people who live in the same house include Jojo (Played by Martin Luther McCoy), a guitarist who arrives from Detroit after the death of his younger brother; and Prudence (Played by T.V. Carpio), a young lesbian who hitchhikes to New York City from Dayton, Ohio. Lucy joins them in the New York flat after her boyfriend is killed in the Vietnam War. - -Lucy and Jude begin dating, as well as Sadie and Jojo, which leaves Prudence depressed. When Max is sent to Vietnam, Lucy becomes involved in an extreme anti-war group, which leads to tension with the non-political Jude. He is unhappy with the amount of time she spends with the political group, suspecting that its leader, Paco (Logan Marshall-Green), is a man who obsessively seduces and deceives women. Jude's art and his relationship with Lucy both start to break down. Meanwhile, Sadie has formed a band called Sadie and the Po Boys, with Jojo as her lead guitarist. She gains the attention of a manager (James Urbaniak) who signs her to a record label, but he wants her to drop her backing band. This leads to a break up between Sadie and Jojo, both musically and romantically. - -The differences between Jude and Lucy grow. One day, Jude goes into the offices of the political group where Lucy works and is kicked out after punching Paco. This causes a fight between the couple, resulting in Lucy leaving Jude. Jude finds her at an anti-war demonstration at Columbia University during which many protesters, including Lucy, are arrested. When trying to help her, Jude is also arrested. Though Wes (Jude's Father) persuades the police not to take further action for activity at the protest, he cannot prove that Jude is his son, and Jude is sent back to England. - -Max is wounded in Vietnam and is emotionally and mentally troubled by his war experience, while Lucy remains involved in her anti-war group that is becoming more and more violent. After Lucy goes to the old headquarters of her anti-war group, she discovers Paco and some of his followers making bombs. She then decides to leave the group. One of Paco's bombs explodes, destroying the building. Jude reads about the explosion in a Liverpool newspaper and is concerned that Lucy has died. He then hears from Max that she is alive, and he arranges to return to the United States properly and without breaking the law. He meets Max, who drives him to Sadie's music headquarters where a Beatles-style rooftop concert is being held by Jojo, Sadie, and their band singing an anti-war song (Don't let me down). Lucy is supposed to be there to meet Jude again, but no one can find her, and the group is forced to leave when the police arrive. But Jude manages to sneak back onto the roof and begins to sing ""All you need is Love"", his eyes searching the crowd for Lucy. The rest of the band sneaks back onto the roof, too and they join him with their voices and instruments. Jude smiles sadly and turns to leave the roof, but Max suddenly points as they sing, and Jude turns to see Lucy standing on the roof across the street, singing along. They smile at one another with tears in their eyes, and the screen fades out to white clouds and blue sky. - -Cast - -Principal - - Jim Sturgess as Jude Feeny - Evan Rachel Wood as Lucy Carrigan - Joe Anderson as Maxwell ""Max"" Carrigan - Dana Fuchs as Sadie - Martin Luther McCoy as Jojo - T.V. Carpio as Prudence - -Cameos - Bono as Dr. Robert - Eddie Izzard as Mr. Kite - Salma Hayek as Singing Nurses - Joe Cocker as Bum/Pimp/Mad Hippie - -Movie soundtrack -The movie's end credits show that a total of thirty-three separate Beatles songs featured in the movie, either in full or in part. All of these songs were written between 1963 and 1970 by the members of The Beatles (John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr) and recorded by The Beatles. Thirty of them are songs that are officially credited to the songwriting partnership of Lennon-McCartney. Three are credited to George Harrison. One title (""Flying"") is a 1967 song credited to all four members of the Beatles (Lennon-McCartney-Harrison-Starkey). - -Thirty-one of the soundtrack's songs feature vocals. Two of them (""And I Love Her"" and ""A Day in the Life"") are brief instrumental versions of songs that were originally written with lyrics. One song (""Flying"") was originally written as an instrumental. - -Twenty-five of the vocal tracks are performed by one or more of the six lead cast members. Four of the songs are sung by stars with cameo roles (Bono, Eddie Izzard, Salma Hayek and Joe Cocker). One song (""Let It Be"") is sung by supporting members of the cast. One song (""Blue Jay Way"") is sung by indie Texan trio The Secret Machines. In twenty-nine of the vocal tracks, the vocalists are singing on-screen. Two of the vocal tracks (""Blue Jay Way"" and ""Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"") are sung by off-screen vocalists. - -The remaining three of the thirty-four songs are rendered instrumentally. ""Flying"" is performed by The Secret Machines, ""And I Love Her"" is heard briefly as part of the orchestral score, and ""A Day in the Life"" is performed on guitar by Jeff Beck in a version recorded for Sir George Martin's 1998 album In My Life. - -In addition to the thirty-four Beatles songs, the soundtrack features an original score written by Elliot Goldenthal. Goldenthal worked on Taymor's previous movies Titus and Frida. (Goldenthal and director Taymor have also been partners since 1982.) - -Beatles songs featured in the movie -This is a listing of the thirty-four songs written by members of The Beatles that are heard on the soundtrack, in the order featured in the movie. This listing includes notation of three songs that are heard twice in the course of the movie, so there are a total of thirty-seven individual music cues. - - ""Girl"" Performed by Jim Sturgess - ""Helter Skelter"" Performed by Dana Fuchs (brief extract over movie montage - presaging later sequences in the movie) Longer version performed later in movie. - ""Hold Me Tight"" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood and Lisa Hogg - ""All My Loving"" Performed by Jim Sturgess - ""I Want to Hold Your Hand"" Performed by T.V. Carpio - ""With a Little Help from My Friends"" Performed by Joe Anderson, Jim Sturgess and ""Dorm Buddies"" - ""It Won't Be Long"" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood and ""Students"" - ""I've Just Seen a Face"" Performed by Jim Sturgess - ""Let It Be"" Performed by Carol Woods, Timothy T. Mitchum and church choir - ""Come Together"" Performed by Joe Cocker with Martin Luther McCoy performing the final verse - ""Why Don't We Do It in the Road?"" Performed by Dana Fuchs - ""If I Fell"" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood - ""I Want You (She's So Heavy)"" Performed by Joe Anderson, ""Soldiers"", Dana Fuchs and T.V. Carpio - ""Dear Prudence"" Performed by Dana Fuchs, Jim Sturgess, Evan Rachel Wood and Joe Anderson - ""Flying"" Instrumental - brief extract performed by The Secret Machines (performers not seen on-screen) - ""Blue Jay Way"" brief extract performed by The Secret Machines (performers not seen on-screen) - ""I Am the Walrus"" Performed by Bono (accompanied by the Secret Machines - not seen on-screen) - ""Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!"" Performed by Eddie Izzard - ""Because"" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood, Jim Sturgess, Joe Anderson, Dana Fuchs, T. V. Carpio and Martin Luther McCoy - ""Something"" Performed by Jim Sturgess - ""Oh! Darling"" Performed by Dana Fuchs and Martin Luther McCoy - ""Strawberry Fields Forever"" Performed by Jim Sturgess and Joe Anderson - ""Revolution"" Performed by Jim Sturgess - ""While My Guitar Gently Weeps"" Performed by Martin Luther McCoy (joined by Jim Sturgess for one verse) - ""Across the Universe"" Performed by Jim Sturgess (the performance of this song is interwoven with the next song Helter Skelter) - ""Helter Skelter"" Performed by Dana Fuchs (the performance of this song is interwoven with the preceding song Across the Universe) - ""And I Love Her"" (brief extract incorporated into the orchestral score during the 'Across the Universe/Helter Skelter sequence) - ""Happiness Is a Warm Gun"" Performed by Joe Anderson, ""Patients"" and Salma Hayek - ""Revolution"" Brief extract performed by Evan Rachel Wood - ""A Day in the Life"" Performed by Jeff Beck (instrumental version of the song recorded in 1998 for George Martin's In My Life album) - ""Blackbird"" Performed by Evan Rachel Wood - ""Hey Jude"" Performed by Joe Anderson (joined by Angela Mounsey for one verse) - ""Don't Let Me Down"" Performed by Dana Fuchs and Martin Luther McCoy - ""All You Need is Love"" Performed by Jim Sturgess, Dana Fuchs, T.V. Carpio and Martin Luther McCoy - ""She Loves You"" Performed by Joe Anderson (chorus sung during the last part of the ""All You Need Is Love"" sequence) (see note below) ""Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"" Performed by Bono (with backing vocals by The Edge), played over the beginning of the end credit sequence (performance not seen on-screen) - ""Flying"" Instrumental - extended version performed by The Secret Machines played over the latter portion of the end credit sequence (performers not seen on-screen) - -Production dispute -In March 2007, the media reported a dispute over the final cut of the movie. Concerned with the length of director Julie Taymor's cut of the movie, Revolution Studios (production studio) chairman Joe Roth tested a sneak preview of a shortened version without first informing Taymor. The incident caused a quarrel between the two, later involving Sony Pictures (distributor) Amy Pascal urging Taymor to agree to the shorter version.More Details of Taymor-Roth Feud . Movie & TV News. IMDB.com. 21 March 2007 After several months of dispute, Taymor's version was eventually reinstated as the theatrically released version. - -Reception -The movie received mixed reviews from critics. As of January 6, 2008, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 52% of critics gave the movie positive reviews, based on 130 reviews. However, the movie is currently at 80% with the Rotten Tomatoes community. Metacritic reported the movie had an average score of 56 out of 100, based on 29 reviews. - -Top ten lists -The movie appeared on a few critics' top ten lists of the best movies of 2007. - 1st - Carrie Rickey, The Philadelphia Inquirer 7th - Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times 9th - Stephen Holden, The New York Times'' - -Awards and nominations - -Nominations - 65th Golden Globe Awards - Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy - 80th Academy Awards - Costume Design - 50th Grammy Awards - Best Compilation Soundtrack Album - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - with trailer - - - Article on filming in the Lower East Side - Promotional pictures - Pictures from the shoot on Flickr. - Next Subway Stop: Hollywood, New York Times, January 8, 2006 - Article about editing controversy New York Times, March 20, 2007 - 3 trailers and a clip from the movie - -2007 movies -American musical movies -Columbia Pictures movies" -10013,34185,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic%20design,Graphic design,"Graphic design is a practical art which helps in communication. Visual information is formed in a way that produces a message. This can be done by placing words and pictures in ways that will get the attention of others. People who do graphic design as work are called graphic designers. In printed media, graphic design includes typography, organising illustration, book design, page layout, specifying print. - -Graphic design can be done in different media. These include paper, video, labels, and web sites. - -Graphic designers use many skills, rules and techniques to provide the right information. They must combine artistic expression and media relations. Skills include the ability to look at the whole picture, color theory, design principles, understanding of art, etc. - -Graphic design today is heavily used in all types of media, magazine articles, internet and especially in advertising. Almost every marketing effort utilizes graphic design for brochures, business cards, websites, logo design and corporate identity. - -Contemporary graphic designs tends to feature modern geometric forms and shapes and bold typefaces. They emphasize making the message easy to read and comprehend and also grab attention and make memorable. - -Written communication -Graphics -Typography -History of printing" -23497,90483,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Said,Port Said,"Port Said (Arabic بورسعيد, -transliterated ) -is an Egyptian city near the Suez Canal, with a population of about 500,000. - -Port Said has fishing and industries, like chemicals, processed food, and cigarettes. Port Said is also an important harbour both for exports of Egyptian products like cotton and rice, but also a fuelling station for ships that pass through the Suez Canal. - -Other websites - PortSaid Free-zone Forums - PortSaid-Online,Port Said's Largest Community - All about Port Said - Satellite picture by Google Maps - -Port Said" -16745,63940,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20II%20of%20Imereti,George II of Imereti,"George II (; died in 1585), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, was a king of Imereti from 1565 to 1585. - -1585 deaths -Georgian people -Year of birth unknown -Kings and queens" -2517,8038,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20Adams,Douglas Adams,"Douglas Adams (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was a British writer. He is most famous for his The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series. - -Adams was born in Cambridge. When he was a few months old he moved to East London and a few years later to Brentwood, Essex. He originally received attention when he wrote for the popular TV shows Monty Python and Doctor Who in the 1970s. In 1978 he wrote a science-fiction radio series called The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. It was later turned into a novel. In the early 1980s, it became a television series and in 2005 it became a movie produced by Disney. Adams also wrote several sequels for radio and as novels. He was also known for his humorous detective novels starring Dirk Gently, and for his efforts to conserve endangered species. He was an atheist. In 2001, Adams died of a heart attack while he was working out at the gym in Montecito, California, United States. - -References - -1952 births -2001 deaths -British atheists -Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States -Deaths from myocardial infarction -English novelists -People from Brentwood, Essex -People from Cambridge -Writers from Essex -Writers from London" -16253,62497,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burette,Burette,"A burette is a vertical tube-like instrument, used to measure and separate known amounts of liquids in laboratories. Burettes are very precise and one can measure the volume of a fluid with the precision of ±0.05 mL with them. - -History -Francois Antoine Henri Descroizilles developed the first burette on 1791. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac invented a more complete burette later. - -References - -Laboratory equipment" -16283,62634,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichrist,Antichrist,"In Christian beliefs, the Antichrist or Anti-christ (anti means opposite; christ means messiah) is used to speak about a person or image that implies evil, and more than one person. It is also said that antichrist is the devil himself. - -The Biblical Book of Revelation refers to two ""Beasts"". One of them is often identified as the Antichrist, the counter-messiah of the devil. - -Related pages - 666 (number) - -References - -New Testament -Christian eschatology" -9711,33127,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalve,Bivalve,"The bivalves are a large class of molluscs, also known as pelecypods. - -They have a hard calcareous shell made of two parts or 'valves'. The soft parts are inside the shell. The shell is usually bilaterally symmetrical. - -There are over 30,000 species of bivalves, including the fossil species. There are about 9,200 living species in 1,260 genera and 106 families. All of them live in the water, most of them in the sea or in brackish water. Some live in fresh water. All are filter feeders: they lost their radula in the course of evolution. A few are carnivorous, eating much larger prey than the tiny microalgae eaten by other bivalves. - -The best known examples of bivalves are clams, mussels, scallops and oysters. - -Shell -Bivalves have two shells or valves connected by a hinge with hinge teeth. They are made of a calcareous mineral, calcite or aragonite. The valves are covered by a periostracum, which is an organic horny substance. This forms the familiar coloured layer on the shell. - -The shells are usually held shut by strong adductor muscles. Scallops can use their muscles to flap the valves and swim. - -Food -A bivalve takes in water that has plankton and other things floating in it. - -Some (but not all) molluscs have a part of their mantle known as the siphon (a tube). Siphons, if they exist, come in pairs, one to suck in, one to expel. - -Anything that is small enough to fit inside the hole of its incurrent siphon enters the bivalve. When the floating material comes in, it gets stuck in slimy mucus that is on the surface of the bivalve's gills. The food is moved down to the mouth, which is on the other side of the siphon. Food is digested in the bivalve's stomach and intestine, and everything that is not digested goes out through the other siphon, with water. - -The siphons are an adaptation of burrowing molluscs. Those that live above the substrate (sediment), such as scallops and oysters, do not need them. - -Feeding types -There are four feeding types, defined by their gill structure: -Protobranchs use their ctenidia solely for respiration, and the labial palps to feed -Septibranchs possess a septum across the mantle cavity which pumps in food. -Filibranchs and lamellibranchs trap food with a mucous coating on the ctenidia; the filibranchs and lamellibranchs are differentiated by the way the ctenidia are joined - -Movement - -Digging -As a group, the bivalves are adapted to penetrate into, and to move along horizontally along, soft ground such as mud and sand. Common examples of this are razor shells, which can dig themselves into the sand with great speed to escape enemies, and cockles. - -Swimming -Scallops and file clams can swim to escape a predator, clapping their valves together to create a jet of water. Cockles can use their foot to leap from danger. However these methods quickly exhaust the animal. In the razor shells the siphons can break off only to grow back later. - -Defensive secretions -The file shells can produce a noxious secretion when threatened, and the fan shells of the same family have a unique, acid-producing organ. - -Comparison with brachiopods -Bivalves are superficially similar to brachiopods, but the construction of the shell is completely different in the two groups. In brachiopods, the two valves are on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body, while in bivalves, they are on the left and right sides. - -Bivalves appeared late in the Cambrian explosion and came to increase in the Palaeozoic, and dominate over brachiopods during the Mesozoic. So, it was thought that bivalves are better adapted to aquatic life than the brachiopods, and this caused brachiopods to be out-competed and relegated to minor niches. - -However, after the Permian-Triassic extinction event bivalves had a huge adaptive radiation while brachiopods were devastated, losing 95% of their diversity. - -""The supposed replacement of brachiopods by clams is not gradual and sequential. It is a product of one event: the Permian extinction (which affected brachiopods profoundly and clams relatively little)"". - -The upshot was that bivalves took over the desirable inshore habitats. Brachiopods now live in deeper waters where food is scarcer. - -References" -7730,25254,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast%20Asia,Southeast Asia,"Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are ten countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except for East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on islands. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics. These are the countries in Southeast Asia: - Brunei - Cambodia - East Timor - Indonesia - Lao PDR (Laos) - Malaysia - Myanmar (formerly Burma) - Philippines - Singapore - Thailand - Vietnam - -The United Nations also includes the region of North-east India and Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia. - -Related pages - Central Asia - East Asia - South Asia - West Asia - -References" -11397,41362,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution,Solution,"In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substances that are dissolved are called solutes. The substance the solutes are dissolved in is called the solvent. An example from everyday experience is a solid like salt or sugar (which are crystalline solids), dissolved in a liquid (like water). Gases can dissolve in liquids. An example is carbon dioxide or oxygen in water. Liquids may dissolve in other liquids and gases in other gases. - -The amount of solute added to the solvent determines the concentration of the solution. The solution with the large amount of solute is called a concentrated solution; the solution with less solute is called a dilute solution. - -Examples of solid solutions are alloys and some minerals. For example, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. - -Related pages -Hypertonic -Hypotonic - -References - -Chemistry" -4463,13984,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist,Biologist,"A biologist is a scientist who studies biology. Biologists study living organisms. -There are many different kinds of biologists. Some of these include: - -Those who study fish and ocean plants. They are called marine biologists. -Those who study very small bacteria or Viruses. -Other scientists study groups of animals. -People who look at DNA in cells are called geneticists. -Some biologists study using cells in factories and companies, and that is called biotechnology. - - -Science occupations" -23616,91067,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellows,Bellows,"A bellows is something that blows air into a small opening in order to make something work. The bellows will have a kind of sack which has air in it. When the sack is squeezed the air is pushed out. Bellows can be quite small and operated by hand, for example for stoking a fire in an open fireplace. They can also be very large, such as bellows that produce air for a large pipe organ to be played. Such bellows used to be pumped by hand (sometimes by several people), but nowadays electricity is used. Bellows are used by blacksmiths or metalworkers for smelting and welding. They are also used in small musical instruments such as bagpipes, accordions and concertinas. The harmonium has bellows which the player operates by pumping with the his feet. - -Tools" -862,3617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackboard,Blackboard,"A blackboard, also called a chalkboard, is a surface on which chalk is visible. It is used as a surface to write on. It is usually made up of wood or fiber. It is painted black to reflect the white chalks. - -Blackboards are often used to help in teaching in school. Blackboards are not used as much now but can be seen in some schools still. The chalk dust got everywhere, and some people are allergic to chalk dust. Now people use whiteboards: they can take modern felt-tip colour markers, and clean easily. - -Schoolteachers often use the chalkboard to display things at large. It also makes the learning cooperative between teachers and student. Chalkboards can be black or dark green, in which case they may be called blackboards and greenboards. - -Notes - -Learning -Writing media" -8936,30306,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interplanetary%20internet,Interplanetary internet,"An interplanetary internet does not exist yet. When people talk about an interplanetary internet, they are talking about a problem they are still trying to solve - the problem of making the internet to work between different planets. - -Method -The way the internet works here on Earth is simple. Computers need to connect to each and can share a network. One computer sends another computer a message (called a packet) and then the other sends back a message saying it got it. Internet messages move at the speed of light, about 300 thousand kilometres in a second, which is very fast. But if you were sending that message to Mars, it would take about ten minutes for the message to get there, and another ten for it to get back. That means we need to completely change the way computers talk to each other if we are going to communicate between different planets. That is the problem people are trying to solve when they talk about the interplanetary internet. It's a new and a very interesting concept. - -References - -Other websites - The InterPlaNetary Internet Project IPN Special Interest Group - -Internet" -13710,50716,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi%20Strauss,Levi Strauss,"Levi Strauss (February 26, 1829–September 26, 1902) was a German-born American maker of clothing. - -Born as Löb Strauss into a Jewish family in Buttenheim in Franconia, Bavaria, now a part of Germany. In 1847, Strauss, his mother and two sisters moved to New York City to join his brothers Jonas and Louis Löb in their dry goods business. By 1850 he had adopted the name ""Levi Strauss"". - -In 1853, Strauss moved to bustling San Francisco, California, where the California Gold Rush was still in high gear. Levi expected that the mining camps would welcome his buttons, scissors, thread and bolts of fabric; additionally, he had yards of canvas sailcloth intended for tent-making and as covers for the Conestoga wagons that dotted the landscape next to every stream and river in the area. - -It was on California Street that Levi and his brother-in-law David Stern opened a dry goods wholesale business called Levi Strauss & Co. Levi was often found leading a pack-horse, heavily laden with merchandise, directly into the mining camps found throughout the region. The story goes that both prospectors and miners, often complaining about the easily torn cotton ""britches"" and pockets that ""split right out"" gave Levi the idea to make a rugged overall trouser for the miners to wear. These were fashioned from bolts of brown canvas sailcloth, with gold ore storage pockets that were nearly impossible to split. Levi exhausted his original supply of canvas as the demand grew for his hard-wearing overalls, and so he switched to a sturdy fabric called serge, made in Nimes, France. Originally called serge de Nimes, the name was soon shortened to denim. - -In 1872, Levi received a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor. Davis was one of Levi Strauss' regular customers, who purchased bolts of cloth from the company to use for his own business. In this letter, Davis told Levi about the interesting way in which he made pants for his customers: he placed metal rivets at the points of strain—pocket corners and on the base of the fly. As he did not have the money to patent his process he suggested that Levi pay for the paperwork and that they take out the patent together. - -On May 20, 1873, Strauss and Jacob Davis received United States patent #139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants. Levi Strauss & Co. began manufacturing the first of the famous Levi's brand of jeans in San Francisco, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire. - -Levi Strauss died on September 26, 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and dry goods business to his four nephews—Jacob, Louis, Abraham and Sigmund Stern—who helped rebuild the company after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. The following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company. - -Peter Haas and his family are the primary heirs to the Levi Strauss fortune. - -Other websites - Levi Strauss Company - Levi's - Levi's Europe - Levi's Online Store - - - -Businesspeople from San Francisco -1829 births -1902 deaths" -19599,75042,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%27Day,B'Day,"B'Day is the second studio album by American R&B singer Beyoncé, released by Columbia Records on 1 September 2006 outside North America, on September 4, 2006 worldwide, and on September 5, 2006 in Canada and the United States. The album's title comes from the fact that September 4, the date of worldwide release, is Beyoncé's birthday (2006 being her 25th). B'Day won the award for ""Best Contemporary R&B Album"" at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards. A two-CD deluxe edition of the album, including previously unreleased material in English and Spanish, was released on April 3 2007. 6 singles were released from the album: ""Déjà Vu"", ""Ring the Alarm"", ""Irreplaceable"", ""Beautiful Liar"", ""Get Me Bodied"", and ""Green Light"". ""Check on It"" was also a single, but was released from the Destiny's Child album #1's. - -Track listing - -Deluxe edition -North American deluxe edition - -On digital copies ""World Wide Woman"" is a non-hidden track placed at track 8, and other songs are pushed down the track order. - -International deluxe edition - -Notes - ""Suga Mama"" samples ""Searching for Soul"" by Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers. - ""Upgrade U"" samples ""Girls Can't Do What the Guys Do"" by Betty Wright. - ""Resentment"" samples ""Think (Instrumental)"" by Curtis Mayfield. - -Personnel - - Jason Agel – assistant recording - Omar Al-Musfi – Arabic percussion - Roberto Almodovar – recording engineering - Allen ""Al Geez"" Arthur – horns - Aplril Baldwin – artists and repertoire administration - Aureo Baqueiro – vocal direction for Alejandro Fernández - Reyli Barba – writing - Robert Becker – viola - Andres Bermudez – recording - Angela Beyincé – writing - Amund Bjorklund – writing - Tim Blacksmith – Stargate management - Aaron Brougher – artists and repertoire coordinator - Denyse Buffum – viola - Bun B – vocals (Rap-a-Lot) - David Campbell – string arrangement and conducting - Roberto Cani – violin - Tim Carmon – keyboards - Sean Carrington – guitar - Jim Caruana – recording engineering - Gustavo Celis – recording engineering - Olgui Chirino – vocal production - Fusako Chubachi – art direction, design - Willie Clarke – writing - Andrew Coleman – assistant recording - Larry Corbett – cello - Tom Coyne – mastering - Jasmin Cruz – background vocals - Scott Cutler – writing - Danny D. – Stargate management - Lawshawn Daniels – writing - Mario Deleon – violin - Ian Dench – writing - Robert ""LB"" Dorsey – recording - Andrew Duckles – viola - Bruce Dukov – violin (concertmaster) - Nathan East – bass - Paco ""El Sevillano"" – gypsy chant - Mikkel S. Eriksen – writing, instruments - Alejandro Fernández – vocals (Sony BMG Mexico) - Jaime Flores – writing - Paul Forat – artists and repertoire - Sean Garrett – writing, production - Amanda Ghost – writing - Jason Goldstein – mixing - Aaron ""Goody"" Goode – horns - Erwin Gorosita – art direction - Max Gousse – artists and repertoire - Alan Grunfeld – violin - Rich Harrison – writing, production, mixing - Tor Erik Hermansen – writing, instruments - Geraldo Hilera – violin - Jean-Marie Horvat – mixing - Dabling ""Hobby Boy"" Howard – recording - Ty Hunter – styling - ILoveDust – logo design - Jun Ishizeki – recording - Eric Jackson – guitars - Quincy S. Jackson – marketing - Jay-Z – writing, vocals (Roc-A-Fella/Def Jam) - Rodney Jerkins – writing, production, mixing, music, horn arrangement - James Johnson – bass - Jon Jon – assistant production, bass - Ronald Judge – horns - Suzie Katayama – cello - Gimel ""Young Guru"" Keaton – recording - Hannah Khoury – violin, viola - Kimberly Kimble – hair - Rob Kinelski – assistant recording, assistant recording engineering - Beyoncé – writing, vocals, production, vocal production, executive production - - Mathew Knowles – artists and repertoire, executive production, management - Solange Knowles – writing - Tina Knowles – styling - Henry Krieger – writing - Ricky Lawson – drums - Jolie Levine – music contracting - Espen Lind – writing, guitars - Dave Lopez – assistant recording, Pro Tools editing - Nathan Jenkins – recording - Julia Knapp – artists and repertoire operation - MK – writing - Riley Mackin – assistant recording - Makeba Riddick – writing - Manny Maroquin – mixing - Harvey Mason – percussion - Curtis Mayfield – writing - Vlado Meller – mastering - Chuck Middleton – writing - Colin Miller – assistant mixing, digital prep engineering, Pro Tools prep - Walter W. Millsap III – writing, production, music, Pro Tools editing - Mo Horns – horns - Naser Musa – oud - Candice C. Nelson – writing, co-production, music - The Neptunes – production - Ne-Yo – writing, co-production - Sara Parkins – violin - Dave ""Hard Drive"" Pensado – mixing - Rudy Perez – production, vocal production, arrangement, keyboards, programming, Spanish guitar, background vocals, vocal direction for Fernández - Clay Perry – keyboards, programming, Pro Tools editing - Denaun Porter – programming - Anne Preven – writing - Keli Nicole Price – writing - Boujemaa Razgui – ney - Clarence Reid – writing - Aaron Renner – recording - Geoff Rice – recording - Michele Richards – violin - Jared Robbins – assistant recording - Jamie Rosenberg – assistant recording - Kareem Roustom – violin arrangement, additional string arrangements - Shakira – vocals (Epic Records), additional production, arrangement, vocal production, violin arrangement, remixing - Haim Shtrum – violin - Dexter Simmons – mixing - Slim Thug – vocals (Star Trak/Geffen Records) - Daniel Smith – cello - Chris Spilfogel – recording - Stargate – production, arrangement, recording engineering, programming - David Stearns – assistant recording engineering - Swizz Beatz – writing, production, additional production, mixing - Syience – writing, production - Shea Taylor – writing, production - Delisha Thomas – writing - Stayve Thomas – writing - Michael Tocci – recording - Rene Luis Toledo – Spanish guitar - Steve Tolle – assistant mixing - Francesca Tolot – makeup - The Underdogs – production - Max Vadukul – photography - Jeff Villanueva – recording - Rommel Nino Villanueva – recording - Visitante – programming - Cameron Wallace – production - John Weston – recording engineering, digital editing (strings) - Pharrell Williams – writing - John Wittenburg – violin - Shane Woodley – recording, assistant recording - Kenneth Yerke – violin - -Charts - -Weekly charts - -Year-end charts - -Decade-end charts - -All-time charts - -Certifications - -Awards - -Notes - -Beyoncé albums -2006 albums -Hip hop albums -Funk albums -R&B albums" -2930,9235,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics,Astrophysics,"Astrophysics is the study of how stars, planets and other things in the Universe work, and how we can learn about them. Astrophysicists use physics to explain what astronomers find and see. - -Astrophysics is also the study of how the Universe started and how it is changing with time. This part of astrophysics is called cosmology. - -History - -For a long time bodies in the sky seemed to be unchanging spheres moving in a circle. But on Earth growth and decay happened, and natural motion was in a straight line. Therefore, people thought the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found on Earth. - -During the 16th and 17th century, natural philosophers such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton, began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same natural laws. - -When they were able to work out how the planets moved, the science of astrophysics was born. Sir Isaac Newton realized that the same rules of mechanics that he had found on the surface of the Earth also could be used to predict how the planets moved. He said, ""As above, so below."" By this, he meant that we can study how things work on this planet to find out how things work in space. - -Later scientists found that by looking at the light from stars, they were able to work out what they were made from. This process is called spectroscopy. - -Types of astrophysics - -There are two main types of astrophysics: - -Observational astrophysics is like astronomy. Like astronomers, observational astrophysicists use telescopes to study the Universe, but observational astrophysicists study the physics of what they see to explain the Universe. -Radio astronomy -Optical astronomy -Infrared astronomy -Ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma ray astronomy using space telescopes -Theoretical astrophysics uses information from astronomers, theories and mathematics to explain how the Universe works. Cosmology is a type of theoretical astrophysics. Problems investigated include: -Solar System formation and evolution -Star formation and evolution -Galaxy formation and evolution -large-scale structure of matter in the universe -Origin of cosmic rays -General relativity -Evolution of the universe -Hydrodynamics is used for mathematically modelling how gases behave. Strong magnetic fields found around many bodies can drastically change how these gases behave, affecting things from star formation to the flows of gases around compact stars. This makes MHD an important and useful tool. - -Other fields - -Related pages - Astronomy - Quasar - -References" -21742,82874,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigoltingen,Wigoltingen,"Wigoltingen is a municipality of the district of Weinfelden in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Thurgau" -18888,70954,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilisk,Basilisk,"Basilisks are a type of lizard. They are about 70-75 cm long, when fully grown, and weigh about 80 grams. They can be found in South America. Currently, there are four different species. They can be very still and hard to see. - -The basilisk lizard can walk on water. It runs across the surface of a pond or pool, without sinking. Its speed keeps it from sinking. At the same time, its long tail helps it to balance. - -References - -Lizards" -9555,32679,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht%20%28city%29,Utrecht (city),"Utrecht is a city in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the Province of Utrecht and lies in the midst of both the country and the province. About 358,000 were living there in 2020, which makes Utrecht the fourth-largest city in the Netherlands. - -Utrecht is an important public transport junction, especially concerning the railways. It contains the largest university of the Netherlands called Utrecht University. - -One of the main sights is the Domkerk, a cathedral that was built between 1321 and 1382. In of a storm in 1674, part of the cathedral was destroyed. This part was never rebuilt, so now the tower is separate from the rest of the church. - -Utrecht is the main seat of the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands, the archbishop resides here. - -References - -Other websites - - Municipality of Utrecht - Tourist information - FC Utrecht - Cathedral - - -Cities in the Netherlands -Settlements in Utrecht (province) -Provincial capitals of the Netherlands" -15629,59670,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic,Neolithic,"The Neolithic period is the last part of the Stone Age. After the Neolithic came the Bronze Age. During the Neolithic, people invented farming and started caring for animals, such as cows, sheep and pigs. - -The Neolithic period started at different times in different places, since not everyone started farming at the same time. - -The word ""Neolithic"" means “new Stone Age.” It comes from two words in Greek meaning ""new"" and ""lithic"" (""stone""). - -Related pages - Neolithic Revolution - Palaeolithic - Mesolithic - -Other websites - - Neolithic Stone Tools and Artifacts—World Museum of Man - Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons - Vincha Neolithic Script" -7722,25234,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%20dynasty,Chen dynasty,"The Chen dynasty 陳朝 (557-589) was the fourth and the last of the southern dynasties in China. It was an ethnic Han dynasty. - -Few records survive from the time of the Chen dynasty. However, the records that exist say that the dynasty was strong and rich. Legend says that the Chen dynasty had ten times more wealth than Europe at the time. The Chen dynasty's rulers had a tax system and ruling system similar to the Kang-Qian 'flourishing age'. (The Kang-Qian age was the last and richest Chinese feudal dynasty). - -The Chen dynasty took in an enormous amount of silver, which was used as money at the time. The records that still exist say that the dynasty had as much as 30 million taels of silver in their reserves. (A silver tael weighed about 30 grams.) During the Chen dynasty, there was also a huge demand for Chinese silk, spices, porcelain, artwork, and many other products. - -In the year 589, the Sui dynasty took over the Chen dynasty after the last Chen Emperor abdicated (gave up his position as Emperor). - -Kings - -Chinese dynasties -557 establishments -589 disestablishments -6th-century establishments in Asia -Establishments in China -Disestablishments in China" -22122,83993,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Uist,South Uist,"South Uist (Scottish Gaelic: Uibhist-a-Deas) is an island of the Outer Hebrides in Scotland. In the 2001 census it had a usually resident population of 1,818. There is a nature reserve and a number of sites of archaeological interest, including the only location in Great Britain where prehistoric mummies have been found. The population is about 90% Roman Catholic. The island, in common with the rest of the Hebrides, is one of the last remaining strongholds of the Gaelic language in Scotland. In 2006 South Uist, and neighbouring Benbecula and Eriskay were involved in Scotland's biggest community land buyout to date. In the north west there is a missile testing range. - -Other websites - Iochdar.co.uk, a website about outdoor recreation in South Uist - StorasUibhist.com, the official website of the community-owned South Uist Estate - southuist.com - Flags of the world - Hebrides - An Gàrradh Mòr, Historic walled garden at Cille Bhrìghde - Rocket launches at South Uist - Corporal missile inaccuracy revealed, The Guardian Sept 6 2003 - Askernish Golf Club - Daliburgh School - Google Maps:Rocket launch site - Uist Online - Am Paipear Community Newspaper - -References - -Inner and Outer Hebrides" -82,158,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize,Maize,"Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is Zea mays, a member of the grass family Poaceae. It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup. - -Maize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as ""corn"". - -Centuries of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods. - -Maize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte. - -The genus Zea -There are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica. - -References - - -Model organisms" -506,2064,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spamming,Spamming,"Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted ""junk mail"" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender. - -Names -The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called ""Spam"", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word ""Spam"" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages. - -Uses -Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it. - -One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once. Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program. - -How spammers find email addresses -The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers). - -Method one -One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this: - -If you do not wish to get more of these messages -from us click here to stop getting them. - -If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address. Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called replying), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened. - -Method two -Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message. The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email. When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam. - -Other meanings -The word ""spamming"" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations. Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom. Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called flooding rather than spamming. - -The word ""spam"" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy). - -Problems with spam -Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams. - -Spam prevention -Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers. - -E-mail -Internet communication" -1301,4685,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Andreas%20Fault,San Andreas Fault,"The San Andreas Fault is a right-moving ('dextral') strike-slip fault. It marks the boundary between the North American Plate on the east and the Pacific Plate on the west. The fault was the cause of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It first appeared about 20 million years ago. - -The San Andreas Fault is a zone several miles wide with multiple strands. The main active strand runs both on and off-shore between Cape Mendocino and the Sea of Cortez. From Cape Mendocino, it runs offshore to Tomales Bay. Then it goes southward through Bolinas Lagoon, just west of the San Francisco Peninsula, to come onshore again at Daly City, through the hills of the Peninsula. Crystal Springs reservoir is formed by the fault itself. - -In the Santa Cruz mountains, it bends slightly eastward. This is the site of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. The fault continues south through the historic mission at San Juan Bautista and through the town of Hollister (where active creep can be seen to offset sidewalks and even houses). The Transverse Ranges north of Santa Barbara are formed by compression. Strands of the fault snake under the Los Angeles Basin. From there it connects into the active spreading under the Sea of Cortez. - -The San Andreas fault was discovered by Andrew Lawson in 1895, who climbed into the faulted serpentinite well where the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge was being poured. In spite of the extreme deformation of the serpentinite, Lawson declared the bridge perfectly safe. The events of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would seem to support his conclusion: the ruptured strand was not the one he observed in the footprint of the bridge. - -References - -Geography of California -Faults -San Francisco Bay Area" -6313,20110,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drenthe,Drenthe,"Drenthe (pronounce: ""DREN-te"") is a province in the northeast of the Netherlands. The capital city is Assen. South of it is Overijssel, west of it is Friesland and north of it is Groningen. East of it is Lower Saxony, that is a part of Germany. About 495,000 people are living in Drenthe (2021). - -History -Thousands of years ago, there were already people in Drenthe. Around 3500 BC people made dolmens (hunebedden), piles of big stones. 53 of the 54 dolmens in the Netherlands are in Drenthe. Most of them are in the northeast of the province. - -The oldest paper with the name Drenthe on it is from 820. It was called Pago Treanth (district Drenthe). Papers from 1024 and 1025 show that is was a county at that time. - -From 1046 until 1528, the bishops of Utrecht ruled over Drenthe. From 1581 until 1795 it was part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, but Drenthe itself was not a province. In 1796, under the Batavian Republic, Drenthe was a province for the first time. - -In the Second World War, the nazis build a concentration camp near Westerbork. From there, they put Dutch Jews on the train to other camps in Germany and Poland. In the last train from Westerbork was also Anne Frank. She was a Jewish girl and she wrote a diary. She died in the concentration camp Bergen-Belsen in Germany. After the war her diary became world famous. - -Municipalities -Location of the municipalities of Drenthe. - -Geography - -The most important cities are Assen (the capital), Emmen, Meppel and Hoogeveen. In Drenthe there is many heathland. - -Dialects -In Drenthe many people speak Low Saxon dialects. The dialects in Drenthe are called Drents. These dialects are different in each town or village. - -Related pages -Bartje -Ot en Sien - -Other websites" -11884,43627,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endometrium,Endometrium,"The endometrium is the innermost membrane of the uterus. It sensitive to hormone changes. The endometrium is shed each month as menstrual flow. - -References - -Anatomy of the female reproductive system" -15003,56553,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinculum%20%28symbol%29,Vinculum (symbol),"A vinculum is a horizontal line put over a mathematical expression. It shows that it belongs together as a group. (Vinculum is Latin for ""chain"".) - -Examples are: - -1. groups of digits repeating forever, for example, - -2. fractions - -3. radicals (in the following example the quantity is the radicand, and thus has a vinculum over it): - -Other websites -MathWorld Vinculum Entry with further (more complicated) examples -Periodic Continued Fraction - -Mathematical notation" -14025,51928,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress,Congress,"In politics, a congress is a political meeting of leaders or representatives of groups of people. Until the 19th century it was usually a meeting of kings or their representatives, for example the Congress of Vienna. Today it often means the main legislature that makes the laws for a state. The word congress can also mean a meeting of associations, as in the Trades Union Congress (TUC), of the United Kingdom, a meeting of trade unions. - -Related pages -United States Congress - -Legislatures" -9695,33071,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doorstop,Doorstop,"A doorstop (or door stop or doorstopper) is a tool. - -There are two types. One holds a door open (or stops it from closing), and the other stops the door from hitting a wall. - -Doorstops that keep the door from hitting a wall can be put on the door, or on the wall, or on the floor in front of the wall. - -Doorstops that are used to keep a door open come in two varieties: -Attached to the door they are supposed to stop -Wedges that can be put under the door they should stop, or anything heavy put in front of the door - -Tools" -12455,45904,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maccabi%20Haifa%20F.C.,Maccabi Haifa F.C.,"Maccabi Haifa Football Club (, Moadon HaKaduregel Maccabi Haifa) is an Israeli football team from the city of Haifa, a section of Maccabi Haifa sports club. The club has won 11 championships, five State Cups and four Toto Cups. The club was founded in 1913, and it is one of the country's most successful teams in Europe, being the first Israeli club to qualify for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League. - -History - -First seventy years of obscurity -Maccabi Haifa Football Club was established in 1913 in the port city of Haifa. It was a small, struggling club that spent most of its time between the Liga Leumit and the lower leagues. - -The club was overshadowed by their city rivals Hapoel Haifa, who were then the darling club of the city of Haifa and especially of then mayor Abba Hushi. But even in its first years the club adapted a very adventurous and offensive style of play based on technique and short passes. In 1942, the club reached the Israel State Cup final, but was humiliated 12-1 by Beitar Tel Aviv in the final, which is the club's worst defeat ever. In 1962, the club won its only honour until the 80s, when the team defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 5-2 in the State Cup final. In 1963 they reached the final again, but failed to defend their title losing to arch-rivals Hapoel Haifa 1-0. - -Maccabi Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel. Founded in 1913, it is Israel's most successful club both domestically and in European competitions. - -Club Titles -Leagues Won - Israeli Premier League - 12 Times Won -Cups Won - Israeli Cup - 6 Times Won - Toto Cup - 4 Times Won - -Famous Players ever in Maccabi Haifa F.C. -Avi Ran, -Adoram Keisi, -Eyal Berkovic, -Yaniv Katan, -Yossi Benayoun, -Reuven Atar and -Alon Mizrahi - -Best Club Records -Most Goals in season - 1993/1994 - -Most Games played without losing strike - 46 Games (From Seasons 1993-1995) - -Most Away Undefeated Strike - 30 - -Most Points in a Year - 96 Points - -Fan Organization -Maccabi Haifa has three fan organizations. One of them and the biggest one, is the Green Apes, founded in 2002. Second, is Inferno Verde, which means The Green Hell, founded in 2010. Third, is Ultra Boys. - -The Green Apes (aka: The Ultras) consist of 2,400 people, while Inferno Verde includes 100. - -Squad -As of September 1 2009. - -References - -Israeli football clubs -Haifa -1913 establishments in Asia -1910s establishments in Israel" -4101,12574,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Omidyar,Pierre Omidyar,"Pierre Omidyar (born June 21, 1967) created and is now the chairman of eBay. He was born in Paris, France to a French-Iranian family. Born in Paris, France, brought up by Iranian parents, Omidyar moved to the United States at the age of six. He grew up in Washington D.C. and developed an interest in computing while still at St. Andrew’s Episcopal School in Bethesda, Maryland. He graduated high school in 1984. In 1988 he graduated in computer science from Tufts University. He helped write MacDraw in 1989 for Claris, a part of Apple Computer. Two years later he co-founded Ink Development (later renamed eShop). He was 28 when he wrote the original computer code for what eventually became e-Bay. The site was launched on Labor Day, Monday, September 4 1995, under the more basic name “Auction Web.” - -References - -1967 births -Living people -Businesspeople from Paris" -9158,31401,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia%20%28movie%29,Philadelphia (movie),"Philadelphia is a 1993 American drama movie starring Tom Hanks and Denzel Washington. It is about Andrew Beckett (Hanks), a gay lawyer who has AIDS. The people he works with find out and fire him. He thinks this is unfair and hires another lawyer (Washington) who does not like gay people. - -Other websites - - -1993 drama movies -1990s LGBT movies -Academy Award winning movies -American drama movies -American LGBT movies -English-language movies -HIV/AIDS in movies -Legal movies -LGBT drama movies -Movies directed by Jonathan Demme -Movies set in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania -Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award" -7073,22387,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshadweep,Lakshadweep,"Lakshadweep (; ISO: , formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands (), are a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They belong to India. Their capital is Kavaratti. It covers an area of . Eleven of the 36 coral atoll islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited. - -The islands are the only coral atolls in India. The people living there are Malayalam and Mahl people, who have been influenced by Arab traders. Lakshadweep is a Muslim region just like the neighbouring Maldives, where tourism is strictly regulated. Lakshadweep has the largest percentage of Muslims - 98%, even larger percentage than Jammu and Kashmir and is the only Muslim-majority Indian administrative division entirely within India. - -Apart from the emerging tourism, government jobs, fishing and coconut production are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy. - -Territorial symbols of Lakshadweep - -Other websites - -Commonwealth dependent states -Islands of India -Territories of India" -23986,92631,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Solothurn,Canton of Solothurn,"Solothurn is a canton of Switzerland. It can be found in the northwest of Switzerland. The capital is Solothurn. - -Districts -There are 10 districts in Solothurn: - Bucheggberg, Amtei Wasseramt-Bucheggberg - Dorneck, Amtei Dorneck-Thierstein (unofficially Schwarzbubenland) - Gäu, Amtei Thal-Gäu - Gösgen, Amtei Olten-Gösgen (unofficially Niederamt) - Lebern, Amtei Solothurn-Lebern - Olten, Amtei Olten-Gösgen - Solothurn, Amtei Solothurn-Lebern - Thal, Amtei Thal-Gäu - Thierstein, Amtei Dorneck-Thierstein - Wasseramt, Amtei Wasseramt-Bucheggberg - -Municipalities -The canton has 125 municipalities: - -References - -Other websites -Official site -Official statistics" -21033,80735,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franciscan%20Assemblage,Franciscan Assemblage,"The Franciscan Assemblage is a term in geology that describes a group of rocks near the peninsula of San Francisco, California. - -Geology -San Francisco" -336,648,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace,Peace,"Peace is a time without any fights or wars. In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples. - -Many people and organizations want peace. One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I. When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful. This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first. This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked. - -Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, ""True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice."" In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace. - -Alfred Nobel created an annual award, the Nobel Peace Prize, for the person who had done the most to bring peace to the world. - -Religious beliefs and peace - -Buddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths - -Jews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God. Jesus Christ (also called the ""Prince of Peace"" in the Book of Isaiah) said: ""Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid."" () - -Inner peace - -Inner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress. Being ""at peace"" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious. Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness. - -Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example. Many spiritual practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself. - -Movements and activism - -Peace movement - -A movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law. - -Theories on peace -Many different theories of ""peace"" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation. The definition of ""peace"" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study. - -Peace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension. - -Related pages -Ceasefire -Pacifism -Peace makers -Peace treaty -World peace - -Peace -Basic English 850 words -Society" -20434,78502,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabana%20Cruz%2C%20El%C3%ADas%20Pi%C3%B1a,"Sabana Cruz, Elías Piña","Sabana Cruz (in English, ""Savanna [of the] Cross"") is a Dominican municipal district of Bánica in the Elías Piña Province. It has a total area of 66.0 km². - -Sabana Cruz is on the southwest of the municipality of Bánica, on the border with Haiti. - -Population -In the last national census (2002), the population of Sabana Cruz was of 2,081 persons. The population density was 31.5 persons/km². - -Economy -The main economic activity of the municipality is agriculture. - -References - -Settlements in the Dominican Republic" -14376,54008,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geir%20Ivars%C3%B8y,Geir Ivarsøy,"Geir Ivarsøy (June 27, 1957 – March 9, 2006) was the main programmer at Opera Software. He and Jon Stephenson von Tetzchner were part of a research group at the Norwegian state telephone company (now known as Telenor). They made browsing software called MultiTorg Opera. Telenor stopped them from working on the program, but in 1995 Ivarsøy and Stephenson von Tetzchner got the rights to the software. They created a company of their own, and continued working on it. - -Now known as Opera, the Internet browser has become very popular. Opera Software has grown to more than 380 employees since it first moved to its present offices in Oslo. - -In January of 2004, Geir Ivarsøy said he wanted to resign as a board member in Opera Software, though he kept working in the company after that. In June of 2005 he was elected as a member of the nomination committee of the company. - -Geir died in March 2006 after a long battle with cancer. - -Other websites -Death in the Family — an obituary - -Computer scientists -1957 births -2006 deaths -Opera ASA -Norwegian people" -5971,19284,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeira%20Islands,Madeira Islands,"Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union. - -The archipelago comprises the major part of one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal (the other being the Azores located to the northwest), that includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, administered together with the separate archipelago of the Savage Islands. - -The name Madeira could be used for the autonomous region, the geographical group of islands or just the island of Madeira. These islands are part of the Macaronesia. - -History - -Discovery -Madeira's official written history began in 1418, when two captains under service to Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were pushed by a storm to an island which they named Porto Santo (English: holy harbour). The following year, an organised expedition was sent to this new land to take possession of the island on behalf of the Portuguese crown. Later, the new settlers saw an island to the southwest, and so the larger island of Madeira was discovered. - -Settlement -The islands were found to be completely uninhabited, and their colonization by the Portuguese began around 1420 or 1425. To get the minimum conditions for the development of agriculture, they had to cut part of the dense forest and to construct a large number of canals (levadas) to carry water, since in some parts of the island there was excess water, while in others water was scarce. During this period, fish constituted about half of the settlers' diet, together with vegetables and fruits cultivated from small pieces of land. Initially, these colonists produced wheat for their own subsistence, but later the quantity cultivated was sufficient to begin sending wheat to continental Portugal. - -On the 23 September of 1433, the name Ilha da Madeira (English: Madeira Island, or literally island of wood) began to appear in the first documents and maps. The name given to the islands corresponded to the large dense forests of native trees that covered the island. - -However, when wheat production began to fall, the crisis forced to plant other commercial crops. They brought from Sicily plants of sugarcane to produce sugar. After the 17th century, as sugar production went to Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe and elsewhere, Madeira's most important product became its wine. - -Geography -As other islands of the Macaronesia, the Madeira islands are of volcanic origin and with a subtropical climate. - -Location -The archipelago is in the African plate, in the Atlantic Ocean between the latitudes 30° and 33° north, southwest of Lisbon and, about west of the African coast, almost at the same latitude as Casablanca. - -Islands and islets -The Madeira islands have a total area of . Their individual areas vary between of the largest island (Madeira) to of the Savage Islands. - -Of the eight islands, only the two largest (Madeira and Porto Santo) are inhabited, having as main accesses, the Madeira Airport in Funchal and the one in Porto Santo. By sea, Funchal has a port that receives different ships, especially cruise ships. The remaining islands are nature reserves. - -Territory -The territory of the archipelago contains two main islands: the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo; besides these, there are two groups of uninhabited islands, the Desertas and Savages. - -The island of Madeira has a very irregular and uneven terrain, being the highest points the peaks Pico Ruivo (1862 m), Pico das Torres (1851 m), Pico do Ariero (1818 m) and Pico do Juncal (1800 m). The northern coast is dominated by high cliffs. - -The island of Porto Santo, on the other hand, has a completely different geomorphological formation of the island of Madeira. It is very flat where only small plants grow and the soils are poor and not very good for agriculture. This island has some peaks, particularly in the north, and the Pico do Facho (517 m) is the highest point of elevation in the island, followed by Pico Branco (450 m). - -The highest point of Desertas Islands is Pedregal (442 m) in Deserta Grande, and of Selvagens Islands is Pico da Atalaia (153 m), in Selvagem Grande. - -Climate - -The average temperature for the year in Funchal, Madeira island, is 19°C (66.2°F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 22.6°C (72.7°F). The coolest month on average is February, with an average temperature of 16.1°C (61.0°F). - -The average amount of precipitation for the year in Funchal is 596.9 mm (23.5""). The month with the most precipitation on average is December with 109.2 mm (4.3"") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1""). There are an average of 87 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in December with 13 days and the least precipitation occurring in July with 1 days. - -For the Villa de Porto Santo, Porto Santo island, the average temperature for the year is 17.8°C (64.0°F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 21.7°C (71.0°F). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 15°C (59.0°F). - -The average amount of precipitation for the year in Villa de Porto Santo is 375.9 mm (14.8""). The month with the most precipitation on average is January with 61 mm (2.4"") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1""). - -The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate of Funchal (Madeira) and Villa de Porto Santo (Porto Santo) is Csb (Mediterran Climate). - -The climate of Desertas islands and partes of Porto Santo is semi-arid (Bs) and in the Savage islands is a desert climate (Bw). - -Administration -In 1976 Madeira became one of the two autonomous regions of the Republic of Portugal (Azores is the other) under the Portuguese name Região Autónoma da Madeira, with its own executive and a regional legislature. The current president of the regional government is Alberto João Jardim. The main offices of the regional government are in Funchal, making this city the capital of the region. - -Administrative divisions - -Administratively, the Autonomous Region of Madeira (with a population of 267,785 inhabitants in 2011 and covering an area of ) is organised into 11 municípios, of which 10 are in the island of Madeira and one in Porto Santo. Municipalities are further divided into 54 freguesias, 53 in Madeira and 1 in Porto Santo. - -Population -According to the 2011 Census, the total population in the Autonomous Region of Madeira was 267,785: 126,268 men and 141,517 women. The density for the whole region is persons/km2; calculating the density taking in account only the inhabited islands (Madeira and Porto Santo), the density would be inhabitants/km2. - -Nature - -The region of Madeira is home to a great and important biodiversity, with an estimated 7,571 terrestrial species for the whole archipelago. The total number of endemic species and subspecies is about 1,419 (1,286 species and 182 sub-species), which represents 19% of the overall species diversity. - -The most known environment of the archipelago is its Laurel forest (laurisilva) which still extends over 15,000 hectares or 20% of the archipelago. These forests, very rich in biodiversity, are the largest and best-preserved Laurel forests in the entire Macaronesia region. They are home to unique plant and animal species, including the famous Trocaz Pigeon or Madeira Laurel Pigeon (Columba trocaz), and the Madeira Kinglet (Regulus madeirensis). The most threatened bird of Europe, the Madeiran or Zino’s Petrel (Pterodroma madeira) inhabits the highest cliffs in the Central Mountainous Massif of the Madeira island. - -In the sea around Madeira there are numerous species of marine mammals, including 28 species of cetaceans and the critically endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus). - -There are 6 protected areas in the Madeira Archipelago, including the Madeira Natural Park. This park, which covers over 2/3 of Madeira Island and includes the entire Laurel forest, is a European Council Biogenetic Reserve since 1992, and a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site since 1999. Additionally, 11 sites in the whole archipelago are part of the Natura 2000 network and 11 other sites are designated Important Bird Areas. - -Economy -The local economy is based mainly on agriculture and tourism, the main resource. Agriculture produces bananas, flowers, and Madeira wine which is exported. The industrial area is not very diverse and they are relationated with food, beverages, tobacco and construction. - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - - Freguesias de Portugal - madeira islands - Madeira Tourism Office - -Archipelagos" -21310,81653,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher%20%28protocol%29,Gopher (protocol),"Gopher is a protocol. It was designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet. Gopher represented an early alternative to the World Wide Web. - -The gopher protocol has some things HTTP-based clients do not have. It is based on menus. An item selected from a menu will either open another menu, or a document. - -Because of concern over possible licensing fees, and the relative flexibility of the World Wide Web, the protocol did not get much use. There are less than 200 gopher servers still actively maintained. Many of the remaining gopher servers are run by individuals. Most of them are rarely updated except for the ones run by enthusiasts of the protocol. A handful of new servers are set up every year by hobbyists - over 50 have been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999. Today Gopher exists as an almost forgotten corner of the Internet. - one can publish email addresses in plaintext without having to worry about spam, and publish large amounts of data without the risk of the server's bandwidth becoming saturated by overuse. - -In the early stages of mobile Internet access, some suggested that the simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and Personal digital assistants (PDAs). Web-based solutions also won in the mobile space, with technologies like Wireless Markup Language (WML)/Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), DoCoMo i-mode, XHTML Basic or other adaptations of HTML and XML. - -Several server software packages are still maintained and updated for the Gopher protocol. For example, the PyGopherd Gopher server provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it. The Motsognir Gopher server provides PHP5 and Plugin support. - -Many current web-browsers have stopped supporting the gopher protocol directly, such as Mozilla Firefox. But 3rd-party addons and plugins are still available to replace browser-based Gopher functionality. - -References - -Other websites -Gopher Jewels 2 (gopher link) -The Gopher Project -The state of Gopher support for common Web browsers -List of new Gopher servers since 1999 (gopher link) -List of Gopher servers -Gopher Clients -An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet Oct 8 1991 -Old Gopher guide -See what gopher looked like. -This is another website that looks almost like Gopher used to look. You can see what fun it is to move around on a simple website like this. - -Internet -Computer protocols" -15482,58943,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Universal%20Pictures%20movies,List of Universal Pictures movies,"This is a partial listing of movies produced and/or distributed by Universal Pictures, the main production/distribution arm of Universal Studios, a subsidiary of NBCUniversal and Comcast. - -List of movies - -1920s - White Youth (1920) - The Flaming Disc (1920) - Am I Dreaming? (1920) - The Dragon's Net (1920) - The Adorable Savage (1920) - Putting It Over (1920) - The Fire Eater (1921) - A Battle of Wits (1921) - Dream Girl (1921) - The Millionaire (1921) - A Daughter of the Law (1921) - The Conflict (1921) - The Rage of Paris (1921) - No Woman Knows (1921) - Action (1921) - The Danger Man (1921) - The Kiss (1921) - The Heart of Arizona (1921) - The Beautiful Gambler (1921) - Desperate Trails (1921) - The Man Tamer (1921) - Cheated Love (1921) - The Blazing Trail (1921) - The Freeze-Out (1921) - The Diamond Queen (1921) - Foolish Wives (1922) - The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) - The Phantom of the Opera (1925) - The Man Who Laughs (1928) - Melody of Love (1928, Universal's first all-talkie) - Show Boat (1929) - Broadway (1929, first Universal talkie with color sequences) - -1930s - All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) - King of Jazz (1930, first Universal all-color talkie) - Dracula (1931) - Frankenstein (1931) - Back Street (1932) - The Mummy (1932) - Counsellor at Law (1933) - The Invisible Man (1933) - The Black Cat (1934) - Imitation of Life (1934) - Bride of Frankenstein (1935) - Magnificent Obsession (1935) - Show Boat (1936) - My Man Godfrey (1936) - Three Smart Girls (1936) - Dracula's Daughter (1936) - One Hundred Men and a Girl (1937) - Destry Rides Again (1939) - East Side of Heaven (1939) - My Little Chickadee (1939) - Son of Frankenstein (1939) - -1940s - Enemy Agent (1940) - The Bank Dick (1940) - Black Friday (1940) - Buck Privates (1941) - The Wolf Man (1941) - House of Frankenstein (1945) - House of Dracula (1945) - The Egg & I (1946) - The Killers (1946) - Great Expectations (1947, U.S. distribution only) - The Naked City (1948) - Hamlet (1948, U.S. distribution only) - Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948) - -1950s - Francis the Talking Mule (1950) - Harvey (1950) - Winchester '73 (1950) - The World in His Arms (1952) - Abbott and Costello Go to Mars (1953) - Magnificent Obsession (1954) - The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) - Revenge of the Creature (1955) - The Creature Walks Among Us (1956) - Written on the Wind (1956) - Touch of Evil (1958) - Pillow Talk (1959) - Imitation of Life (1959, remake of 1934 movie) - The Snow Queen (1959, English dub, distributor) - -1960s - Spartacus (1960) - Flower Drum Song (1961) - Lover Come Back (1961, distribution) - Cape Fear (1962) - That Touch of Mink (1962, distribution) - To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) - Captain Newman, M.D. (1963) - The Birds (1963) - Send Me No Flowers (1963) - Island of the Blue Dolphins (1964) - Marnie (1964) - Charade (1964) - Mirage (1965) - Pinocchio in Outer Space (1965, distributor) - The Ipcress File (1965) - Arabesque (1966) - Gambit (1966) - The Rare Breed (1966) - Torn Curtain (1966) - Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967) - The War Wagon (1967) - The Party (1968) - Sweet Charity (1969) - Anne of the Thousand Days (1969) - -1970s - Airport and its sequels (1974, 1977, and 1979, respectively) - Shoot Out (1971) - The Andromeda Strain (1971) - Silent Running (1972) - Slaughterhouse-Five (1972) - American Graffiti (1973, plus sequel in 1979) - The Sting (1973, plus sequel in 1983) - Jesus Christ Superstar (1973) - Earthquake (1974) - The Black Windmill (1974) - Jaws (1975, plus sequels in 1978, 1983, and 1987) - The Hindenburg (1975) - Swashbuckler (1976) - Midway (1976) - Slap Shot (1977) - The Slipper and the Rose (1977) - MacArthur (1977) - Smokey and the Bandit (1977, plus sequels in 1980 and 1983) - Sorcerer (1977, co-production with Paramount Pictures) - Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978, co-production with Paramount Pictures) - The Deer Hunter (1978) - Jaws 2 (1978) - National Lampoon's Animal House (1978) - Dracula (1979) - Yanks (1979, co-production with United Artists) - 1941 (1979) - -1980s - The Blues Brothers (1980) - The Island (1980) - Xanadu (1980) - On Golden Pond (1981, distribution only, produced by ITC Entertainment) - Halloween II (1981) - The Great Muppet Caper (1981, distribution only, produced by ITC Entertainment) - Conan the Barbarian (1982) - Halloween III: Season of the Witch (1982) - E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Fast Times at Ridgemont High (1982) - The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas (1982) - Sophie's Choice (1982, distribution only) - Cat People (1982) - The Thing (1982) - The Dark Crystal (1982, distribution only, produced by ITC Entertainment) - Jaws 3-D (1983) - Rumble Fish (1983) - Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983) - Scarface (1983) - Sixteen Candles (1984) - Firestarter (1984) - Gotcha! (1985) - Back to the Future (1985, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - The Breakfast Club (1985) - Weird Science (1985) - Fletch (1985, plus the 1989 sequel) - Brazil (1985, co-production with 20th Century Fox) - Howard the Duck (1985) - An American Tail (1986, plus its three sequels) - Jaws: The Revenge (1987) - Harry and the Hendersons (1987, and later the 1990s TV series) - Prince of Darkness (1987) - Dragnet (1987) - *batteries not included (1987) - The Land Before Time (1988, plus sequels, co-production with Amblin Entertainment and Lucasmovie Ltd.) - They Live (1988) - The Great Outdoors (1988) - Phantasm II (1988) - Watchers (1988) - Field of Dreams (1989) - The 'Burbs (1989) - Back to the Future Part II (1989, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Do the Right Thing (1989) - Born on the Fourth of July (1989) - Uncle Buck (1989) - -1990s - Jetsons: The Movie (1990, co-production with Hanna Barbera) - Tremors (1990) - Problem Child (1990) - Henry & June (1990) - Back to the Future Part III (1990, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Darkman (1990) (plus its two sequels) - Cry-Baby (1990, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Child's Play 2 (1990) - Kindergarten Cop (1990) - Problem Child 2 (1991) - Child's Play 3 (1991) - Backdraft (1991) - Jungle Fever (1991) - Cape Fear (1991) - Fried Green Tomatoes (1991) - Beethoven (1992, co-production with Northern Lights Entertainment) - Scent of a Woman (1992) - Judgment Night (1993, co-production with Largo Entertainment) - Beethoven's 2nd (1993, co-production with Northern Lights Entertainment) - Carlitos Way (1993, co-production with Bregman/Baer Productions, Inc.) - Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993) - Jurassic Park (1993, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - The Real McCoy (1993, co-production with Bregman/Baer Productions, Inc.) - Schindler's List (1993, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story (1993, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Phantasm III: Lord of the Dead (1994) - The Flintstones (1994, co-production with Amblin Entertainment and Hanna-Barbera) - The Shadow (1994, co-production with Bregman/Baer Productions, Inc.) - The Little Rascals (1994, co-production with Amblin Entertainment and King World) - The Cowboy Way (1994) - The River Wild (1994) - The War (1994) - Reality Bites (1994) - Street Fighter (1994, distributor) (plus 20th Century Fox live-action sequel in 2009) - Junior (1994) - Apollo 13 (1995) - Babe (1995) - Billy Madison (1995) - Waterworld (1995) - Casino (1995) - The Hunted (1995, co-production with Bregman/Baer Productions, Inc.) - Casper (1995, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Balto (1995) - Twelve Monkeys (1995) - Ed (1996) - Flipper (1996) - Happy Gilmore (1996) - Mystery Science Theater 3000: The Movie (1996) - The Chamber (1996) - Twister (1996, co-production with Warner Bros. and Amblin Entertainment) - The Nutty Professor (1996, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Daylight (1996) - Dante's Peak (1997) - The Jackal (1997) - Leave It to Beaver (1997) - Liar Liar (1997) - The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Small Soldiers (1998, co-production with DreamWorks) - Patch Adams (1998) - Meet Joe Black (1998) - Baseketball (1998) - Babe: Pig in the City (1998, sequel to Babe, distributor) - Blues Brothers 2000 (1998) - Bride of Chucky (1998) - Mercury Rising (1998) - Psycho (1998, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - October Sky (1999) - The Mummy (1999) - American Pie (1999) - The Hurricane (1999) - Snow Falling on Cedars (1999) - End of Days (1999) - Angela's Ashes (1999, co-production with Paramount Pictures) - -2000s - How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Isn't She Great (2000, distributor) - Erin Brockovich (2000, international distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures) - The Skulls (2000, co-production with Newmarket Films) - U-571 (2000, distributor) - Gladiator (2000, international distribution co-production with DreamWorks, and Scott Free Productions) - Screwed (2000, distributor) - Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Bring It On (2000, co-production with Beacon Pictures) - The Watcher (2000) - The Family Man (2000) - Meet the Parents (2000, co-production with DreamWorks) - O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000, international distribution, co-production with Working Title Films, StudioCanal and Touchstone Pictures) - Head Over Heels (2001) - Hannibal (2001, international distribution, co-production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, Dino De Laurentiis, Working Title Films and StudioCanal) - The Fast and the Furious (2001, co-production with Original Film) - The Mummy Returns (2001, co-production with Alphaville) - Jurassic Park III (2001, co-production with Amblin Entertainment) - Captain Corelli's Mandolin (2001, USA distribution, co-production with Miramax Films) - The Musketeer (2001, USA distribution only, co-production with Miramax Films) - Mulholland Dr. (2001, distribution only in USA) - K-PAX (2001, USA distribution, co-production with Intermedia Films and Lawrence Gordon Productions) - Spy Game (2001, distributor) - A Beautiful Mind (2001, USA distribution, co-production with DreamWorks, and Imagine Entertainment) - How High (2001, distributor) - Brotherhood of the Wolf (2002, distribution only in USA and Australia) - Big Fat Liar (2002, co-production with Tollin/Robbins Productions) - Dragonfly (2002, USA distribution, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment) - 40 Days and 40 Nights (2002) (USA distribution, co-production with Miramax Films and Working Title Films) - Harrison's Flowers (2002, distributor) - The Scorpion King (2002, co-production with Alphaville) - About a Boy (2002, co-production with Working Title Films) - Undercover Brother (2002, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - The Bourne Identity (2002, co-production with The Kennedy/Marshall Company) - Blue Crush (2002, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Red Dragon (2002, co-production with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures and Dino de Laurentiis) - The Truth About Charlie (2002, distributor) - 8 Mile (2002, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - The Emperor's Club (2002) - Empire (2002, distribution only in most countries, including USA) - The Guru (2003, distributor) - The Life of David Gale (2003, co-production with Intermedia Films) - Two Brothers (2003, co-production with Pathé) - Bruce Almighty (2003, USA distribution, co-production with Amblin Entertainment and Spyglass Entertainment) - 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003, co-production with Original Film) - Hulk (2003, co-production with Marvel Studios, Valhalla Motion Pictures and Good Machine Studios) - Johnny English (2003, co-production with Working Title Films and StudioCanal) - Seabiscuit (2003, USA distribution, co-production with DreamWorks and Spyglass Entertainment) - American Wedding (2003) - The Rundown (2003, USA distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures) - Intolerable Cruelty (2003, co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Alphaville) - Love Actually (2003, co-production with Studio Canal and Working Title Films) - Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003, USA distribution, co-production with 20th Century Fox) - The Cat in The Hat (2003, co-production with DreamWorks and Imagine Entertainment) - Honey (2003, co-production with Working Title Films) - Peter Pan (2003, USA distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures, Spyglass Entertainment and Imagine Entertainment) - Along Came Polly (2004, co-production with Jersey Films) - Dawn of the Dead (2004, co-production with Strike Entertainment) - Connie and Carla (2004, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment) - Van Helsing (2004, co-production with Alphaville) - The Chronicles of Riddick (2004, co-production with Radar Pictures & One Race Films) - The Bourne Supremacy (2004, co-production with The Kennedy/Marshall Company) - Thunderbirds (2004, USA distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures, StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - Wimbledon (2004) - Shaun of the Dead (2004, co-production with Rogue Pictures, StudioCanal, Film4 Productions, Working Title Films and Big Talk Productions; Rogue Pictures handled U.S. distribution while Universal distributed it in countries outside the USA) - Friday Night Lights (2004, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Ray (2004, distribution co-production with Bristol Bay Productions) - Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (2004, USA distribution, co-production with Miramax Films) - Meet the Fockers (2004, USA distribution, co-production with DreamWorks) - In Good Company (2004) - White Noise (2005, co-production with Gold Circle Films) - The Wedding Date (2005, co-production with Gold Circle Films) - Inside Deep Throat (2005, distribution only in USA) - The Interpreter (2005, co-production with Working Title Films) - Kicking & Screaming (2005) - Cinderella Man (2005, USA distribution, co-production with Miramax Films and Imagine Entertainment) - The Perfect Man (2005) - Land of the Dead (2005, co-production with Wild Bunch) - The Skeleton Key (2005) - The 40-Year-Old Virgin (2005, co-production with Apatow Productions) - Serenity (2005) - Two for the Money (2005, distribution only; with Morgan Creek Productions) - Doom (2005, co-production with DiBonaventura Productions) - Prime (2005) - Jarhead (2005) - Pride & Prejudice (2005, distributed in countries outside USA; co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - First Descent (2005, distribution only in USA) - King Kong (2005, co-production with WingNut Films) - Munich (2005, USA distribution, co-production with DreamWorks, Amblin Entertainment and Alliance Atlantis Communications) - The Producers (2005, USA distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures) - Nanny McPhee (2006, USA distribution, co-production with Metro Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - Curious George (2006, co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Universal Animation Studios) - Inside Man (2006, co-production with Imagine Entertainment) - Slither (2006, co-production with Gold Circle Films) - American Dreamz (2006) - United 93 (2006, co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - The Break-Up (2006) - The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006, co-production with Original Film and Relativity Media; first film teamed up with Relativity Media) - You, Me and Dupree (2006) - Miami Vice (2006) - Accepted (2006, co-production with Shady Acres Entertainment) - Idlewild (2006) - The Black Dahlia (2006) - Man of the Year (2006) (co-production with Morgan Creek Productions) - Let's Go to Prison (2006, distribution only; produced by Carsey Werner Films); (co-production with Strike Entertainment) - The Holiday (2006, international distribution, co-production with Columbia Pictures, Relativity Media and Waverly Films) - The Good Shepherd (2006, co-production with Morgan Creek Productions and American Zoetrope) - Children of Men (2006, co-production with Strike Entertainment) - Alpha Dog (2007, USA distribution only) - Smokin' Aces (2007, co-production with StudioCanal, Relativity Media and Working Title Films) - Because I Said So (2007) - Breach (2007) - Dead Silence (2007) (co-production with Twisted Pictures) - Hot Fuzz (2007, distribution in most countries outside of the USA) - Georgia Rule (2007, co-production with Morgan Creek Productions) - Knocked Up (2007, co-production with Apatow Productions) - Evan Almighty (2007, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment, Shady Acres Entertainment, Relativity Media and Original Film) - I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry (2007, co-production with Happy Madison Productions, Relativity Media and Shady Acres Entertainment) - The Bourne Ultimatum (2007, co-production with The Kennedy/Marshall Company) - Illegal Tender (2007) - Mr. Bean's Holiday (2007, co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - Sydney White (2007, co-production with Morgan Creek Productions) - The Kingdom (2007) - Elizabeth: The Golden Age (2007) - American Gangster (2007, co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Relativity Media) - Charlie Wilson's War (2007, co-production with Relativity Media and Morgan Creek Productions) - Happy Tree Friends (2006, co-production with Peacock (streaming device) and Universal Content Productions) - Untraceable (2008, international distribution, co-production with Screen Gems and Lakeshore Entertainment) - Welcome Home, Roscoe Jenkins (2008, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment) - Definitely, Maybe (2008, co-production with StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - Doomsday (2008, distribution only in some countries; produced by Rogue Pictures) - Leatherheads (2008) - Forgetting Sarah Marshall (2008, co-production with Apatow Productions) - Baby Mama (2008, co-production with Relativity Media) - The Incredible Hulk (2008) (co-production with Marvel Studios and Valhalla Motion Pictures) - Wanted (2008, co-production with Relativity Media, DiBonaventura Productions and Spyglass Entertainment) - Hellboy 2: The Golden Army (2008, distribution only in some countries; produced by Rogue Pictures, Dark Horse Entertainment and Relativity Media) - Mamma Mia!: The Movie (2008, co-production with Relativity Media, Littlestar and Playtone) - The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor (2008, co-production with Relativity Media, Alphaville and Sommers Company) - Death Race (2008, co-production with Relativity Media) - Flash of Genius (2008, USA, Japan and France distribution, co-production with Spyglass Entertainment and Strike Entertainment) - The Express (2008, co-production with Relativity Media) - Changeling (2008, co-production with Imagine Entertainment, Malpaso Productions and Relativity Media) - Role Models (2008, co-production with New Regency and Relativity Media) - Frost/Nixon (2008) (co-production with Imagine Entertainment, Working Title Films, StudioCanal and Relativity Media) - The Tale of Desperaux (2008) (co-production with Framestore CFC, Larger Than Life Productions, Relativity Media and Universal Animation Studios) - The Unborn (2009) (distribution only in some countries; co-production with Relativity Media, Rogue Pictures and Platinum Dunes) - Duplicity (2009, co-production with Relativity Media) - Fast & Furious (2009), co-produced with One Race Films, Original Film and Relativity Media - State of Play (2009, co-production with Andell Entertainment, Working Title Films, Studio Canal and Relativity Media) - The Soloist (2009, international distribution, co-production with DreamWorks, StudioCanal, Participant Media and Working Title Films) - Drag Me to Hell (2009) (co-produced with Ghost House Pictures) - Land of the Lost (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media and Sid & Marty Krofft Pictures) - Public Enemies (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media) - Brüno (2009) (co-production with Media Rights Capital and Four By Two Films) - Curious George 2: Follow That Monkey! (2009) (co-production with Imagine Entertainment and Universal Animation Studios) - Funny People (2009) (USA distribution; co-production with Columbia Pictures, Apatow Productions, Happy Madison and Relativity Media) - Inglourious Basterds (2009) (co-production with A Band Apart and The Weinstein Company) - Love Happens (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media) - Couples Retreat (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media) - Cirque du Freak: The Vampire's Assistant (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media) - The Fourth Kind (2009) (co-production with Gold Circle Films and Dead Crow Productions) - Pirate Radio (2009) (international distribution, co-production with Focus Features, StudioCanal and Working Title Films) - It's Complicated (2009) (co-production with Relativity Media) - -2010s - -2020s - -Upcoming - -Undated films - -In development - -Notes - -References - -Other websites - Universal Pictures - - -Lists of movies -Universal Pictures movies -American movies by studio -Filmographies -Universal Pictures" -4857,15301,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilapia,Tilapia,"Tilapia is a fish that is often farmed for food, or kept as pets in aquariums. They live in warm, fresh water, but some species live in brackish water. The fish are found in Africa, North and South America, India, and Sri Lanka. - -They are listed as one of the worlds worst introduced species. They can quickly take over from native fish in rivers. This has happened in places like in the Endeavour River, in Queensland, Australia. These fish are thought to have been released into the river from an aquarium. - -References - -Bony fish" -10106,34707,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comb,Comb,"A comb is a tool used to care for hair or other fibers. It has small pieces sticking out of a main frame; these are called ""teeth."" A comb is usually flat. - -Humans have been using combs as a tool for a long time, at least for 5,000 years. Combs are used by humans to separate tangled hairs, to keep their hair clean and to style their hair. They are also used as a decoration for hair. - -Combs are used in the making of thread from fibers like wool or cotton. Combing makes all the fibres point the same way so a thread can be spun. - -History -The first use of the comb was about 5,000 years ago. Different kinds of comb have been found throughout history by archaeologists. The ancient Egyptians carved out combs. In ancient China, combs were worn as hair decorations and accessories. Over time, combs have become into tools for taking care of hair. Today, there are hundreds of different kinds of combs. - -Use -Combs can be used to fix stray hairs and untangle wet hair. Another common use for the comb is to make hair be put in one position before tying it up. Combs may also be used to part hair for coloring, conditioning and braiding. Combs can also be worn as accessories that hold hair up in a special style. - -Gallery - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Care" -20342,78223,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate,Tunicate,"Tunicates (sea squirts or Urochordata) are a subphylum of the Chordates. - -They are sea filter-feeders: they live mainly on plankton. They are called tunicates because the adult form is covered by a leathery tunic. This tunic supports and protects the animal. The adults are sessile, stuck to rocks. - -Many tunicates are colonial or semi-colonial in their adult stage. They are quite a large group, containing about 3,000 species. The adults live mostly on the sea floor, in the littoral zone. - -Feeding -The sea squirt has two openings in its small body. One opening, called the oral siphon, sucks water into the animal; the other opening, called the atrial siphon, squirts water out of the animal. Inside is a little basket-like sieve which traps food: so these sea squirts are filter feeders. The Sea squirt can close the holes in its siphons, like a drawstring can close the opening in a bag. - -Life cycle -When in its larval state, it looks like a tadpole and is sometimes called a tadpole larva. Like many sea creatures, a sea squirt larva looks very different from an adult sea squirt. The larva swims for a short time and then attaches itself to something on the sea floor, like a rock, transforming into its adult form. It usually stays in one place for the rest of its life. - -Relationships -Tunicates are more closely related to craniates (hagfish, lampreys, jawed vertebrates) than to lancelets, echinoderms, hemichordates, or other invertebrates. - -Discoveries -Chemical substances which might help fight diseases like cancer or various viruses have been found in some species. - -Scientists have also found out that some species can heal some damage done to them, over several generations. A similar process might be possible for humans. - -Related pages -Salp: these are noticed in the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. Their huge swarms may outnumber the krill. - -References - -Solomon E. Berg L. & Martin D. 2002. Biology. Brooks/Cole. - -Chordates" -764,3422,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels,Brussels,"Brussels (, , ) is the capital city of Belgium and the European Union. - -In 2007, 145,917 people lived there. But the area around it, known as the Brussels-Capital Region, had 1,031,215 people (which makes it the largest city area in Belgium). - -The people of Brussels speak mainly French and Flemish (a type of Dutch). There are lots of other languages spoken as well, because the European Union offices are there and because many thousands of immigrants from all over the world live there. - -The city is at 50° 50 North, 04° 21 East. It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). - -Thirty-one people were killed in a terrorist attack on 22 March 2016. - -Influence -Many popular European comics came from Brussels, such as (Tintin, The Smurfs, Snorks, Lucky Luke). - -It is also well known for a style of building known as Art Nouveau. - -The vegetables Brussels sprouts are named after the city, and Brussels is also famous for its waffles and its chocolates. - -A lot of tourists visit Brussels for ""Manneken Pis"". - -References - -Other websites -Interactive map of Brussels -Site of the Brussels-Capital Region -About the Cartoon Wall Paintings in Brussels" -18152,68219,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Wu%20of%20J%C3%ACn,Emperor Wu of Jìn,"Emperor Wu of Jìn ( 236 - 290) was the founder of Western Jin Dynasty. His name was Sima Yan. He was born in He Nei (now Henan Province). His father was Sima Zhao and Sima Yi was his grandfather. They were the imperial officials of Wei Dynasty and seized control over the imperial court. In 265 AD, Sima Yan forced Emperor Cao Huan to abdicate. In 280 AD, he conquered Eastern Wu and unified China. - -Emperors and Empresses of China -236 births -290 deaths" -9308,31922,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souffl%C3%A9,Soufflé,"A soufflé is a light fluffy dessert food. - -It is a lightly baked cake. It can be served as a savoury main dish, but usually it is sweetened as a dessert. It is made with egg yolks and beaten egg whites. The egg whites are beaten to a soft peak meringue. - -The dish puffs up in the oven. - -Egg dishes -Desserts" -9580,32735,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/His%20Holiness,His Holiness,"His Holiness (short form ""HH"") is the official title to address (name) a leader of a religion. Catholics refer to the Pope using this style, while Buddhists use this when talking about the Tibetan Lamaist leader, the Dalai Lama. - -Religious leaders" -12059,44354,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takasaki%20line,Takasaki line,"The is a railway line that runs from Omiya station in Saitama Prefecture to Takasaki Station in the Gunma Prefecture. It runs diagonally from south to north in Saitama prefecture and is owed and operated by the East Japan Railway Company (JR East Japan). The national highway route 17 and its historical predecessor Nakasendo run near this line. -The fare between Takasaki and Omiya of the Takasaki line is 1280 yen. -The colors of the cars are green and orange. So it looks similar to the Utsunomiya line. -The maximum speed of this train . So it is possible to go Takasaki from Omiya in about an hour and a half. -The Takasaki line including local trains and rapid trains has generally six standard-runs per hour in daytime. According to the time, the train might be crowded with students and company employees in major cities, for example, Ageo, Okegawa, Kitamoto, Kounosu, Kumagaya, Fukaya, Honjo. - -Japanese railways" -5478,17870,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonville%2C%20Florida,"Jacksonville, Florida","Jacksonville is the largest city in the state of Florida and one of the 15 largest cities in the United States. It is home to the University of North Florida. It is the county seat of Duval County. - -It is the largest city in the Continental United States in terms of area. It covers nearly all of Duval County in North Florida. The Jacksonville Jaguars of the NFL play here. - -References - -Other websites - - -County seats in Florida" -18524,69462,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnaroo%20Music%20Festival,Bonnaroo Music Festival,"The Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival is an annual four-day music festival held in Manchester, Tennessee. It is held by Superfly Productions and AC Entertainment and was first put together in 2002. The show's main features are the multiple stages, with the two main stages—the ""What"" stage and the ""Which"" stage—providing most of the performances. The music that is heard comes in a wide variety, including world music, hip hop, jazz, americana, bluegrass, country music, folk, gospel, reggae, electronica, and other alternative music. - -There was no festival in 2020 on grounds of COVID-19 pandemic. - -Music festivals in the United States -Tennessee -2002 establishments in the United States -2000s establishments in Tennessee" -14227,52835,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rond%C3%B4nia,Rondônia,"Rondônia is a state in Brazil. It is in the northwest of the country. To the west is the state of Acre. To the north is the state of Amazonas. In the east is Mato Grosso. In the south is Bolivia. Its capital is Porto Velho. The state was named after Candido Rondon. - -Other cities include: - Ji-Paraná - Ariquemes - Vilhena - Cacoal - -Geography -The state is covered mostly by jungle of the Amazon Rainforest. About three-fifths of the state has had the jungle removed since the 1970s. Most of the people living in the state now live in urban areas. It is a big exporter of wood. The state also makes both coffee and cocoa. The breeding of cattle is also important here. - -Flag -The flag was made by Silvio Carvalho Feitosa. It was made the flag of the state on December 22, 1981. The flag uses the same colors of the flag of Brazil. The big star in the middle of the flag is a symbol for the new state. The star is shown rising into the blue sky that is stretching over Brazil (the yellow and green areas in the lower half of the flag). - -Tribes -The Akuntsu tribe is one of the tribes of Rondônia. They are one of the indigenous peoples of Brazil. They were first contacted in only 1995. At that time, there were only seven people in the tribe. As of 2006, there were six people. They live in the Igarape Omere region to the southwest of Rondônia. The tribe consists of chief Kunibu Baba (male, age: ~ 70), Pupak (male, age: ~ 40), Ururu (female, age:~80) and three women with ages from 23-35. The seventh member of the tribe died in 1995. The only child born after that died in 2000 in a storm. With his death the only hope of the tribe not becoming extinct lessened. - -Notes - -Other websites - Rondonia Web - - -States of Brazil" -23605,91007,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Girl%20%28TV%20series%29,Super Girl (TV series),"Super Girl (; lit. Super Female Voice) is an annual national singing contest in People's Republic of China for female competitors. The official name is The Mengniu Yoghurt Super Girl Contest, after the company that sponsored the show. It is now one the most popular entertainment shows in China. However, after the third season, the show was banned by the Chinese government. The show was the feature of a 2007 documentary titled Super, Girls!, produced and directed by independent Chinese filmmaker Jian Yi on the 2006 Super Voice Girls contest, released at the Cambridge Film Festival. An ARTiSIMPLE Studio production, ""Super, Girls!"" is the only independent feature-length documentary ever made about the ""Super Girls."" - -Outline - -The competition was open to any female regardless of age, origin or appearance. The audition sessions had females ranging from 4 to 89 years old. The 2005 season of the contest attracted more than 120,000 applicants during the preliminary selection rounds, held in the provinces Hunan, Sichuan, Guangdong, Henan and Zhejiang. Many applicants travelled long distances to take part in the competition. Each contestant was allowed 30 seconds to perform to judges and find out if they were selected for the preliminary regional rounds. To prevent another overwhelming audition season, the minimum age of 18 was later set during the 2006 season. - -Following the selection of contestants in the five regions, the competition began with the preliminary rounds. Preliminaries were held in each of the five locations where auditions were located. Vviewers were able to watch each of the preliminaries and vote for their favorite singers. Voting was conducted by telephone and SMS. - -The regional preliminaries are followed by a weekly broadcast single-elimination (knockout) tournament held in Changsha, Hunan. The least voted two face-off subsequently in a ""PK."" The term ""PK"" comes from ""Player Kill,"" a reference to kill-or-be-killed online games. The singer with the least number of votes is then eliminated. The last event is contested between the final 3. - -Judges for the competition were selected from different backgrounds in society. ""Audience judges"" were selected in addition to several professional judges. - -History -The original version of the show was known as Super Boy and aired in 2003 on Hunan Entertainment Channel, a local broadcaster based in Changsha, Hunan. The show was a success and the counterpart Super Girl aired at the beginning of 2004 and became the most viewed show in Hunan. However, the programme's impact was limited as the channel does not broadcast outside the province. - -On May 6, 2004, Super Girl was introduced to a national audience by its producer Liao Ke through Hunan Satellite Television. In addition to broadcasting the original episodes created by Hunan Entertainment Channel, the network also developed this show in other 3 cities: Wuhan in Hubei, Nanjing in Jiangsu and Chengdu in Sichuan. This show attracted an average of 10,000 contestants in each city and received nationwide attention. - -Hunan Satellite Television introduced a second season of Super Girl on March 19, 2005. The preliminary rounds were filmed in five cities: Changsha in Hunan Province, Guangzhou in Guangdong Province, Zhengzhou in Henan Province, Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province, and Chengdu in Sichuan Province. By the middle of the season, the competition captivated a nationwide audience and became one of the most watched television entertainment shows in China with tens of millions of viewers. - -Cultural impact -The final episode of the 2005 season was one of the most popular shows in Chinese broadcast history, drawing more than 400,000,000 viewers, more than CCTV's New Year's Gala earlier that year. The final peaked at 280,000,000 viewers at a given time, higher than the 12,000,000-viewer figure for the finals of Pop Idol. Despite the show being condemned by CCTV as being ""vulgar and manipulative"", season 3 of the show was launched and finished in early October 2006. - -On January 18, 2006, China National Philatelic Corporation released a postage stamp issue featuring 2005 winner Li Yu Chun. The set was shortly earlier than Li's twenty-second birthday in her commemoration. - -On May 11, 2009, The Oprah Winfrey Show, a worldwide famous television show, invited Zhang Liangying, who ranked 3rd overall in the 2005 contest, to make an American television singing debut. The subtitle of the show was ""The World's Got Talent"" and Zhang Liangying was the only east Asian singer in the show. - -Some who were not chosen as winners have also been able to enter the recording industry through other means. Ji Min Jia, who ranked fifth overall in the 2005 contest, worked in Los Angeles in 2006 to help with production of the title song for Japanese anime series The Galaxy Railways. On March 15, 2007, Japanese recording group Hello! Project announced Li Chun, one of the top 50 contestants in the 2006 Changsha regional, as one of two new members of Chinese ancestry of its pop group Morning Musume. - -The contest has also inspired television producers to create other talent search shows. - -Democratic expression -One of the main factors contributing to the show's popularity was that viewers are able to participate in the judging process by sending SMSs with their mobile phones to vote for their favorite contestants. During the 2005 regional contest in Chengdu alone, 307,071 message votes were cast for the top three contestants, each vote costing ¥0.5 to ¥3. - -Over 800,000,000 text messages were sent during the third season of Super Girl, and fan clubs began to appear throughout the country. After the large response to the ability to vote, the Chinese government banned the show from continuing to a fourth season. The show was the feature of a 2007 documentary titled Super, Girls!, produced and directed by independent Chinese filmmaker Jian Yi on the 2006 Super Voice Girls contest, released at the Cambridge Film Festival. An ARTiSIMPLE Studio production, ""Super, Girls!"" is the only independent feature-length documentary ever made about the ""Super Girls."" - -While some culture and media experts praised Super Girl in blazing ""a trail for cultural democracy"" and breaking elitism in China's entertainment industry, others stated that ""the show represented a superficiality in society, propelled by behind-the-scenes manipulation and state-of-the-art pomp and circumstance"". - -Economic impact -Mengniu reportedly paid ¥14,000,000 to Hunan Television for rights to sponsor the show's broadcast outside Hunan province beginning with the 2005 season. The 2005 contest was estimated to have drawn in a total of ¥766,000,000. Indirect business impact of the competition was estimated at several billion yuan. - -Television advertisement slots cost an average of ¥33,400 for 15 seconds in 2006, compared to the average of ¥28,000 in 2005. Advertising sales were expected to reach ¥200,000,000, nearly double that of the previous year. - -2004 season -The first season of Super Girl aired from 6 May to September 22, 2004. Although the winners of the competition were not promised recording contracts, the top three winners signed such deals. - -Qualifications - -Final contest -An You Qi (安又琪) - champion -Wang Ti (王媞) - second place -Baby Zhang (Zhang Han Yun) (张含韵) - third place - -2005 season -The second season of Super Girl aired from March 19 to August 26 in 2005. There was much controversy about the Li Yu Chun being the season's grand champion as she had the most votes even though she had ""the weakest voice among the top finalists"". Despite the heavy criticism that arose during the competition season, the three 2005 finalists have been considered the most successful singers from the entire show. - -Qualifications - -Final contest - -2006 -The third season of aired from April 2 to September 30, 2006. Shang Wen Jie's selection as grand champion over Tan Wei Wei, who is a professional vocalist from Sichuan Conservatory of Music, raised questions at each candidate's public appeal. Speculations arose that Shang, who appeared to be a copycat of Li Yu Chun's image, was voted grand champion due to the appeal of her Cinderella story. - -Qualifications - -Final contest - -References - -Other websites - -Official -Hunan TV 2004 Super Girl official site -Hunan TV 2005 Super Girl official site -Hunan TV 2006 Super Girl official site - -Statistical information -Super Girl 2004 Influence Analysis -Super Girl economics (2005 season) - -C-pop -People's Republic of China -Music competitions -Reality television series -Pop music" -9792,33363,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic%20disorder,Genetic disorder,"A genetic disorder is a health problem caused by abnormalities in the genome. They are heritable, and may be passed down from the parents' genes to their children and to later generations. If a genetic disorder is present from birth, it is described as a congenital defect. Some defects only show up in later life. - -The mutation responsible can occur spontaneously before the embryo develops, or it can be inherited from parents who are carriers of a faulty gene. - -Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or even millions. Sometimes they are relatively frequent in a population. If they are frequent, it suggests these recessive gene disorders give an advantage in certain environments when only one copy of the gene is present. Sickle cell anaemia is an example of this. - -The same disease, such as some forms of cancer, may be caused by an inherited genetic condition in some people, by new mutations in other people, and by nongenetic causes in still other people. A disease is only called a genetic disease if it can be inherited. - -Related pages -Birth defect -List of genetic disorders - -References" -22455,84958,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seengen,Seengen,"Seengen is a municipality of the district of Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -20278,77889,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dignity,Dignity,"Dignity in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or esteem. - -""All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood"". -Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights - -It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58 Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity. - -Related pages - Human rights - Pride - -References - -Other websites -Dignity, article from Parenting For Everyone -Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity. - -Human issues -Virtues" -16405,63060,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adana%20massacre,Adana massacre,"The Adana massacre happened in Adana Province, in the Ottoman Empire, in April 1909. A religious-ethnic clash in the city of Adana amidst governmental upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district. Reports estimated that the massacres in Adana Province resulted in 20,000 to 30,000 deaths. - -References - -Other websites - - The Red Rugs Of Tarsus - A Woman’s Record of the Armenian Massacre of 1909 - Adana Massacre - -Anti-Armenianism -Massacres in Turkey -Armenian Genocide -April events -1909 -20th century in Turkey" -17228,65242,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFL%20Cup,EFL Cup,"The EFL Cup, known for most of its history as the Football League Cup and also known in the past by several sponsored names, is a national association football competition in England, with a few clubs in Wales also playing. It is like the FA Cup, but has fewer teams, and starts and ends earlier in the season. - -Unlike the FA Cup, which is open to hundreds of clubs belonging to The Football Association, which runs football in England, the EFL Cup is open only to the 92 teams in the top four divisions of English football—those playing in the top-level Premier League and the English Football League, which includes the next three lower divisions. - -Winners -Note: * means after extra time - -1961–1966 (two legs) - -Since 1967 (single game)" -24813,97212,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebuano%20language,Cebuano language,"Cebuano is a type of language spoken in the Philippines. About 20,000,000 people speak this language. Cebuano is a member of the Visayan language family. - -Related pages -Cebuano Wikipedia - -References - -Austronesian languages -Filipino culture" -4183,13044,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6tley%20Cr%C3%BCe,Mötley Crüe,"Mötley Crüe is a hair/glam metal band from Los Angeles, California. The band was formed in 1981 by Nikki Sixx (bass), and Tommy Lee (drums), and were then joined by Vince Neil (vocals) and Mick Mars (lead guitar). They were popular in the mid-1980s. Their last show took place at the Staples Center in Los Angeles on December 31, 2015. - -History -Mötley Crüe was formed at the start of 1981 by bass player Nikki Sixx and drummer Tommy Lee. After auditions they found singer Vince Neil in a club and guitar player Mick Mars through an ad in a paper. They released their first album Too Fast For Love in 1981, and later got signed to a major label. The band built success over the next few years with their next three albums, Shout at the Devil, Theatre of Pain and Girls, Girls, Girls, which had hit songs like ""Shout at the Devil"" ""Home Sweet Home"" and ""Girls, Girls, Girls"". However, the band created some negative attention because of their use of illegal drugs, large amounts of sex with women, and appearances, including make-up and several tattoos. Nikki Sixx took an overdose of heroin in 1987 and was legally dead for two minutes before getting an adrenaline shot, making him conscious again. The band stopped their drugs and drinking shortly after and released their most popular album, Dr. Feelgood in 1989. - -They released a greatest hits album in 1991 so fans had something to listen to before they brought out a sixth album. However, the band started arguing and Vince Neil was out of the band in 1992 as a result. So, the band found a new singer called John Corabi, who also played guitar and wrote lyrics with the band. They released their self-titled album in 1994. It created a mixed response from fans who preferred Vince Neil as the band's singer, and did not like the music itself, which sounded less like glam rock and more like hard rock. John Corabi left in 1996 and Vince Neil came back. The band released Generation Swine in 1997, but created a mixed response due to the musical experiments on the album. - -Tommy Lee was unhappy with Vince Neil back in the band and further arguments between band members caused Lee to leave the band, being replaced by Randy Castillo. The band released their least successful album, New Tattoo, in 2000. It sounded more like the band's 80s albums rather than the more experimental albums they released in the 90s. After the album, Randy Castillo became ill and Samantha Maloney had to drum during some of the band's concerts. Randy Castillo died in 2002 and the band did not do much for the next two years. - -Mötley Crüe made a comeback with Tommy Lee in 2004, and were once again successful, touring worldwide and releasing another greatest hits album called Red, White and Crue. They released another album of new songs in 2008 called Saints of Los Angeles. They disbanded after their last show on December 31, 2015. - -Albums - Too Fast for Love (November 1981) - Shout at the Devil (September 1983) - Theatre of Pain (July 1985) - Girls,Girls,Girls (May 1987) - Dr.Feelgood (September 1989) - Mötley Crüe (March 1994) - Generation Swine (June 1997) -New Tattoo (2000) - Saints of Los Angeles (June 2008) - -References - -1980s American music groups -1990s American music groups -2000s American music groups -2010s American music groups -Musical groups established in 1981 -1981 establishments in California -American heavy metal bands -American hard rock bands -Glam metal bands -Musical groups from Los Angeles -Musical groups disestablished in 2015 -2015 disestablishments in the United States -2010s disestablishments in California" -1336,4760,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis,Tuberculosis,"Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria. In the past, people called it consumption. - -TB is caused by several types of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The disease usually attacks the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. - -How it spreads -The bacteria can travel through the air and spread from one person to the next. This happens when infected people cough, sneeze, or spit. - -Of every 100 people with TB, between five and ten people show symptoms. In these people, the disease is called active. Tuberculosis kills more than half of the people who are infected if they do not get treatment. - -Detection and treatment - -Diagnosis of active TB relies on radiology. Doctors often look at an X-ray of the chest. In addition, they check body fluids. These fluids have microbes in them, which are grown in cell cultures. The cell cultures are then analysed to see if the person is infected with TB. - -If the patient has TB, but does not show symptoms, the disease is 'latent'. Doctors use a skin test, called the Mantoux test, to detect latent TB. They often do blood tests too. - -There is a vaccine against some forms of tuberculosis. It is called bacillus Calmette–Guérin vaccine. - -TB used to be easily treated and cured with antibiotics. However, the bacterium is now highly resistant to most antibiotics. This resistance makes treatment difficult. Many different kinds of antibiotics need to be given over a long period of time. There is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to all drugs. - -Symptoms -Tuberculosis can have many symptoms. The most common include: - A cough that does not go away, especially if the person is coughing up blood (this is called hemoptysis) - Chest pain - Not having any appetite - Weakness - Weight loss - Chills - Very pale skin - Listless eyes - Fever - Sweating a lot at night - Difficulty breathing - Feeling very tired - People are also more likely to get tuberculosis if they live close to other people who have TB. For example, TB can spread easily in homeless shelters, prisons, and immigrant communities. - -How common is TB? - -Experts believe that one third of the world population is infected with M. tuberculosis. New infections occur at a rate of one per second. In 2007, about 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally. In 2010, about 8.8 million new cases developed and nearly 1.5 million people died from the disease, most of them in developing countries. The number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since 2002. - -Tuberculosis does not happen at the same rate around the world. About eighty percent of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive for TB, but only five to ten percent of people in the United States do. - -People usually get tuberculosis because of a weakened immune system. Many people with HIV and AIDS can also get tuberculosis. - -References - -Other websites - Frequently asked Questions about TB at CDC.gov - ExplainTB: Multilingual audiovisual information on tuberculosis - -Diseases caused by bacteria -Pulmonology" -22041,83832,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unterkulm,Unterkulm,"Unterkulm is a municipality of the district of Kulm in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites -Official website of the municipality of Unterkulm - -Unterkulm" -9574,32711,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostock,Rostock,"Rostock (German pronunciation: [ˈʁɔstɔk]) is a city in the northeast of Germany. It is in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. - -It has over 200,000 people (204,260 in December 2011) and an old university (founded in 1419). The town is on the river Warnow. The mayor is Roland Methling. The city today carries the name Hansestadt (Hanseatic city) in memory of its history, where it has been an important part of the Hanseatic League. The architecture of the city and the region is influenced by this historic period. - -Rostock is on the Baltic Sea. It has an important harbor. A district of the city, Warnemünde, is famous for its long beaches. It has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification). - -The most important football club of Rostock is F.C. Hansa Rostock. It is in the German Bundesliga. - -Other major Hanseatic cities today are: Hamburg, Lübeck, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin. - -References - -Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea -Ports and harbours of Germany - -Urban districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania -1218 establishments -13th-century establishments in Germany -1210s establishments in Europe" -9739,33222,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-R,CD-R,"A CD-R (also called Compact Disc Recordable) is a compact disc that can be recorded once. When people record a compact disc, they put either music or data on it. - -A compact disc that can be recorded multiple times (and erased) is the CD-RW. - -When you put data onto a CD, it is called burning a disc. A laser ""burns"" pits into a dye layer on the disc, making them transparent. These transparent pits can later be read back by the CD drive or audio CD player as data or music. - -The first CD-Rs from the early 1990s held 63 minutes of audio. In the mid-1990s, 74-minute discs became common. Most CD-Rs made from 2000 onward hold 80 minutes, or 700 MB of data. 90 and 99-minute CD-Rs are available, although they are non-standard and many players and recorders do not support them. - -There are three types of dye used in CD-R discs. The most common is phthalocyanine, and it is usually light green. CMC Pro (formerly Taiyo Yuden) uses cyanine dye. It is usually teal or dark green. Verbatim uses phthalocyanine dye on some discs, and AZO dye on others. AZO dye is usually dark blue or blue-ish silver. The metal layer on the disc is usually made of silver. Archival discs and some professional audio discs use a gold top layer. Verbatim UltraLife discs have a silver main layer, and a gold upper protective layer, providing the reflectivity of silver and the chemical stability of gold. Early cyanine discs could decay and become unplayable within a few years. Recent cyanine discs have preservatives added to the dye to prevent this from happening. AZO and phthalocyanine dyes do not need preservatives and do not decay easily. - -References - -Compact Disc" -5445,17728,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1455,1455," - -Other calendars - Buddhist calendar: 1997 - 1998 - Hebrew calendar: 5215 - 5216 - Islamic calendar: 859 - 860 - -Events - February 9 – Wars of the Roses: Richard, Duke of York dismissed as Protector - February 23 – Johannes Gutenberg prints the first Bible on a printing press - May 22 – Wars of the Roses: First Battle of St Albans – Richard, Duke of York and his ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick defeat the Lancastrians under Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, who is killed. York captures King Henry VI of England and has himself appointed Constable of England. - May 25 – Victorious Yorkish lords ritually renew the monarchy of Henry VI in St. Paul's Cathedral." -17560,66424,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1419,1419," - -Events of 1419 - January 19 – Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England which brings Normandy under the control of England. - June 20 – Start of the Oei Invasion of Tsushima Island in Japan by Joseon Korea. - July 30 – 1st defenestration of Prague - September 10 – Assassination of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy by adherents of the Dauphin - Portuguese sea captains João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, at the service of Prince Henry the Navigator discover the Madeira islands - The University of Rostock is established as the oldest university of northern Europe. - -Births - July 10 – Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan (died 1471) - -Deaths - April 5 – Vincent Ferrer, Spanish missionary and saint (born 1350) - August 16 – Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, King of Bohemia (born 1361) - September 10 – John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (assassinated) (born 1371) - November 22 – Antipope John XXIII -December 17 – William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England -date unknown – Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism (born 1357)" -17837,67229,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighbourhood,Neighbourhood,"A neighbourhood or neighborhood is a geographic community in a larger city, town or suburb. Neighbourhoods are often social communities because the people that live in them commonly talk with each other. Researchers have not agreed on an exact definition. - -Preindustrial cities -According to urban scholar Lewis Mumford, Neighbourhoods have always exist where humans live. Many of the functions of the city are usually distributed into neighbourhoods. Archaeologists have found evidence of neighbourhoods in the ruins of most of the earliest cities around the world. Historical documents give information about neighbourhood life in many historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities. - -Neighbourhoods are usually created by social interaction between people living near each another. They are local social groups larger than households that are not under the control of city or state officials. In some early urban traditions, basic municipal functions such as protection, marriages, cleaning and repairs are done by neighbourhoods. This is shown to have happened in historical Islamic cities. - -Most ancient and historical cities also had administrative districts. These were used by the government for taxation and social control. Administrative districts are usually larger than neighbourhoods. They often cover areas that are larger than just one neighbourhood. Sometimes, administrative districts are just one neighbourhood. This leads to a lot of control of social life by officials. For example, in the T’ang period Chinese capital city Chang’an, neighbourhoods were districts. There were state officials who controlled life and activity at the neighbourhood level. - -Neighbourhoods in very old cities often grouped certain people together. Ethnic neighbourhoods were important in many old cities. They are still common in cities today. Economic specialists, including craft makers, merchants, and others, could be grouped together in neighbourhoods. There were also neighbourhoods based around certain religions. One important part to neighbourhood being different from each other and their people getting along well was how people moved from rural areas to the cities. This was always happening in old cities. The people moving to the cities often moved in with relatives and people they knew from before moving to the city. - -Regions - -Asia - -China -In the mainland of the People's Republic of China, the term is usually used for the urban administrative division. These divisions are found below the district level. A subdistrict level may exists in some cities. They are also called streets. The naming may be different from one city to another. Neighbourhoods usually have 2,000 to 10,000 families. Within neighbourhoods, families are grouped into smaller groups of 100 to 600 families. These smaller groups are supervised by a residents' committee. These groups are often broken down into even smaller groups of fifteen to forty families. In most urban areas of China, neighbourhood, community, residential community, residential unit, residential quarter have the same meaning. - -Turkey -Neighbourhood () in Turkey is an administrative unit within municipalities. It has an official status but no governmental powers. Neighbourhoods are administered by the Mukhtar and the ""Neighbourhood Seniors Council"". This is a group of 4 people. The mukhtar is elected by the people living in the neighbourhood. He is an administrator of the district governor. Mukhtar also has a seat at the City Assembly. This is an organization for the coordination of the public institutions in the city. Neighbourhood administrators get a salary from the Central Government. They also get money from the fees paid for dealing with certain documents. - -Europe - -United Kingdom -The term has no official use in the United Kingdom. It is often used by local boroughs for sub-divisions of their area for the delivery of certain services and functions. It is also used as a term to refer to a small area within a town or city. The term is commonly used to refer to organisations which deal with such a very local issues, such as neighbourhood policing or Neighbourhood watches. Government statistics for local areas are often called neighbourhood statistics even though the data is usually broken down into districts and wards. - -North America -In Canada and the United States, neighborhoods often have official or semi-official status. This is commonly done using neighbourhood associations, neighbourhood watches, or block watches. These may deal with such things as lawn care and fence height. They may provide such things as block parties, neighbourhood parks, and community security. In some other places the organisation is the parish. A parish may have several neighbourhoods in it depending on the area. - -Related pages - Barrio (Spanish) - Burough - Community - Frazione (Italian) - Unincorporated community - -References -Notes - -Other websites" -23457,90260,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezia,Vezia,"Vezia is a municipality of the district Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -Municipalities of Ticino" -19271,73129,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Smash%20Bros.%20Brawl,Super Smash Bros. Brawl,"Super Smash Bros. Brawl (commonly known as SSBB or Brawl) is the third video game in the Super Smash Bros. series. It was made by Sora and published by Nintendo for the Wii video game console. - -Characters -There are 39 characters in Brawl. 14 unlockables and 25 starters. Most of the characters from the second game in the series, which was called Super Smash Bros. Melee, return (although Mewtwo, Roy, Dr. Mario, Pichu, and Young Link were removed), and a few others are added, including two (Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog) that were in games that Nintendo did not own. The game is best known for the tripping mechanic (fighters will trip at random when running), introducing third party characters, and the smash ball. - -Default characters -Bowser -Diddy Kong -Donkey Kong -Fox McCloud -Ice Climbers -Ike -King Dedede -Kirby -Link -Lucas -Mario -Meta Knight -Olimar -Princess Peach -Pikachu -Pit -Pokémon Trainer (Squirtle, Ivysaur and Charizard) -Samus Aran/Zero Suit Samus -Wario -Yoshi -Princess Zelda/Sheik - -Unlockable characters -Captain Falcon -Falco Lombardi -Ganondorf -Jigglypuff -Lucario -Luigi -Marth -Mr. Game and Watch -Ness -R.O.B. -Solid Snake -Sonic the Hedgehog -Toon Link -Wolf O'Donnell - -Items -Like the other Super Smash Bros. games, items appear in the middle of the game that characters can use. However, Brawl adds many more items, such as an ""Assist Trophy"" (where a character from a Nintendo game shows up to help you kill your ) and a ""Smash Ball"" (when activated, it gives characters powers that make it really easy to kill opponents). - -Stages -Super Smash Bros. Brawl has many stages that players can battle on. Most of the stages are based on Nintendo series. One of these is Shadow Moses Island from Metal Gear Solid. - -Home Stages - -References - -Other websites -Super Smash Bros. Wiki - -Super Smash Bros. -2008 video games -Wii games - -de:Super Smash Bros.#Super Smash Bros. Brawl" -10710,38252,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20Stock%20Exchange,Hong Kong Stock Exchange,"The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited (sometimes shortened to SEHK), is a stock exchange located in Hong Kong. It is East Asia's and Asia's third largest stock exchange in terms of market capitalization behind the Tokyo Stock Exchange and Shanghai Stock Exchange, and the sixth largest in the world before Euronext. As of 31 October 2016, SEHK had 1,955 listed companies, 989 of which are from mainland China (Red chip, H share and P chip), 856 from Hong Kong and 110 from other countries and region (e.g. Macau, Taiwan, Malaysia, United States, Singapore, etc.) Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing owns SEHK and is itself listed on SEHK. - -The physical trading floor at Exchange Square (Hong Kong) closed in 2017, due to the shift towards electronic trading. By 2014, it accounted for less than 1% of trade volume. - -Hong Kong Stock Exchange (Traditional Chinese: 香港交易所, also 港交所; sometimes shortened to HKEX ; SEHK: 0388) is a stock exchange in Hong Kong. - -It is mostly owned by Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing, which also controls Hong Kong Futures Exchange Limited (HKFE) and Hong Kong Securities Clearing Company Limited. - -References - -Stock exchanges in Asia -Hong Kong" -20925,80477,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loge%20%28moon%29,Loge (moon),"Loge or Saturn XLVI (provisional designation S/2006 S 5) is a moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006, from observations taken between January and April 2006. - -Loge is about 6 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 23,142,000 km in 1314.364 days, at an inclination of 166.5° to the ecliptic (165.3° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.1390. - -It was named in April 2007, after Loge (also spelled Logi), a fire giant from Norse mythology, son of Fornjót, sometimes confused with the god Loki. - -References - Institute for Astronomy Saturn Satellite Data - IAUC 8727: Satellites of Saturn 2006 June 30 (discovery) - MPEC 2006-M45: Eight New Satellites of Saturn 2006 June 26 (discovery and ephemeris) - IAUC 8826: Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn (subscription-only) 2007 April 5 (Naming the moon) - -Saturn's moons" -5772,18703,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igloo,Igloo,"An igloo (or iglu) is a shelter (a place for people to stay warm and dry) made from blocks of snow placed on top of each other, often in the shape of a dome (like half of a hollow ball). They were used in winter as temporary shelters by hunters when they were away from their regular homes. - -They were most often built in places where a lot of snow covers the land for weeks or months at a time, such as the far north of Canada and Greenland. Most igloos are built by native Inuit people (sometimes called Eskimoes). As they learned to build them better, sometimes people would build larger igloos that would last longer and hold more people, even for dancing. - -Accommodations" -5986,19317,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions%20of%20Peru,Regions of Peru,"A Region is the name for one of 25 areas into which the land is divided in Peru. - -Provinces of Peru - - Name of the region (capital of the region) - - Tumbes (Tumbes) - Piura (Piura) - Lambayeque (Chiclayo) - La Libertad (Trujillo) - Ancash (Huaraz) - Lima (Huacho) - Callao (Callao) - Ica (Ica) - Arequipa (Arequipa) - Moquegua (Moquegua) - Tacna (Tacna) - Cajamarca (Cajamarca) - Huánuco (Huánuco) - Pasco (Cerro de Pasco) - Junín (Huancayo) - Huancavelica (Huancavelica) - Ayacucho (Ayacucho) - Apurímac (Abancay) - Cusco (Cusco) - Puno (Puno) - Amazonas (Chachapoyas) - San Martín (Moyobamba) - Ucayali (Pucallpa) - Madre de Dios (Puerto Maldonado) - Loreto (Iquitos) -    *     Lima Province (Lima) - -da:Peru#Regioner -pl:Peru#Podział administracyjny" -2866,9101,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenny%20Bruce,Lenny Bruce,"Lenny Bruce (October 13, 1925 – August 3, 1966), was an American comedian. His real name was Leonard Alfred Schneider. He is considered an innovator of modern stand-up comedy and changed the way many people see comedians. His jokes and routines were very improper and off limits for the time and he got in a lot of trouble for them. He is considered a hero for the defense of the First Amendment rights in the United States, especially for free speech. - -In the 1960s he was the last person arrested for impersonating and swearing, overwatched by martial law and police and banned from many cities and comedy clubs. - -He appeared on the cover of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album. - -He died in 1966 of an accidental morphine overdose whist on trial. - -In 1970 the New York's highest court of appeals decided that he is ""not guilty for using bad words"". - -1925 births -1966 deaths -American Jews -American stand-up comedians -Comedians from New York -Drug-related accidental deaths in the United States" -935,3797,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian%20Islands,Hawaiian Islands,"From west to east, Hawaii is made up of the following Hawaiian Islands: - -Niihau -Kauai -Oahu -Moloka'i -Lana'i -Kaho'olawe -Maui -Hawaii - -Hawaii has been a U.S. state since 1959. - -The Hawaiian islands, plus former islands now below sea level (guyots), make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain." -14099,52319,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism,Physicalism,"Physicalism is the view that everything in the universe is made out of physical matter. Physicalism does not believe in gods, spirits, or other things that are not made of physical material. A person who believes in physicalism is a materialist. - -Epistemology -Philosophical movements and positions" -13164,48243,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer,Synthesizer,"A musical synthesizer is an instrument that uses electricity to make musical sounds. They are the main instrument for making electronic music. Many synthesizers have a keyboard like that of a piano. When playing a piano keyboard, sounds are made by hitting soft hammers against strings pulled very tight. When playing a synthesizer keyboard, sounds are made by turning electrical oscillators on and off. Since ""synthesizer"" is such a big word, the word is usually shortened to ""synth"". - -How synthesizers work - -An oscillator is something that ""vibrates"", or repeats the same pattern. The pendulum of a clock, for example, is a very slow oscillator. A piano string ""oscillates"" when struck by a hammer. - -Electric oscillators might be made using transistors. They turn electricity into electrical patterns, or signals, that repeat over and over. When different keys are pressed, different notes are heard. This is done by making the signal from the oscillator repeat at different rates. - -The signal can be boosted in strength and sent straight to a loudspeaker. But the sound of a simple signal can be boring after a while. Sounds can be made more interesting in many ways. - -For example - Signals are often shaped by changing how fast they get loud and then soft again. This method, called ""ADSR"", helps synthesizers to sound more like older instruments — pianos, trumpets, flutes, and so on. - The signals from several different oscillators may be combined. This helps to make a richer sound. - The signal can then be sent to one or more filters. Filters are used to take away parts of the signal. For example, they might make the signal sound ""brighter"" or ""duller"", ""soft"" or ""harsh"". - Many synthesizers use special oscillators called ""LFOs"". For example, an LFO might control how loud and soft the signal is, or control the pitch of the signal. An LFO might even control the actions of the filters. - -By combining many of these methods, synths can now sound very much like older instruments. For one example, special synths called ""drum synths"" are used just to make the sounds a drummer might make. Synths can also make many new sounds never heard before. - -In the early 2000s, computers got fast enough so ""software synths"" could be made. These are computer programs designed to look and work like a synth. They tend to be less expensive, so more can be used. Most of these programs can be downloaded for free, however this may be illegal. - -There are special tools available to play synths. For example, a thing called a ""wind controller"" lets players of wind instruments use their special skills. But there is still a need for more ways to control synths to make them more expressive. - -Other websites - Sonic State describing 3000 models of Synthesizers - Analog & Digital Synthesizers museum - Synthesizers database, resources, user reviews, pictures - Vintage Synth Explorer - facts and photos of hundreds of old and new synths - The history of Electronic Music - 120 years of Electronic Music - -Electronic musical instruments -Audio technology" -83,159,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civics,Civics,"Civics is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city. - -Theories of civics can be grouped as: - -Anarchist -Capitalist -Democrat -Green -Libertarian -Republican - -Politics" -24470,94294,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCKS,SOCKS,"SOCKS is an Internet protocol that allows one client computer to connect to another computer via a third computer (SOCKS server). SOCKS is an abbreviation for ""SOCKetS"". - -When a direct connection between two computers (clients) is not possible for some services (e.g. HTTP, FTP, or chat protocols like MSN and AOL), a user can use these services via a so-called SOCKS server (routing). - -Example: Bill wants to chat with Jane. Bill has a bad service provider who limits internet access. Bill's computer then connects to the SOCKS server, which is able to ""chat"" with Jane's computer without restrictions. - -An HTTP proxy works similar to a SOCKS server, but is limited on routing HTTP traffic only. - -References - -Internet -Computer protocols" -17996,67692,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cid%20Corman,Cid Corman,"Cid (Sidney) Corman (June 29, 1924 – March 12, 2004) was an American poet well known for editing the magazine Origin. - -Other websites -Thirty-one poems -Cid Corman on poetry over the radio, October 1952 -CID CORMAN & ORIGIN PRESS - A large collection of Cid Corman's manuscripts is held at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin -Additional papers (1942-76) are held in the Special Collections library at Kent State University -Additional papers (1962-1964) are held in the Special Collections library at Washington University, Saint Louis -An essay on Corman -New Origin Web site -About.com Web page on Corman -obituary in The Guardian of London - -1924 births -2004 deaths -Writers from Boston, Massachusetts" -10150,34905,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano%20Prodi,Romano Prodi,"Romano Prodi (born 9 August 1939 in Scandiano, Italy) is an Italian politician and leader of a left-wing coalition named L'unione (The Union). - -Prodi was ""President of the Council of Ministers"", that is, Prime Minister of Italy between 1996 and 1998. - -He then served as President of the European Commission from 1999 to 2004. - -He was re-elected Prime Minister of Italy for a second time in 2006, when he defeated Silvio Berlusconi, leader of the right-wing coalition named Casa delle Libertà (House of Freedom). - -1939 births -Living people -European Commissioners -Politicians from Emilia-Romagna -Prime Ministers of Italy" -6210,19904,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1760s,1760s," - -Events and trends - -Events - King George III takes the British throne in 1760. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) comes to an end. France gives Canada to Britain, but criticism of the government still grows, led by the controversial figure of John Wilkes. Meanwhile, there is increasing unrest in Britain's American colonies. King George III died later in 1820. - - Science and technology – development of the steam engine continues. - -World leaders - Emperor Qianlong (Ch'ien Lung) (China) - King Frederick V (Denmark and Norway) - King Christian VII (Denmark and Norway) - King Louis XV (France) - King Augustus III (Poland) - King José I (Portugal) - Czar Peter III (Russia) - Czarina Catherine II (the Great) (Russia) - King Carlos III (Spain) - King Adolf Fredrik (Sweden) - Sultan Mustafa III (Ottoman Empire) - King George III (United Kingdom) - -Births - Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France - Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military - -Deaths - Pierre de Marivaux, French writer" -19748,75552,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Pacific%20hurricane%20season,2003 Pacific hurricane season,"The 2003 Pacific hurricane season saw an strangely big number of tropical cyclones affect Mexico. The biggest cyclones in 2003 were Hurricanes Ignacio (which killed 2 people in Mexico) and Marty (which killed 12 people in Mexico). Those hurricanes were responsible for nearly $1 billion (2003 USD) in damage. Three other Pacific storms and three Atlantic storms also affected Mexico. The only other big storm of the season was Hurricane Jimena. Hurricane Jimena passed just to the south of Hawaii. Hurricane Jimena was the first storm to go near Hawaii for several years. - -The season officially started on May 15, 2003 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 2003 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 2003. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. The season saw 16 tropical storms form, which is about average. However, this season was the first Pacific hurricane season since 1977 to have no systems become major hurricanes by reaching Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. - -Storms - -Hurricane Marty - -Marty killed 12 and destroyed 4,000 homes in Baja California. - -Hurricane Nora - -Hurricane Nora was the strongest hurricane in the eastern Pacific Ocean in 2003. - -Other Storms -Tropical Storm Andres -Tropical Storm Blanca -Tropical Storm Carlos -Tropical Storm Dolores -Tropical Storm Enrique -Tropical Storm Felicia -Tropical Storm Guillermo -Tropical Storm Hilda -Tropical Depression One-C -Hurricane Ignacio -Hurricane Jimena -Tropical Storm Kevin -Hurricane Linda -Hurricane Olaf -Hurricane Patricia - -Other websites - NHC 2003 Pacific hurricane season archive - HPC 2003 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Pages - Central Pacific Hurricane Center 2003 season summary - Mariners Weather Log: Summary of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season - -Pacific hurricane seasons -Pacific hurricane season" -17739,67019,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular%20tissue,Vascular tissue,"This is an article about vascular tissue in plants. For transport in animals, see Circulatory system. - -Vascular tissue is a complex tissue found in vascular plants. Complex means that it is composed of more than one cell type. - -The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There is a meristem associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium. All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant. - -Related pages -Xylem -Phloem -Vascular plant - -Plant anatomy -Vascular plants" -876,3659,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics,Electronics,"Electronics is the study of electricity (the flow of electrons) and how to use that to build things like computers. It uses circuits that are made with parts called components and connecting wires to do useful things. The science behind Electronics comes from the study of physics and gets applied in real-life ways through the field of electrical engineering. - -Many people can name several simple electronic components, such as transistors, fuses, circuit breakers, batteries, motors, transformers, LEDs and bulbs, but as the number of components starts to increase, it often helps to think in terms of smaller systems or blocks, which can be connected together to do something useful. - -One way of looking at an electronic system is to separate it into three parts: - Inputs - Electrical or mechanical sensors, which take signals from the physical world (in the form of temperature, pressure, etc.) and convert them into electric current and voltage signals. - Signal processing circuits - These consist of electronic components connected together to manipulate, interpret and transform the information contained in the signals. - Outputs - Actuators or other devices that transform current and voltage signals back into human readable information. - -A television set, for example, has as its input a broadcast signal received from an antenna, or for cable television, a cable. - -Signal processing circuits inside the television set use the brightness, colour, and sound information contained in the received signal to control the television set's output devices. The display output device may be a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a plasma or liquid crystal display screen. The audio output device might be a magnetically driven audio speaker. The display output devices convert the signal processing circuits' brightness and colour information into the visible image displayed on a screen. The audio output device converts the processed sound information into sounds that can be heard by listeners. - -Analysis of a circuit/network involves knowing the input and the signal processing circuit, and finding out the output. Knowing the input and output and finding out or designing the signal processing part is called synthesis. - -History -People started experimenting with electricity as early as 600 B.C.E, when Thales of Miletus discovered rubbing fur on amber would cause them to attract each other. - -Starting in the 1900s, devices used glass or metal vacuum tubes to control the flow of electricity. With these components a low power voltage can be used to change another. This revolutionized radio, and allowed other inventions. - -In the 1960s and early 1970s transistors and semiconductor began replacing vacuum tubes. Transistors can be made much smaller than vacuum tubes and they can work using less energy. - -At about the same time, integrated circuits (circuits that are integrated inside other circuits) became commonly used. Integrated circuits made it possible to reduce the number of parts needed to make electronic products and made the products much cheaper in general. - -Analog circuits -Analog circuits are used for signals that have a range of amplitudes. In general, analog circuits measure or control the amplitude of signals. In the early days of electronics, all electronic devices used analog circuits. The frequency of the analog circuit is often measured or controlled in analog signal processing. Even though more digital circuits are made, analog circuits will always be necessary, since the world and its people work in analog ways. - -Pulse circuits -Pulse circuits are used for signals that require rapid pulses of energy. For example, radar works by using pulse circuits to create and send high powered bursts of radio energy from radar transmitters. Radar antennas are used to send (""transmit"") the high powered bursts in the direction the antenna is pointed. - -The radar transmitter's pulses or bursts of radio energy hit and bounce back (they are ""reflected"") from hard and metallic objects. Hard objects are things like buildings, hills, and mountains. Big things made of metal include aircraft, bridges, or even objects in space, like satellites. The reflected radar energy is detected by radar pulse receivers which use both pulse and digital circuits together. The pulse and digital circuits in radar pulse receivers are used to show the location and distance of objects which have reflected the radar transmitter's high powered pulses. - -By controlling how often the rapid pulses of radar energy are sent out by a radar transmitter (called the transmitter's ""pulse timing""), and how long it takes for the reflected pulse energy to come back to the radar receiver, one can tell not only where objects are, but also how far away they are. Digital circuits in a radar receiver calculate the distance to an object by knowing the time interval between energy pulses. The radar receiver's digital circuits count how long it takes between pulses for an object's reflected energy to be detected by the radar receiver. Since radar pulses are sent and received at approximately the speed of light, the distance to an object can easily be calculated. This is done in digital circuits by multiplying the speed of light by the time it takes to receive the radar energy reflected back from an object. - -The time between pulses (often called ""pulse rate time"", or PRT) sets the limit on how far away an object can be detected. That distance is called the ""range"" of a radar transmitter and receiver. Radar transmitters and receivers use long PRT's to find the distance to objects that are far away. Long PRT's makes it possible to accurately determine the distance to the moon, for example. Fast PRT's are used to detect objects that are much closer, like ships at sea, high flying aircraft, or to determine the speed of fast moving automobiles on highways. - -Digital circuits - -Digital circuits are used for signals that only turn on and off instead of often working at levels somewhere between on and off. Active components in digital circuits typically have one signal level when turned on, and another signal level when turned off. In general, in digital circuits a component is only switched on and off. - -Computers and electronic clocks are examples of electronic devices that are made up of mostly digital circuits. - -Basic blocks: - Logic gates - Flip-flops - Multiplexer - Binary adder - Counters - Arithmetic logic unit - Floating point unit - -Complex devices: - Microprocessors - Microcontrollers - Digital signal processors - -Related pages - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers - Electricity - -Other websites - -Tutorials and projects - - Wikibooks Electronics - ROHM's Electronics Basics - Maker Pro Electronics Projects - All About Circuits Lessons in Electric Circuits - Electronics Infoline Directory for electronics projects - Electronics tutorials.com - Williamson Labs' Electronics tutorial - Ian Purdie's Electronics tutorial s - Iguana Labs' Electronics Tutorials and Kits - Electronic Meanings and Acronyms - Lessons in Electric Circuits - A free series of textbooks on the subjects of electricity and electronics. - Radio-Electronics.Com Free information and resources covering radio and electronics - Electronic tutorials - Books and projects for self access learning - Electronic MCQs - Find Best Objective Questions and Answers" -15593,59492,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Saxton,Johnny Saxton,"Johnny Saxton (b. July 4, 1930 in Newark, NJ, d. October 4 2008) was an American boxer who won the welterweight championship. - -Saxton beat Kid Gavilan in 1954 to become the welterweight champion. The lost the title the following year to Tony DeMarco. In 1956 he won the title again by beating Carmen Basilio, but lost the title in a rematch with Basilio later in the year. He retired in 1958. - -Other websites - Boxing record - -2008 deaths -American boxers -Sportspeople from Newark, New Jersey -1930 births" -12082,44500,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscovium,Moscovium,"Moscovium is a superheavy synthetic radioactive chemical element also known as eka-bismuth. It has the symbol Mc and the atomic number 115. Moscovium does not exist in nature. It is made from a fusion reaction between americium and calcium. - -The element is named in honor of the Russian city of Moscow. - -Moscovium is in or near the center of the theoretical island of stability. No stable isotopes of moscovium have yet been found. The most stable isotope with 184 neutrons is 299Mc. The isotope that has been made has only 175 neutrons (290Mc). - -Uses -There is no use of Moscovium at the moment because of its radioactivity and the fact that it decays pretty quickly. - -History -On February 2, 2004 a report that moscovium and nihonium were made was written in a journal named Physical Review C. The report was written by a team of Russian scientists at Dubna University's Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory., - -These people reported that they bombarded americium with calcium to make four atoms of moscovium. - -Scientists of Japan also report that they have made moscovium. - -In May 2006 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research this element was made by another method and what the final products from radioactive decay were was found by chemical analysis. - -Name - -The name was changed to Moscovium. It used to be named ununpentium. - -Chemical properties -Not enough moscovium has been made to measure its physical or chemical properties. It is thought that it would be a hard metal. It may be slightly colored. - -Moscovium is in the same group as bismuth but its chemical properties will be different. The chemistry of ununpentium will be very influenced by special relativity. It will make its properties different to the other elements in the periodic table that have a smaller atomic number. One important difference from bismuth is the presence of a stable oxidation state of +I (Mc+). The (Mc+) ion is thought to have chemical properties like Tl+. - -In popular culture -Moscovium is inside or near the island of stability. This is probably why it is found in popular culture. It is more likely to be talked about in UFO conspiracy theories. - -The most popular story about moscovium is from Bob Lazar. It is not pseudoscience because it is a refutable theory, however Lazar's claims are not backed by any direct experimental evidence at this time. - -References - -Other websites - - Uut and Uup Add Their Atomic Mass to Periodic Table - Apsidium - Ununpentium - Discovery of Elements 113 and 115 - Discovery of New Superheavy Elements 113 and 115 - Superheavy elements - History & Etymology - -Chemical elements -Metals" -1696,5711,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Kay%20Ogden,Charles Kay Ogden,"Charles Kay Ogden (1 June 1889 – 21 March 1957) was an English linguist, philosopher, psycholinguist and writer. He is a well-known book writer about the controlled language called Basic English. He is known for his work with I. A. Richards on The Meaning of Meaning (1923). He also translated Tractatus, a book by Ludwig Wittgenstein, into English. - -Other websites - C.K. Ogden biography - -1889 births -1957 deaths -English writers -English philosophers -British linguists" -18532,69484,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medal,Medal,"A medal is a small metal object that is given as an award for doing something important or to commemorate something. There are medals for sports, military, academics, etc. Some medals have religious meaning. - -Military decorations, service awards, and medals are often confused with one another. Decoration is the term for awards which require acts of heroism or achievement (such as the British Victoria Cross or American Silver Star). A service award or campaign medal is awarded for serving in a place and time (such as the Iraq Campaign Medal). In either case, an award or decoration may be presented as a medal. - -Olympics -In the Olympic Games and many other sports competitions, medals are give to the top three people who took part in the competition. The winner of the competition is given the gold medal. The silver medal is given to the person who came second. The third placed person is given the bronze medal. - -Other websites -Atlantic Provinces Numismatic Association -Official Medals of the Numismatic Associations and Clubs of the Atlantic Provinces -Exonumia defined -Orders, Decorations and Medals -Nobel prize -Most Comprehensive and Updated Listing of Orders, Decorations and Medals -Weiss Collection" -24791,97092,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuendorf-Sachsenbande,Neuendorf-Sachsenbande,"Neuendorf-Sachsenbande is a municipality in Wilstermarsch, in the district of Steinburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The municipality has an area of . On 31 December 2006, 493 people lived there. The town is has the lowest point in Germany, which is below sea level. - -History - -The town was made on April 15, 2003, when the municipalities of Neuendorf bei Wilster, Sachsenbande, and Bredensee were all joined together. - -References - -Other websites - -Steinburg (district)" -11327,41113,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/990,990,"990 is a year in the 10th century. - -Events - January 1 – Kievan Rus' adopts the Julian calendar. - Construction of the Al-Hakim Mosque begins in Cairo. - The Pax Ecclesiae, an edict by the church in southern France attempting to outlaw acts of war against non-combatants and the clergy, is promulgated. - -Births - Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor (approximate) - Edmund II of England, (approximate) - Mieszko II of Poland, king of Poland from 1025 to 1031, duke from 1032 to 1034. - Yorimichi, regent to the Japanese emperor from 1017 to 1020 and from 1020 to 1068. -Johannes Skotus, Bishop of Mecklenburg (approximate) - -Deaths - Kaneie, regent to the Japanese emperor from 986 to 990. - Al-Uqlidisi, Middle-East mathematician. - Dunash ben Labrat" -11096,39995,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population%20pyramid,Population pyramid,"A population pyramid is a graph. It has two back-to-back bars. These bars show the population in groups of ages, with woman in one side and man in the other side. - -The pyramids show the age distribution of the place, which can help in understanding and predicting the development of a country. - -There are three types of population pyramids: -Stationary pyramid shows a constant population, with equal birth rate and death rate -Expansive pyramid shows a growing population -Constrictive pyramid shows a shrinking population - -In this type of graph, a wide base means a very high birth rate and a narrow base means a low birth rate. - -Human geography -Population" -11261,40778,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip,Lip,"The lips are a body part around the mouth. There is a (usually larger) lower lip, and a smaller upper lip. They help us to eat, touch and speak. - -Lips also show emotions. - -There are diseases that can affect the lips, for example herpes simplex. Someone can get this disease by kissing or having oral sex. - -Basic English 850 words" -12277,45289,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20II%2C%20Holy%20Roman%20Emperor,"Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor","Saint Henry II (972 – 13 July 1024), called the Holy or the Saint, was the fifth and last Holy Roman Emperor of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty. - - - -972 births -1024 deaths - -Holy Roman Emperors -Christian saints -Ottonian dynasty -German Roman Catholics" -11764,43188,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryology,Embryology,"Embryology is the study of embryos and their development. The study of embryology starts with the fertilisation of an egg, and continues until the foetus stage. A broader term, developmental biology, covers the whole period of growth from the egg to adult life. - -In mammals (and some other animals) embryos develop inside the mother, in the mother's womb. Otherwise it takes place after the egg is laid. It most animals, there are various stages between the egg and the adult animal. If the stages are well-defined the process is called metamorphosis. - -Developmental biology" -5106,16298,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pablo%20Picasso,Pablo Picasso,"Pablo Ruiz Picasso (October 25 1881 – April 8 1973) was a Spanish painter and sculptor. He created over 20,000 images. - -He is considered one of the greatest artists of the 20th century. He is best known as the co-founder of cubism. A work of art is cubist when the artist opts to break up objects and reassemble them in abstract and geometric form. Picasso could draw and paint when he was very young. His first word was lápiz, the Spanish word for ""pencil"". - -Perhaps his most famous painting is Guernica, which shows the horrors of war after the bombing of the town of Guernica. He spent most of his life in France when he was an adult. - -He was 90 years old when a number of his works were shown in an exhibition at the Louvre in Paris. He was the first living artist to have an exhibition at the Louvre. - -Picasso had four children with three women. He died of heart failure in Mougins, France, on April 8 1973. - -Childhood -Pablo Picasso was born on October 25 1881 in Málaga, Spain. His father was a painter and teacher José Ruiz Blasco and his mother was María Picasso López. Until 1898, he signed his pictures with the names of his father and of his mother. After around 1901, he only used his mother's name. At the age of eight, Picasso created his first oil painting called ""The Picador"". In 1891, Pablo moved with his family to Northern Spain, where his father taught at the Instituto da Guarda. One year later, Pablo studied at this institute. Pablo's father was his teacher at this time. In 1896, he started to attend the art school in Barcelona after passing the entrance examination. One year later in 1897, Picasso started to study at the Academia San Fernando in Madrid. In 1898, he left the academy and went to a rest to Horta de Ebro. In 1900, he published his first illustrations in a newspaper in Barcelona. This exhibition had over 60 portraits. - -Beginning of the Career -Picasso made his first trip to Paris in 1900, where he lived with Max Jacob, a poet and journalist. When Max was working during the day, Pablo slept and when Max slept at night, Pablo worked. Picasso had to burn his paintings to keep himself warm. Lovers in the Street and Moulin de la Galette are examples of his Paris work from this time. Both pictures were painted in 1900. - -He went back to Madrid in 1901 where he worked for a newspaper called Arte Joven. He was responsible for illustrations. At this time, he shortened his signature from ""Pablo Ruiz y Picasso"" to ""Picasso"". This is the time his so-called Blue Period started. The two 1903 paintings, The Soup and Crouching Woman, are examples. His Blue Period ended in 1904 when he settled in Paris. - -In 1905, Picasso made a trip to Holland. In the same year, Pablo's ""Rosa Period"" started. During this period, Picasso mostly painted circus motives. Girl Balancing on a Ball and The Actor are two early paintings from this time. This period lasted until 1907. - -Picasso's Cubism period started in 1909 and ended around 1912. This period was inspired by the French painter Paul Cézanne. This period is called Cubism because of the use of cubes and other shapes. During this time, Picasso painted musical instruments, still life objects, and also his friends. - -Picasso had his first exhibition in the United States in 1911. One year later in 1912, he had his first exhibition in Great Britain. Pablo's father died in May 1913. - -During the First World War -From 1912 to 1919 was Picasso's so called Synthetic Cubism Period. During this time, he started to use collages in his paintings. His works from this time are called papiers collés. He has spent his time during the First World War in Rome. In 1914, Picasso spent the whole summer in Avignon. In 1915, he started to paint realistic again. At the end of the same year, his wife Eva died. During the World War, he also worked as a designer for Sergey Diaghilev. - -In 1917, Picasso met Olga Koklova, a Russian dancer. In the same year, he painted several realistic portraits of her and their friends. One year later, he married her. The last summer of the wartime, Picasso and his wife spent in Barcelona and Biarritz. - -After the First World War - -In 1921, Picasso's son Paul was born. Due to this occasion, he painted several paintings with his wife and his son on it. Paul was Picasso's only legitimate son. In 1925, he took part in the first Surrealist exhibition in Paris. Between 1924 and 1926, Picasso preferred to paint abstract still lives. In 1927, hes got known to Marie-Thérèse Walter. She became his model and mistress. In 1928, he started a new period where he began to make sculptural works. In 1931, he left his wife and moved with his mistress to Boisgeloup. There they lived in a country home. There, Picasso had a room for his sculptures only. Since 1932, he used Marie-Thérèse as a model. During a travel in Spain, he started to use the bullfight as a new topic of his paintings. In 1935, Picasso's daughter, Maïa, was born. At this time, he got divorced from his wife because of the birth of Maïa. In 1936, Picasso got a job as director of the Prado-Museum in Madrid. During this time, the Spanish Civil War started. German bombs fell on Guernica in Spain on 26 April 1937. Picasso used this impact to paint one of his most famous paintings, Guernica. This painting was completed in about 2 months. It was first shown in the Spanish Pavilion in Paris in 1937. - -During the Second World War -In 1938, Picasso's mother died. When the Second World War started on 1 September 1939, Picasso returned to Paris. Around 1943, he got known to the painter Françoise Gilot. She bore to him one son and one daughter. In 1941, he wrote his first play ""Le désir attrapé par la queue"" (English: Desire Caught by the Tail). It was first shown in 1944. Also in 1944, Picasso joined the communist Party. Picasso spent almost the full war time in Paris. - -After the Second World War - -Picasso's Death -On 8th of April 1973, Pablo Picasso died due to heart failure at the age of 91 years in Mougins, France. - -References - -1881 births -1973 deaths -Cardiovascular disease deaths in France -Deaths from heart failure -People from Malaga -Spanish painters -Spanish sculptors -Former Roman Catholics" -10428,37005,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Russia,Flag of Russia,"The flag of Russia is a horizontal tricolor of three colors - white on the top, blue in the middle, and red on the bottom. These Slavic tricolors are also used in flags of other Slavic nations (e.g. Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic). - -History -When Tsar Peter I traveled in the year 1699 to the Netherlands, in order to get more shipbuilding experience, he recognized the necessity that Russia needed its own flag for its navy. - -The new Russian flag should follow the model of the flag of the Netherlands (at that time three horizontal strips orange-white-blue in addition, red-white-blue after 1630), but use colors from Russia. Peter I selected the colors from the coat of arms of the Principality of Moscow: On red background a white knight on a white horse rides, wrapped into a blue coat and blue sign carrying. Later the three colors were interpreted also than symbol for the three state-carrying ostslawischen peoples in the Russian Zarenreich: White for the “white Russians”, blue for the “small Russians” and red for the “large Russians”. - -This flag was first allowed to be used on 7 May 1883. When the Bolsheviks 1917 seized power, they changed the national flag. On 22 August 1991 the white-blue-red Tricolor was determined again to the Russian national flag. - -Andreyevsky flag - -Peter I gave also another flag to the country: the so-called imperial flag of Russia. It consists of a blue St Andrews cross on a white background. This flag was used alternatively with the Trikolore. The flag is still used as the flag of the Russian navy. - -On 15 April 1996 the Russian president Boris Yeltsin signed an explanation that the victory flag is equivalent to the Russian flag. - -The victory flag is a variant of the flag, which was introduced on May 1, 1945. The difference to the flag of the Soviet Union is that the star is somewhat larger and hammer and Sichel are not used. - -References - -Russia -Russia" -9859,33730,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic%20engineering,Genetic engineering,"Genetic engineering (GE), also called genetic modification, is a branch of applied biology. It is the changing of an organism's genome using biotechnology. These methods are recent discoveries. The techniques are advanced, and full details are not given here. - -This is an overview of what can be done: - new DNA may be inserted in the host genome by getting a DNA sequence, and then putting this into the host organism by using a molecular biology vector. - genes may be removed, or ""knocked out"", using an enzyme called a zinc finger nuclease. - gene targeting is a different technique which uses recombination to change a gene. It can be used to delete a gene, remove exons, add a gene, or introduce mutations. - -An organism that is altered by genetic engineering is a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973; GM mice were made in 1974. Insulin-producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982. Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, including crops. - -Genetic engineering techniques have been used in research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent, and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells. GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes. - -Critics have objected to use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical concerns, ecological concerns. Economic concerns are raised by the fact GM techniques and GM organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Ecological concerns are more subtle. There is a risk that some genetically modified (GM) organisms may be better adapted to some niche in nature, and will take away some the habitat of the regular species. - -The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was won in 2012 by John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka for ""the discovery that ""mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent"". The Nobel Prize for -2020 was won by Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for ""the development of a method for genome editing"". Together, these awards show how close we are to the practical use of genetic changes which could fix many medical problems. - -Synthetic genomics -The ability to construct long base pair chains cheaply and accurately on a large scale allows researchers to do experiments on genomes that do not exist in nature. The field of 'synthetic genomics' is beginning to enter a productive stage. - -GM food -GMOs (genetically modified organisms) are involved in controversies over GM food. Is the food produced from GM crops is safe? Should it be labeled, and are GM crops needed to address the world's food needs? These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in most countries. - -We can now produce and use GM and GE seeds. Some large countries like India and China have already decided that GM farming is what they need to feed their populations. Other countries are still debating the issue. This debate involves scientists, farmers, politicians, companies and UN agencies. Even those involved in the production of GM seedlings are not in total agreement. - -Related pages -Genome editing -Zinc finger -Gene knockout -Gene targeting -Genetically modified food - -References" -19525,74705,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20Horse%20Comics,Dark Horse Comics,"Dark Horse Comics is an American company that creates comic books and manga. It is one of the largest ""independent"" comic book publishers. The company was founded by Mike Richardson. - -Richardson is the owner of several comic book shops in the Portland, Oregon metropolitan area. In 1986, he began to publish an anthology series called Dark Horse Presents using money from his stores. The company is based in Milwaukie, Oregon. - -Overview - -Dark Horse creates many comics based on other peoples characters and settings. These include comics based on Star Wars, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Aliens, and Who Wants to be a Superhero? Dark Horse also publishes comics by artists who own their own settings. These include Frank Miller's Sin City and 300, Mike Mignola's Hellboy, Stan Sakai's Usagi Yojimbo, Katsuhiro Otomo's Akira and Michael Chabon's The Escapist. From 1993-1996, Dark Horse published a line of superhero comics under the name Comics Greatest World. This was later renamed Dark Horse Heroes. After 1996, publication in this line slowed greatly. They stopped making any books about the characters in the early 2000's. Today, the company does very well even though they do not have their own universe of superpowered characters. - -Dark Horse's movie company, Dark Horse Entertainment, creates movies based on Dark Horse Comics. These including The Mask and Hellboy. - -The company also produces novels based on some of their more popular comic book titles, including Aliens and Predator. - -Dark Horse titles - -Original titles - -300 -The American -Age of Reptiles -Agents of Law -ArchEnemies -Badger -Barb Wire -Battle Gods: Warriors of the Chaak -Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot -Billy the Kid's Old Timey Oddities -The Blackburne CovenantBoris the Bear -BPRD -Catalyst: Agents of Change -Cheval Noir -Concrete -Cravan -Criminal Macabre -Cut -Damn Nation -The Dark Horse Book Of - -Dark Horse Presents -The Deadlander -Dr. Giggles -El Zombo Fantasma -Freaks of the Heartland -Gary Gianni's The MonsterMen -Ghost -Girl Crazy -Give Me Liberty -The Goon -Grendel -The Hammer, Kelley Jones'''Hard BoiledHaunted ManHeartbreakersHellboyHero ZeroHyperSonicKingdom of the WickedLiving With The DeadLords of MisruleMarshal LawThe MaskMaxwell StrangewellMotorheadMilkman MurdersOut of the VortexThe PerhapanautsRed Rocket 7Rex MundiSamurai: Heaven and EarthScarlet TracesThe SecretSin CitySpyBoyThe Thirteenth SonThe Umbrella AcademyUsagi YojimboH.G. Wells' The War of the WorldsWill to PowerXLicensed propertiesÆon Flux -Aliens -Aliens vs. Predator -Army of Darkness -Conan the Barbarian -The Dirty Pair -Disney's Gremlins -Digimon -Doctor Solar -Emily the Strange -The EscapistThe FogGodzillaHard LooksHarlan Ellison's Dream Corridor - -Hellgate: London -The Hire -The Incredibles -Indiana Jones -King Kong -Little Lulu -Magnus, Robot Fighter -Man with the Screaming Brain -Megatokyo - Vols. 1-3 only -Pathfinder -Penny Arcade -Planet of the Apes -Predator -Red String -Serenity: Those Left Behind (Firefly) - -Shrek -Star Wars: Crimson Empire -Star Wars: Crimson Empire II -Star Wars: Empire -Star Wars: Rebellion -Star Wars Tales -Star Wars: Legacy -Star Wars: Knights of the Old RepublicSuperman vs. The TerminatorTarzanTerminatorThe ThingVampire Hunter DXena: Warrior PrincessBuffy: The Vampire Slayer titlesSpike & DruThe OriginViva Las BuffySlayer InterruptedA Stake to the HeartDust WaltzRing of FireRemaining SunlightUninvited GuestsThe Final CutBad BloodCrash Test DemonsPale ReflectionsAngel: The HollowerFood ChainBlood of CarthageOzGilesJonathanBuffy/Angel crossover: Past LivesOut of the WoodworkHauntedFalse MemoriesWillow & TaraAutumnalUgly Little MonstersChaos Bleeds comic prequelDeath of BuffyReunionNote from the UndergroundCreatures of HabitBuffy the Vampire Slayer Season EightFray (Set 200 years+ in the future) - -Manga3x3 EyesAkiraAppleseedAstro BoyBanya: The Explosive Delivery ManBerserkBlack Magic M-66Blade of the ImmortalBlood+Bride of the Water GodBubblegum Crisis (aka Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal)Cannon God ExaxxionCaravan KiddClub 9Crying FreemanDominion: Tank PoliceDomuDrakuunEdenGantzGhost in the ShellGunsmith CatsGunsmith Cats BURSTHellsingHipiraIntron DepotJu-onKing of WolvesKurosagi Corpse Delivery ServiceLady SnowbloodLegend of Mother SarahLone Wolf and CubLost WorldMailMetropolisMPD PsychoNextworldOh My Goddess!OldboyOrionOutlandersOctopus GirlPath of the AssassinReiko the Zombie ShopSatsuma GishidenKatsuya Terada's The Monkey KingThe RingSamurai ExecutionerSeraphic FeatherMasakuzu Katsura's Shadow Lady: Sudden DeathShadow Star (Narutaru)Spirit of WonderTomie (Museum of Terror)TrigunTranslucentVenus WarsWhat's Michael?You're Under ArrestReferencesDark Horse Comics: The First Twenty Years'' (by Mike Richardson, Frank Miller and others, 384 pages, Dark Horse, March 2008, ) - -Other websites - Dark Horse Comics - Official Site - Things From Another World - Online retailer of comics and collectibles, sister company of Dark Horse Comics - - -1986 establishments in the United States -20th-century establishments in Oregon" -18729,70290,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow%20jersey,Rainbow jersey,"The Rainbow jersey is a special jersey worn by world champion cyclists during races. - -It is mainly white with five horizontal bands in the UCI colours around the chest. From the bottom up the colours are: green, yellow, black, red and blue, the same colours that appear in the rings on the olympic flag. There are different jerseys for each discipline (road racing, track racing, cyclo-cross, BMX, and the types of mountain biking). - -A cyclist must wear the jersey when competing in the same discipline, category and speciality that he is world champion for. For example, the world road race champion would wear the jersey while competing in stage races and one-day races, but would not during time trials. Similarly, on the track, the world individual pursuit champion would only wear the jersey when competing in other individual pursuit events. - -A champion who does not wear the rainbow jersey can be fined 2500 to 5000 Swiss francs. - -The team's sponsor pays a lot of money to have their name on each rider's jersey. They can still put their names on the world champion's jersey, but probably smaller because there is less space. Sponsors do not mind because the world champion gets a lot more publicity than ordinary riders. - -A world champion who is leading a stage race wears the race-leader's jersey, not the world champion's, but only while he is the leader. - -References - -Cycling" -13971,51778,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq%20War,Iran–Iraq War,"The Iran–Iraq War was a war between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran lasting from September 1980 to August 1988. It was commonly called the Persian Gulf War until Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. The Iraq-Kuwait war, which the United States entered, later was called the Persian Gulf War or the Gulf War. - -The war began when Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980, after a long history of border disputes and demands for the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime. Iraqi forces did well at the beginning of the war, taking Iranian Khuzestan, but before long they were stopped and forced out of Iran. The war continued for years, and neither side gained much ground in the resulting trench warfare. About a million soldiers died and a similar number of civilians. Both sides used blockade, which other countries opposed. Despite several calls for an end to the fighting by the United Nations Security Council, the two countries fought until 20 August 1988; the last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003. The war changed politics in the Middle East and worldwide. - -The Iran–Iraq War is also noted for Iraq's use of chemical weapons and biological weapons against Iranian troops and civilians. The role of the United States and Soviet Union was very important, dating back to the Cold War. In 1953, the US encouraged a coup d'état against Mohammad Mosaddegh, who was the Prime Minister of Iran. Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power, supporting his military and his government. The United States sold many weapons to the Shah's government. Meanwhile, revolutionaries of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party overthrew the king of Iraq and, with the help of the Soviet Union, built up their army. Starting with the United Arab Republic, they sought to unite all the Arabs into one state, including the Arab minority in Iran. - -After the war started, (especially between 1983 and 1988) the United States sold weapons to the Iraqis. This move was largely due to America's interest in containing the revolutionary Ayatollah Khomeini. Thus, both the Soviet Union and the United States supplied Iraq with weapons to use against Iran. The United States had sold many weapons to Iran before the war. it was believed the soviet union was selling weapons to both sides during the war. - -Related pages - Persian Gulf - Gulf War - -References - -1980s in Asia -1980s in Iran -Wars involving Iraq -20th century in Iraq" -11394,41355,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collingwood%20Football%20Club,Collingwood Football Club,"Collingwood Football Club, the Magpies, is a club which plays Australian Rules Football in the AFL. It comes from Collingwood, a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria. In the AFL/VFL, it has won 15 premierships. - -History - -The Collingwood Football Club was formed in February 1892. Collingwood played its first game in the Victorian Football Association on 7 May 1892, against Carlton. In 1902, Collingwood won its first premiership against the Essendon Football Club. - -The Victorian Football League (VFL) formed in 1897. Collingwood was one of the original teams (along with Fitzroy, Melbourne, St Kilda, Carlton, Essendon, South Melbourne and Geelong). In the early years of the VFL, Collingwood was the most successful team; it won 11 premierships in the first 40 years. They won the most recent AFL premiership against St Kilda in 2010. The teams had to play a second match after the scores were equal at the end of the first Grand Final game. - -References - -Other websites - - Football Club website - -Australian Football League" -18076,67968,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britsk%C3%A9%20listy,Britské listy,"Britské listy is an Internet cultural and political daily published in the Czech Republic. It specialises in critical analysis of Czech politics; some Czech commentators consider this as ""left-wing views"". It is editorially open and will publish stimulating pieces by authors from any part of the political spectrum - -Other websites - Britské listy - Focus on the Czech Republic (The best of Czech daily Britské listy) - -Czech Republic -Politics of Europe -Publications" -4824,15243,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver%20Stone,Oliver Stone,"William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American movie director, producer, writer and actor. He was born in New York City and raised in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. Stone became well known in the late 1980s and early 1990s for directing a series of movies about the Vietnam War. He was in the war as an infantry soldier. Stone's movies are often about political and cultural issues. - -Filmography - -As director - -As actor -Battle of Love's Return (1971) -Platoon (1986) (cameo) -Wall Street (cameo) (1987) -The Doors (1991) (cameo) -Dave (cameo) (1993) -Any Given Sunday (1999) -Torrente 3: El Protector (cameo) (2005) -Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (cameo) (2010) -Graystone (film) (actor) (2011) - -Screenwriter only -Midnight Express (1978) -Conan the Barbarian (with John Milius) (1982) -Scarface (1983) -Year of the Dragon (with Michael Cimino) (1985) -8 Million Ways to Die (with David Lee Henry) (1985) -Evita (with Alan Parker) (1996) - -Producer/executive producer only -Sugar Cookies (1973) -Blue Steel (1989) -Reversal of Fortune (1990) -From Hollywood to Hanoi (1992) -Zebrahead (1992) -South Central (1992) -Wild Palms (1993) (TV) -The Joy Luck Club (1993) -The New Age (1994) -Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995) (TV) -Freeway (1996) -The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996) -Cold Around the Heart (1996) -Killer: A Journal of Murder (1996) -Gravesend (1997) -The Last Days of Kennedy and King (1998) -Savior (1998) -The Corruptor (1999) -The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001) (TV) -Comandante (2003) -Persona Non Grata (2003) - -Other websites - -1946 births -Living people -Academy Award winning directors -Actors from Stamford, Connecticut -Actors from Manhattan -American movie actors -American movie editors -American television producers -Movie directors from New York City -Movie producers from New York City -Screenwriters from New York City -Writers from Connecticut -Writers from Manhattan" -10230,35477,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biella,Biella,"Biella () is an Italian city in Piemonte. It has 45,822 people. - -A.S.D. Junior Biellese Libertas is the football club of the town. - -References - -Cities in Piedmont -Capital cities in Italy" -8945,30382,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus%20number,Opus number,"Opus or the shortened form op. after the title of a piece of music means “work”. It is followed by a number. When a composer writes their first piece of music it is followed by the term “opus 1”. The next composition would then be called “opus 2”, etc. - -Giving pieces of music opus numbers helps us to identify which piece of music (from a certain composer) that composition is. For example: Beethoven wrote lots of piano sonatas. His first Piano sonata in A flat major has the opus number of op.26. This shows that he wrote this sonata when he was young in his composing career. Many years later, he wrote another piano sonata which is also in A flat major, and this piece one has the opus number of 110 (op. 110). - -You cannot always tell from a composer’s opus numbers the order in which the works were composed. Until around the end of the 18th century, opus numbers were only given to pieces of music which were published. - -Some musicologists (people who study and write about music) have studied all the works by a famous composer and have given them a catalogue number. For example Mozart’s music does not have opus numbers. Some of them are long operas, others are tiny little pieces for the piano he might have written in a hurry one day. A man called Köchel made a list of every single work by Mozart and gave them K numbers (K for Köchel). His numbering goes up to 622. This is useful, for example, to tell the difference between his Symphony in G minor K183 and his Symphony in G minor K550. - -The plural of “opus” is “opuses” in English. This is because the Latin plural is opera which is rather confusing to English speakers as the word is already used in musical terminology. - -The word ""opus"" can also refer to the ""work"" of an artist. (For example: ""This opus was composed by Chopin,"" or ""This opus is the last Piano sonata that Beethoven composed"") - -An artist's ""magnum opus"" means his or her ""greatest"" work. - -Musical terminology" -21187,81130,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious%20toleration,Religious toleration,"Religious toleration is people allowing other people to think or practice other religions and beliefs. In a country with a state religion, toleration means that the government allows other religions to be there. Many countries in past centuries allowed other religions but only in privacy. This has become rare. Others allow public religion but practice religious discrimination in other ways. It allow to follow and practice. - -Related pages - Freedom of religion - Religious persecution - Multiculturalism - Islamophobia - Toleration - Pluralism - -More reading - -Other websites - -History of Religious Tolerance - -Human rights -Religious ethics" -19124,72363,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan%20language,Etruscan language,"The Etruscan language was spoken and written by the Etruscans in the ancient area of Etruria (what is now Tuscany, western Umbria and northern Latium) and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna (where the Gauls took the place of the Etruscans), in Italy. - -Inscriptions have been found in northwestern and west-central Italy in the region that still has a name that came from the Etruscans, Tuscany (from Latin tusc ""Etruscans"") and in Latium, north of Rome, in Umbria west of the Tiber, around Capua in Campania and in the Po Valley to the north of Etruria. That is probably the area in Italy in which the language was once spoken. - -Other websites - Etruscan News Online, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies. -Etruscan News back issues , Center for Ancient Studies at New York University. -Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names. - Viteliu: The Languages of Ancient Italy at web.archive.org. - The Etruscan Language, the linguistlist.org site. Links to many other Etruscan language sites. - -References - -Language isolates -Etruscan civilization" -6077,19532,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat,Fat,"Fat is one of the three main types of macronutrients. Fats are found in many foods. They are made of macromolecules called lipids. Lipids are based on long-chain fatty acids. Some of these are essential because the body cannot make them. - -Types and functions -There are three different types of fats: Unsaturated fats, Saturated fats, and Trans fats. - -Unsaturated fats -Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. They are considered useful fats because they can improve blood cholesterol levels, and ease heart rhythms. Most vegetable oils are liquid at room temperature have unsaturated fats. There are two kinds of unsaturated fats, Mono-unsaturated fats, and polyunsaturated fats. It is commonly found in avocados, nuts, peanuts, seeds, wild fish, and olive oil. For polyunsaturated fats, it is recommended to have a omega-3 to omega-6 ratio of 1:1. - -Saturated fats -Saturated fats will likely have no benefits. They are mainly found in animal foods, but a few plant foods are also high in saturated fats. Too much saturated fat in your diet can lead to heart disease and other health problems, such as gaining weight or increasing the risk of heart disease or stroke. People should not eat too much saturated fats. You should limit saturated fat to less than 10% of your daily calories. It can usually be found in dairy products, meat products, grain-based desserts. - -Trans fats -Trans fatty acids are commonly called trans fats. They are a kind of unsaturated fat. Trans fats may be natural or they may be made. Naturally-occurring trans fats are found in the guts of some animals and foods which are made from these animals. Artificial trans fats are made in an industrial process. The process adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to make them more solid. Trans fats are worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats. They are most likely found in frying, baked goods, and processed foods. - -Roles - -Good roles -Fats are used to absorb or get nutrients, like Fat-soluble Vitamins for humans. It is used as a source of backup energy in cases when carbohydrates are not available, or people can not use it at that time. People need more than 20 to 35% of daily calories from fat. Also, fats play a role in helping people's body maintain or keep the core (center) temperature. However, they are also harmful, in other words, they have bad effects on human's bodies. - -Good fats & bad fats -Bad fats, in other words, trans fats, have no known health benefits and will damage someone's heart and take them away from healthy. People might get diseases like blindness, which means they can not see anything because of having too much cholesterol and other fats. Most of the foods that contain these types of fats are solid at room temperature, such as butter and animal meat. On the other hand, good fats are naturally found in foods and will not damage the human's organs. The example foods of good fats are avocados, eggs, and nuts. - -Important types - -Unsaturated fatty acids are very important. They are called by where their double bond is placed. Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3) and omega-6 fatty acids (ω-6) are essential: you need them both. They help build longer molecules which do cell signaling in different tissues. There are over 20 different signaling paths that control a wide array of bodily functions. - -Eat fat and burn fat -Why do you need to eat fat to burn fat? - -Medium-chain triglycerides are good for burning fat. They are easily absorbed, digested, and reused as energy. Eating milk fat, palm oil, and coconut oil will burn fat because they contain medium-chain triglycerides. -Fat can be important for people, but too much fat is bad. The fat we eat can provide energy for us. Not all fatty foods are good for you, such as pizza, french fries, and hamburgers. The fat from those may cause you became fatter, and your health may become terrible. - -Diet -Fats also provide long-term energy for humans and, in cold climates, a layer of insulation to keep the body warm. They help the body use the vitamins found in foods. Fats are also good for the skin and hair. Olive oil is an especially healthy fat. Many types of fish also contain healthy fat, for example salmon, sardines, herring, and tuna. But if too much fat collects in the body, a person can become too heavy. The energy given by fats is used by moving around or exercising. Some vegetables like celery or carrots contribute much less to the bodies fat supply. Though being very important for the human body, it can also harmful in large amounts. - -Health risks - -Too much fat (especially Trans fats) in the body can cause diseases. Indeed, obesity, meaning too much fat, is sometimes called a disease itself. One disease from excess fat is called ""fatty liver"". It is a condition which can be resolved by eating different foods. Fatty liver is when someone has too many fats in their liver, but it can also be associated by alcohol or metabolic syndrome. Fatty liver can be fixed by exercise and better diet. This is one of the hidden danger of fats. - -Another hidden danger of fats is that it can cause some heart diseases. One example is Heart Failure. Heart Failure is an illness that does not have enough heart pumps blood. It lowers the leading of blood flow.The main ways to avoid these issues are exercise and good eating. Exercise reduces excess body fat and strengthens the body. Healthy diet keeps nutritious balance in your body and helps remove the fats in your body. - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Lipids -Macromolecules" -7087,22434,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray,X-ray,"X-radiation is a kind of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays are waves of X-radiation. X-rays have a shorter wavelength, and therefore more energy, than ultraviolet radiation. They have a much shorter wavelength than visible light (the light that we can see). Radiation with shorter wavelengths (more energy) than the X-ray is called Gamma radiation (γ-rays). These are all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. - -The wavelength of X-rays covers a wide range. Most X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometres. This corresponds with frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. - -X-rays can go through many solid materials. For this reason, taking photograms with X-rays is used in medicine in order to see bones and other things inside the body. Sometimes the term ""X-Ray"" means these pictures instead of the radiation that makes them. - -What these images show will depend on three things: Rayleigh scattering, Compton scattering and photoabsorption. The images show bone because it is dense enough that X-rays are not able to pass through it. Instead, the X-rays are either absorbed or scattered. The images do not show skin and muscle, however, because these tissues are transparent enough for the X-rays to pass through them without being absorbed too much. To detect tumors, other imaging devices are used; such as magnetic resonance imaging. A computed tomography scanner combines an X-ray machine and computer to construct a three dimensional (3D) picture. This has some ability to see other things besides bone. - -X-rays are made by hitting metal with fast-moving electrons. They are photons, tiny packets of energy that can move atoms and change chemicals in the body. They are ionizing radiation but the things they do depend on the wavelength of the X-rays (or how much energy they have). X-rays with smaller energies (""soft"" x-rays) cause the photoelectric effect. Mid-level energies cause Compton scattering. High-level energies (""hard"" X-rays) cause pair production. X-rays used for making pictures of people have low to medium energy. Radiation therapy that treats cancer uses Compton scattering and sometimes Pair production. - -There are small amounts of X-rays in the air. Like other energy in the air, X-rays can change living cells. Exposing the human body to high doses of X-rays for a long time is dangerous. It can cause cancer. However, cancer cells are hurt more easily, so X-rays are sometimes used to kill them. - -Related pages - X-ray crystallography - Interventional Radiology - -References - -Medical procedures -Light -Electromagnetism -Medical imaging" -10257,35726,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingray,Stingray,"The stingrays are a large suborder of the rays. They are cartilaginous fish related to sharks. They are in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes, which consists of nine families. - -Most stingrays have one or more barbed stings on the tail, which is used only for self-defence. The sting may reach about 35 cm, and its underside has two grooves with venom glands. The sting is covered with a thin layer of skin, the sheath, in which the venom is held. A few members of the suborder, such as the manta rays and the porcupine ray, do not have stings. - -Stingrays are common in coastal tropical and subtropical marine waters throughout the world. There are species in warm temperate oceans, and some found in the ocean. Some live in fresh water. Most stingrays live at or near the bottom of the water, but some are pelagic. - -Lifestyle -Stingrays settle on the bottom while feeding, often leaving only their eyes and tail visible. Coral reefs are favorite feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide. - -The flattened bodies of stingrays allow them to hide themselves. Stingrays agitate the sand and hide beneath it. Their eyes are on top of their bodies and their mouths on the undersides. Stingrays use smell and electro-receptors (like those of sharks) to find their prey. - -Stingrays feed mostly on molluscs, crustaceans, and occasionally on small fish. Some stingrays' mouths have two powerful, shell-crushing plates, while other species have sucking mouthparts that bring in the plankton. - -Reproduction -Stingrays are ovoviviparous, bearing live young in 'litters' of five to thirteen. The female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine 'milk'. - -At the Sea Life London Aquarium two female stingrays have delivered seven baby stingrays, although the mothers have not been near a male for two years. ""Rays have been known to store sperm and not give birth until they decide the timing is right"". - -Like all fish, stingrays get little parasites (such as flukes or copepods) on their gills or body. A cleaner fish helps the stingrays by eating the parasites it can get at. - -Families -There are eight families in the stingray group. They are: -Hexatrygonidae (sixgill stingray), -Plesiobatidae (deep water stingray), -Urolophidae (stingarees), -Urotrygonidae (round rays), -Dasyatidae (whiptail stingrays), -Potamotrygonidae (river stingrays), -Gymnuridae (butterfly rays), and -Myliobatidae (eagle rays). - -References - -Rays -Venomous animals" -22000,83731,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerns,Kerns,"Kerns is a municipality of the canton of Obwalden in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website of Kerns - -Municipalities of Obwalden" -16050,61631,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjul,Banjul,"Banjul (formerly Bathurst) is the capital city of the Gambia. About 31,000 people live in the city. But the total urban area is many times larger with 413,397 people. The city is on St Mary's Island (or Banjul Island) where the Gambia River enters the Atlantic Ocean. The island is connected to the rest of Gambia by ferries to the north and bridges to the south. Banjul is the main urban area of The Gambia. It is the country's economic and administrative center. - -Peanut processing is the main industry of the country. bee's wax, palm wood, palm oil, and animal skins are also transported from its port. - -Things to see in the city include the Gambian National Museum, the Albert Market, Banjul State House, Banjul Court House, two cathedrals and several major mosques. The city is served by the Banjul International Airport. - -History -In 1816, the British founded Banjul as a trading post. Banjul was also used to help stop the slave trade. It was first named Bathurst after Henry Bathurst. The name was changed to Banjul in 1973. - -Climate - -Banjul has a very warm climate year round. Under the Köppen climate classification, Banjul features a tropical wet and dry climate. The city features a lengthy dry season, spanning from November to June and a relatively short wet season covering the remaining four months. However, during those four months, Banjul tends to see heavy precipitation. August is usually the rainiest month, with on average more than 300 mm of precipitation falling. Temperatures are somewhat constant, though it tends to be slightly cooler during the wet season than the dry season. - -According to a Gambian government minister, Banjul is at risk of submerging under water by a metre rise in sea levels as a result of climate change and global warming. - -The highest temperature recorded since records began in Banjul was 47.0 °C (116.6 °F) on 31 July 1980 and the lowest was 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 1 May 1976. The coldest day on record in Banjul was 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) on 4 March 1988 and the warmest night on record was 31.0 °C (87.8 °F) on 13 April 1988. - -References - -Other websites - - Banjul Photos, Hotels, Maps & Links - Gambia Site with history of Banjul - -Cities in the Gambia -Capital cities in Africa -Local Government Areas of the Gambia" -21639,82449,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%20Formula%20One%20World%20Championship,1981 Formula One World Championship,"The 1981 Formula One season was the 32nd of the championship. The champion was Nelson Piquet in a close battle. - -Season review - -1981 Drivers Championship final standings - -Formula One seasons -1981 in sports" -17505,66322,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1364,1364," - -Events - Charles V becomes King of France. - May 12 – Foundation of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. - September 29 – The Breton War of Succession ends with the victory of the House of Montfort at the battle of Auray. - Philip of Anjou becomes Titular Emperor of Costantinoples and Prince of Taranto. - Rana Kshetra Singh succeeds Rana Hamir Singh as ruler of Mewar (now part of western India). - Anavema Reddy succeeds Anavota Reddy as ruler of the Reddy Dynasty in Andhra Pradesh (now part of southern India). - The Ava Dynasty establish rule in present-day northern Burma. - -Births - November 30 – John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (died 1390) - Gyaltsab Je, first throne holder of the Gelug tradition of Buddhism (died 1432) - Charles II, Duke of Lorraine (died 1431) - Niccolò de' Niccoli, Italian humanist (died 1437) - Qazi Zadeh, Persian mathematician (died 1436) - Christine de Pizan (died 1430) - -Deaths - April 8 – King John II of France (born 1319) - June 30 – Arnost of Pardubice, Archbishop of Prague (b. 1297) - August 5 – Emperor Kogon of Japan (born 1313) - September 29 – Charles, Duke of Brittany - Gajah Mada, prime minister of the Majapahit empire - King Valdemar III of Denmark (born 1314) - Rana Hamir Singh, ruler of Mewar - Anavota Reddy, ruler of the Reddy Dynasty in Andhra Pradesh" -20880,80307,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick%2C%20Georgia,"Brunswick, Georgia","Brunswick is a city in the U.S. state of Georgia and the county seat of Glynn County. In 2006, the city had an estimated population of 16,074 and an estimated metropolitan population of 100,613. Brunswick is the principal city of the Brunswick, GA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is often called Metropolitan Brunswick. - -References - -Other websites - City of Brunswick website - Brunswick CVB - The Brunswick News - Downtown Development District - Sidney Lanier - Sidney Lanier Bridge - Coastal Georgia Community College - Historical markers in Glynn County - Liberty ship marker and model - Master list of Liberty ships - History of Brunswick - ""Welcome Ships for Victory"" Photograph collection at the Brunswick-Glynn County Library that depict World War II cargo ship building activities from 1943 to 1945. - -Cities in Georgia (U.S. state) -County seats in Georgia" -21036,80744,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton%20of%20Bern,Canton of Bern,"The Swiss canton of Bern has about 947,000 people. The canton is in west-central Switzerland and the city of Bern is its capital. - -Districts -As of April 2004, there are 398 municipalities of the canton of Bern within the following 26 administrative districts: - - Aarberg with capital Aarberg - Aarwangen with capital Aarwangen - Bern with capital Berne - Biel with capital Biel - Büren with capital Büren an der Aare - Burgdorf with capital Burgdorf - Courtelary with capital Courtelary - Erlach with capital Erlach - Fraubrunnen with capital Fraubrunnen - Frutigen with capital Frutigen - Interlaken with capital Interlaken - Konolfingen with capital Konolfingen - Laupen with capital Laupen - Moutier with capital Moutier - La Neuveville with capital La Neuveville - Nidau with capital Nidau - Niedersimmental with capital Wimmis - Oberhasli with capital Meiringen - Obersimmental with capital Blankenburg - Saanen with capital Saanen - Schwarzenburg with capital Schwarzenburg - Seftigen with capital Belp - Signau with capital Langnau im Emmental - Thun with capital Thun - Trachselwald with capital Trachselwald - Wangen with capital Wangen an der Aare - -Other websites - - Official website - Official statistics - Berner Oberland Tourism - Biel/Bienne and Seeland Tourism - Bernese Jura Tourism" -22028,83818,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windisch,Windisch,"Windisch is a municipality of the district of Brugg in the canton (or state) of Aargau in the country Switzerland. In 2014, about 7,143 people lived in Windisch. Home of the Swiss railway archives - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of Aargau" -10249,35616,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlstad,Karlstad,"Karlstad is a city in Värmland, Sweden. About 58,544 people live there. Karlstad has a University and a Cathedral. - -References - -Other websites - - Official site" -15135,57103,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20Archer,Jeffrey Archer,"Jeffrey Howard Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare (born 15 May 1940) is a British author and politician. He was a member of Parliament, Deputy Chairman of the Conservative Party and since 1992 is a life peer. His political career ended after an indictment for perjury. He is married to Mary Archer, a prominent scientist in solar power. - -Biography - -Early life -Jeffrey Howard Archer was born in the City of London Maternity Hospital. When he was two weeks old he and his family moved to the seaside town of Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, where he spent most of his young life. - -At Oxford he was successful in athletics, competing in sprinting and hurdling. He also made a name for himself in raising money for the then little-known charity Oxfam, famously claiming to have obtained the support of The Beatles in a charity fundraising drive (it was actually Pat Davidson of Oxfam). The band accepted the invitation to visit the Senior Common Room of his Brasenose College, where they were photographed with Archer and dons of the college, although they did not play there. It was during this period that he met his future wife, Mary. His parents were John and Mary Archer who gave birth to him in 1940. Jeffery Archer only had one sibling and that was his brother, Thomas Archer who is a renowned politician for the conservative party. - -At the age of 29, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for a Lincolnshire constituency, holding the seat for the Conservative Party in a by-election on 4 December 1969. - -In Parliament, Archer was on the left of the Conservative Party, rebelling against some of his party's policies. He urged free TV licences for the elderly and was against museum charges. Archer voted against restoring the death penalty saying it was barbaric and obscene. - -Archer had to resign because of a scandal in October 1986 when the Sunday newspaper The News of the World led on the story ""Tory boss Archer pays vice-girl"". The article claimed that Archer had paid Monica Coghlan, a prostitute, £2000 through another person at Waterloo Station to go abroad. Unlike the Daily Star, the newspaper did not allege that Archer had actually slept with Coghlan. Archer sued the Daily Star. - -Perjury and downfall -Archer had been selected by the Conservative Party as their candidate for the London mayoral election of 2000. He was forced to withdraw from the race when it was revealed that he was facing a charge of perjury. - -On 4 February, 2000 Archer was expelled from the Conservative Party for five years. On 26 September, 2000 he was charged with perjury and perverting the course of justice (obstruction of justice) during the 1987 libel trial. - -A few months before the beginning of the perjury trial, Archer began performing in the star role in a courtroom play (which he also wrote) called The Accused. The play was staged at London's Theatre Royal Haymarket and concerns the court trial of an alleged murderer from beginning to end. The play used the innovation of assigning the role of jury in the trial to the audience, with theatre-goers voting on whether Archer's character was innocent or guilty at the end of each night's performance. Archer would attend his real trial during the day and be judged in his fictional trial at the theatre in the evening. - -The real life trial began on 30 May, 2001. On 19 July, 2001 Lord Archer was found guilty of perjury. He was sentenced to a total of four years' imprisonment by Mr. Justice Potts. The most ironic aspect of his trial was that he had fabricated the alibi for the wrong date. Archer never spoke during the trial. Ted Francis was found not guilty of perverting the course of justice. - -On 21 July, 2003 he was released on licence, after serving half of his sentence, from HMP Hollesley Bay, Suffolk. - -Many of Lord Archer's friends remained loyal to him. - -In addition, Archer lost an £8m libel case about false accusations in his book twist of tales, portraying Major General James Oluleye to be a thief. Oluleye was a man who left a legacy of honesty and integrity for the future generations of Nigerians, See his book ""Architecturing a Destiny"" and ""Military Leadership in Nigeria"". - -Bibliography -1975 - In the Lap of the Gods -1976 - Not a Penny More, Not a Penny Less -1977 - Shall We Tell the President? -1979 - Kane and Abel -1980 - Willy visits the Square World -1980 - A Quiver Full of Arrows (Short story collection) -1982 - The Prodigal Daughter -1984 - First Among Equals -1986 - A Matter of Honour -1988 - A Twist in the Tale (Short story collection) -1991 - As the Crow Flies -1993 - Honour Among Thieves -1994 - Twelve Red Herrings (Short story collection) -1996 - The Fourth Estate -1998 - The Eleventh Commandment -2000 - To Cut A Long Story Short (Short story collection) -2002 - Sons of Fortune -2002 - A Prison Diary -2003 - A Prison Diary Volume 2 -2004 - A Prison Diary Volume 3 -2006 - False Impression -2006 - Cat O'Nine Tales (Short story collection) -2007 - The Gospel According to Judas (with Francis J. Moloney) - -References - -Further reading - -Other websites -Interview about becoming Mayor of London at BBC News -Jeffrey Archer's official Web site -News In Depth: The Archer trial at BBC News - ""The Times"" - ""Activists demand tough line on crime - Conservative Party conference"" - October 7 1993. - Coverage of the Archer trial at The Guardian - Review of Jeffrey Archer's 2000 courtroom play, The Accused at Curtain Up - Anglia shares at BBC News - Archer in DTI shares inquiry at The Guardian - The webpage for the book 'The Wonga Coup' - Real Audio interview with Jeffrey Archer by Don Swaim at Wired For Books - -1940 births -Living people -English novelists -Former Conservative Party (UK) MPs -Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies -United Kingdom Life Peers -Writers from Somerset" -7713,25211,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1285,1285," - -Events - January 6 – Archbishop Jakub Świnka orders all priests subject to his bishopry in Poland to deliver sermons in Polish rather than German, thus further unifying the Catholic Church in Poland and fostering a national identity. - April 25 – Mamluk sultan Qalawun begins a siege of the Crusader fortress of Margat (in present-day Syria), a major stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller thought to be impregnable; he captures the fortress a month later. - September 4 – Roger of Lauria defeats King Philip III of France in a naval battle off of Barcelona. - The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I of England, defines the jurisdictions of church and state in England, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only. - The Second statute of Westminster is passed in England, reforming various laws; it includes the famous clause de donis conditionalibus, considered one of the fundamental institutes of medieval law in England. - The English romantic poem The Lay of Havelok the Dane is written (approximate date). - Tran Hung Dao leads Vietnamese forces in victory over an invading Yuan dynasty Mongol army." -4168,13026,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy%20Central,Comedy Central,"Comedy Central is an American cable channel that specializes in comedy and stand-up. Programs include TV shows, movies, and stand-up comedy. It was launched on June 1, 1991. It's headquarters are in New York City, New York. It is a merger between MTV Networks' HA! and HBO's Comedy Channel. - -The station's programs include South Park, The Colbert Report, The Daily Show with PhamVietDung, Tosh.0 with Daniel Tosh With PhanVietDung, Futurama, and Drama. - -Comedy Central also features a Secret Stash program. Airing on late Saturday night, Secret Stash would show generally R-rated movies and stand-up comedy. The program is mostly unedited, uncut, leaving language in that is normally cut out. Sometimes nudity is shown. - -Other websites - The official site - -1991 establishments in New York (state) -American television channels -Viacom" -16995,64575,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%20grant,Land grant,"A land grant is a gift of real estate - land or privileges - made by a government or other authority as a reward for services to an individual, especially as rewards for military service. Grants of land are also awarded to individuals and companies to help develop unused land in relatively unpopulated countries. - -Roman soldiers were given rewards at the end of their service including cash or land (praemia). Augustus fixed the amount in AD 5 at 3000 denarii and by the time of Caracalla it had risen to 5000 denarii. - -In old California, the King of Spain frequently gave land to people he liked, or who helped him. - -References - -Business -Property" -4190,13146,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai,Samurai,"The samurai (or bushi) were Japanese warriors. They were members of the important military class before Japanese society changed in 1868. The samurai were also considered as a type of hereditary nobility as well. - -The word samurai comes from the Japanese verb saburau, which means to serve someone and look up to them. - -History of Samurai - -In the 12th century, two military clans, the Minamoto and the Taira, were very powerful. They controlled Japan. They fought wars against each other. In 1192, Minamoto no Yoritomo became the first shogun. He became the ruler of all of Japan. He started a new government in Kamakura. This “Kamakura” government was from 1185-1333. It made the samurai the ruling class of Japanese society. - -The samurai did many wars in the Warring States period (1467-1573). At that time, there were many independent areas in Japan. Those areas fought each other all the time, so Japan needed many samurai. Many of the famous samurai movies by Akira Kurosawa were about this time. - -Toyotomi Hideyoshi won many wars against other clans. When he made Japan one country, he developed a social caste system. This caste system was completed by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the rulers after him. Between the wars, many samurai had always worked on farms. Hideyoshi said that all samurai must either live on farms or live in castle towns with other warriors. Hideyoshi also made a law that only samurai could have swords. - -The samurai became very powerful and important near the end of the Edo period (1603-1867) and in the Shinto period. In the Edo period, they were the most important social caste. All samurai had to live in castle towns. The samurais' lords paid them with rice. Some samurai did not have lords. These samurai were called ""Rōnin"". The ""Rōnin"" caused some problems for Japan in the early Edo period. - -In 1615, Tokugawa won a very important battle when he took Osaka Castle. The Tokugawa clan did not have any more rivals. Japan became very peaceful for about 250 years. In these 250 years, military skills became less important. Most samurai became bureaucrats, teachers or artists. - -In 1868, feudalism ended in Japan. This was the end of the samurai class. - -Weapons - -Weapons used by the samurai included: - Japanese swords, see katana - The yumi (longbow) - Firearms: from 16th century - Cannons - Pole weapons bearing blades, and spears - Staff weapons (no blades) - Clubs and truncheons - Chain weapons - -Beliefs in people -A samurai believed that his swords held his soul. That made the sword the most important thing he had. - -Samurai were allowed to fight anyone who did not show them proper respect. Every sword had to be tested. To do this, the owner of the sword could execute a criminal. This allowed the warrior to test his sword's sharpness. Samurai led their lives according to the ethical code of bushido (""the way of the warrior""). That meant loyalty to one's master, self-discipline and respectful, ethical behaviour. When a samurai lost his master, also called daimyo, he became a Ronin. - -If a samurai were defeated or he dishonored himself by not following the code of bushido, he had to commit seppuku (ritual suicide). Part of the seppuku ritual is cutting the stomach or abdomen. That part of the ritual is called hara-kiri. To a samurai, death was better than having no honour or being captured by the enemy. Another reason to commit Seppuku was the death of the daimyo. With this ritual, a samurai was able to show how loyal he was to his dead master. There were periods when Seppuku was forbidden, but some samurai still committed it. - -The bushi's training methods, like meditation, judo and kendo, are still followed today. There is no longer a samurai class in modern Japan, but the successors of these families are well-respected. - -Women - -Samurai women were trained to defend themselves and their children. They usually did this when their warrior husbands were busy in battles. This is why samurai women were trained to handle polearms (naginata) and short daggers (tanto). During the Edo period, Japanese women were trained to handle naginata by the age of 18. The short kaiken knife was used by young women to defend their virtue or, if they lost it, to take their own life. - -During the Edo period, women's education became very important. Girls were taught to write, read, dance, etc. beginning at a young age. While the main criteria for marriage changed, among the most important were physical attractiveness and education. Special books were written for women. They mainly taught how to take care of house and children. By the end of the Edo period, women attended philosophical and literary classes. - -The term ""samurai"" refers to males specifically. There were a few women who were samurai. One of the most famous was Itagaki. She lived during the end of the Heian period. She owned her own army of about 3,000 warriors. In 1199, Itagaki fought against 10,000 Heike soldiers. She was famous for being very good at handling the naginata sword. - -Hino Tomiko ruled in place of her husband, Ashikaga Yoshimasa (8th shogun). - -Toyotomi Hideyoshi's mistress became the master of Osaka Castle after his death. - -Yamauchi Kazutoyo's wife, Chiyo, was one of the most loyal wives known in Japanese history. She supported her husband during hard times, saving to buy a horse for him. Yamauchi Kazutoyo never took a mistress, though it was a known tradition for samurai. He never left Chiyo, even though she had only one child. - -Related pages - Katana - Tachi - Japanese sword schools - Wakizashi - -References - -Other websites - - Samurai from childhood - Hanami Web - Samurai" -5127,16340,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1025,1025,"1025 (MXXV) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the twenty-fifth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century. - -Events - Emir Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis of the Zirid dynasty in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) attempts to retake Sicily but fails. - -Births - August 28 - Emperor Go-Reizei of Japan - -References" -12175,44867,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate%20Atlantis,Stargate Atlantis,"Stargate Atlantis is a television series. It is a spin-off of the Stargate SG-1 series. The series starts at the beginning of the eighth season of Stargate SG-1. Mika McKinnon was a science adviser for this show and Stargate Universe. - -Story - -The main subject of the seventh season of Stargate SG-1 was researching and locating the city of the Ancients. At the end of the seventh season, SG-1 discovered that the city is on Earth, under the ices of Antarctica. But it was in fact only a beachhead. Doctor Daniel Jackson finds the coordinates of the real city. Its name is Atlantis (the legendary ancient city), and it's in the Pegasus galaxy. The address was hard to find because it needs eight chevrons, the seventh of which is used to indicate the galaxy. - -References - -Other websites -MGM: Stargate Atlantis -SCI FI: Stargate Atlantis - -Stargate Atlantis episode guide at GateWorld -Stargate Atlantis Links Directory at GateGuide - -2004 television series debuts -American drama television series -Canadian television series -Science fiction television series -Stargate -Television spin-offs -English-language television programs" -20413,78437,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm%20history%20of%20Hurricane%20Katrina,Storm history of Hurricane Katrina,"The storm history of Hurricane Katrina started on August 23, 2005. Hurricane Katrina was a highly destructive Category 5 hurricane which formed as Tropical Depression Twelve near the Bahamas. The next day, the tropical depression strengthened to a tropical storm, and was named Katrina. Katrina continued on to make landfall on the southern part of the U.S. state of Florida as a Category 1 hurricane. - -While passing across Florida, Katrina weakened to a tropical storm. However, the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico allowed it to rapidly intensify to the sixth strongest Atlantic hurricane in recorded history. Afterwards, Katrina made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana, and once more near the Mississippi/Louisiana border. Katrina did not stop going northward through the central United States and finally dissipated near the Great Lakes, where it was absorbed by a cold front. - -Formation -Tropical Depression Twelve formed over the southeastern Bahamas at 5:00 p.m. EDT (2100 UTC) on August 23, 2005, some of the tropical depression was from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten, which had dissipated from the effects of a nearby upper tropospheric trough. While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic shows that the old name/number is kept when a depression dissipates and regenerates, satellite data indicated that a second tropical wave combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new, much more advanced system, which was then named as Tropical Depression Twelve. Simultaneously, the trough in the upper troposphere weakened, causing the wind shear in the area to decrease, also allowing the new tropical depression to develop. In a later re-analysis, it was found that the low-level circulation of TD Ten had completely detached and dissipated, with only the remnant mid-level circulation moving on and merging with the second tropical wave mentioned before. As a result, the criteria for keeping the same name and identity were not met. - -First landfall -As the atmospheric conditions surrounding Tropical Depression Twelve were good for tropical development, the system began to strengthen, was upgraded to Tropical Storm status and given the name Katrina on the morning of August 24. A burst of convection allowed Katrina to become the fifth hurricane of the 2005 season on August 25, only two hours before it made landfall around 6:30 p.m. EST (2230 UTC) between Hallandale Beach and Aventura, Florida. - -Katrina struck the peninsula at a high speed with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds, and had a well-defined eye on Doppler radar, which managed to stay undisturbed throughout its passage over Florida. The storm weakened over land on August 26 to a tropical storm, but regained its strength as a hurricane at 2:00 a.m. EDT (0600 UTC), about one hour after making landfall in Florida. Parts of the Florida Keys experienced tropical storm force winds throughout August 26, with the Dry Tortugas briefly experiencing hurricane-force winds. - -Gulf of Mexico -At first, the National Hurricane Center forecasts predicted that Katrina would begin turning northward after landfall, eventually to make its second landfall on the Florida Panhandle about three to four days later. Katrina, however, continued a westerly and west-southwesterly track, which eventually made the forecasts change their predictions, and forecast Katrina to move westward into New Orleans. - -Right after the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico, the low wind shear, good upper-level outflow, and the warm sea surface temperatures of the Gulf Loop Current caused Katrina to intensify rapidly. On August 27, the storm was upgraded to Category 3 strength, becoming the third major hurricane of the season. An eyewall replacement cycle inhibited strengthening of its maximum winds for about 18 hours, but nearly doubled the size of the storm as a result. The storm then began a second period of rapid intensification starting at 7:00 p.m. CDT on August 27, and by 12:40 a.m. CDT on August 28, Katrina was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). It became a Category 5 storm by 7:00 a.m. CDT, twelve hours after the beginning of the second round of rapid intensification, and reached its peak intensity at 1:00 p.m. CDT with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph (280 km/h), gusts of 215 mph (344 km/h) and a central pressure of 902 mbar (26.64 inHg). The minimum pressure made Katrina, at the time, the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record (Hurricanes Rita and Wilma would later beat Katrina's record that same year). As the hurricane came closer New Orleans, the Weather Forecast Office in Slidell, Louisiana gave out two strongly-worded warnings of the storm's danger. - -By the afternoon of August 28, the storm was large enough that some areas of the Gulf Coast were already experiencing tropical storm-force winds. The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles (290 km) from the mouth of the Mississippi River, but tropical storm-force winds extended 230 mi (370 km) from the center of the storm, and hurricane-force winds extended about 105 miles (170 km) away. - -Overnight on August 29, and into the morning of the next day, Katrina quickly weakened (in terms of maximum sustained winds) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle. The inner eyewall disappered before an outer eyewall had fully formed, which was one of the reasons of its rapid weakening. In 18 hours, the hurricane's maximum sustained winds decreased from 170 mph (280 km/h) to 125 mph (205 km/h). However, storm surges remained high at landfall because large waves greater than 30 feet (9.1 m) in height were generated beforehand (with a buoy recording a 55 ft/16.7 m wave at sea), when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane. - -Second and third landfalls - -Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 125 mph (205 km/h) near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana. Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 strength, and also because of the shape of the coastline, Category 4-force winds are believed to have existed on land while the eye was over water. At landfall, hurricane-force winds were recorded 120 miles (190 km) from the center, the storm's central pressure was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), and its forward speed was 15 mph (10 km/h). As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline, most communities in Plaquemines, St. Bernard Parish, and Slidell in St. Tammany Parish were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall, which also swipped over eastern New Orleans, creating $1 billion worth of damage to the city from intense flooding and wind damage. - -Original estimates recorded that Katrina had made this landfall as a Category 4 hurricane, with 135 mph (220 km/h) winds; however, as mentioned above, the storm weakened just before landfall to Category 3 intensity. The reasons for this weakening are not completely understood yet; while the eye-wall replacement cycle played a part, slightly increasing shear, dropping sea surface temperatures, dry air on the western semicircle of the storm and interaction with the continental landmass also may have played a role in weakening the cyclone. This follows the trend of previous strong cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico: all cyclones with minimum central pressures of 973 mbar (28.73 inHg) or less have weakened over the 12 hours before making landfall in the Gulf Coast of the United States. - -A few hours later, after weakening slightly, Katrina made its third landfall near the Louisiana-Mississippi border with 120 mph (195 km/h) sustained winds and 928 mbar (27.37 inHg) pressure, still at Category 3 intensity. Its minimum pressure at its second landfall was 920 mbar (27.17 inHg), making Katrina the third strongest hurricane on record to make landfall on the United States, behind Hurricane Camille's 909 mbar (26.85 inHg) reading in 1969, and the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane's 892 mbar (26.35 inHg) record. - -Because the storm was so large, its highly destructive eye-wall winds and the strong northeastern quadrant of the storm pushed record storm surges onshore, smashing all of the Mississippi Gulf Coast, including towns in Mississippi such as Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pass Christian, Long Beach, Gulfport, Biloxi, Ocean Springs, Gautier and Pascagoula, and, in Alabama, Bayou La Batre. The surges at its peak were at 28 feet (8.5 m) in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, and at 13 feet (4.0 m) as far away as Mobile, Alabama, which saw its highest storm surge since 1917. Storm surge was particularly high due to the hydrology of the region, the hurricane's extreme size, and the fact that it weakened only shortly before landfall. As Katrina moved inland diagonally over Mississippi, high winds cut a swath of damage that affected almost the entire state. - -Dissipation - -Katrina stayed at hurricane strength in Mississippi, but it soon weakened. It lost hurricane strength more than 150 miles (240 km) inland, near Meridian, Mississippi. Katrina was then lowered into a tropical depression near Clarksville, Tennessee and broke in half. One half of the storm continued to race northward, affecting the Central United States, and it was last noticeable in the eastern Great Lakes region. On August 31, it was absorbed by a frontal boundary and became a powerful extratropical low, causing 1.97–6.69 inches (50–170 mm) of rain in 12 hours. It also caused gale-force wind gusts from 31 to 61 mph (50 to 98 km/h) in southeastern Quebec and northern New Brunswick. In the region of Saguenay and Côte-Nord, rain caused breakdowns and failure in roads. The Côte-Nord region was isolated from the rest of Quebec for at least 1 week. However, the other half of Katrina broke off in the eastern part of the Appalachians, which caused a major tornado outbreak in the area from central Georgia to central Pennsylvania. The tornadoes were strong, killing two people and creating heavy damage. - -At 11:00 p.m. EDT on August 31, the center of the remaining storm that was once Katrina was absorbed by another weather system in southeastern Canada. - -Related pages - Hurricane Katrina - Hurricane Katrina tornado outbreak - National Weather Service bulletin for New Orleans region - -References - -Other websites - - National Hurricane Center's Tropical Cyclone Report on Hurricane Katrina - National Hurricane Center's archive on Hurricane Katrina - Hydrometeorological Prediction Center's archive on Hurricane Katrina - Hurricane Katrina Rainfall Information from HPC - -Hurricane Katrina -Storm histories of tropical cyclones" -13907,51461,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellfish,Shellfish,"Shellfish is a culinary term for some aquatic invertebrates used as food: molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. It is not a scientific term, and its use may vary from place to place. - -Both saltwater and freshwater invertebrates are considered shellfish. Molluscs commonly used as food include the clam, mussel, oyster, winkle, and scallop. - -Some crustaceans commonly eaten are the shrimp, prawn, lobster, crayfish, and crab. - -Echinoderms are not eaten as commonly as molluscs and crustaceans. In Asia, sea cucumber and sea urchins are eaten. - -Edible cephalopods such as squid, octopus, and cuttlefish and terrestrial snails, though all molluscs, are sometimes considered to be shellfish and sometimes not. - -The term finfish is sometimes used to distinguish ordinary (vertebrate) fish from shellfish. - -Jewish and Islamic dietary laws forbid the eating of shellfish (those that live on the land, and in the water). - -In Japanese cuisine, chefs often use shellfish and their roe. Sushi and sashimi feature both raw and cooked shellfish. - -Related pages -Seafood - -References - -Other websites - -Shellfish News -Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory at Rutgers University -Shellfish Gallery from the Shellfish Association of Great Britain -Shellfish Facts -University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections -- Freshwater and Marine Image Bank -- Shellfish An ongoing digital collection of images related to shellfish. - -Seafood" -6849,21596,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialect,Dialect,"A dialect is a form of a language spoken by a group of people. People who live in the same place may share a dialect; this is called a ""regiolect"". People who are similar in some other way, such as social class, may share a dialect. - -There is no absolute difference between a dialect and a language. British English and American English are different standard dialects of English. They differ slightly in spelling, pronunciation, and vocabulary. However, they are ""mutually intelligible"", which means people who speak either variety understand the other. - -Deciding if something is a language or a dialect is sometimes a political decision as a way to make minority groups assimilate or become part of a nation's larger culture. The linguist Max Weinreich once joked that ""a language is a dialect with an army and a navy."" - -Examples -Japanese and the Okinawan language are related, as they are Japonic languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. When Japan took over Okinawa during the Meiji Era, the Japanese government called the Okinawan language a dialect of Japanese. This was used to forbid Okinawans from speaking Okinawan and to force them to Japanese. - -Catalan and Galician used to be considered as dialects of Spanish but are now recognized as languages. They are about as near to Portuguese and to Occitan, respectively, as they are to Spanish. - -Hindi and Urdu are called different languages today, but they used to be the same language, Hindustani. After Pakistan became separate from India, Hindustani became called Urdu in Pakistan and Hindi in India. However, speakers of both can understand each other if they are using everyday speech. The two languages use different writing systems, but writing systems are not an accurate way to decide if languages are related. - -English is definitely a language, but it once was Anglo-Saxon, a dialect of Old Saxon. - -Chinese is called a language, but has hundreds of dialects, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Wu, and Hokkien. Many of them are not mutually intelligible. - -In past times, travel was difficult and so dialects developed in quite small regions. In Britain, there were dialects in the different parts of the country, and traces can stiill be heard today. The Romance languages were dialects of Latin that separated in that way. - -Differences in dialects can be: - - words: people in England to church, but in Scotland, people go to kirk. -Pronunciation: the r of creatures is silent in most of England but is pronounced by most of the United States. -grammar: instead of I dived, a few people say I dove. -In India, there are scores of dialects of Hindi language like Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Chhattisgarhi, Magadhi, Haryanvi and others. Moreover,people whose native language is Hindi, may or maynot treat it as their mother tongue. - -Animal dialects -With certain kinds of birds, people have noticed that their singing is different in different geographical areas. They have called these variations dialects. Similar observations have been done with Orcas. - -Language" -9371,32080,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung,Kaohsiung,"Kaohsiung City (Traditional Chinese: 高雄市, Hanyu Pinyin: Gāoxióng, Tongyong Pinyin: Gaosyóng, POJ: Ko-hiông; coordinates 22°38'N, 120°16'E) is the third largest city of Taiwan, after New Taipei City and Taichung City, and the main city in Southern Taiwan. - -History -In 2014, 32 people were killed by a series of explosions. In 2021, 46 people were killed in a fire. - -Subdivisions -Kaohsiung is divided originally into 11 districts, after the administrative division's adjustment in 2010, the subdivisions of Kaohsiung has increased to 38 districts, most of them are added from the former county of Kaohsiung. - -Two islands in the South China Sea are governed by Kaohsiung City and is a part of Cijin District: - Taiping (island) (太平島) - Dongsha Islands or Pratas Islands (東沙群島) - -Related pages - -List of counties of Republic of China -Taipei City (The largest city in Taiwan) -Keelung City - -Cities in Taiwan -Ports and harbours of Taiwan" -23936,92486,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmet%20Ali%20A%C4%9Fca,Mehmet Ali Ağca,"Mehmet Ali Ağca (born January 9, 1958) is a Turkish criminal. He is known for shooting and wounding Pope John Paul II on May 13, 1981. For this assassination attempt, he served 19 years of his life sentence in prison in Italy for attempted murder. In 2000, he was extradicted to Turkey, where he was convicted of two robberies he committed in 1979. He was sentenced to seven years four months for the robberies, and continued serving his sentence for the murder of Abdi İpekçi (1929-1979), a left-wing journalist whom he shot. Ağca has described himself as a mercenary with no political orientation. He has made many different claims about the shooting of the Pope. He used to be a member of the Turkish ultra-nationalist Grey Wolves organization. He was released on January 18, 2010 and diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. - -References - -1958 births -Living people -Murderers -People convicted of attempted murder -People with antisocial personality disorder -Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment -Robbers -Roman Catholics -Turkish people -1980s crimes -Extradition" -16632,63703,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shilpa%20Shetty,Shilpa Shetty,"Shilpa Shetty (Tulu: ಶಿಲ್ಪ ಶೆಟ್ಟಿ) (born 8 June 1975) in Mangalore is a four-time Filmfare Award-nominated Indian movie actress and model. Since making her debut in the movie Baazigar (1993), she has appeared in nearly 50 more movies and made her first lead role in 1994's Aag. She currently resides at the centre of the Hindi-language movie industry in Mumbai, India. Her younger sister Shamita Shetty is also a Bollywood movie actress. - -Shilpa was announced as the winner of Celebrity Big Brother UK on 28 January 2007 with 63% of the final votes, after an international reported racism controversy involving her and fellow contestants Jade Goody, Jo O'Meara and Danielle Lloyd. She is also a yoga practitioner, particularly interested in the Ashtanga vinyasa form of yoga and power yoga. - -References - -1975 births -Living people -Big Brother winners -Celebrity Big Brother contestants -Indian models -Indian movie actors" -6973,21991,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote,Eukaryote,"An eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with complex structures. In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus. - -Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes. There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists. In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures. Such organisms are called prokaryotes. - -The eukaryotes are often treated as a superkingdom, or domain. - -Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon. The oldest known probable eukaryote is Grypania, a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30 mm long. The oldest Grypania fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan. The fossils were originally dated as 2100 million years ago, but later research showed the date as about 1874 million years ago. Grypania lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era. - -Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be the cysts or reproductive stages of algal plankton. They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.p57 - -The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed. Modern versions disagree about the number of kingdoms. It carrys DNA as well as it is an organism - -Structure -Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes. They can be up to 10 times bigger. Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles. They also have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments. Those parts are very important in the cell's shape. Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during cell division. Most eukaryotes have some sort of sexual reproduction through fertilisation, which prokaryotes do not use. - -Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria. Their cell division is asexual. Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element (often a plasmid or transposon) from one to another. - -Eukaryotes have sets of linear chromosomes located in the nucleus and the number of chromosomes is usually typical for each species. - -Internal membrane -In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them. All of them together are called the endomembrane system. Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys. Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle. Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles. - -The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes membrane that has holes in it so things can go in and out. The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets. These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER. The ER is works with moving proteins around and allowing them to mature. - -The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER go to the inside the rough ER, called the lumen. After that, they usually go into vesicles, which grow and pinch off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, the vesicles with proteins inside fuse with piles of flattened vesicles called the Golgi bodies, where the proteins inside are changed again. - -Vesicles are sometimes changed so they can do one thing very well. This is called specialization, or differentiation. For example, lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles, and peroxisomes have enzymes that break down peroxide, a poison, so it is not poisonous anymore. - -Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane. Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water. Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles. In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole. That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape. - -Origin -Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not. It is certain that the protists are not. Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes. - -Role of the Archaea -Recent research shows that ""the known repertoire of ‘eukaryote-specific’ proteins in Archaea [indicate] that the archaeal host cell already contained many key components that govern eukaryotic cellular complexity"". - -Taxonomy -Protista is a group of different single-celled organisms. More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them. For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms. One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows: - -However, in 2005, doubts were expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic, particularly the Chromalveolata, and a review in 2006 noted the lack of evidence for several of the supposed six supergroups. - -The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary. Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one. However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction. That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features. These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin. - -Related pages - Life timeline - -References - -Cell biology -Taxonomy" -14925,56259,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloc%20Party,Bloc Party,"Bloc Party are a British indie rock band. The band has four members: Kele Okereke sings and plays rhythm guitar, Russell Lissack plays the lead guitar, Justin Harris plays bass guitar and Louise Bartle plays the drums. The band's music has been compared to bands such as the Cure, Gang of Four and the Strokes. - -The band formed during the 1999 Reading Festival. They tried many different names before they chose Bloc Party. Moakes joined after reading an advertisement in NME magazine. Tong was picked through an audition. The band was first noticed when the gave BBC Radio 1 DJ Steve Lamacq and Franz Ferdinand's lead singer Alex Kapranos a copy of its music demo, ""She's Hearing Voices"". Later it was released as a single. - -In February 2005, the band released its debut album, Silent Alarm. It received excellent reviews from many critics, and made NME'''s Album of the Year list. The album was successful enough to reach platinum status in the UK a year later. The band released its second album, A Weekend in the City, in 2007. This album reached number two on the UK album chart and number twelve on the Billboard 200. In August 2008, the band released their third album, Intimacy. 4 years later, in 2012, the band released their fourth album, Four, and in 2016, the band released their fifth album, Hymns. - - History - Early days and first releases -Russell Lissack and Kele Okereke first met in 1998 in Essex. They saw each other again in 1999 at the Reading Festival and then decided to form a band. Bass guitar player Gordon Moakes joined after answering an advertisement in NME, and drummer Matt Tong joined after an audition. They were called Union at the start, the band chose to call themselves Bloc Party in September 2003 as another way of saying ""block party"". The band have said in interviews that the name was not supposed to be related to the Soviet Bloc or the Canadian political party Bloc Québécois. However, Gordon Moakes said on the group's official Internet forum that the name was made by joining the eastern ""Blocs"" and the western ""parties"", in the political sense. Moakes also said that the name was not chosen only for this reason, but because it ""looked, sounded, and seemed fine, so we went with it."" - -In November 2003, Bloc Party had their song ""The Marshals Are Dead"" featured on a compilation album called The New Cross released by Angular Recording Corporation. They then released their debut single ""She's Hearing Voices"" on the record label Trash Aesthetics, which was new at the time. - -The band were first noticed after lead singer Okereke went to a Franz Ferdinand concert in 2003. He gave a CD of ""She's Hearing Voices"" to both lead singer Alex Kapranos and Radio One DJ Steve Lamacq. Afterwards, Lamacq played the song on his radio show. He called the track ""genius"", and he invited them to record a live session for the show. The success of the track led to the release of another single, ""Banquet"", which was released by Moshi Moshi Records. They went on to sign with independent label Wichita Recordings in April 2004. - - Silent Alarm - -Bloc Party's first album, Silent Alarm, was released in the UK in February 2005 on Wichita Recordings. In the United States, it was released in March 2005 by Vice Records. It was given a lot of praise. It was voted as the NME album of the year for 2005, and reached number three on UK album charts before being certified platinum. The first single from the album, ""So Here We Are"", made the top 5 on UK charts. Further, the singles ""Banquet"", ""Helicopter"" and ""Pioneers"", managed to reach the UK top 20 but did not do as well as ""So Here We Are"". The animated music video for ""Pioneers"" was made by Shoreditch-based designers Minivegas. It was number one in the NME video charts for four weeks. - -The band got good reviews from critics in the United States, and they toured there a lot over 2006. At the start of 2006, they finished their tour with sold out shows in Los Angeles, Miami and Berkeley. It sold 350,000 copies in North America and over a million worldwide. After the success of the album, the established electronic group The Chemical Brothers soon collaborated with Okereke for ""Believe"", a track on the Brothers' Push the Button album. An album of remixes of tracks from Silent Alarm was released at the end of August in the UK. The album was called Silent Alarm Remixed, and it kept the first album's song list. - -During July, Bloc Party recorded two new tracks with Silent Alarm producer Paul Epworth. The songs were released as an extended play called Two More Years. The release of this EP came with another release of Silent Alarm, which had on it both ""Two More Years"" and old single ""Little Thoughts"". ""Two More Years"" was released later at the same time as their October 2005 UK tour. The single also had a remix of ""Banquet"" done by The Streets, for which a music video was also made. - -The band also made the track ""The Present"" for the Help!: A Day in the Life compilation album. The money raised from this album went to the War Child charity. In 2005, their album track ""Like Eating Glass"" was used on the soundtrack of a horror movie called Cry Wolf. It was also remixed for use on Activision's skateboarding game Tony Hawk's American Wasteland. - - A Weekend in the City - -Bloc Party's second album, A Weekend in the City, was produced by Jacknife Lee. It was published by Wichita in the UK and Vice Records in the US and was released in February 2007. However, it was leaked in November 2006. It was released on the UK iTunes store before in shops, and reached second place in the Official UK Chart. The album did just as well in Australia and Belgium. It entered at number 12 in the Billboard 200, with 48,000 copies sold. The first single, ""The Prayer"", was released on 29 January. It became the single which did the best in the UK Top 40 for the band, reaching fourth place. Before the release of the album, BBC Radio 1 DJ Zane Lowe played a live recording of the band at the Maida Vale studio, featuring both old and new songs, on his radio show on 30 January 2007. On 1 February 2007, A Weekend in the City was made able free to listen to on the band's official MySpace page. - -The next single, ""I Still Remember"", was Bloc Party's highest charting single in America. It got to number 24 on the Modern Rock Chart. The band released their third single, ""Hunting for Witches"", in August 2007. The single was their only ARIA Chart entry, getting to number 20. - -In October 2007 Bloc Party said they would release a new single, ""Flux"", on 13 November—ahead of their end-of-year concerts. The electronic song, also produced by Jacknife Lee, was very different from previous singles released by the band. - -The band's first concert following the release of A Weekend In The City was on 5 February 2007, in Reading. It was played live on BBC 6 Music that night. On 20 May 2007, Bloc Party were the first band to play that year on the In New Music We Trust stage at the BBC Radio 1 Big Weekend at Preston. They also took part in the UK Live Earth concert on 7 July 2007 at Wembley Stadium. The band also played sets at T in the Park and Oxegen 2007 that same weekend, as well as Glastonbury and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. Bloc Party said that they would tour Australia and New Zealand in August 2007, which would include a special concert at the Splendour in the Grass Festival on 5 August. On 17 September 2007 they recorded a concert for the PBS show Austin City Limits. This was the day after playing at the Austin City Limits Music Festival. On 27 October 2007, the band performed with the Exmoor Singers, a London-based choir, as part of the BBC Electric Proms. They played songs from both Silent Alarm and A Weekend In The City along with the first UK live performance of ""Flux"". During 2007, Russell Lissack formed his side project group Pin Me Down with Melina Mepris. - - Intimacy -""Mercury"", the first single from Bloc Party's third album Intimacy, was played on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on 7 July 2008. It then appeared on the Radio 1 website fifteen minutes later. The exclusive followed a countdown timer which was put in place of the band's website for three days, which ended with a link to the Radio 1 website at the time of Lowe's radio show. Many fans were expecting new songs over the internet, with some being annoyed by the act. The song had an electronic sound like the last single, ""Flux"". During the first play of ""Mercury"" on Radio 1, Kele was with Zane Lowe, and said that Jacknife Lee and Paul Epworth would be producing the new album. It was also said that the single was to be released on 11 August 2008. The video was put out with the single. - -Bloc Party's third studio album has a new, electronic sound, even though Kele said this would not be the case. He had said before this that the sound would be as raw as Silent Alarm, but as ""experienced"" as A Weekend in the City. - -The band talked about the release of their third album with fans on a forum on 18 August 2008. The album then was made available for pre-order in many formats - an MP3 download with the CD release on 27 October 2008. ""Trojan Horse"", a song from the album, was made available to stream through NME's website. On 20 August 2008, the band added more album tracks, ""Signs"" and ""One Month Off"", as well as ""Trojan Horse"", to their MySpace profile. On 23-24 August, 2008, the band played concerts at the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The band played set-opener ""Mercury"", as well as album track ""One Month Off"". A concert like that one followed a week later on 30 August 2008, when the band played as the main act at the Hydro Connect Music Festival, in Argyll, Scotland. - -During Autumn 2008, the band played in North America and Canada. They played at the Virgin Mobile Festival in Toronto on 6 September 2008, and had their first ever American college show at Syracuse University. They had their next live performance in the UK on 30 September 2008 with a special concert in London as part of Q Awards: The Gigs. As well as this, they played at the Glasgow date of MTV Two and Topman's ""Gonzo on Tour"" on 19 October 2008. On 8 September 2008, Bloc Party said that their next single, ""Talons"" would be released on 20 October 2008. The song was not able to be downloaded as part of the pre-order album released on August 27, but did appear on the full album release on 27 October 2008. It was also given to fans who had already bought the download-only album, given out after the song's first play on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show. - -After the digital release of Intimacy'', Bloc Party said to the public that they would go on another UK tour, starting on 25 January 2009 in Glasgow. They will then play in Manchester and Wolverhampton in the same month, with another gig in Wolverhampton on 1 February 2009. Their first UK tour since December 2007 will finish on 12 April 2009 in London. Also in early 2009, the band toured North America in many small places. In June 2009 they announced that their new single is called One More Chance. This song was not on Intimacy and was played on Radio One on the 18th of June 2009. It was released during August 2009. - -Studio albums - Silent Alarm (2005) - A Weekend in the City (2007) - Intimacy (2008) - Four (2012) - Hymns (2016) - -References - -Other websites - - Official site - -2003 establishments in England -2000s British music groups -2010s British music groups - -English rock bands -Indie bands -Musical groups established in 2003 -Musical groups from London" -11355,41206,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf%20Islam,Yusuf Islam,"Yusuf Islam (born July 21, 1948) is an English singer. He sang many of his early songs when he called himself Cat Stevens. He was born as Stephen Demetre Georgiou to a Swedish mother and Greek father. He became a Muslim in 1977. After 2 years, he took the name of Yusuf İslam. He has sold over 60 million albums around the world since the late 1960s as Cat Stevens or Yusuf İslam. - -As a waiter in his father's cafe, he began writing songs ""to escape the mundanity of it all"". Chart success was followed by adulation, touring, drug use, confusion, tuberculosis and, in the early 1970s, Islam's changed outlook and an album called Tea For The Tillerman. - -Stevens nearly drowned in an accident in Malibu in 1975. Stevens described the event in a VH1 interview some years later: ""I suddenly held myself and I said, 'Oh God! If you save me, I'll work for you.'"" He had looked into Buddhism; Zen and I Ching, numerology, tarot cards and astrology"", but when his brother David gave him a copy of the Qu'ran, Stevens began to convert to Islam. - -In 1977 he changed his name to Yusuf Islam upon becoming a Muslim. He stopped playing and recording pop music for almost 30 years, but started performing again in 2006. - -He lives with his family in London, England. - -Albums -As Cat Stevens: - 1967: Matthew and Son - 1967: New Masters - 1970: Mona Bone Jakon - 1970: Tea for the Tillerman - 1971: Teaser and the Firecat - 1972: Catch Bull at Four - 1973: Foreigner - 1974: Buddha and the Chocolate Box - 1974: Saturnight (Live in Tokyo) - 1975: Numbers - 1977: Izitso - 1978: Back to Earth - 2004: Majikat - -As Yusuf Islam: - 1995: The Life of the Last Prophet - 1999: Prayers of the Last Prophet - 2000: A Is for Allah - 2001: Bismillah - 2003: I Look I See - 2005: Indian Ocean - 2006: Footsteps in the Light - 2006: An Other Cup - 2007: Yusuf's Cafe Session - 2009: Roadsinger - -References - -1948 births -Living people -Converts to Islam -English guitarists -English rock musicians -English singers -Musicians from London -Multi-instrumentalists" -10324,36132,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruzeiro%20Esporte%20Clube,Cruzeiro Esporte Clube,"Cruzeiro Esporte Clube, usually called Cruzeiro EC or Cruzeiro, is a Brazilian football team from the city Belo Horizonte, Brazil. The team was founded on January 2, 1921. They are usually called the raposa, which means fox in Brazil. They are also called the celeste which means celestial because their logo and name refer to a constellation. Currently the team disputes the second division of the Brazilian championship. - -Name - 1921–1941 S.E. Palestra Itália - 1942–present Cruzeiro E.C. - -League title - Copa Libertadores 2 -(1976, 1997) - Campeonato Brasileiro Série A 3 -(1966, 2003, 2013, 2014) - -References - -Related pages - List of Brazilian football teams - -Brazilian football clubs -Belo Horizonte -1921 establishments in Brazil" -9350,32034,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20o%27lantern%20mushroom,Jack o'lantern mushroom,"The jack o'lantern mushroom is an orange- to yellow gilled mushroom. It looks like the chanterelle and emits light. Unlike the chanterelle, the jack o'lantern mushroom is very poisonous. While eating this mushroom will not kill you, it may cause cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. This mushroom smells and looks very appealing, so there are reports of repeat poisonings from individuals who were tempted to try them a second time. - -Description -The Jack-o-Lantern mushroom's fruiting body (its stem and cap) is an orange color. It grows from late summer into November, in large clumps on or near tree stumps. However, it can also be found growing on the ground (along buried roots) nearby. Underneath the cap is its well-known glowing color, which glows in a lime green color. This mushroom is asexual. - -Gallery - -fungi" -10886,39099,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1506,1506,"The year 1506 was a common year which started on Thursday. - -Events - January 22 – The Swiss Guard arrives at the Vatican, to serve as permanent ceremonial and palace guards under Pope Julius II. - -Births - April 7 – Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit saint (d. 1552)" -23850,92135,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andelfingen%20District,Andelfingen District,"Andelfingen is one of the twelve districts of the German-speaking canton of Zürich, Switzerland. - -Municipalities -Andelfingen contains 24 municipalities: - -Districts of Zürich" -11160,40357,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse%20mythology,Norse mythology,"Norse or Scandinavian mythology is the belief and legends of the Scandinavian people. Norse mythology is a version of the older Germanic mythology and was later replaced by Christianity for the most part. - -Norse mythology is a set of beliefs and stories shared by Northern Germanic tribes. It was not handed down from the gods to the mortal. It had no scripture. The mythology was passed on from one generation to the next in the form of poetry. It continued to be passed down this way through the time of the Vikings. The original beliefs were long lost. Our knowledge about it is mainly based on the Eddas and other medieval texts. These were written down while and after they turned to Christianity. - -Cosmology - -In Norse mythology, the universe was thought to have 9 realms or “worlds”. Asgard is where the gods lived. Asgard could only be reached by walking across the rainbow (the Bifröst bridge). The Frost Giants lived in a place called Jötunheimr. Jötunheimr means giant realm. - -A cold, dark place called Niflheim was ruled by Hel. She was the daughter of Loki. This was the eventual home of most of the dead. Located somewhere in the south was the fiery realm of Muspelheim, home of the fire giants. - -In between Asgard and Niflheim was Midgard, the world of men. - -Supernatural beings - -There are three ""clans"" of deities, the Æsir, the Vanir, and the Jötnar (referred to as giants in this article). After a long war, the Æsir and Vanir made peace and joined together. - -The Æsir and the Vanir are enemies with the Jötnar or giants. The Æsir are descendants of Jötnar. Both Æsir and Vanir intermarry with them. There are two kinds of giant: frost-giants and fire-giants. - -There are many other supernatural beings. These include: -Fenrir the gigantic wolf -Jörmungandr the sea-serpent that is coiled around the world. -Hugin and Munin (thought and memory), the two ravens who keep Odin informed of what is happening on earth. -Ratatosk, the squirrel which scampers in the branches of the world tree, Yggdrasil. - -Sources -Most of this mythology was passed down orally as Skaldic poetry, and much of it has been lost. Some of it was recorded by Christian scholars. The earlier detailed records come from the Eddas and the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson though the mentioning of their deities And mythology goes back to Cornelius Tacitus’ report “Germania” in 98 AD. - -There are also several runestones and image stones that show scenes from Norse mythology, such as Thor's fishing trip and Odin being devoured by Fenrir. - -Modern influences - -The Germanic gods have affected elements of every day western life in most countries that speak Germanic languages. An example is some of the names of the days of the week. The days were named after Roman gods in Latin (named after Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn). The names for Tuesday through Friday were replaced with Germanic versions of the Roman gods. In English, Saturn was not replaced. Saturday is named after the sabbath in German, and is called ""washing day"" in Scandinavia. - -Modern popular culture - -J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings was influenced by the myths of the Northern Europeans. As it became popular, parts of its fantasy world moved into how people see the fantasy genre. In almost any modern fantasy novel, you can find Norse creatures like elves, dwarves, and giants. - -Other websites - W. Wagner's ""Asgard and the Home of the Gods"" e-book - Peter Andreas Munch's ""Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes"" e-book - heimskringla.no Old Norse Prose and Poetry - Timeless Myths - Norse Mythology - Information and tales from Norse and Germanic literatures - Norse Gods, Goddesses, Giants, Dwarves and Wights - CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology" -5610,18286,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newport%2C%20Wales,"Newport, Wales","Newport is a city in the southeast of Wales, Great Britain. It is in the county of Monmouthshire, and in the historic Welsh kingdom of Gwent. Its name in Welsh is Casnewydd. It is the third biggest city in Wales. Newport became a city in 2002. About 140,000 people live in Newport. - -A few years ago, Newport had lots of people working in the steel factory and other heavy industries. This has changed, now many people work in electronics, such as making computers, phones and microchips. - -Cities in Wales -Monmouthshire -2002 establishments in the United Kingdom -2000s establishments in Wales" -24174,93238,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulenbach,Fulenbach,"Fulenbach is a municipality in the district Olten in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Official website - -Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn" -20211,77615,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosul,Mosul,"Mosul ( , , ) is a city in the north of Iraq. Under the Ottoman Empire it was the capital of northern Iraq. More than a million people lived there when Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant conquered it in 2014. In 2017 the Iraqi Army with help from Kurdish Peshmerga troops and other militias took the city back. - -Further reading -Published in the 19th century - - - - - - -Published in the 20th century - - - - -Published in the 21st century - -References - -Other websites - - ninava-explorer -Iraq Image – Mosul Satellite Observation -Detailed map of Mosul by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, from lib.utexas.edu - - -Cities in Iraq" -2934,9246,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek,Greek,"Greek can mean: - A description of things or people from the European country of Greece - A description of things or people from one of the ancient European city-states of Ancient Greece -Greeks, the people of Greece - The Greek language, the language people speak in Greece - Koine Greek, the language of the New Testament, spoken at the time of Christ - Ancient Greek language, the language spoken in Ancient Greece - The Greek alphabet, the alphabet people use to write those languages - Greek mythology" -16670,63788,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ai%20Otsuka,Ai Otsuka,"Ai Otsuka (born September 9, 1982) is a Japanese pop female singer-songwriter and pianist from Osaka, Osaka Prefecture, Japan. Her music is famous because it varies a lot in style but is mainly happy pop. Her first single was called Momo No Hanbira, but it was not until her second single, which was called Sakuranbo, that people really noticed her music. - -Japanese singers -J-pop -1982 births -Living people -People from Osaka" -13591,50105,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payphone,Payphone,"A payphone is a telephone that lets the public make phone calls if they pay for them first. Many payphones accept coins, but some can accept credit cards, debit cards, and phone cards as well. In the 20th century they were very often used, especially in cities. When people used more mobile phones, payphones quickly became rarer in small towns, and later also in cities. - -Related pages - Telephone box - -Telephone" -19505,74592,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Greek%20Kingdom,Indo-Greek Kingdom,"The Indo-Greek Kingdom was a part of the Greek Empire. It ruled in parts of northwest and northern Indian subcontinent (present-day Pakistan) from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Hellenic kings. - -References - -Other websites - News story of the latest archaeological discovery of artefacts dated back to Indo-Greek period - Indo-Greek history and coins - Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms - Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans and the replacement of Greek Language. - Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies - -Ancient Greece -History of Pakistan" -10873,39084,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1575,1575,"The year 1575 was a common year starting on Saturday. - -Events - February 13 – Henry III of France is crowned at Reims." -21437,82022,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20%28moon%29,Margaret (moon),"Margaret is the only prograde non-spherical moon of Uranus. It was found by Scott S. Sheppard, et al. in 2003 and given the designation S/2003 U 3. - -Confirmed as Uranus XXIII, it was named after the servant of Hero in William Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing - -Orbit - -Margaret stands out as the only prograde non-spherical moon of Uranus. The diagram illustrates the orbital parameters of Margaret, unique among the non-spherical moons of Uranus, with inclination on the vertical axis and the eccentricity of the orbits represented by the segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre. - -Related pages -List of Uranus' moons -https//ifarley.net - -References - - Ephemeris: IAU-NSES - Mean orbital parameters: NASA JPL - -Other websites -Margaret Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration -David Jewitt pages -Scott Sheppard pages - -Uranus' moons" -21776,83002,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adit,Adit,"An adit is a type of entrance to a mine which is horizontal or nearly horizontal. Adits are usually built into the side of a hill or mountain, and often occur when coal or ore is located inside the mountain but above the local valley floor or coastal plain. The use of adits is generally called drift mining. - -An adit may be used for haulage typically by rail, drainage, ventilation or any combination thereof. Trackage is often removed for scrap value. Adits may contain wooden timbering or masonry to help protect against soil erosion. - -Mining" -22248,84312,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocourt,Rocourt,"Rocourt is a former municipality of the district of Porrentruy in the canton of Jura in Switzerland. On 1 January 2018 the former municipality of Rocourt merged into the municipality of Haute-Ajoie. - -References - -Former municipalities of Jura" -4720,14862,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funnel,Funnel,"A funnel is an object with a wide top and a narrow tube at the bottom and this is used for pouring liquids into a container. A funnel is also a round metal chimney on top of a ship or train. - -Tools -Ships - -pl:Lejek (sprzęt laboratoryjny)" -23839,92095,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torgau-Oschatz,Torgau-Oschatz,"Torgau-Oschatz was a rural district (Landkreis) in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. The district was created in 1994 by joining the two districts Oschatz and Torgau, and 6 municipalities from the former district Eilenburg. It ended in 2008. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -Other websites - Official website (German) - - -2008 disestablishments in Europe" -3090,9686,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragraph,Paragraph,"A paragraph is a collection of words strung together to make a longer unit than a sentence. Several sentences often make to a paragraph. There are normally three to eight sentences in a paragraph. Paragraphs can start with a five-space indentation or by skipping a line and then starting over. This makes it simpler to tell when one paragraph ends and the next starts. - -A topic phrase appears in most ordered types of writing, such as essays. This paragraph's topic sentence informs the reader about the topic of the paragraph. In most essays, numerous paragraphs make statements to support a thesis statement, which is the essay's fundamental point. - -Paragraphs may signal when the writer changes topics. Each paragraph may have a number of sentences, depending on the topic. - -A pilcrow mark (¶) is sometimes used to show where a paragraph begins. - -Grammar -Typography -Writing" -237,460,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/London,London,"London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom. London is the city region with the highest population in the United Kingdom. On the Thames, London has been a central city since it was founded by the Romans two millennia ago as Londinium. - -London's original city centre, the City of London is England's smallest city. In 2011 had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of 2.9 km². - -The term ""London"" is also used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, as well as the Greater London administrative unit, led by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly. - -In modern times, London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the British Empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world. - -The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The city is the largest in Europe by population. The climate is moderate. - -History -The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in the year AD 43. The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In the year AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub. - -After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. This was partly because the Anglo-Saxon people of Sub-Roman Britain were primarily agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the 12th century. - -After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor. - -Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was always a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), The Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, with Big Ben), and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives). - -Events - AD 43 Londinium is founded by the Romans - 61 – Londinium is sacked by Queen Boudica and the Iceni - 100 – Londinium becomes the capital of Roman Britain - 200 – The population is about 6,000 - 410 – The end of Roman rule in Britain - 8th century – London is captured by Vikings - 885 – King Alfred the Great recaptures the city and makes peace with the Viking leader Guthrum. - 1045/50 – Westminster Abbey is rebuilt by Edward the Confessor who is buried there in January 1066. - 1066 – William the Conqueror is crowned in Westminster Abbey. - 1100 – The population is about 16,000. - 1300 – The population of London has risen to 100,000. - 1381 – The Peasants' Revolt – the first poll tax riots - 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot is stopped - 1665 – The Great Plague of London - 1666 – The Great Fire of London - 1780 – The Gordon Riots - 1851 – The Great Exhibition held at the Crystal Palace - 1908 – The Olympic Games take place in London. - 1940/1941 – London was bombed by German planes during World War II. This is known as The Blitz. - 1944/45 – London bombed by self-propelled bombs and V2 rockets. - 1948 – The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for the second time. - 1966 – The Football World Cup final took place in London. It was won by England. - 1990 – The Second Poll Tax Riots - 2005 – The 7 July bombings on the London Underground and a bus. 52 people die and over 700 people are injured. - 2012 – The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for a third time. - 2017 – There were two terrorist attacks. The first happened in March on Westminster Bridge and Parliament Square. Five people were killed outside the Palace of Westminster, including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. Another attack happened on London Bridge in June. Seven people were killed before the Metropolitan Police shot down the three attackers near Borough Market. The Islamic State has said they were responsible for both attacks. - -Landmarks - - Big Ben (Elizabeth Tower) - Buckingham Palace - Millennium Dome - London Eye - Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square - Tower Bridge - London Underground -Natural History Museum - St. Paul's Cathedral - Palace of Westminster - The Shard - Alexandra Palace - -Business and economy -London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark. - -The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe. - -Financial services -London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world. - -Professional services -London has many professional services such as law and accounting firms. - -Media -The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which has many radio and TV stations, is in London. - -Tourism -Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about £15 billion per year. - -Technology -A growing number of technology companies are based in London. - -Retail -London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy. - -Manufacturing and construction -For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London. - -Twinnings - -London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities: - - Sister cities: - Berlin, Germany (since 2000) - New York City, USA (since 2001) - Moscow, Russia - Beijing, China (since 2006) - Partner cities: - Paris, France (since 2001) - Rome, Italy - -London also has a ""partnership"" agreement with Tokyo, Japan. - -Transportation (trains, airports and underground) -The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports. - -The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at King's Cross, St. Pancras, Paddington, Waterloo and Charing Cross are still used as terminals. - -There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). There is the London end of the LondonBirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. The most used airport is Heathrow Airport, although it is actually outside the city. - -The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example Paris, New York, Moscow and Madrid. Even though it is called the London Underground about half of it is above the ground. The ""Tube"" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track. Over one billion passengers used the underground each year. - -There is a black taxi system regulated by the Metropolitan Police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists. - -Climate -London has an oceanic, or temperate climate. It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy. - -London has a temperate climate with regular, light rain throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at Greenwich of 13.6 ° C to 22.8 ° C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 ° C to 7.9 ° C. The average annual rainfall is 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. Snow is uncommon in London itself, although there is regular snow in the surrounding area; this is because the extra heat the big city generates makes the city about 5 ° C warmer than surrounding areas in winter. - -References - -Other websites - - London City Government - WorldFlicks in London: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps - Events - - -Olympic cities" -2979,9347,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Pacman,Mr. Pacman,"Mr. Pacman is an American pop music band from Colorado. They use sounds from old video games to create their music. Mr. Pacman has recorded 2 CDs & made 4 music videos. - -Other websites - http://myspace.com/mrpacman/ - official website - -American pop music groups -Electronic music bands -Musical groups from Colorado -Musical groups established in 2001 -2001 establishments in the United States -2000s establishments in Colorado" -19582,74955,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20polymerase,DNA polymerase,"A DNA polymerase is an enzyme which makes DNA molecules from its nucleotide building blocks. DNA polymerases are essential for DNA replication. They usually work in pairs as they copy one double-stranded DNA molecule into two double-stranded DNAs. In DNA replication DNA polymerase ""reads"" a piece of DNA that's already there and uses it to make a new piece that is exactly the same as the old piece.The primary role of DNA polymerases is to accurately and efficiently replicate the genome in order to ensure the maintenance of the genetic information and its faithful transmission through generations. - -DNA polymerases also play key roles in other processes within cells, including DNA repair, genetic recombination, reverse transcription, and antibody production. DNA polymerases are widely used in molecular biology laboratories, notably for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, and molecular cloning. - -DNA polymerase can only connect deoxyribonucleotides to a 3'-OH group that is already there, so DNA is always made in the 5'3' direction. - -DNA -Enzymes" -21981,83694,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunegg,Brunegg,"Brunegg is a municipality of the district Lenzburg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -Municipalities of Aargau" -15719,60184,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian%20calendar,Persian calendar,"The Iranian calendar also known as Persian calendar or the Jalāli Calendar is a solar calendar. It is currently used in Iran and Afghanistan. It is observation-based, rather than rule-based. Each year starts on the vernal equinox as precisely determined by astronomical observations from Tehran (or the 52.5°E meridian, which also defines IRST) and Kabul. This makes it more accurate than the Gregorian Calendar. - -The current Iranian Calendar year is 1400AP (AP = Anno Persico/Anno Persarum = Persian year). - -Other websites - An online Persian/Gregorian date convertor, Persian calendar for mobile (j2me) - -Calendars" -11769,43199,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toowoomba,Toowoomba,"Toowoomba (also called 'Garden City' by people who live there) is a city in South East Queensland, Australia. It is 132 km west of Brisbane, and two hours drive from the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast beaches. About 115,000 people live there, which makes Toowoomba Australia's second largest city that is not on the coast, after Canberra. - -Every year in September, Toowoomba holds its annual Flower Festival. When this is taking place, the town, especially its CBD are decorated with flowers. People who live there may also open their gardens for public judging for the garden competitions. Another attraction is the parade, where one would see floats with flower themes. Many people from all over the nation visit the festival, and a popular way to arrive is on the specially operating retired steam train. - -Another major event held in Toowoomba is the Easterfest. It is a large religious festival that thousands of people come to, to see many famous singers perform. Many put up tents on in Queens Park. - -Toowoomba is also known for its historical buildings, such as the town hall, The Empire Theatre, and the Cobb & Co Museum. The town hall was the first in Queensland to be built for a town hall. The Empire Theatre was built as a silent movie house in 1911. A fire nearly destroyed the building, but it was built again, and reopened in 1933. Now, it is the biggest regional theatre in Australia. The Cobb & Co Museum began in the 1880s as a small mail run. It moved both mail and passengers to Brisbane and further. - -Toowoomba is also home to some notable private schools, including Toowoomba Grammar School (which is a GPS school), Downlands College, and The Glenny School, none of which are 'co-educational'. - -During the 2010-2011 Queensland floods, several people were drowned in their cars when water flooded the main shopping centre. - -References - -Other websites - Easterfest website - -Cities in Queensland" -12189,44949,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southbridge%2C%20Massachusetts,"Southbridge, Massachusetts","Southbridge is a city in the American state of Massachusetts. The city's nickname is ""The Eye of the Commonwealth"". It has a population of about 18,000. - -Southbridge has a lot of history and tradition. The city was once home to the largest optical manufacturer in the world: American Optical. American Optical moved somewhere in Mexico where workers would be paid smaller wages. It is now called the Mexican Optical. Southbridge has a great economy. It is often called a mixing pot of cultures. There are many different ethnic groups in Southbridge. - -Population - -References - -Cities in Massachusetts" -11623,42714,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela%20Haynes,Angela Haynes,"Angela Haynes (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is World No. 95 which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009. - -Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on September 23, 2005. - -Clothing -Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing. - -Appearances -Angela appears in Top Spin 2 which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS. - -References - -1984 births -American female tennis players -Living people -People from Irvine, California -Sportspeople from California" -19186,72628,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobayr%20monastery,Kobayr monastery,"Kobayr (Armenian: Կոբայր) is a 12th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is located in the village Kober within Lori marz, Armenia. - -Kobayr was built on a shelf of a gorge by the princes of the junior Bagratuni branch, Kyurikids in 1171. The monastery was later acquired by the Zakarids and converted into a Chalcedonian monastery. Many of the writings in the monastery are written in Georgian. - -The monastery is being fixed and paid for by the government of Armenia with the help of the government of Italy. The ruins of the main church in the monastery contain frescoes of Christ and the twelve apostles as well as the Church fathers and other Christian figures. - -Churches in Armenia" -19600,75064,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldeburgh%20Festival,Aldeburgh Festival,"The Aldeburgh Festival is an English arts festival where classical music concerts take place during the summer. Aldeburgh is in Suffolk in the south-east of England. It is where the composer Benjamin Britten lived with his friend the tenor Peter Pears. A lot of Britten’s music is played at the festival, but music by many other composers can be heard as well. Most of the concerts take place in the Maltings, a concert hall in the village of Snape, not far away from Aldeburgh. - -History of the Aldeburgh Festival -The Festival was started in 1948 by Benjamin Britten, Peter Pears and the librettist Eric Crozier. They started the festival so that the English Opera Group would have a place to perform their operas, but soon the festival became bigger. There were poetry readings, drama performances, lectures and art exhibitions. The first festival was mostly held in Aldeburgh Jubilee Hall, a few doors away from Britten's house in Crabbe Street. His opera Albert Herring was performed, as well as his St Nicolas Cantata. - -Over the years the festival grew. Some of the performances took place in the church, or in churches or other halls in nearby villages and small towns such as Orford and Framlingham. However, the festival needed a large concert hall. In the 1960s the old malthouse (where barley used to be made) in Snape was changed into a concert hall. It was opened by the Queen on 2 June 1967, at the start of the twentieth Aldeburgh Festival. - -Two years later, on the first night of the 1969 Festival, the concert hall was destroyed by fire. Only the main walls remained. For that year the Festival was moved to other local places, but by the next year the hall had been rebuilt and once again it was opened by the Queen, this time at the start of the 1970 Festival. - -The Festival today -The festival is now organized by Aldeburgh Music, which also runs the Britten-Pears Young Artist Programme which gives young musicians a chance to learn from famous music teachers and perform in concerts. - -The festival has a nice atmosphere because it is in the country near the sea and marshes. New music is often performed. In the past there have been first performances of several works by Britten: (A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1960; Death in Venice in 1973) and also Harrison Birtwistle's Punch and Judy in 1968. - -The Festival's Artistic Director is now the composer Thomas Adès, who was appointed in 1999. - -Classical music festivals -Music festivals in England -Suffolk -1948 establishments in Europe -1940s establishments in England" -24704,96717,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordhausen%20%28district%29,Nordhausen (district),"Nordhausen is the northernmeost Landkreis (rural district) of Thuringia, Germany. - -History -The district was created in 1815, when the Prussian province Saxony was created. There were many changes to the boundaries up to 1952, when some municipalities were brought into the district and others left. - -Coat of arms - -Towns and municipalities - -References - -Other websites - Official website (German) - -Rural Districts of Thuringia" -17829,67213,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon,Taxon,"A taxon (plural taxa) is a taxonomic group or taxonomic unit. It is a group of organisms which a taxonomist decides belong together. - -Taxa can be big or small, a fairly small taxon is the giraffes, a very big one is the beetles. - -A taxonomist can assign a scientific name and rank to a taxon; this places it at a particular level in a hierarchy. It is not strictly necessary to assign either a name or a rank to a taxon, but doing so makes it much easier to refer to the taxon. However, many taxa have to wait for years before getting a name. - -Ranks -There is no limit to the number of ranks that may exist, but the most important ranks are, in hierarchical order: -Domain -Kingdom -Phylum or Division -Class -Order -Family -Genus -Species -Subspecies - -Note: ""Phylum"" applies formally to any biologial domain but traditionally it was always used of animals whereas ""Division"" was traditionally often used of plants, fungi etc. - -A simple phrase to remember the order is -""Dignified Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk"" (there are many other such phrases). - -Taxonomy - -A distinction is made between taxonomy and systematics. Systematics deals with how groups relate to each other. Taxonomy deals with making groups (taxa), deciding what belongs together. Taxonomy is also known as classification. - -A special part of taxonomy is nomenclature. This consists of rules on what names to use. So a taxonomist first decides what does and does not belong in a group, and then uses nomenclature to decide what name this group should have. If a group is made larger or bigger it may get a different name. On the other hand, the same name may refer to a bigger taxon (according to one particular taxonomist) or a smaller taxon (according to some other taxonomist). This means that scientific names are not guaranteed to be stable. Most names are stable, but for some taxa there is no agreement on its name, because taxonomists do not agree what does belong together and what does not belong together. - -A taxonomist can decide for himself what scientific reasons he adopts for making a group (a taxon). If he is not convincing in his choice, other taxonomists will not agree with him, and they will then make other arrangements. These days biological classification is mostly supposed be done according to evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships, so far as these are known. - -Taxonomy" -628,3023,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20U.S.%20states,List of U.S. states,"This article lists the 50 states of the United States. It also lists their populations, the date they became a state or agreed to the United States Declaration of Independence, their total area, land area, water area, and the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives. - -Washington D.C., (Washington, District of Columbia) is a federal district and capital of the United States and is not considered a state. The United States also has sovereignty over 14 other territories. These are not included in this list. - -Map of the U.S States -Click on any state to learn more about that state. - -List of states - -Other websites - -Notes - -References" -22615,85613,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nashville%20Sounds,Nashville Sounds,"The Nashville Sounds are a minor league baseball team from Nashville, Tennessee. They play at the Triple-A (AAA) level, the most difficult level before Major League Baseball, against other baseball teams in the Triple-A East (a group of 20 baseball teams at the same level). The Sounds are partnered with the Milwaukee Brewers, a Major League Baseball team. When a player shows that he plays well at this level, he may be moved up to play for the Brewers. - -The team is named ""Sounds"" because Nashville, the city where the team plays, is famous for making country music. - -The Sounds played at a stadium called Herschel Greer Stadium from 1978 to 2014. In 2015, the Sounds began to play at a new stadium called First Horizon Park. - -History -The Sounds started playing baseball in 1978 in the Southern League, which is at the Double-A (AA) level, two levels before Major League Baseball. They were partnered with the Cincinnati Reds (1978–1979) and New York Yankees (1980–1984). The Sounds won the championship of the Southern League in 1979 and 1982. - -In 1985, the Sounds began to play at the Triple-A level in a league called the American Association. While playing in this league, they were partnered with the Detroit Tigers (1985–1986), Cincinnati Reds (1987–1992), and Chicago White Sox (1993–1997). - -The American Association ended after the 1997 season, so the Sounds started playing in the Pacific Coast League in 1998. They were partners with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1998–2004), Milwaukee Brewers (2005–2014), Oakland Athletics (2015–2018), and Texas Rangers (2019–2020). The Sounds won the championship of the Pacific Coast League in 2005. - -Major League Baseball reorganized Minor League Baseball before the 2021 season. The Pacific Coast League was ended, and the Sounds began playing in the Triple-A East in 2021. They also became partners with the Milwaukee Brewers. - -Ballparks - -The Sounds' first ballpark was Herschel Greer Stadium. They played baseball games there from 1978 to 2014. There were many changes to the ballpark after it was completed in 1978. It had seats for 10,300 spectators. Its best known feature was its giant 115.6 foot (35.2 m) scoreboard which was behind the left field wall and shaped like a guitar. After the construction of new and luxurious minor league ballparks in the 1990s, Greer had fallen below standards set for Triple-A stadiums by professional baseball. Therefore, there were several repairs and upgrades made to meet Triple-A standards until a new stadium could be built. Greer Stadium was demolished in 2019. - -In 2014, the Sounds and the city of Nashville agreed on a plan to build a new baseball stadium for the team. The Sounds began playing baseball at the new stadium, called First Horizon Park, in 2015. It has space for 10,000 spectators. There are 8,500 seats, and there is a spot of grass where 1,500 others can sit. It also has a guitar-shaped scoreboard. - -References - -Other websites - - The team's web page - The team's statistics from Baseball-Reference - -Baseball teams -Nashville, Tennessee" -15328,58169,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/DreamWorks,DreamWorks,"DreamWorks Pictures, officially called DW II Distribution Co., LLC, also known as DreamWorks, LLC, DreamWorks SKG, DreamWorks Studios or DW Studios, LLC, is an American movie studio. It has made or sold more than ten movies which made more than $100 million each at the box-office. - -History -DreamWorks began in 1994. It was founded by Steven Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg and David Geffen (making the SKG at the bottom of the DreamWorks logo). They own 72% of the company. In December 2005, the founders agreed to sell the studio to Viacom. The sale was done in February 2006. In 2008, DreamWorks announced that it would split from Paramount. It signed a $1.5 billion deal to make movies with India's Reliance ADA Group. Reliance gave $325M to help recreate DreamWorks studio as its own company. Clark Hallren led the Reliance team in making plans for the company. The movie studio is 50% owned by Reliance. Reliance is led by Anil Ambani. - -The part of DreamWorks which makes animations was made into DreamWorks Animation SKG in 2004. - -References - -Other websites - Official site - -Movie studios -1994 establishments in the United States" -10397,36734,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20deer,Water deer,"The water deer (Hydropotes inermis) is an even-toed ungulate mammal of the deer family. It is the only member of the subfamily Hydropotinae. There are two subspecies: the Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis inermis) and the Korean water deer (Hydropotes inermis argyropus). - -Appearance -Water deer are small deer: they are about 90 cm long and about 50 cm high. They weigh about 13 kg. The water deer has yellowish-brown fur, with a white chin and throat. Both males and females do not have antlers. Males have long upper canine teeth (called tusks), which can be up to 5 cm long. - -Habitat -The water deer originally lived in China and Korea. Today there are also small wild populations in England and France. Water deer live close to water: in swamps and on the shores of rivers and lakes. - -Life -Water deer eat grasses and reeds. They also eat grains and vegetables from fields. - -Water deer live alone, but sometimes they form small groups. - -After a pregnancy of 200 days the female gives birth to 2-4 babies. A water deer baby has white dots and stripes on its fur, which disappear after 8 weeks. They drink milk for 3 months. When the young water deer are 6 months old they are independent and leave their mothers. They become mature when they are 1 year old. - -Deer" -12166,44842,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B6n,Rhön,"The Rhön are a group of low mountains in central Germany, in the states Hesse, Bavaria and Thuringia. They are the product of ancient volcanic activity and are separated from the Vogelsberg Mountains by the Fulda River and its valley. - -These mountains are a popular tourist attraction. Hikers come for the nearly 6,000 km (3,750 miles) of tracks through the picturesque scenery, and gliding has been done here since the early Twentieth century. Nowadays people come here to stay on a farm during holidays, too. - -Since 1991, UNESCO has declared the Rhön a Biosphere Reserve. - -The highest mountains of the Rhön are: -Wasserkuppe 950 m (3,110 ft), (Hessian Rhön) -Kreuzberg (mountain) 928 m (3,040 ft) (Bavarian Rhön) -Schwabenhimmel 926 m (3,040 ft) (Bavarian Rhön) -Heidelstein 913 m (3,000 ft) (Bavarian Rhön) -Milseburg 835 m (2,740 ft) (Hessian Rhön) -Feuerberg 832 m (2,730 ft) (Bavarian Rhön) -Ellenbogen 814 m (2,670 ft) (Thuringian Rhön) - -Other websites - -Rhön tourism portal -The Rhön hiking club (in German) -white pages and websites of Fulda and the hessian Rhön (in German) -360 degree virtual tour through the hessian Rhön (in German) -Orchids of the Rhön, with many informations about Rhön's nature (in German) - -Biosphere reserves -Geography of Bavaria -Geography of Hesse -Geography of Thuringia -Mountain ranges of Germany" -5477,17867,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist,Artist,"An artist is a person who creates art. This word is used most often for person and activities of 'high culture'. That is for example drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music. Sometimes a person who is very good at their job is called an artist, even if it is not considered as art. A scientist or mathematician can be called an artist. - -Dictionary definitions -Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (one artist, two artists) as follows: - A person who creates (makes) art. - A person who creates art as an occupation, that means the person earn their money with art. - A person who is skilled at some activity, that means a person who is very good in something. - -History of the term - -In ancient Greece there was the word ""Techne"" which is often translated as art. From this word comes ""technical"" and America is now the root of words such as technical, technology, etc. The seven muses were the gods of artists in the seven fields of human excellence: • Epic and lyric • History • Choral singing and poetry of love • Music • Tragedy • Religious Hymns • Gay poetry, poetry and rustic comedy • Dance • Astronomy and Geometry. - -The word comes from Latin art ""ars"", that literally means skill method or technique, combined with the beauty of the objects produced. In the Middle Ages already existed the word artist, although its meaning is closer to what we now call the craftsman. - -The present day concept of an artist - -Concept art expresses a series of creations, called classical arts (painting, sculpture, literature, dance, music, architecture and cinema). However, considering someone as an artist is not limited to a series of works or concrete creations. - -An artist is a person exercising the arts and produce artistic works. The artist is someone who has a special sensitivity to create a work or activity. There is no specific classification of what are an artist's own activities .In any case, the concept artist implies knowledge of art and at the same time, is a craft that can be professional but not necessarily. The artist seeks to create an object or activity that has a component of beauty. Very beautiful is one aspect cherished by the creators, but not only that. It also seeks to communicate feelings and ideas and form their own world. - -Painter -An artist is a person able to put their point of view, their way of seeing the world and feel things on a canvas, a sheet or paper. An artist is a dreamer, is a poet, he is a speaker, is someone provided with sensibility sufficient or necessary to make us see things through their eyes. - -Examples of art and artists - - Abstract: Jackson Pollock - Actress: Greta Garbo - Animation: Walt Disney - Architect: Antoni Gaudí - Ballet: Margot Fonteyn - BioArt: Hunter O'Reilly - Calligraphy: Rudolf Koch - Ceramics: Grayson Perry - Choreographer: Martha Graham - Comics: Will Eisner - Composer: Giuseppe Verdi - Conceptual art: Sol LeWitt - Cubism: Pablo Picasso - Dancer: Isadora Duncan - Designer: Arne Jacobsen - Doll Maker: Greer Lankton - Entertainer: PT Barnum - Fashion designer: Alexander McQueen - Fluxus art: Yoko Ono - Game designer: Peter Molyneux - Graphic Artist: Ludwig Merwart - Graphic designer: Peter Saville - Horticulture: André le Nôtre - Illusionist: Houdini - Illustrator: Quentin Blake - Impressionism: Claude Monet - Industrial designer: Pininfarina - Jewelry: Fabergé - Landscape architect: Frederick Law Olmsted - Minimalist artist: Donald Judd - Movie director: Sergei Eisenstein - Muralist: Diego Rivera - Musician: John Lennon - New Media: Genco Gulan - Novelist: Charles Dickens - Musical instrument maker: Stradivari - Orator: Cicero - Outsider Art: Nek Chand - Painter: Rembrandt van Rijn - Painter: Mr. Glowa - Performance Art: Carolee Schneemann - Photographer: Bill Brandt - Photomontage: John Heartfield - Pianist: Glenn Gould - Playwright: Alan Bennett - Poet: Pablo Neruda - Potter: Bernard Leach - Printmaker: William Hogarth - Sculptor: Michelangelo Buonarotti - Singer: Maria Callas - Street Art: Banksy - Typographer: Eric Gill - -References - - -Occupations" -10290,35963,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwanatheria,Gondwanatheria,"Gondwanatheria is an extinct group of mammals that lived during the Upper Cretaceous to the Miocene. They lived in the Southern Hemisphere continents which had been part of the supercontinent Gondwana. - -These mammals are known only from isolated teeth and a few lower jaws. Because of these fragmentary remains, their relationships are unclear. Later finds have improved our knowledge of them. It was thought previously that climate changes at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary had caused their extinction. - -Fossils have come from South America, India and Antarctica, where gondwanatherids lived in the lush forests which once covered much of the world. - -References - -Mammals -Fossils -Gondwana" -20093,76862,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily%20Greene%20Balch,Emily Greene Balch,"Emily Greene Balch (1867-1961) shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1946 with John Raleigh Mott (1865-1955). Both laureates were American. - -1867 births -1961 deaths -Writers from Massachusetts -American Nobel Prize winners" -16981,64527,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied-occupied%20Germany,Allied-occupied Germany,"After World War II Nazi Germany west of the Oder-Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones. This had been agreed in London in September 1944. - -They were occupied by the allied powers who defeated Germany (the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States) and by France. This was done for administrative purposes during the period 1945-1949. - -In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe the American forces had actually pushed beyond the previously agreed upon occupation zone boundaries, sometimes by as much as 200 miles. After about two months of holding certain areas meant to be in the Soviet zone, the American forces withdrew during July 1945. - -Related pages - American occupation zone - British occupation zone - Soviet occupation zone - -Other websites - Post-WWII commanders/governors of Germany - -1949 disestablishments -1945 establishments in Germany -1940s disestablishments in Germany" -18489,69375,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamgaly,Tamgaly,"Tamgaly is a lake in Kazakhstan, in South Kazakhstan oblast. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site where petroglyphs (rock pictures) have been found. - -Lakes of Kazakhstan" -12033,44255,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin,Chin,"The chin is the bottom part of the face. It is under the mouth and is the forward part of the jaw. - -The chin is unique to present-day humans, our species. It is not present in the anthropoid apes, nor in any other hominin. Neanderthals did not have a human-type chin. In medical anatomy, the chin is called the ""mental eminence"". - -Its absence in Homo floresiensis is grounds for thinking that small hominin was not of our species. - -It is thought that our chin may have become shaped like this to improve the muscle attachments of the lips and tongue. Chins can be larger or smaller, depending on the person. Even though chin sizes vary a lot, it is usually further forward than the rest of the face in normal humans. - -References - -Basic English 850 words -Face" -5073,16129,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custard,Custard,"Custard is a kind of food prepared with milk and eggs. Custard can be the dessert or its sauce. - -Custard is an important part of dessert recipes from many countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Australia, and Malaysia. - -Desserts" -8559,29047,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat%20Punto,Fiat Punto,"The Fiat Punto is a car produced by Fiat in three generations since 1993. Production of the first generation Punto was 3.429 million units, second generation 2.96 million units, and third generation 2.67 million units. - -First generation Type 176 (1993–1999) - -Models - -Engines - -Petrol engines - 1.1 8V 40 kW (55 hp) - 1.2 8V 44 kW (60 hp) and 55 kW (73 hp) - 1.2 16V 63 kW (85 hp) - 1.4 8V Turbo 96 kW (130 hp) and 98 kW (133 hp) - 1.6 8V 65 kW (88 hp) - -Diesel engines - 1.7 D 42 kW (57 hp) - 1.9 TD 47 kW (63 hp) and 51 kW (70 hp) - -Second generation Type 188 (1999–2011) - -Models - -Engines - -Petrol engines - 1.2 8V 44 kW (60 hp) - 1.2 16V 59 kW (80 hp) - 1.4 16V 77 kW (95 hp) - 1.8 16V 96 kW (131 hp) - -Diesel engines - 1.3 Multijet 16V 51 kW (69 hp) - 1.9 D 8V 44 kW (60 hp) - 1.9 JTD 8V 59 kW (80 hp) and 63 kW (86 hp) - 1.9 Multijet 8V 74 kW (101 hp) - -BiPower engines - 1.2 Natural Power 8V CNG 51 kW (69 hp) - -Third generation Type 199 (2005–2018) - -Models - -Engines - -Petrol engines - 1.2 8V 48 kW (65 hp) - 1.4 8V 57 kW (78 hp) - 1.4 StarJet 16V 70 kW (95 hp) - 1.4 MultiAir 16V 77 kW (105 hp) - 1.4 T-Jet 16V 88 kW (120 hp) - 1.4 MultiAir Turbo 16V 99 kW (135 hp) - -Diesel engines - 1.3 Multijet 16V 55 kW (75 hp) and 66 kW (90 hp) - 1.3 Multijet II 16V 55 kW (75 hp) and 70 kW (95 hp) - 1.6 Multijet 16V 88 kW (120 hp) - 1.9 Multijet 8V 88 kW (120 hp) and 96 kW (130 hp) - -BiPower engines - 1.4 Natural Power 8V CNG 51-57 kW (69-78 hp) - 1.4 8V LPG 57 kW (78 hp) - -References - -Other websites -fiatpunto.com -The Punto Van -Grande Punto EuroNCAP results -The Punto Power fan site -The Punto Sports Forum fan site -The Punto MK2 & MK2B Forum fan site -PuntoUK: a UK based Punto fan site -Grande-Punto.de - The German Community -FiatPunto.com.pl - The Polish Fiat Punto fan Forum - -Punto -1990s automobiles -2000s automobiles -2010s automobiles" -22624,85682,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20H.%20Macy,William H. Macy,"William Henry Macy (born March 13, 1950 is an Emmy Award-winning and Academy Award-nominated American Actor. He was in the movie Fargo. He is also a teacher and director in theatre, movie and television. He is now known for his award-winning role as Frank Gallagher in the television series Shameless. - -Personal Life -Macy and actress Felicity Huffman dated on-and-off for 15 years and married on September 6, 1997. They have three children, two daughters, Sophia Grace (born December 1, 2000) and Georgia Grace (born March 14, 2002), and a son James Robert (born February 23, 2003). - -References - -Other websites - - William H. Macy at Tv.com - -1950 births -Living people -American movie actors -American television actors -Emmy Award winners -Actors from Miami, Florida" -20010,76588,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakten%20p%C3%A5%20Billie%20Jo,Jakten på Billie Jo,"was a Swedish reality program. It was first broadcast on August 4, 2000. It was broadcast by the station TV4. The program followed three American actresses who auditioned for the role as ""Billie Jo"" in the Swedish soap opera Nya tider. - -The winner was Alexandra Sapot. The winner was chosen by Swedish viewers' televotes and the production company Jarowskij. - -Contestants - -Tanya Gingerich is an actress from Tarrytown, New York. She also played parts in series like Hamlet and Shame No More. -Melissa Hanson is an actress born in Honolulu,Hawaii. She also played parts in series like Grace Under Fire and Who shot Patakango?. -Hope Harris is an American actress from Virginia. She also played roles in series like The Sullivan sisters,Come On, Get Happy: The Partridge Family Story and Angel in Training. -Alexandra Sapot is an actress and executive assistant on series like Entourage, and Now and Again. - -Other websites - -About the contestants - -About the show - -Alex blev Billie Jo (Alex Sapot won the role as Billie Jo, Aftonbladet article, in Swedish) - -2000 television series debuts -Reality television series" -10673,38042,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago%2C%20Chile,"Santiago, Chile","Santiago, Chile (also known as Santiago de Chile) is the capital of Chile and the largest city in the country. It has a population of around 7 million people, about 35.9 percent of the population of South America. In Chile, people call the city Gran Santiago (Big Santiago) or Santiago. It has 26 comunas (municipalities). - -With its geographical conditions, because it is located in a valley surrounded by the Andes mountains, Santiago has a large amount of air pollution. - -Gallery - -Other websites - - Municipality homepage - Santiago Tourist - An Independent Travel Guide - - -1541 establishments -1540s establishments in South America -16th-century establishments in Chile" -7436,24014,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschelbronn,Eschelbronn,"Eschelbronn is a village with 2597 people living there. It is in the Rhein-Neckar area of Baden-Württemberg, Germany and close to Sinsheim. - -Eschelbronn is in the north of Kraichgau with a distance of about 25 km to Heidelberg. - -History -It was already mentioned in the years 788/789 in a document of the monastery of Lorsch. Afterwards there was no documentation until the end of the 13th century when it became part of the restrict of Speyer. -The first mayor was Heinrich von Eschelbrunnen in the year 1261. In 1267 a castle made of wood was built and later rebuilt into a water-castle of stone in 1375. In 1526 the village became Protestant. -In 1803 Eschelbronn became part of Baden. From 1807 on the village was administered by Waibstadt and 1803 by Sinsheim until the 31st of December 1972. Today it belongs to the Rhein-Neckar area. - -In former times most of the people were farmers, however later in the 18th century the production of textiles became more and more important. Since the end of the 19th century Eschelbronn is well known for its furniture production. - -Other websites - Official website - Museum of Furniture Production - -Villages in Baden-Württemberg -Municipalities in Baden-Württemberg" -6455,20408,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian%20language,Indonesian language,"Indonesian language () is the national and official language of Indonesia and is used in the entire country. It is the language of official communication, taught in schools and used for broadcast in electronic and digital media. Being the top multilingual (especially trilingual) country in the world, most Indonesians also speak their own ethnic or native languages, with the most widely spoken being Javanese and Sundanese which consequently give huge influence into the Indonesian language itself. - -With huge speakers throughout the country as well as by the diaspora who live abroad, Indonesian language is listed as one of the most spoken languages worldwide. Indonesian language recognized as one of the official languages by several nations globally, such as Timor Leste, Vietnam, etc. Indonesian language also officially taught and used in schools, universities, and institutions worldwide, especially in Australia, Netherlands, Japan, South Korea, Timor Leste, Vietnam, Taiwan, United States of America, United Kingdom, etc. - -Having a long-established historical ties with European countries since the colonialism era, some of Indonesian terms has absorbed into some European languages, mainly the Dutch and English. Indonesian language itself also has numerous loanwords which derived from the European languages, mainly from the Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and English. Indonesian language also has loanwords derived from Sanskrit, Chinese, and Arabic which diffused in Indonesian due to the trade and religious-based activities that had been done since ancient times within the Indonesian archipelago region. - -References - -Austronesian languages -Languages of Indonesia" -18577,69719,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated%20Board%20of%20the%20Royal%20Schools%20of%20Music,Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music,"The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music or ABRSM is an organisation that arranges music examinations. The organisation is based in London, but they arrange examinations in places all over the world. Many people, especially children, who learn instruments take examinations of the ABRSM as it helps them to become better players because it gives them something to work for. People of any age can take the exams. Those who pass an exam get a certificate. Over 620,000 candidates take the ABRSM examinations every year in over ninety countries. - -The organisation is called “Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music” because it is organised by a group of four music conservatoires: -Royal Academy of Music -Royal College of Music -Royal Northern College of Music -Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama - -Graded Exams - -Exams can be taken on many different instruments. In nearly each case there are eight grades, numbered from 1 to 8. For example, someone who has learned the piano for a short while may take Grade 1 once he or she can play pieces such as a simple minuet, and play a few scales with separate hands. By the time they take Grade 8 they will need to be able to play movements from sonatas by composers such as Beethoven, play all 24 scales in various ways very fluently and be good at sight-reading. - -The marks are given out of 150. The pass mark is hundred. Below hundred marks is a “Fail”. one hundred and twenty marks to one hundred and twenty nine is called a “Merit” and one hundred and thirty and above is a “Distinction”. - -Although some students take each of the grades as they get better at their instrument, it is not necessary to have passed earlier grades in order to take a higher grade. For grades 6 and above it is necessary to have passed Grade 5 Theory or Practical Musicianship or Jazz. This is to make sure that students have a good knowledge of music. - -The examiners are people who are professional musicians. Many of them are music teachers. They have a wide experience of music and they are trained by the ABRSM so that they all mark in the same way. - -The ABRSM also publish a lot of music, including the music set for their exams. - -There are four kinds of exams: - -Practical Exams -These are by far the most commonly taken exams. Available for over 35 instruments, these exams consist of 4 different sections: - - Set Pieces. The student will need to play three pieces which he or she will have practised and can play well. There is a choice of pieces: students must choose one from each of three groups of pieces. For some instruments a selection of these pieces are published together in a book. The pieces will change every two years (or with some instruments every four years). - - Scales. These will include scales, arpeggios and broken chords, depending on the grade and instrument. - - Sight Reading. The student is given a piece he has never seen before, and has 30 seconds to look at it or try it out, and then he must play it as well as he can. - -Aural Tests. The student must listen to examples played by the examiner and answer questions on them. He may, for example, have to sing the notes the examiner played, or clap the rhythm or say what kind of chords were played (depending on the grade). - -Each section has a certain number of marks and all the marks add up to 150. 100 is a pass, 120 a merit and 130 a distinction. - -There is also a Prep Test for those who are not yet ready to take Grade 1 but would like to have the experience of taking an exam. Students who take a Prep Test are not given a mark. It is a way to encourage young people and make them relaxed about the idea of taking exams. - -Theory Exams -These are written papers about musical theory. They are marked out of 100: 66 or more is a pass; 80 or more is a merit; 90 or more is a distinction. - -Practical Musicianship -These exams will test a student’s understanding of rhythm, melody, key and notation together with the ability to sing and play from memory, and improvise and to recognise changes to and answer questions about a score. - -Jazz Exams -These are the newest types of exams. Jazz piano was first offered in 1999. At the moment they are only available for flute, piano, clarinet, saxophone, trumpet and trombone. They are also only available from Grades 1-5. They are marked in the same way as practical exams. However many of the pieces include large sections where they have to improvise (make something up) using particular chords. - -Diplomas -The ABRSM offer diplomas in three disciplines: -Music Performance -Music Direction -Instrumental/Vocal Teaching -For each discipline there are three levels of award: -DipABRSM (Diploma of The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music) -LRSM (Licentiate of the Royal Schools of Music) -FRSM (Fellowship of the Royal Schools of Music) -These are professional qualifications which allow a person to put the letters after his or her name. - -Other websites - Official ABRSM website - -Music education" -14,28,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20English,American English,"American English or US English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United States of America. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. - -Use -Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country where another type of English is spoken. This may be because people hear and read American English through the media, for example movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English. - -Because people all over the world use the English language, it gets many new words. English has been changing in this way for hundreds of years. For example, the many millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages. - -Sometimes people learn American English as it is spoken in the US. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from the US. These people often keep using American English in everyday life. - -Spelling - -There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. - -Vocabulary -There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English, e.g.: - aeroplane is called ""airplane"" - ladybird is called ""ladybug"" - lift is called ""elevator"" - toilet is called ""bathroom"", ""restroom"" or ""comfort station"" - lorry is called ""truck"" - nappies are called ""diapers"" - petrol is called ""gas"" (or ""gasoline"") - the boot of a car is called a ""trunk"" - a dummy is called a ""pacifier"" - trousers are called ""pants"" - underground is called ""subway"" - football is called ""soccer"" - braces are ""suspenders"" (""suspenders"" in British-English are a type of clothing worn around the lower leg by males to stop socks/sox from sagging, and around the upper leg by women wearing stockings) - -Regional accents -General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter ""R"" than some other kinds do. ""R-dropping"" is frequent in certain places where ""r"" sound is not pronounced after a vowel. For example as in the words ""car"" and ""card"" sounding like ""cah"" and ""cahd"". This occurs in the Boston area. - -References" -7698,25176,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/400s,400s," - -Events - Constantine III seizes control of the Roman garrison in Britain, declares himself emperor, and crosses into Gaul. - August 22, 408 – Stilicho, military power behind the imperial throne, is executed. The Roman military is leaderless for several years until Constantius III becomes patrician. - Construction (and therefore occupation) at Great Zimbabwe begins. - Validity limit for the information on Eastern Roman Empire in the Notitia Dignitatum." -20097,76879,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie,Curie,"The Curies were a family of distinguished scientists: - - Marie Curie (1867-1934), a Polish-French chemist, physicist, and two time Nobel Prize winner - Pierre Curie (1859-1906), Marie's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner - Irène Joliot-Curie (1897-1956), Marie and Pierre's daughter, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner - Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900-1958), Irène's husband, French physicist and Nobel Prize winner - Ève Curie (1904-2007), Marie and Pierre's second daughter, French-American writer and journalist - -Things and ideas named after the Curies: - - Curie (unit) (Ci), a unit of radioactivity - Curie point - Curie's law - Curium (Cm), a chemical element - Curie (lunar crater) - Curie Institute (Paris) - Curie Institute (Warsaw) - Curie (Q 87), a French submarine in the First World War - French submarine Curie (P67), a French submarine in the Second World War - -CURIE: - - CURIE, a syntax for Compact URIs." -21855,83273,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellikon,Bellikon,"Bellikon is a municipality in Baden in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland. - -References - -Other websites - Bellikon - Official website - Bellikon Rehab Clinic - -Municipalities of Aargau" -5771,18701,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20number,Prime number,"A prime number is a natural number of a particular kind. Any natural number is equal to 1 times itself. If the number is equal to any other natural numbers multiplied, then the number is called a composite number. The smallest composite number is 4, because 2 x 2 = 4. 1 is not a composite number. Every other number is a prime number. The prime numbers are the numbers other than 1 which are not equal to (except 1 times itself). The smallest prime number is 2. The next prime numbers are 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13. There is no largest prime number. The set of prime numbers is sometimes written as . - -The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that every positive integer can be written as a product of primes in a unique way, though the way the prime numbers occur is a difficult problem for mathematicians. When a number is larger, it is more difficult to know if it is a prime number. One of the answers is the prime number theorem. One of the unsolved problems is Goldbach's conjecture. - -One of the most famous mathematicians of the classical era, Euclid, recorded a proof that there is no largest prime number. However many scientists and mathematicians are still searching to find it as part of the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search. - -How to find small prime numbers -There is a simple method to find a list of prime numbers. Eratosthenes created it. It has the name Sieve of Eratosthenes. It catches numbers that are not prime (like a sieve), and lets the prime numbers pass through. - -The method works with a list of numbers, and a special number called b that changes during the method. As one goes through the method, they circle some numbers in the list and cross out others. Each circled number is prime and each crossed-out number is composite. At the start, all the numbers are plain: not circled and not crossed out. - -The method is always the same: - - On a sheet of paper, write all the whole numbers from 2 up to the number being tested. Do not write down the number 1. Go to the next step. - Start with b equal to 2. Go to the next step. - Circle b in the list. Go to the next step. - Starting from b, count up b more in the list and cross out that number. Repeat counting up b more numbers and crossing out numbers until the end of the list. Go to the next step. - (For example: When b is 2, you will circle 2 and cross out 4, 6, 8, and so on. When b is 3, you will circle 3 and cross out 6, 9, 12, and so on. 6 and 12 have already been crossed out. Cross them out again.) - Increase b by 1. Go to the next step. - If b has been crossed out, go back to the previous step. If b is a number in the list that has not been crossed out, go to the 3rd step. If b is not in the list, go to the final step. - (This is the final step.) You are done. All of the prime numbers are circled and all of the composite numbers are crossed out - -For example, one could carry out this method on a list of the numbers from 2 to 10. At the end, the numbers 2, 3, 5, and 7 will end up circled. These are prime numbers. The numbers 4, 6, 8, 9 and 10 will be crossed out. These are composite numbers. - -This method or algorithm takes too long to find very large prime numbers. However, it is less complicated than methods used for very large primes, such as Fermat's primality test (a test to see whether a number is prime or not) and the Miller-Rabin primality test. - -What prime numbers are used for -Prime numbers are very important in mathematics and computer science. Very long numbers are hard to solve. It is difficult to find their prime factors, so most of the time, numbers that are probably prime are used for encryption and secret codes. For example: - - Most people have a bank card, where they can get money from their account using an ATM. This card is protected by a secret access code. Since the code needs to be kept secret, it cannot be stored in cleartext on the card. Encryption is used to store the code in a secret way. This encryption uses multiplications, divisions, and finding remainders of large prime numbers. An algorithm called RSA is often used in practice. It uses the Chinese remainder theorem. - - If someone has a digital signature for their email, encryption is used. This makes sure that no one can fake an email from them. Before signing, a hash value of the message is created. This is then combined with a digital signature to produce a signed message. Methods used are more or less the same as in the first case above. - - Finding the largest known prime number has, over the years, become a sport of sorts. Testing if a number is prime can be difficult if the number is large. The largest primes known at any time are usually Mersenne primes, because the fastest known test for primality is the Lucas-Lehmer test, which relies on the special form of Mersenne numbers. - -Related pages - - Coprime - List of prime numbers - Palindromic prime - Prime factorization - Wilson prime - -References - -Other websites - - GIMPS, a group that searches for Mersenne primes" -19062,72066,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20government%20in%20England,Local government in England,"For the purposes of local government, England is divided into as many as four levels of administrative divisions. At some levels, various legislation has created alternative types of administrative division. - -Regional level - -At the top level, England is divided into nine regions. Each one containing one or more county-level areas. The regions were created in 1994 and since the 1999 Euro-elections have been used as England's European Parliament constituencies. All have the same status. However London is the only region with any devolved power in the form of an elected mayor and the Greater London Authority. The regions also vary greatly in their areas and their populations. - -County level -England is divided by the Lieutenancies Act 1997 into areas for the appointment of Lord Lieutenants, who are historically the Crown's representative in a county. Although not actually defined as such, these areas have become known as ceremonial counties. These counties are sometimes used by people when describing where they live in England. However, many are not used as local government areas themselves, as many are too large or include large urban areas. They are taken into consideration though when drawing up Parliamentary constituency boundaries for example. - -For administrative purposes, England is divided into four types of county-level subnational entities used for local governance. - -Metropolitan county - -There are six metropolitan counties, divided into metropolitan boroughs, which cover large urban areas outside London. They were created in 1974. In 1986 their county councils were abolished. - -Shire county -The ""shire counties"" were also created in 1974 and are legally known as non-metropolitan counties. They are divided into non-metropolitan districts and cover much of the country, though mainly the rural areas. - -Unitary authority - -Unitary authorities were created in the 1990s and are single-tier authorities which combine the functions of county and district councils. They are defined either as counties consisting of a single district or districts of a county such as Berkshire that has no county council. The Isle of Wight is the exception, being a county council with no districts. - -Greater London - -Greater London was created in 1965 and is sometimes considered as a metropolitan county but it is not defined as such. It is divided into the City of London and London boroughs. - -District level -Districts in England may also have the status of borough, city or royal borough. - -Metropolitan district - -The metropolitan counties were divided into metropolitan districts which are usually called boroughs. When the county councils were abolished the metropolitan districts gained much of their powers and therefore function similar to other unitary authorities. - -Non-metropolitan district -Shire counties are divided into non-metropolitan districts. Power is shared with the county council, but shared differently to the metropolitan counties when first created. - -Parish level -The civil parish is the most local unit of government in England. Under the legislation that created Greater London, they are not permitted within its boundary. Not all of the rest of England is parished, though the number of parishes and total area parished is growing. - -Exceptions -The following are exceptions to the general arrangements for local government in England and as a consequence are separately listed in legislation from the above types of local authorities where functions are allocated to particular groups of local authorities. - -London boroughs -In Greater London, the 32 London borough councils have a status close to that of unitary authorities, but there is also a higher strategic tier, the Greater London Authority, which oversees some of the functions performed elsewhere by Counties including transport, policing, the fire brigade and also economic development. - -City of London -As well as the same general functions performed by the surrounding London boroughs, the City of London has others which make it distinct from most local authorities, including extraterritorial possessions (such as Hampstead Heath and Queens Park recreation ground in Kilburn) and services (including veterinary services at Heathrow Airport and domestic asbestos disposal) elsewhere in Greater London. - -Inner and Middle Temples -Inner Temple and Middle Temple are small liberties within the boundary of the City of London which function as their own local authorities. - -Isles of Scilly -The Isles of Scilly have a sui generis local authority, the Isles of Scilly Council, which is similar to a unitary authority found in the rest of England. - -Changes proposed in 2004 - -A referendum was held in North East England on November 4, 2004 to see whether people there wished to have an elected regional assembly. As part of the referendum, voters were to have been asked to choose which system of unitary authorities they would like to see in the existing county council areas if the regional assembly was approved. In the event, the vote in the North East was a decisive ""no"", making the proposed local government changes moot. - -Similar referendums in North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber were postponed indefinitely: on 8 November 2004 the Deputy Prime Minister announced ""I will not therefore be bringing forward orders for referendums in either the North West, or Yorkshire and the Humber"". *Statement by Deputy Prime Minister - -Most of the proposed changes would have required no change in the county level entites, as they could have been be implemented by merging districts and abolition of the county council. Where borders were crossed, however, changes would have been needed. This impacted Lancashire, where various parts were proposed for combination with Blackpool and Blackburn with Darwen (both unitaries), Sefton (in Merseyside), Wigan (in Greater Manchester), and southern Cumbria; it also affects one proposal for North Yorkshire, which would have merged the district of Selby with the East Riding of Yorkshire. Few of the boundary changes would have involved creating new borders - only the proposals to combine Blackpool with parts of Wyre, and to split West Lancashire between Wigan and Sefton would do this. - -Changes under consideration in 2007 -On 27 March, 2007, Local Government Minister Phil Woolas announced that sixteen councils bidding for unitary status had been short listed to go forward for public consultation. On 26 July, 2007 Wollas' successor John Healey announced that nine proposals would proceed, subject to the approval of Parliament in the Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Bill (LGPIH). The Government expects those approved for implementation to be fully operational by April 2009. The short-listed proposals were those made by: - -[*] - the Boundary Committee is asked to advise whether an alternative unitary proposal for Norwich based on revised council boundaries could deliver the required improvements. - -[**] - if Bedford Borough Council’s proposals are implemented other authorities in Bedfordshire including Bedfordshire County Council will be invited to propose a unitary solution for the remaining area of Bedfordshire. - -References - -Other websites - Council review may mean end of counties (The Guardian, 29 December 2005)" -13910,51467,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conch,Conch,"A conch is a sea-dwelling mollusc. It is a marine gastropod. The ch at the end of 'conch' may be pronounced hard or soft. - -Many other gastropods have common names with conch in them. They are however not true conches, in the family -Strombidae. One such example is the Horse Conch (Pleuroploca gigantea). The genus Strombus is made up of the true conches. - -While most Strombid species are extinct, at least 65 species still exist. Of these, most are in the Indo-Pacific Oceans while six are in the greater Caribbean region. Living true conch species include the Queen Conch, Strombus gigas, and the West Indian Fighting Conch (Strombus pugilis). - -Many conch, such as the Queen Conch, are found among beds of sea grass in warm tropical waters. - -Strombus gigas is included in Appendix II of the UNEP's CITES list of endangered species and international trade is heavily restricted. - -Anatomy - -Conches have spirally constructed shells. Depending on species (or aberrant growth patterns), shell growth can be sinistral (left-handed) or dextral (right-handed). - -Conches have long eye stalks, a long and narrow aperture, and a siphonal canal with an indentation near the anterior end. This indentation is called a stromboid notch. They also have a foot ending in a pointed, sickle-shaped, horny operculum. They grow a flared lip on their shells upon reaching sexual maturity. - -Conches have a characteristic leaping motion, using their pointed, sickle-shaped, horny operculum to propel themselves forward. They lay eggs in long, gelatinous strands. - -Human use - -The animal inside the shell is eaten, either raw, as in salads, or cooked, as in fritters, chowders, gumbos, and burgers. In East Asian cuisines, the meat is often cut into thin slices and then steamed or stir-fried. Conch meat is also often confused with Scungilli, which is more accurately whelk meat. - -Conch shells are sometimes used as decoration, as decorative planters, and in cameo-making. As with other mollusk shells, they are ground up into an ingredient in porcelain. In classic Mayan art, conches are shown being utilized in many ways including as paint and ink holders for elite scribes, as bugle or trumpet, and as hand weapons (held by combatants by inserting their hands in the aperture). - -In some countries, cleaned Queen Conch (Strombus gigas) shells or polished fragments are sold, mainly to tourists, as souvenirs or in jewelry. Without a permit however, export is a breach of CITES regulations and may lead to arrest . This is most likely to occur on return to the tourist's home country while clearing customs. In the UK conch shells are the 9th most seized import. - -Conch shells are occasionally used as a building material, either in place of bricks or as bulk for landfill. - -It is also believed to be used as a weapon by the earliest Caribbean natives. - -Playing the conch shell -Conch shells are sometimes made into crude bugles by removing the small tip of the shell to form a mouthpiece. Such instruments are used in the Pacific Islands as well as in many parts of Asia. While lacking the range capabilities and tonal quality of brass instruments, the conch shell is still an interesting instrument to play. As it has no mouthpiece or valves, the embouchure in shell playing is critical. Most shells will only naturally play one note, but with pitch manipulations, multiple sounds can be achieved. The insertion of the hand and the placement of the fingers will also change the pitch of the shell. The conch shell is said to be the musical instrument of mermaids and mermen. Steve Turre is the leading innovator of the shell. It is sometimes found in classical works, such as the symphony piece ""La Noche de Los Mayas"", or ""Night of the Mayas"", which was premiered in 1939 with Jacob Watkins on percussion and conch. - -Religious symbolism - -Hindu tradition - -The conch shell is a major Hindu article of prayer, used as a trumpeting announcement of all sorts. The God of Preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life as it has come out of life-giving waters. In the story of Dhruva the divine conch plays a special part. The warriors of ancient India would blow conch shells to announce battle, such as is famously represented in the beginning of the war of Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata, the famous Hindu epic. The conch shell is a deep part of Hindu symbolic and religious tradition. To this very day, many Hindus use the conch as a part of their religious practices, blowing it during worship at specific points, accompanied by ceremonial bells. - -See also: Krishna - -Buddhist tradition -Buddhism also has incorporated the conch into its symbolism. See: Buddhist symbolism. - -Literature -William Golding's Lord of the Flies features frequent references to ""The Conch"". In the novel, a conch shell is blown to call the other boys together. It is held by whoever is speaking at meetings, symbolically representing democracy and order. When Roger, Jack's lieutenant, smashes the shell, it is a sign that civilized order has collapsed and Jack's domination has begun. - -Media - -Bivalves" -725,3310,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Male,Male,"Male is one of two genders. Most species have two sexes male and female. Human males are men or boys; human females are women or girls. - -The two sexes have different sexual organs, and different secondary sex characteristics. They also often have different biological functions. The female gives birth to children with the semen provided by the male. In many human societies, females often were involved in gathering, while men used to hunt. - -Related pages - - Female - -Gender" -21549,82320,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958%20FIFA%20World%20Cup,1958 FIFA World Cup,"The 1958 FIFA World Cup was a football sporting event that was held in Sweden. - -Squads - -Europe - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - -North and Central America - • Squad - -South America - • Squad - • Squad - • Squad - -Results - -Group stage - -Group 1 - -Group 2 - -Group 3 - -Group 4 - -Knockout stage - -Quarterfinals - France 4-0 Northern Ireland - Brazil 1-0 Wales - West Germany 1-0 Yugoslavia - Sweden 2-0 Soviet Union - -Semifinals - Sweden 3-1 West Germany - Brazil 5-2 France - -3rd place - France 6-3 West Germany - -Final - Brazil 5-2 Sweden -Brazil won the championship. - -Goalscorers - -13 goals - Just Fontaine - -6 goals - Helmut Rahn - Pelé - -5 goals - Peter McParland - Vavá - -4 goals - Zdenĕk Zikán - Lajos Tichy - Kurt Hamrin - Agne Simonsson - -3 goals - Todor Veselinović - Omar Oreste Corbatta - Roger Piantoni - Raymond Kopa - Hans Schäfer - -2 goals - Florencio Amarilla - José Parodi - Juan Bautista Agüero - Jorge Lino Romero - José Altafini - Aleksandar Petaković - Uwe Seeler - Maryan Wisnieski - Derek Kevan - Milan Dvořák - Václav Hovorka - Anatoli Ilyin - Ivor Allchurch - Nils Liedholm - -1 goal - Lennart Skoglund - Gunnar Gren - Nikita Simonyan - Aleksandr Ivanov - Valentin Ivanov - Tom Finney - Johnny Haynes - József Bozsik - Károly Sándor - József Bencsics - John Charles - Terry Medwin - Cayetano Ré - Jean Vincent - Yvon Douis - Jimmy Murray - Jackie Mudie - Bobby Collins - Sammy Baird - Nílton Santos - Didi - Mário Zagallo - Wilbur Cush - Jaime Belmonte - Norberto Menéndez - Ludovico Avio - Radivoje Ognjanović - Zdravko Rajkov - Karl Koller - Alfred Körner - Jiří Feureisl - Hans Cieslarczyk - -References - FIFA - -| - -1958 in Europe -1958 FIFA World Cup -1950s in Sweden -FIFA World Cup tournaments -Football in Sweden" -12480,45985,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin,Aspirin,"Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a drug. It is most commonly used as a pain killer, or to reduce fever or inflammation. It also has an anti-platelet effect - it reduces the number of platelets in the blood which reduces blood clotting- in that function it is used to prevent heart attacks. Aspirin is one of the most-used medical drugs in the world. - -There are some possible side-effects to this drug. For example, large amounts can damage the kidneys. Children taking aspirin can develop Reye's syndrome which causes the liver to become fatty and not work properly and also the brain to become enlarged. Reyes syndrome can be fatal, but most children survive it with treatment. - -People with lung, kidney disease, gout, hyperuricemia (high amounts of uric acid in the blood), hemophilia (a blood clotting disorder), diabetes or high blood pressure should not take aspirin except on the advice of a qualified medical professional. Nor should people who are allergic to it, to ibuprofen or to naproxen. People with asthma where attacks are brought about by aspirin should avoid using any anti-inflammatory drugs based on it. - -Aspirin was invented in Germany in 1897. Bayer has a trademark on the brand name ""aspirin"" in 80 countries. But in other countries, ""aspirin"" is the common name for the drug. - -References - -Analgesics" -914,3752,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20operating%20systems,List of operating systems,"This is a list of operating systems. - -The first operating systems -CTSS (The Compatible TimeShare System, made at MIT by Corbato and others) -Incompatible Timesharing System (The Incompatible Timeshare System, made at MIT) -Multics (project by Bell Labs, GE, and MIT) -Master programme for Leo Computers, Leo III in 1962 -THE operating system (by Dijkstra and others) - -The first proprietary computer operating systems -Apple Computer (first version was firmware with Integer BASIC; later versions had Microsoft BASIC) -Business Operating System (BOS) - cross platform, text-based -Commodore PET, Commodore 64, and Commodore VIC-20, -First IBM-PC had 3 OSes to start, UCSD P-system, CPM-86, PC-DOS -Flex (by Technical Systems Consultants for Motorola 6800 based computers: SWTPC, Tano, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, Gimix, etc.) -FLEX9 (by TSC for Motorola 6809 based micros) -mini-FLEX (by TSC for 5.25"" disks on 6800 based machines) -Sinclair Micro and QX, etc. -TRS-DOS, ROM OS's (largely Microsoft BASIC implementations with file system extensions) -TI99-4 - -Unix-like and other POSIX-ready systems -AIX (Unix from IBM) -Amoeba (research OS by Andrew S. Tanenbaum) -AtheOS (continued with the Syllable code-fork) -A/UX (Unix Apple OS from start of 1990s) -BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution, a type of Unix) -Cromix (Unix-emulating OS from Cromemco) -Coherent (Unix-emulating OS from Mark Williams Co.) -DNIX -Digital UNIX (later, HP's Tru64 for Digital's AXP 64-bit computers) -FreeBSD (Version of abandoned BSD with free source code) -GNU/Hurd -Haiku (operating system) -HP-UX from HP -Idris from Whitesmiths -IRIX from SGI -LainOS (FreeBSD project, a tried version of ""Navi"" GUI from Serial Experiments Lain) -Linux (free Unix-like kernel) -Minix (educational OS by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in the Netherlands) -NetBSD (post-CSRG open source type of BSD) -NeXTSTEP (foundation for OS X) -OS-9 (not to be confused with Mac OS 9) -OS-9/68k -OS-9000 (OS-9 written in C) -OS/360 -OSF/1 -OS X from Apple Inc. -OpenBSD (post-CSRG open source type of BSD) -OPENSTEP NeXTSTEP on Intel x86, HP PA-RISC, and different architectures. -Plan 9 (by Bell Labs) -QNX (POSIX, microkernel OS) -Rhapsody -RiscOS -SCO UNIX (from SCO, purchased by Caldera) -Solaris from Sun Microsystems -SunOS from Sun Microsystems (became Solaris) -System V (a release of AT&T Unix, 'SVr4' was the 4th minor release) -UNIX (OS developed at Bell Labs in 1970 first by Ken Thompson) -UNIflex (Unix emulating OS by TSC) -Ultrix (DEC's first version of Unix for VAX, PDP-11, MIPS, and Decstation computers) -UniCOS from Cray -Xenix (Microsoft's version of Unix) -z/OS (IBM mainframe OS) - -Generic/commodity, non-UNIX, and other -AOS, now called Bluebottle(update to Oberon operating system) -AROS (Amiga Research Operating System) -Bluebottle (see AOS) -BS2000 by Siemens AG -Control Program/Monitor-80 (CPM operating system) -CP/M-86 (by Digital Research) -DESQView (windowing GUI for MS-DOS,1985) -DR-DOS (MS-DOS compatible OS from Digital Research) -FLEX9 (by TSC) -FreeDOS (open source, free MS-DOS alternative) -GEM (GUI for MS-DOS by Digital Research) -GEOS -MS-DOS (Microsoft purchased from Seattle Computer) -MorphOS (by Genesi) -NetWare (by Novell) -NeXTStep (Foundation for OS X) -PC-DOS (IBM's version of MS-DOS) -Pick -Plan 9, Inferno (networked OS by Bell Labs) -Primos by Prime Computer -Mach (kernel by CMU, used in NeXTStep and OS X) -MP/M-80 (by Digital Research) -NewOS -Oberon operating system (developed at ETH-Zürich by Niklaus Wirth) -OS/2 Windows/MS-DOS compatible operating system made in a Microsoft and IBM project, but later Microsoft stopped when they wanted to work on Windows NT more; which was better than early Windows versions and MS-DOS. -OS-9 (Unix emulating OS from Microware) -OS-9/68k (Unix emulating OS from Microware) -OS-9000 (portable Unix emulating OS from Microware) -SSB-DOS (by TSC for Smoke Signal Broadcasting; a variant of FLEX) -TripOS -TUNES -QDOS (made at Seattle Computer Products by Tim Paterson for new Intel 808x CPUs. Given to Microsoft—soon became MS-DOS) -UCSD P-system (OS by a student project at the University of California, San Diego; directed by Prof Ken Bowles) -VisiOn (first GUI for early PC machines, not successful) -Visopsys (hobby OS for PCs) -VME by International Computers Limited (ICL) -Randolf by United Computer inc, -Vision (first GUI for early PC machines, not successful, by Microware) - -Hobby OS -Operating systems written for a hobby. -ReactOS (an open source OS that runs Windows NT applications natively) -Panalix -MenuetOS -SkyOS - -Proprietary - -Acorn -Arthur -ARX -RISC OS (was later open sourced under a fully free/open source license) -RISCiX - -Amiga -AmigaOS -AmigaOS 4 - -Atari ST -MultiTOS -MiNT -TOS - -Apple -Apple DOS -A/UX -Darwin -GS/OS -iOS -Macintosh/Mac OS classic -Mac OS X -Newton OS -ProDOS - -Be Incorporated -BeOS -BeIA -Zeta - -Digital/Compaq/HP -AIS -ITS (for the PDP-6 and PDP-10) -OS-8 -RSTS/E (ran on several machines, chiefly PDP-11s) -RSX-11 (multi-user, multitasking OS for PDP-11s) -RT-11 (single user OS for PDP-11) -TENEX (from BBN) -TOPS-10 (for the PDP-10) -TOPS-20 (for the PDP-10) -VMS (by DEC for the VAX mini-computer type; later renamed OpenVMS) -WAITS - -IBM -AIX (a version of Unix) -ALCS -Basic Operating System (first system released for the System 360, as an interim) -DOS/VSE -MFT (later called OV/VS1) -MVS (latest variant of MVT) -MVT (later called OV/VS2) -OS/2 -OS/360 (first OS planned for the System 360 architecture) -OS/390 -OS/400 -PC-DOS (IBM's version of DOS) -SVS -TPF -VM/CMS -z/OS - -Microsoft -Xenix -MS-DOS -Microsoft Windows -Windows 1.0x (Mostly text interface organised into windows, because graphical hardware was expensive at the time) -Windows 2.X -Windows 3.X -Windows NT -Windows NT 4.0 -Windows 9x -Windows Me -Windows 2000 -Windows XP (based on code of Windows 2000, was first ""non-business"" version of Windows NT) -Windows Server 2003 -Windows Vista -Windows Server 2008 -Windows 7 -Windows Server 2008 R2 -Windows 8 -Windows Server 2012 -Windows 8.1 -Windows Server 2012 R2 -Windows 10 -Windows Server 2016 -Windows Server 2019 -Xenix - -Personal digital assistants (PDAs) -EPOC, today is named Symbian OS -iOS from Apple -Newton OS from Apple, for Apple Newton MessagePad -Palm OS from Palm Inc -Pocket PC from Microsoft -Windows CE (Windows Compact Edition, from Microsoft) - -Microcontroller, embedded -Little operating systems that run on small devices. -Contiki -INTEGRITY -ITRON -Nucleus RTOS -OSEK -QNX -ThreadX -TRON OS by Ken Sakamura -VxWorks -µCLinux -eCos - -Fictional operating systems -Operating systems that have only appeared in fiction or as jokes. -Lcars - From Star Trek -ALTIMIT OS - From .hack -Digitronix - From The Hacker Files -Hyper OS - From the movie Patlabor -Penix - Pun of Microsoft Xenix with an inappropriate word -Wheatonix - April fool's joke. -GLADOS - Genetic Lifeform and Disk Operating System - -Related pages -Computer software -Disk operating system - -Operating systems -Computer-related lists" -4430,13913,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney,Kidney,"Kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates that are shaped like beans. They make urine.When medical professionals discuss the kidneys, they typically refer to the word renal. For example, renal failure is when the kidneys are sick and do not work. - -The prefix nephro- is also used in words to mean ""kidneys"". For example, a nephrologist is a doctor who studies kidneys. - -Hormones -The kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin. - -Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin tells the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. So this means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood. - -Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up. - -Stable environment -The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant. - -If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated. - -Kidney diseases -There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. Severe kidney failure means very bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure always have symptoms. They may need special care from doctors. - -The main kinds of kidney diseases are: - Kidney stones – this is when a solid substance forms in the urine. This stone moves through the urinary system until it cannot go on and gets stuck. This sometimes blocks urine flow, and usually causes severe pain. After a time, the stone usually goes out or passes. If it does not go out, doctors may have to remove it. - Kidney infections – also called pyelonephritis. This is a bacterial infection in the kidneys. Some of the symptoms are back pain, vomiting, fever, and dark or bloody urine. People with pyelonephritis need strong antibiotic medicines. - Glomerulonephritis – this is a disease of the tissues in the kidneys that make urine. These are called glomeruli. Glomerulonephritis is an autoimmune disease. It can cause mild or severe kidney failure. - Congenital kidney disease – this is when people are born with kidneys that do not work properly. This includes people that are born with kidneys in the wrong place, or in the wrong shape. About 1% of people are born with only one kidney. - Polycystic kidney disease – this is an inherited disorder in which cysts grow in the kidneys, and destroy the kidney tissue until the kidneys can no longer perform their functions. - Diabetic nephropathy – this is the disease diabetics get when their blood sugar is too high for a long time. This is one of the most common causes of kidney failure in the United States - Hypertensive nephropathy – this is caused by having hypertension (high blood pressure) for a long time. Many people have hypertensive and diabetic nephropathy together. - Cancer – Renal cell carcinoma is the most common kind of kidney cancer. It is most often found in adults, and is usually deadly. It is hard to stop it with radiation treatments or chemotherapy. - -Renal replacement -If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys. - -There are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation. - -Dialysis -Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. - -Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do. - -Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a haemodialyser, and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time. - -Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells. - -Transplant -A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person. - -Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working. - -History - -It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role. - -Anatomy of the urinary system" -886,3681,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing,Writing,"Writing is the act of recording language on a visual medium using a set of symbols. The symbols must be known to others, so that the text may be read. - -A text may also use other visual systems, such as illustrations and decorations. These are not called writing, but may help the message work. Usually, all educated people in a country use the same writing system to record the same language. To be able to read and write is to be literate. - -Writing differs from speech because the readers need not be present at the time. We can read writing from long ago, and from different parts of the world. Text stores and communicates knowledge. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after people settled in towns, and after agriculture started. Writing dates from about 3,300BC, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East. - -Writing today is usually on paper, though there are ways to print on almost any surface. Television and movie screens can also display writing, and so can computer screens. Many writing materials were invented, long before paper. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The Romans wrote on waxed tablets with a pointed stylus; this was popular for temporary notes and messages. The later invention of paper by the Chinese was a big step forward. - -Writing is traditionally done using a hand tool such as a pencil, a pen, or a brush. More and more, however, text is created by input on a computer keyboard. - -Definition of writing -There are two schools of thought: - -Partial writing: Writing is any system of graphic symbols which conveys some thought. -Full writing: Writing is any graphic system which can convey any and all thought.p5 - -Therefore, depending on an author's definition of writing, the term may be used in different ways. With many early systems we do not know what they do convey. The central idea is that a full writing system must be able to represent anything that might be said in spoken language.p7, 217 From this point of view the invention of the rebus is an essential step. - -We can only be sure a sign system is full writing if we can translate the symbols into a modern language. In the case of some ancient scripts we cannot do this. - -History of writing -Writing was invented independently a number of times. The Sumerian, the ancient Egyptian, the Chinese and the Mayan writings are separate in their invention.p85 All these writing systems started with pictographs, symbols that stood for things. Then they developed a mixture of methods. Our own alphabetic system is different. It is based on the sounds of spoken language. All alphabets are modified versions of the first one, which originated with the Phoenicians and the Ancient Greeks. - -Sumer - -The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 5000 years ago this was a fertile region and is now mostly in Iraq. The Sumerians developed a form of writing called cuneiform. Triangular marks were pressed into soft clay tablets. After the clay had dried in the sun the tablets were baked. Then they were carried somewhere else for others to read. We know that its first uses were for trade, accounting and administration. - -The earliest signs were mostly pictorial, but soon they stood as symbols for objects, ideas and sounds. This writing system was extremely successful, and outlasted the Sumerian empire. It was then used by other civilisations in the Middle East, such as the Old -Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Elamite, Hittite, Old Persian and Ugaritic empires. The last cuneiform inscription was dated as AD75. Thus the system had lasted for more than 3000 years.p71 Each version of cuneiform had to be deciphered separately, because all the languages were different. Documents (including stone objects) written in more than one language provided the clues. - -Ancient Egypt - -This is the most famous of the old forms of writing, or scripts. It was invented at roughly the same time as cuneiform, yet was quite different in style, and used different materials. Egyptians ended up with three writing systems for the same language. They were: -1. Hieroglyphic: the famous pictorial language on stone monuments. -2. Hieratic: a cursive ('running') script used by the priests. -3. Demotic: a cursive script used by the people. - -The writing tools used varied according to the material which was written on. The two cursive scripts were written with reed pens and carbon inks onto papyrus. If the material was cloth, then the writing was done by a brush. Many examples survive. The hieroglyphs were inscribed (carved) into stone (hammer & chisel) or painted onto stone surfaces. Many survive, some with the original colours intact. The key event in the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This is a granite slab with the same message written in hieroglyphic, demotic and in Greek. Ancient Greek is well understood, and made possible the interpretation of the other two scripts. - -Chinese -Chinese is the language with the largest number of native speakers. Its history dates back to about 1400BC.p183 The Chinese writing system is idio-syllabic, a mixed method using characters which may have one or more of these elements: -1. Pictographic: representing objects. -2. Visual logic: the number '3' is three horizontal strokes. -3. Complex logic: the sun is a box with a horizontal mid-stroke. -4. Rebus: ""sounds like..."" the character for wheat is also used for 'come' because the words are homophonous (sound alike). -5. Semantic-phonetic: combination of a character for meaning with another for sound (pronunciation). - -Chinese has a huge number of characters: in the region of 50,000.p186 Because of this, printing methods were never really successful in China, despite their early invention. In the 14th century Wang Tzhen had sixty thousand wood block characters cut, a huge investment in time and money. He printed 100 copies of a local gazette, and was author of a treatise on agriculture and other technical works. Even with printing machines from Europe in the 19th century, the process was hampered by the huge number of characters, which slowed the composition to a snail's pace. - -China has eight regional languages that are mutually unintelligible, and many true dialects. The system appears to work mainly because as many as 70% speak Mandarin. Fluency in Chinese reading and writing is undoubtedly difficult to achieve, and this must act as a brake on the drive for literacy. There have been a number of attempts to reform or simplify the system. The most radical in Pinyin, which is a program to replace Chinese characters with an alphabetic system. This was supported by Mao, but faltered after his death. - -Alphabets - -It seems that the idea of an alphabet–a script based entirely upon sound–arose only once, and has been copied and adapted to suit many different languages. Although no alphabet fits its language perfectly, it is flexible enough to fit any language approximately. It was a unique invention.p12 - -Our alphabet is called the Roman alphabet, as compared with the Cyrillic and other alphabets. All of these come from the ancient Greek alphabet, which dates back to about 1100 to 800BC.p167 The Greek alphabet was probably developed from the Phoenician script, which appeared somewhat earlier, and had some similar letter-shapes. - -The Phoenician language was a Semitic language, often called Canaanite. The Semitic group of languages includes Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and also Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus. We do not know much about how the alphabetic idea arose, but the Phoenicians, a trading people, came up with letters which were adapted by the early Greeks to produce their alphabet. The one big difference is that the Phoenician script had no pure vowels. Arabic script has vowels which may be shown by diacritics (small marks above or below the line). The oldest Qu'ran manuscripts had no diacritics. Israeli children today use texts with vowel 'dots' added, to about the third grade.p89 - -No ancient script, alphabetic or not, had pure vowels before the Greeks. The Greek alphabet even has two vowels for 'e' and two for 'o', to distinguish between the long and short sounds. It is fairly clear from this that careful thought went into both the Phoenician invention and the Greek adaptation. However, no details survive of either process. - -Semitic scripts apparently derive from Proto-Sinaitic, a script of which only 31 inscriptions (plus 17 doubtful) are known. It is thought by some researchers that the original source of this script was the Egyptian hieratic script. By the late Middle Kingdom (about 1900BC) hieratic had added some alphabetic signs for representing the consonants of foreign names. Egyptian activity in Sinai was at its height at that time. A similar idea had been suggested many years before. - -Undeciphered scripts -There are a number of scripts which have never been deciphered, despite much effort.p145 Perhaps the most famous are the script of the Indus Valley civilization, and Etruscan. The Indus River civilisation predates other literate civilisations on the Indian subcontinent, going back to about 2500BC. Their cities of Mohenjo-Daru and Harappa were well-planned, with good drainage. The script is found on seal stones, terracotta, bronze, bone and ivory. All are brief, and the language is unknown. - -The Etruscan language used Greek letter-forms, and is found mainly on Etruscan tombs, from Tuscany through to Venice. They were an empire before the Romans, who defeated them, and absorbed their ideas. All knowledge of their language was lost, except that some of the names on tomb memorials can be read from the Greek letters. - -Vinča symbols - -The Tărtăria tablets are three tablets discovered in 1961 in the village of Tărtăria (Hungarian: Alsótatárlaka). This is about from Alba Iulia in Romania. The tablets, dated to around 5300 BC, have symbols in clay: the ""Vinča symbols"". Some claim they are a yet undeciphered language. If this is so, they would be the earliest known form of writing. In 1908 similar symbols were found during excavations, by Miloje Vasić (1869–1956) in Vinča. This is a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia), some 300 km from Turdaș. Later, more were found in another part of Belgrade. Since 1875 over one hundred and fifty Vinča sites have been found in Serbia alone. Many, including Vinča itself, have not been fully excavated. The culture of the whole area is called the Vinča culture. Although some of these symbols look exactly the same as some letters in Etruscan, Greek, and Aramaic, they are generally regarded as an original, independent development. - -Literacy -It is only in the last 150 years that most people have been able to read and write in Europe and North America. In many other parts of the world this did not happen until the 20th century. Until then, literacy was mainly for clerics, that is, people who had training as priests. Even wealthy people were often illiterate, and used scribes to write for them. The invention of printing came before mass literacy. Before 1500, each book had to be created by hand, so there were few books available compared to the billions in the world today. Mass literacy needed cheap books. - -Even now, there is still widespread illiteracy. - -Handwriting -The ordinary use of writing by means of a pen and paper. Can refer to writing for oneself, as in a diary, but mostly it refers to sending letters. Once it was almost the only means of communication between people who were separated. Now, the telephone and e-mail are the most common means of distance communication. - -Related pages -Writing system -Calligraphy -Manuscript -Philology -Printing - -References - -Basic English 850 words - -History of technology - -kk:Жазу" -11144,40195,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20of%20Warcraft,World of Warcraft,"World of Warcraft is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). It was made by Blizzard Entertainment. The game setting is the same for other games using the name ""Warcraft"". It has seven expansions, World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade, World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King, World of Warcraft: Cataclysm, World of Warcraft: Mists of Pandaria, World of Warcraft: Warlords of Draenor, World of Warcraft: Legion and World of Warcraft: Battle for Azeroth. - -Warcraft: Orcs and Humans was a real-time strategy game. The same for Warcraft 2 and its add-on, Warcraft 2: Tides of Darkness and Warcraft 3 and its add-on, Warcraft 3: The Frozen Throne. World of Warcraft is different than the other games because it is a MMORPG. This means that many people from around the world may play together in the online world. - -Gameplay -Players move or advance through the game by gaining experience from killing enemies and finishing quests that are given throughout the game. If a player has enough experience, they will gain a level. The maximum level that a player can reach is currently 60. - -Each level is made higher by each expansion by 10 or 5. At the highest level, players can still get stronger by obtaining items from instances and raids, which are dungeons that require 10 to 25 players to work together to take down bosses and enemies. World of Warcraft has developed a community of 'raiding guilds' that compete with each other for in these raid instances. - -Players are allowed to choose from a number of races and classes. - -Races - -Alliance - Human -Humans look similar to human beings. Humans may choose from the following classes: warrior, rogue, hunter, paladin, mage, warlock, priest, and death knight. - -Humans : Increased stealth detection, increased spirit, bonus reputation gain, good use of swords and maces, escape ability from trapping effects (Every Man for Himself). - - Dwarf -Dwarves are short, scruffy, and enjoy their liquor. Dwarves may choose from the following classes: warrior, rogue, paladin, priest, hunter, warlock, mage, shaman - -Dwarves : Stone form ability, higher critical strike rate with guns, higher frost resistance, treasure finding ability, good use of maces. - - Gnome -Gnomes are very short and mischievous and enjoy explosions and dangerous tools, their hair color may be pink or green or other colors. Gnomes may choose from the following classes: warrior, rogue, warlock, mage, and death knight. - -Gnome : Escape ability from trapping effects (Escape Artist), increased intelligence, higher arcance resistance, bonus to engineering skill. - - Night Elf -Night elves are tall and muscular. Their skin can be colored purple to pale white. Night elves may choose from the following classes: warrior, rogue, druid, priest, hunter, and death knight. - -Night Elf : Ability to fade into the shadows (Shadowmeld), harder to hit, move faster while dead, higher nature resistance. - - Draenei (Requires account upgrade to the Burning Crusade Expansion) -Draenei are tall blue creatures from the planet Draenor. Draenei may choose from the following classes: warrior, shaman, paladin, mage, priest, hunter, death knight. - -Draenei : Bonus to jewelcrafting skill, may heal self or others over time (Gift of the Naru), bonus chance to hit, higher shadow resistance. - - Worgen (Requires account upgrade to the Cataclysm Expansion) -Worgen are werewolves that used to be humans. Worgen may choose from the following classes: Mage, Priest, Rogue, Warlock, Warrior, Druid, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Worgen : Bonus to skinning skill, may skin without skinning knife, increased shadow and nature resistance, bonus critical chance, may move faster for a short period of time (Darkflight). - -Horde - Orc -Orcs are muscular, hairy, and green. Orcs may choose from the following classes: Warrior, Rogue, Shaman, Warlock, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Orc : Have the ability to enrage increasing damage output, resistant to stun effects, pet damage increased, good with axes and fist weapons. - - Tauren -Tauren are very tall, nature-loving cows that walk on two feet. Tauren may choose from the following classes: Warrior, Shaman, Druid, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Tauren : Have the ability to stomp stunning nearby enemies, bonus heath increase, herb gathering skill bonus, increased nature resistance. - - Troll -Trolls are tall and can have large tusks, ranging from blue to green skin, with very colorful hair. Trolls may choose from the following classes: Warrior, Rogue, Shaman, Mage, Priest, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Troll : Ability to go berserk increasing attack speed, health regeneration bonus, increased damage against beasts, higher critical strike chance with bows and thrown weapons, slowing effects reduced. - - Undead -Undead of the Forsaken faction are fairly short and pale with stringy hair, and their bones show through their clothing. Undead may choose from the following classes: Warrior, Rogue, Mage, Warlock, Priest, and Death Knight. - -Undead : Ability to remove fear, sleep and charm effects, eat corpses to regenerate heath, underwater breathing increased, higher shadow resistance. - - Blood Elf (Requires account upgrade to the Burning Crusade Expansion) -Blood Elves are of medium height and very thin, ranging in color from brown to pink to white. They have green eyes and long eyebrows. Blood elves may choose from the following classes: Warrior, Rogue, Paladin, Mage, Warlock, Priest, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Blood Elf : Ability to silence nearby opponents and restore energy, rage, mana and runic power, enchanting skill bonus, higher magic resistance. - - Goblins (Requires account upgrade to the Cataclysm Expansion) -Goblins are short, ugly, and green. They are very greedy and like to destroy things. Goblins may choose from the following classes: Mage, Priest, Rogue, Warlock, Warrior, Shaman, Hunter, and Death Knight. - -Classes -In the game, there are classes. Once a player has made a character, the character's class cannot be changed, but the character can be deleted. Players can have up to 50 characters on each account they pay for, and up to 10 characters per realm. - -Note : There are three key roles in a raid / party group -The Tank. This person / people will be the focus of the bosses attention and will be taking large amounts of damage. -The DPS.(Damage per Second) These people will be in charge of dealing large amounts of damage to try and kill the enemy. It important that they do not cause too much attention as to pull creatures away from the tank. -The Healer. This person / people will look after the group. Healing the tank, and any DPS who get targeted by an Area of Effect spell. (AoE) -Below is a list of classes available in World of Warcraft: - - Mage -Mages cast spells using arcane, frost, or fire magic. Mages wear cloth armor and are very vulnerable to melee damage. They have access to massive ranged spell damage and area of effect capabilities. - -Roles : DPS. - - Rogue -Rogues have a large number of escape tools to get away from battles they do not want to fight. Rogues can stealth (turn invisible) and stun their enemies in melee range, holding one weapon in each hand. Rogues use an energy bar - -Roles : DPS. - - Warrior -Warriors can use nearly any one or two-handed weapon in the game, and may use shields. Warriors get angry (gaining ""rage"" when attacking enemies) and attack their enemies in melee range. - -Roles : Tank, DPS. - - Paladin -Paladins may use 1 handed weapons and shields, or 2 handed weapons, they cannot dual wield. Paladins use holy magic via seal and judgment spells to attack in melee range, or they can be healers. - -Roles : Tank, DPS, Healer. - - Shaman -Shamans wield the elements of nature and fire (and sometimes frost) spells. Shamans can use shields and can dual wield 1 handed weapons or use 2 handed weapons, and may fight in melee range, may cast from range, or may be healers. - -Roles : DPS, Healer. - - Warlock -Warlocks cast shadow and fire magic spells. Warlocks wear cloth armor and are vulnerable to melee damage. Warlocks also summon demonic minions (pets) to help them in battle. - -Roles : DPS. - - Druid -Druids use arcane and nature spells, or may choose talents to be more of a melee fighter. Druids can shift into forms of animals like bear, cat, walrus, and cheetah. Healing druids can turn into a tree form, and the druid caster form is known as Moonkin. - -Roles : Tank (Bear or Dire Bear Forms), DPS (Moonkin or Cat Forms), Healer (Tree Form). - - Priest -Priests wear cloth and are vulnerable to melee damage. Priests can either heal with holy and discipline spells or do damage with shadow spells. - -Roles : DPS, Healer. - - Hunter -Hunters attack with a bow, crossbow or guns from range while their pets attack and keep an enemy's hate in melee range. Hunters can tame many kinds of pets including spiders, bears, worms, wasps, and many more. - -Roles : DPS. - - Death Knight (Requires a level 55 character on account upgraded to the Wrath of the Lich King expansion.) -Death Knights use runes and runic power to attack their enemies in melee range. Death Knights also have a number of ranged abilities to keep their targets from running away in battle. - -Roles : Tank, DPS. - -Talents -When a player gets to level 10, each level up afterward earns one talent point to be put into one of three class-specific talent trees. Different classes have different types of talents that are divided into three ""talent trees"", which are DPS (Damage Per Second), tanking (taking damage), and healing (healing damage). Putting points into the DPS tree may make them do more damage to enemies, putting points into the tanking tree may make them take less damage, while putting points into the healing tree may make them heal for more damage. However, a talent may not affect it directly. -For example, if a priest character wants to do more damage to enemies, the priest would put talent points into the ""Shadow"" talent tree. If a priest wants to heal groupmates, the priest would put talent points into the ""Holy"" talent tree. - -In Game Statistics - -Base Statistics -Agility - This effects the characters dodge, critical strike and attack power (Although this is only true for certain classes). - -Intellect - This determines spell critical strike, and how much damage your spells does. - -Spirit - This increases the regeneration of health and mana. - -Stamina - Increases the total amount of health you have. - -Strength - Increases attack power and block value for a shield. - -Armor - Reduces physical damage taken by a percentage. - -Melee - -Attack Power - Attack power increases the characters melee damage output. - -Hit Rating - This increases the chance to it an enemy. This is capped at 14%. - -Ignore Armour Rating - This enables the melee damage you cause to ignore a percentage of the opponents armor. - -Critical Strike Rating - This effects your chance to cause additional damage on any melee attack. - -Expertise Rating - Reduces the chance to be dodged or parried. - -Ranged - -Attack Power - Attack power increases the characters Ranged damage output. - -Hit Rating - This increases the chance to it an enemy. This is capped at 14%. - -Ignore Armour Rating - This enables the Ranged damage you cause to ignore a percentage of the opponents armor. - -Critical Strike Rating - This effects your chance to cause additional damage on any Ranged attack. - -Spell - -Hit Rating - This increases the chance to it an enemy. This is capped at 8% (So do not go overboard and get 21% like I did, it is a waste of gold). - -Spell Penetration - This enables the Spell / Magic damage you cause to ignore magical resistance equal to the amount of spell penetration you have. - -Critical Strike Rating - This effects your chance to cause additional damage on any Spell / Magic attack. - -Speed Rating - Causes the cast time of your spells to be reduced. This is useless once it gets to one second, because of a global cooldown on all your spells. - -Mana Regeneration - Increases your mana regeneration out of combat and while casting. This is very important for healers so that they do not OOM part way through a fight. - -Bonus Damage / Bonus Healing - Some items specifically give you 'spell power' which is similar to attack power. Except it is separated into healing and damage. This is because some items give just these. Example: I help to kill a strong Boss, and I get a new robe. +23 spell power +30 healing power. (I am a DPS so I would give this to the groups healer instead.) - -Defense - -Defense Rating - Increases your likely hood to dodge, block and parry. This is very important for tanks to have. (With cata Changes now does not exist in game.) - -Dodge - The ability to dodge an attack and suffer no damage. This is expressed as a percentage. - -Parry - The ability to deflect an oncoming attack with your weapon. This is expressed as a percentage. - - Block(Requires Shields) - The ability to block an attack with your shield reducing the damage you suffer from it. - -Resilience - Reduces the damage players, and their pets cause you. - -In Game Terms - -PvE - Stands for Player versus environment. Generally refers to all content in the game that is played against AI controlled units. This typically refers to raids and dungeons. - -PvP - Stands for Player versus Player. Refers to all content in the game that is played with / against other human controlled units. Typically refers to Battlegrounds (rated and non-rated), Arenas and City Raids. - -Mobs/Adds - A mob or add is a creature that is not player controlled. They are generally used in kill or collection quests. In Dungeons / Raids they can be used to swarm at your group, or to make the game a little bit more challenging. They do not often give very good loot, or experience. - -Boss - A Boss is a creature that is not player controlled. They are mainly found inside Dungeons / Raids and are often very difficult to kill. Each Boss is a different fight and requires a large amount of skill and awareness to kill. Bosses give higher than average items, these can range from gear, to mounts and tokens. - -Raid - A Raid is a specific area of the game, that is mostly cut off from the main world. The original World of Warcraft allowed up to 40 man Raids. Lately this has been reduced down to 10 mans and 25 mans. A Raid is a place to test your characters skills and interact with other players around the world. In each Raid there are Bosses and Mobs. - -Dungeon - A Dungeon is smaller than a raid only being 5 man. Dungeons are designed to take people who have just reached the top level and give them better gear, so that they can start Raiding. Dungeons are also open to people who are still leveling. So that people can get better gear to make leveling faster, Or to complete quests that are inside Dungeons. - -Threat - Threat is what causes a creature to attack a target. The Tank needs to generate enough threat to keep the Mobs / Boss attacking him. DPS also need to make sure they do not exceed the Tanks threat on the target. Example: I am a DPS, who is new. I cast lots of high threat spells during a Boss fight. The Boss turns around and kills me because I had more threat than the Tank. Since no one else had more Threat than the Tank the Boss re-focuses of him again. And I have to sit down and watch everyone fighting because I am dead. - -Aggro - Aggro is when a Mob / Boss is focused on you. Example: The Tank losses aggro, because you were generating to much threat. - -Tank - A person who protects the group by taking most of the damage and keeping the enemies attention. The Tanks generally need a specific amount of Defense, Dodge, and Parry to be allowed to tank higher levels of Raids. These people are always in demand. - -DPS - Stands for Damage Per Second. These people are important for any Raid / Dungeon they are specialized in dealing high amounts of damage. DPS must not however cause too threat that they pull the Boss away from the Tank. This can prove fatal. DPS are never in demand because it is something all classes have the option to be. - -Healers - A person who heals your Tank and your Party / Raid. These people are always in demand. - -LOM/OOM - LOM means Low on Mana, this is not a very common phrase. OOM means Out of Mana, this is a lot more widely used in game. Energy has a fast regeneration and has a limit of 110 (with talents) 100 without. Rage and Runic power are also from a 0 - 100 scale, performing abilities and dealing damage grants more allowing more abilities to be used. Mana has no capped amount, the more Intellect your character has the more mana you have to play with. - -CC - Stands for Crowd Control. Refers to all spells / abilities in the game that cause the target to be unable to perform certain tasks. Most commonly used in PvP but also widely used in PvE. Examples of CCs include: Stuns, Fears, Silences, Polymorphs, Cyclones etc. - -LoS - Stands for Line of Sight. When there is an object or obstacle between the player in question and the target. Most commonly used in PvP as both a defensive tool (preventing spells to land and thus reducing damage and/or CCs) or an offensive tool (kiting an opposing player behind an obstacle and killing while preventing the opposing team's healer from being able to heal the target). - -bio - Stands for Biology Break (i.e. bathroom break). Typically used in conjunction with ""brb"" (be right back) to inform the people in the party / raid that you will be right back after going to the bathroom. - -References - -Other websites - The Official World of Warcraft Website - WoWInsider: A World of Warcraft blog - WowHead: A site that contains a lot of information about World of Warcraft -The Official Site of WoW Classic(Gold) - -2004 video games -Blizzard video games -Massively multiplayer online role-playing games -Windows games" -2910,9207,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951,1951,". - -Events - January 4 – The Communist forces of North Korea and China seize the city of Seoul. - Bette Nesmith Graham invents Liquid Paper - -Births - January 6 – Kim Wilson, blues singer and harmonica player - January 7 - Helen Worth, English actress - January 12 – Kirstie Alley, actress -Rush Limbaugh, radio personality -Larry Hoppen, American singer-songwriter and musician (Orleans) (d. 2012) - January 30 – Phil Collins, English musician (Genesis) - January 31 - Harry Wayne Casey, American keyboardist (KC & the Sunshine Band) - February 6 – Princess Daphné of Belgium - February 14 – Kevin Keegan, English footballer and football manager - February 15 – Melissa Manchester, singer - February 15 – Jane Seymour, actress - February 18 – Dale Earnhardt, American racing car driver (d. 2001) - February 19 – Tahir-ul-Qadri, Islamic scholar and leader - February 20 – Gordon Brown, Scottish politician - February 25 – Don Quarrie, Jamaican sprinter - March 4 – Kenny Dalglish Scottish footballer and football manager - March 4 – Chris Rea, British singer and musician - March 8 – Karen Kain, Canadian ballerina - March 17 – Kurt Russell, actor - March 24 – Tommy Hilfiger, fashion designer - April 13 – Peter Davison, actor - April 13 - Peabo Bryson, American singer - April 21 - David Mallett, American folk musician - April 25 - Fred Hubbell, politician - April 27 – Ace Frehley, American musician (Kiss) - April 30 - Ken Whiteley, Canadian folk musician - May 15 - Dennis Frederiksen, American singer (Toto) (d. 2014) - June 12 - Bun E. Carlos, American drummer (Cheap Trick) - August 13 – Dan Fogelberg, American musician (d. 2007) - August 19 - John Deacon, English bass guitarist (Queen) - December 1 – Jaco Pastorius, American jazz bassist (d. 1987) - December 31 - Tom Hamilton, American bass guitarist (Aerosmith) - -People who were born in this year but their day of birth is unknown - Lee Cornes, English stand-up comedian - -Deaths - January 30 – Ferdinand Porsche, German car designer - February 12 – Choudhary Rahmat Ali, Pakistani student - July 13 – Arnold Schoenberg - -Movies released -A Streetcar Named Desire -The African Queen -Calamity Jane -Flying Leathernecks -The Thing From Another World -No Highway -Alice in Wonderland -On the Riviera -The Day the Earth Stood Still -When Worlds Collide -Bedtime for Bonzo -Miss Julie -Strangers on a Train -Rashomon -Miracle in Milan -The Lavender Hill Mob -An American in Paris -Death of a Salesman -Gerald McBoing-Boing -The Man in the White Suit -A Place in the Sun -The Big Carnival - -Hit Songs -""Aba Daba Honeymoon"" – Debbie Reynolds & Carleton Carpenter -""Because"" – Mario Lanza -""Because Of You"" – Tony Bennett -""Belle, Belle, My Liberty Belle"" – Guy Mitchell -""Blue Tango"" – Leroy Anderson & his Orchestra -""Cold, Cold Heart"" – Tony Bennett -""Come On-A My House"" – Rosemary Clooney -""Cry"" – Johnnie Ray & The Four Lads -""Detour"" – Patti Page -""Down The Trail Of Achin' Hearts"" – Patti Page -""Down Yonder"" – Del Wood -""Down Yonder"" – Champ Butler -""Flamenco"" – Frankie Laine -""Gambella (The Gamblin' Lady)"" – Frankie Laine & Jo Stafford -""The Gang That Sang Heart Of My Heart"" – Frankie Laine -""Get Happy"" – Frankie Laine -""Get Out Those Old Records"" – Guy Lombardo (The Lombardo Trio vocals) -""The Girl In The Wood"" – Frankie Laine -""Give Me Time"" – Johnnie Ray -""Gone Fishin'"" – Bing Crosby & Louis Armstrong -""Got Him Off My Hands"" – Georgia Gibbs -""Hello, Young Lovers"" – Perry Como -""Hello, Young Lovers"" – Guy Lombardo (Kenny Martin vocals) -""Hey, Good Lookin'"" – Frankie Laine & Jo Stafford -""The Hot Canary"" – Florian Zabach -""How High The Moon"" – Les Paul and Mary Ford -""I Tawt I Taw A Puddy Tat"" – Mel Blanc -""If"" – Perry Como -""It Is No Secret"" – Bill Kenny & The Song Spinners -""It's All In the Game"" – Tommy Edwards -""It's Beginning To Look A Lot Like Christmas"" – Perry Como & The Fontane Sisters -""Jealousy (Jalousie)"" – Frankie Laine -""Jezebel"" – Frankie Laine -""The Little White Cloud That Cried"" – Johnnie Ray & The Four Lads -""The Loveliest Night Of The Year"" – Mario Lanza -""Lullaby Of Broadway"" – Doris Day -""Mister And Mississippi"" – Patti Page -""Mockin' Bird Hill"" – Patti Page -""My Heart Cries For You"" – Dinah Shore -""My Truly, Truly Fair"" – Guy Mitchell -""On Top Of Old Smoky"" – The Weavers with Terry Gilkyson -""Once Upon A Nickel"" – Georgia Gibbs -""One For My Baby"" – Frankie Laine -""Paths Of Paradise"" – Johnnie Ray -""Pretty-Eyed Baby"" – Jo Stafford & Frankie Laine -""Red Sails In The Sunset"" – Nat King Cole -""Rose, Rose I Love You"" – Frankie Laine -""Shanghai"" – Doris Day -""Sin"" – Eddie Howard & his Orchestra -""Sound Off (The Duckworth Chant)"" – Vaughn Monroe -""The Sparrow In The Treetop"" – Guy Mitchell -""A Sunday Kind Of Love"" – Jo Stafford -""Sweet Violets"" – Dinah Shore -""The Syncopated Clock"" – Leroy Anderson & his Orchestra -""Tell Me"" – Doris Day -""Tell Me Why"" – The Four Aces featuring Al Alberts -""Tell The Lady I Said Goodbye"" – Johnnie Ray -""Tom's Tune"" – Georgia Gibbs -""Too Young"" – Nat King Cole -""Undecided"" – The Ames Brothers -""When It's Sleep Time Down South"" – Frankie Laine -""While You Danced, Danced, Danced"" – Georgia Gibbs -""The World Is Waiting For The Sunrise"" – Les Paul and Mary Ford - -New Books -The Balance Wheel – Taylor Caldwell -The Blessing – Nancy Mitford -Boy at the Window – Owen Dodson -The Caine Mutiny – Herman Wouk -The Catcher in the Rye – J.D. Salinger -The Cruel Sea – Nicholas Monsarrat -The Daughter of Time – Josephine Tey -The Day of the Triffids – John Wyndham -Foundation – Isaac Asimov -The Foundling – Cardinal Spellman -From Here to Eternity – James Jones -Galactic Storm – Gill Hunt -Lie Down In Darkness – William Styron -Log from the Sea of Cortez – John Steinbeck -The Loved and the Lost – Morley Callaghan -Mémoires d'Hadrien – Marguerite Yourcenar -Moses – Sholem Asch -My Cousin Rachel – Daphne du Maurier -Prince Caspian – C. S. Lewis -A Question of Upbringing – Anthony Powell -Return to Paradise – James A. Michener -Spartacus – Howard Fast -Tempest-Tost – Robertson Davies -The Wanderer – Mika Waltari -A Woman Called Fancy – Frank Yerby - -References" -4356,13585,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventures%20of%20Pete%20and%20Pete,The Adventures of Pete and Pete,"The Adventures of Pete and Pete was an American television show on the Nickelodeon network in the early 1990s. It was about two brothers with the same first name who grow up together. - -Other websites - The Website of Pete and Pete - -Comedy television series -Nickelodeon television series -1993 American television series debuts -1996 American television series endings -1990s television series -American comedy television series -American comedy-drama television series -American drama television series -English-language television programs" -18793,70614,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuikSCAT,QuikSCAT,"The QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer) is an earth-observing satellite that provides wind speed and direction information over oceans to NOAA. It is a ""quick recovery"" mission to fill the gap created by the loss of data from the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) that was lost in June 1997. It is in a sun-synchronous low-earth orbit. - -Because of the 2003 failure of the ADEOS II satellite that was meant to succeed the NSCAT, QuickSCAT is currently the only US-owned instrument in orbit that measures surface winds over the oceans. The European Space Agency has its own scatterometers in orbit, such as Envisat. - -However, because it is now running on a backup transmitter and having other problems, this satellite could fail at any moment, putting risk at weather forecasts for possibly dangerous tropical cyclones. - -In early June 2007, Bill Proenza, Director of the National Hurricane Center in Florida, came under fire for criticizing his NOAA superiors for not creating a back-up plan for replacing the capabilities provided by this satellite. - -References - -Satellites" -9602,32773,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BClheim,Mülheim,"Mülheim an der Ruhr (Low German and Low Franconian: Mölm, Ripuarian: Müllem) is a city in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, belonging to the Ruhr area. -Around 170,000 people live there. - -References - -Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Düsseldorf" -23528,90694,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Byron,Lord Byron,"George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English peer, nobleman, politician, and poet. He was christened George Gordon Byron, but changed his name later in life. He adopted the surname Noel, so he that could inherit half his mother-in-law's estate. - -Lord Byron was the son Captain John Byron and Catherine Gordon. - -He was a leading figure in Romanticism. He was regarded as one of the greatest European poets and many people still read his works. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and Don Juan. - -Lord Byron is also famous for the way he lived his life. He was a dandy, living extravagantly, with many love affairs and debts. His fight against the Turks in the Greek War of Independence led to his death from a fever in Messolonghi in Greece. He is buried in the family vault in St. Mary Magdalene Church, Hucknall Torkard, Nottinghamshire, England. A memorial was not raised to him in Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey until 1969. - -His daughter, Ada Lovelace, was famous because she collaborated with Charles Babbage on the ""analytical engine,"" a predecessor to modern computers. - -Bibliography - -Major works - - Hours of Idleness (1806) - English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (1809) - Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1818) - The Giaour (1813) - The Bride of Abydos (1813) - The Corsair (1814) - Lara (1814) - Hebrew Melodies (1815) - The Siege of Corinth (poem) (1816) - Parisina (1816) - The Prisoner Of Chillon (1816) (text on Wikisource) - The Dream (1816) - Prometheus (1816) - Darkness (1816) - Manfred (1817) (text on Wikisource) - The Lament of Tasso (1817) - Beppo (1818) - Mazeppa (1819) - The Prophecy of Dante (1819) - Marino Faliero (1820) - Sardanapalus (1821) - The Two Foscari (1821) - Cain (1821) - The Vision of Judgement (1821) - Heaven and Earth (1821) - Werner (1822) - The Deformed Transformed (1822) - The Age of Bronze (1823) - The Island (1823) - Don Juan (1819–1824; incomplete on Byron's death in 1824) - -Minor works - So, we'll go no more a roving (text on Wikisource) - The First Kiss of Love (1806) (text on Wikisource) - Thoughts Suggested by a College Examination (1806) (text on Wikisource) - To a Beautiful Quaker (1807) (text on Wikisource) - The Cornelian (1807) (text on Wikisource) - Lines Addressed to a Young Lady (1807) (text on Wikisource) - Lachin y Garr (1807) (text on Wikisource) - Epitaph to a Dog (1808) (text on Wikisource) - She Walks in Beauty (1814) (text on Wikisource) - When We Two Parted (text on Wikisource) - -Further reading - MacCarthy, Fiona: Byron: Life and Legend. John Murray, 2002. . - McGann, Jerome: Byron and Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. . - Rosen, Fred: Bentham, Byron and Greece. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992. - Nicholson, Andrew, editor: The Letters of John Murray to Lord Byron. Liverpool University Press, 2007. . - Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Carré d'Art : Barbey d'Aurevilly, lord Byron, Salvador Dalí, Jean-Edern Hallier, Anagramme éditions, 2008. - -References - -Other websites - - Pictures of Byron's Walk, Seaham, County Durham - Poems by Lord Byron at PoetryFoundation.org - Podcast—Listen Live or download Audio of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage by Lord Byron - A Website of the Romantic Movement - - The Byron Society - The Byron Society's Journal - The International Byron Society - Byron's Grave - Detailed site on Newstead Abbey, Byron's ancestral home, and on Byron's life in general - Hucknall Parish Church, Byron's final resting place - Statue of Byron at Trinity College, Cambridge - Complete list of Byron poetry - The Byron Cronology - Childe Harold's Pilgrimage - Discussion of Byron's homosexuality - Byron's Poetical Works, Vol. 1 - Byron's Poetical Works, Vol. 6 - The Works Of Lord Byron, Letters and Journals, Vol. 1 - The Works of Lord Byron: Letters and Journals, Vol. 2 - Byron's 1816-1824 letters to Murray and Moore about Armenian studies and translations - The biography Byron by John Nichol - Byron quotes - Lord George Gordon Byron—Biography & Works - Centre for Byron Studies, University of Nottingham - The first Full English translation of Fantasmagoriana (Tales of The Dead) - Byron page on The Literature Network - Films based on Byron's life and works - 2003 television dramatization of Byron's life by the BBC - Detailed account of Byron's love for animals - Inscription on the monument to Boatswain, Byron's dog - More on Byron's Newfoundland dogs - Byron manuscripts at the Harry Ransom Center, The University of Texas - George Gordon, Lord Byron at Find-A-Grave - -1788 births -1824 deaths -Bisexual people -English Barons -English LGBT people -English poets -LGBT writers -Writers from London" -17052,64705,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh,Fiqh,"Fiqh or Islamic jurisprudence () is an expansion of Sharia law and is meant to be used with fatwas by Islamic clerics (known as 'Ulema' in Arabic) to help Muslims not break Sharia law. Fiqh is a section of Islamic law which deals with acts of Muslim, that includes both worship and daily life actions. -In Sunni Islam there are four main schools of thought, they are: - -Hanafi -Maliki -Shafi'i -Hanbali - -**Islamic jurisprudence or Feqh illustrates Islamic Law for Acts of Worship such as Prayer, Zakat, Fasting, Hajj, and Purification. - -The different schools of thought are not different beliefs but different views . - -In Shia Islam there is one main school of thought, it is called Ja'fari - -source: https://www.al-feqh.com/en - -Islamic law" -22612,85585,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20sharing,Video sharing,"Video sharing is when one person shares a video clip with another or many other people. This is usually done over the Internet. There are many websites that offer video sharing. Many people use these sites to share videos they have made with their family and friends. But, sharing videos which are copyrighted, like television programs, without permission from those who own them might be illegal. - -Related pages -Stage6 -Vimeo -YouTube -TikTok - -File sharing" -6546,20617,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise%20%28movie%29,Sunrise (movie),"Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans or Sunrise is a 1927 silent movie. It is the only movie to ever win Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production. This category was not used again. It won the award for Best Cinematography and actress, Janet Gaynor, won the Best Actress award. It was the first to improvise a primitive version of CGI using nuclear warheads. It was directed by F.W. Murnau. - -References - -1927 movies -American silent movies -Academy Award winning movies -United States National Film Registry movies -1920s drama movies -1920s romance movies -American romantic drama movies -Movies directed by F. W. Murnau" -1942,6440,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag,Flag,"A flag is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol. - -Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire. - -There are many types of flags: - - A National Flag is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag' or 'Union Jack; the national flag of Azerbaijan and France is the Tricolore. - - An Ensign is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a naval ensign which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships. - - A Rank Flag is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is. - - In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades. - - Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own state flags. - - A Signal Flag is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing. - - Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations. - - -Basic English 850 words -Messaging" -19785,75669,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summertime%20%28song%29,Summertime (song),"Summertime is a single released by R&B singer Beyoncé featuring rapper P. Diddy in 2003. The song was the second and final single released to promote the movie The Fighting Temptations, in which Knowles plays the leading lady. The song is not featured in the movie but is part of the official soundtrack. It first appeared as a B-side to Knowles' 2003 smash hit ""Crazy in love"". - -As it was released just seven days after the third single from Knowles' Dangerously in Love, ""Me, Myself and I"", the song did not become a big hit and an official music video was never shot for it. The song however was part of the set list on Knowles' Dangerously in Love World Tour. - -Official versions -Summertime (A Cappella featuring Diddy) -Summertime (featuring Diddy) -Summertime (movie Version) -Summertime (Instrumental) -Summertime (Remix - A Cappella featuring Ghostface Killah) -Summertime (Remix featuring Ghostface Killah) -Summertime (Without Rap) - -Charts - -Beyoncé songs -2003 songs -Hip hop songs -Hip hop soul songs -R&B songs" -15394,58476,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostinato,Ostinato,"In music, an ostinato is a short pattern of notes which is repeated several times throughout a song or piece of music. The word ""ostinato"" is related to the word obstinate. It is like a musical idea which is being obstinate and will not go away. The plural can be either ""ostinati"" or ""ostinatos"". - -An ostinato can last for a section of a piece or it might last for the whole piece of music. - -An ostinato can be a repeated group of notes or just a rhythm. It is similar to a riff in jazz. Many kinds of music use ostinati, e.g. classical music, jazz, boogie-woogie and African music. - -A ground bass, or basso ostinato, is an ostinato pattern in the lowest notes, which keeps playing while the melodies in the higher notes change. This was often used in baroque musical works. An example is the famous Canon in D by Pachelbel. - -An example of a rhythmic ostinato is the first movement from the Planets Suite by Gustav Holst. This is the movement in 5/4 time which describes Mars. Boléro by Maurice Ravel also uses a repeated rhythm all the way through the piece. - -An example from popular music is Pink Floyd's Money. - -Related pages -Pedal point -Riff -Tubular bells - -Ostinato" -12326,45453,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit,Limit,"A limit can be: - A limit in mathematics: - Limit of a function - Limit of a sequence - Limit superior and limit inferior - Limit of a net - Limit point - A limit in category theory - - A constraint (mathematical, physical, economical, legal, etc.) as an inequality: - Chandrasekhar limit - Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit - Budget constraint - Speed limit - Age of consent - Limits of BDSM behavior - - An extreme value or boundary: - High frequency limit - - In music the limit in just intonation - -Limit Break are powerful techniques in the Final Fantasy series - -Limit (Heide-Park), a roller coaster at Heide-Park, Soltau, Germany - -Basic English 850 words" -13302,48849,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20government,Local government,"Local governments are administrative offices that are smaller than a state or province. The term is used to contrast with offices at nation-state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government. - -What a local government does changes depending on what country it is in, and even when they are similar what it is called often varies. Common names for local governments include state, province, région, départment, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire and village. However all these names are often used informally in countries where they do not describe a legal local government. - -Related pages - Local Government Area - -References - -Other websites - - Department of Local and Regional Democracy and Good Governance—Council of Europe - Local Governments at USA.gov - Japan Local Government Center" -9212,31668,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth%20of%20Nations,Commonwealth of Nations,"The Commonwealth of Nations (also known only as ""Commonwealth"") is a confederation of countries. Originally, it was called the British Commonwealth which was founded in 1926 when the British Empire began to break up. Now, there are 54 member countries of the Commonwealth. - -Only countries which were part of the British Empire are allowed to become members of the Commonwealth (although an exception was made for Rwanda and Mozambique which were never colonized by Britain, when they were allowed to become members). Members are free to leave and rejoin the Commonwealth. However, joining or rejoining the Commonwealth can become difficult, when the candidate country has serious human rights violations. - -Origin - -The term the Commonwealth of Nations originated in 1884. Lord Rosebery was on a visit to Australia in 1884. At Adelaide he said that over a period of time a number of colonies of the British Empire will become free and many may become more independent. He further said that all of these countries would then become the Commonwealth of Nations. - -Purpose - -The Commonwealth of Nations is not a political organization. Queen Elizabeth II is also head of state of 16 Commonwealth countries, referred to as Commonwealth realms. Canada and Australia are two of the largest realms. A Secretary General manages the day-to-day matters of the Commonwealth of Nations. Patricia Scotland is the Secretary General since 2015. However, the United Kingdom or the Secretary General does not have any direct or indirect control over these countries. In fact, almost all the 53 members are independent countries with their own governments. These countries have come together to form an association with some common aims. Such common aims include: - To increase economic cooperation among the member countries. - To encourage democracy in the member countries. - To ensure that member countries follow human rights. - -Some information - - The total population of all the 54 countries of the Commonwealth is about 2.245 billion. This is almost a third of the population of the whole world. About half of these live in India. - The four largest Commonwealth nations by population are India at 1.37 billion, Pakistan at 230 million, Nigeria at 174 million, and Bangladesh at 166 million. - Tuvalu and Nauru are the smallest members, each with less than 11,000 people. - These 53 countries cover an area of 12.1 million square miles. This is about 21 % of the total land area of the world. - The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 3.8 million square miles, Australia at 3.0 million square miles, and India at 1.3 million square miles. - The economy of these countries is about 16 % of the world economy. - Based on the purchasing power parity, the four largest economies are India at 2,600 billion US dollars, the United Kingdom at 1,500 billion US dollars, Canada at 930 billion US dollars, and Australia at 520 billion US dollars. - -References - -Other websites - - Commonwealth of Nations -Citizendium - -1949 establishments" -4759,15047,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan,Sudan,"Sudan is a country in Africa. The official name of Sudan is The Republic of the Sudan. Its capital and largest city is Khartoum. - -Geography -Sudan borders by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Sudan has a sea to the northeast called the Red Sea. - -Sudan used to have the largest area of all the countries in Africa. However, on July 9, 2011, the southern part of the country left and became a new country, South Sudan. Sudan now has an area of . It is the third largest country in Africa by area. The Nile flows through Sudan, providing water to crops. There are many different tribal and ethnic groups, though the country is mainly divided between the north, which has more Arabic people, and the south, which has more people of African descent. - -Culture -People from Sudan are called Sudanese. About 45 million people live in Sudan. About 4 million of these live in Khartoum or in towns that are joined to it. - -Arabic is the official language of Sudan, but people also speak Nubian, Nilotic and English. Many other languages are spoken in different parts of the country as well. - -Most Sudanese people have Islam as their religion. A small number are Christian. Some people have other religions that are called tribal (local) beliefs. - -The currency of Sudan is called the Sudanese Pound (Jinneh). - -The current leader of Sudan is Acting President Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf. - -War -For several years, the Darfur conflict has been going on in Sudan. Over 400,000 people have died in it. - -Related pages -List of rivers of Sudan -Sudan at the Olympics -Sudan national football team -Muhammed Ahmed, the Mahdi - -References - -Other websites - - -English-speaking countries -Least developed countries -Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation -1956 establishments in Africa" -17023,64646,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chador,Chador,"A chador (Persian چادر) is a piece of clothing. It is for Muslim women. In Iran, women wear a chador in public. The Chador covers all the body except the face. However some religious women, cover their faces with their chador too. - -A chador is a full-length semi-circle of fabric open down the front. It is thrown over the head and held shut in front. A chador has no hand openings or closures but is held shut by the hands or by wrapping the ends around the waist. - -Related page -Hijab -Women and Islam - -Islamic dress" -20544,78934,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura,Jura,"Places named Jura include: - -Jura, Scotland, Scottish island, in the Inner Hebrides -Jura Mountains, on the French-Swiss-German border -Franconian Jura, the part of the Jura mountains in South Eastern Germany -Jura (department), France -Jura (canton), Switzerland -Jura, Afghanistan -Jura, Transnistria, a village in Transnistria, Moldova -Al-Jura, a former village in pre-1948 Palestine near Ashkelon. - -Rivers named Jura include: - Jūra, river in Lithuania - Jura River (Papua New Guinea), river near Agaun - Jura River (California), now dry river, formerly contained gold - Jura River (Paris), mythological river - -Other -Jura federation, a late nineteenth century anarchist collective based in the Jura Mountains. -Isle of Jura Single Malt" -8614,29194,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides,Euripides,"Euripides (c. 480 BC–406 BC) was an Ancient Greek writer from Athens who wrote about 90 plays. Only 18 of his tragedies have survived complete, more than all other surviving ancient Greek tragedies put together. A nineteenth play, Rhesus is sometimes thought to be by Euripides, but not all classicists agree on this. - -Euripides was the last of the three greatest Ancient Greek writers of tragedies, the others being Aeschylus and Sophocles. - -Surviving plays -Alcestis (439 BC, second prize) -Medea (431 BC, third prize) -Heracleidae (c. 430 BC) -Hippolytus (428 BC, first prize) -Andromache (c. 425 BC) -Hecuba (c. 424 BC) -The Suppliants (c. 423 BC) -Electra (c. 420 BC) -Heracles (c. 416 BC) -Trojan Women (415 BC, second prize) -Iphigeneia in Tauris (c. 414 BC) -Ion (c. 414 BC) -Helen (412 BC) -Phoenician Women (c. 410 BC) -Orestes (408 BC) -Bacchae and Iphigeneia at Aulis (405 BC, posthumous) -Cyclops (408 BC) - -Related pages - -Theatre of Ancient Greece - -Ancient Greek writers -480s BC births -406 BC deaths" -10738,38303,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev%20train,Maglev train,"Maglev trains (short form of magnetic levitation) are a very fast type of high-speed rail. Magnetic levitation is a technology that uses magnetic fields to make the train move. These fields lift the train a small distance above the tracks and move the train. They are much faster than regular trains. A transcontinental ""maglev"" trip from Toronto to Vancouver might take three hours. This trip takes three days on a regular train. Some day, people may be able to travel faster across land on a ""maglev"" train than they would in an airliner. The highest known speed of a ""maglev"" train is This was done in Japan in 2015. As of 2019, a few lines, only a few km or miles long, are carrying passengers in China, South Korea, and Japan. - -A maglev train does not have an engine. The trains are powered by a magnetic field created by the electrified coils in the guideway walls and the track. There are three parts to this system: - a large electrical power source - metal coils lining a guideway (track) - large guidance magnets attached to the under side of the train. - -With magnets, opposite poles attract and like poles repel each other. This is the basic principle behind electromagnetic propulsion. Electromagnets are similar to other magnets in that they attract metal objects, but the magnetic pull is temporary and they can be turned on and off and reversed. - -The magnetized coil running along the track, called a guideway, repels the large magnets on the train's undercarriage. This repulsion lifts the train 1 to 10 centimeters ( 0.4 to 4 inches) above the guideway. Once the train is lifted, power is supplied to the coils within the guideway walls. This creates a system of magnetic fields that pull and push the train along the guideway. The alternating current supplied to the coils in the guideway walls is constantly changing the polarity of the magnetized coils. This change in polarity causes the magnetic field in front of the train to pull the vehicle forward, while the magnetic field behind the train adds more forward thrust. - -""Maglev"" trains float on a magnetic cushion, which reduces friction. The trains have an aerodynamic design. This allows them to reach speeds of more than 310 mph (500 kph), or twice as fast as Amtrak's fastest commuter train. In comparison, an airliner used for long-range flights can reach a top speed of about 560 mph (900 kph). - -Germany and Japan are both developing ""maglev"" trains, and both are currently testing prototypes. The German company, ""Transrapid International"", also has a train in commercial use. Although based on similar ideas, the German and Japanese trains have distinct differences. German engineers have developed an ""electromagnetic suspension"" (EMS) system, called ""Transrapid"". In this system, the bottom of the train wraps around a steel guideway. Electromagnets under the train are directed up toward the guideway, which lifts the train about 1/3 of an inch (1 centimeter) above the guideway. This lifts the train even when it's not moving. Other guidance magnets in the train's body keep it stable during travel. The Transrapid maglev train can reach 300 mph (490 kph) with passengers. - -References - -High-speed trains" -5072,16126,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842,1842," - -Art, music, theatre, literature - March 26 - August Bournonville's Napoli is first performed in Copenhagen by the Royal Danish Ballet - -Births - January 11 – William James, American philosopher and psychologist - -Deaths - October 30 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish poet and writer." -11998,44124,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivien%20Leigh,Vivien Leigh,"Vivien Leigh (; 5 November 1913 – 8 July 1967; born Vivian Mary Hartley and styled as Lady Olivier after 1947) was an English actress. She is best known for playing Scarlett O'Hara in Gone with the Wind in 1939, and Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire in 1951. Leigh won Academy Awards for both of these roles. - -Leigh was born in Darjeeling, Bengal, British India. She was married to Laurence Olivier from 1940-1960 and often acted in plays and movies with him. Olivier was Leigh's second husband. The first was Leigh Holman, and Miss Leigh was still legally married to him when she came to the US to accompany Laurence Olivier who came to Hollywood to star in David O. Selznick's production of ""Rebecca"" directed by Alfred Hitchcock. It was lucky that Miss Leigh's agent just happened to be David O. Selznick's brother, Myron. Miss Leigh wrote long letters to her husband then during the shooting of GWTW, complaining about the script, the change of director from George Cukor to Victor Fleming. The change was made at the insistence of Clark Gable, who felt that Cukor was devoting too much time and attention to directing Miss Leigh and her co-star, Olivia de Havilland. Miss Leigh also complained in her letters of Gable's bad breath due to his dentures. - -When her divorce was final, she married Olivier (she referred to him as her husband until she died, although they had been divorced for many years). Leigh believed that Olivier was the best actor of his (or any) generation, and worked very hard to be worthy of acting with him - on stage, of course. Leigh believed, as did Olivier, that the only place ""real"" acting took place was on the stage. Her movie career reflects her lack of enthusiasm for that medium, concentrating instead on acting with Lord Olivier in live theatre. Many critics, however, did not feel that she had the ""presence"" and vocal prowess that Olivier possessed and her reviews were often (perhaps unfairly) negatively compared to her husband. - -Leigh was considered to be beautiful and this sometimes meant that she thought that she was not taken seriously as an actress. However her ill health was often a bigger problem. Leigh suffered from bipolar disorder and often had tuberculosis. These meant that her career went through period of decline and that she was sometimes considered difficult to work with. She died of tuberculosis in London. - -References - -Other websites - -Deaths from tuberculosis -English movie actors -English stage actors -Infectious disease deaths in London -People of British India -People with bipolar disorder -1913 births -1967 deaths" -15494,59017,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot,Teapot,"A teapot is a container used to mix tea leaves with boiling water to make tea. Usually the tea leaves are in a tea bag when the tea leaves are put into the water. The tea can be poured from the teapot into cups. - -Further reading -Steve Woodhead, ""The Teapot Book"" A.&C. Black, 2005 . -Robin Emmerson, ""British Teapots and Tea Drinking"" HMSO, 1992 -Garth Clark ""The Artful Teapot"" Thames and Hudson -Edward Bramah ""Novelty Teapots"" Quiller Press - -Other websites - - A history of teapots -Sparta Teapot Museum USA -A brief history of teapots from Stoke-on-Trent Museums - -Tea -Cooking appliances" -781,3453,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobby,Hobby,"A hobby is a leisure activity that people do for fun or recreation. People do it because they like it. - -Arts and crafts -Some people do arts and crafts. They make clothing or decorations with their hands. Some popular arts and crafts that involve textiles or fabrics include crocheting, sewing (making clothing), embroidery, knitting, and quilting. - -Some people like to do hobbies that involve making images on paper, such as scrapbooking, painting, and drawing. Some people like to make three-dimensional decorations using clay or wood, in the hobbies of pottery, sculpture, wood carving, and woodworking. - -Some other arts include movie-making, photography, and musical hobbies such as singing, playing musical instruments, and writing songs. - -Games and puzzles -Some people enjoy hobbies such as playing games or solving puzzles. Games include board games such as chess, card games, and newer games such as wargaming and role-playing games. Popular puzzles include jigsaw puzzles and crossword puzzles. - -Reading and learning -Some people enjoy spending their time reading books, magazines, and newspapers, or writing stories or in a diary. Other people enjoy learning foreign languages by taking classes, or doing research, such as genealogy. - -In the 2000s, many people have Internet-based hobbies, such as editing Wikipedia, writing their own blogs, or having online discussions in Newsgroups or online forums. -Some people enjoy computer activities, such as computer programming, learning about open source software, or playing computer games. Some people enjoy learning about electronics such as doing amateur radio broadcasts or building robots. - -Hobbies in the home -Some people enjoy working on their home and learning how to repair their home by themselves, without hiring repair people or plumbers. Some people enjoy learning how to repair motor vehicles, such as antique cars. Some people even build and repair sailboats in their backyard. - -Many people have hobbies that they do in the kitchen, such as cooking for their guests and family, and making their own beer. Many people also have hobbies in their home that involve animals, such as keeping a pet animal, such as a dog, a cat, or tropical fish. Some people even learn about dog breeding. - -Collecting - -Collecting is a popular hobby in North America and in Europe. People enjoy finding interesting examples of different items and learning about them. Some of the well-known types of collecting include stamp collecting, coin collecting, video game collecting, trading cards such as baseball cards, and Pokémon cards. People also collect toys, books, comic books, and old records. Some people collect antiques and artwork, but these hobbies are more rare, because antiques and artwork are usually expensive. - -A type of hobby that is related to collecting is model building. People who do model-building as a hobby collect small models which they build, paint, and then display. Some common types of model-building hobbies include model airplanes, model rockets, model ships, model cars, and model railways. - -Outdoor activities and sports -Outdoor hobbies include bird feeding, birdwatching, canoeing, gardening, hiking, walking, and sports such as baseball, bowling, cycling, fishing, hunting, and sailing. - -Other hobbies -Many people spend a lot of time in leisure activities that are not necessarily called hobbies. Some people disapprove of spending time on these activities. These activities include watching too much television, drinking alcohol, and taking illegal drugs. - -Related pages -List of hobbies - -Other websites - Hobby -Citizendium" -2493,7982,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarkets%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom,Supermarkets in the United Kingdom,"The main supermarket chains in the United Kingdom are: - -United Kingdom-related lists" -17890,67410,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakfast%20cereal,Breakfast cereal,"Breakfast cereal is a breakfast food made from cereal grains.It is a common breakfast meal. This is made of grain, and usually eaten with milk in the United States. It is often sweetened with sugar, syrup, or fruit. There are many kinds of cereals. Some names of breakfast cereal include Cheerios, Kellogg's, Cocoa Puffs and various other brands. Most breakfast cereals are made for children, but there are many for adults as well. Some adult cereals are made for diets or other health benefits. - -History -In the 19th century, Americans ate meat a lot for breakfast and usually did not eat grains and fiber. But after that, people who were interested in eating more healthy foods began a push for healthy breakfasts. - -This brought up the creation of Granula. The name Granula comes from granulates, formed of grain. In 1863 this became the first breakfast cereal and included heavy nuggets made from bran, the outer husk of a grain that is taken out when making flour. The cereal had to be soaked overnight before being eaten. Simply pouring milk over it was not enough to make it eatable. - -The cereals eaten today grew out of a health campaign that began in the 1860s. Thin baked dough served to patients in hospitals inspired two men, C.W. Post and W. K. Kellogg. These two men started their own companies, named them after themselves. - -Related pages - Corn - Wheat - Grain - -References - -Other websites - - Cereal site - All About Cereal - Cereals by the Vegetarian Society - Nutrition Facts on hundreds of cereals - -Breakfast foods -Grains" -11033,39761,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hildburghausen,Hildburghausen,"Hildburghausen is a German town in the south of Thuringia. The next towns in size are Suhl and Coburg. Its population is ca. 13,000. Its mayor is Steffen Harzer. - -Sister cities - Pelhřimovin - Würselen (Germany) - -References - -Other websites - - - -Verwaltungsgemeinschaftfrei towns in Hildburghausen" -2658,8445,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973,1973,"1973 (MCMLXXIII) was . - -Events - January 1 – United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark enter the European Economic Community, now known as the European Union. - January 15 – Vietnam War: Citing progress in peace negotiations, President of the United States Richard Nixon announces the suspension of offensive action in North Vietnam. - January 17 – Ferdinand Marcos becomes President for Life of the Philippines. - January 22 – Supreme Court of the United States rules on Roe v. Wade. - January 22 – George Foreman defeats Joe Frazier for the heavyweight world boxing championship. - January 23 – Eruption in Heimaey begins. - January 23 – President Richard Nixon announces that a peace accord has been reached in Vietnam. - January 27 – U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ends with the signing of peace pacts. See Paris Peace Accords. - April 3 – The World Trade Center opens in New York City. - September 11 – Augusto Pinochet takes power in Chile, in a coup, in which President Salvador Allende dies. - September 15 – Ascension to the throne of King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden - The rock group KISS form in New York City. - Homosexuality is no longer considered a mental disorder. -Japans first video game, Elepong is produced - -Births - January 8 – Sean Paul, Jamaican reggae singer - January 22 – Rogério Ceni, brazilian football player - February 16 – Cathy Freeman, Australian Aborigine athlete - March 22 – Elvis Stojko, Canadian figure skater - April 8 – Emma Caulfield, American actress - April 14 – Adrien Brody, American actor - April 23 – John Cena, American professional wrestler - May 24 – Ruslana, Ukrainian singer - June 10 – Faith Evans, American singer - June 26 – Gretchen Wilson, American singer - July 15 – John Dolmayan, Armenian-American drummer (System of a Down) - July 23 – Monica Lewinsky, White House member of staff under Bill Clinton - July 30 – Markus Näslund, Swedish hockey player - August 7 – Zane Lowe, New Zealand disc jockey and television presenter - September 13 – Fabio Cannavaro, Italian footballer - September 18 – Mark Shuttleworth, South African businessman - October 22 – Ichiro Suzuki, Professional baseball player for the Seattle Mariners - October 28 – Alvin Burke, Jr., American professional wrestler - October 30 – Adam Copeland, Canadian professional wrestler - October 31 – Beverly Lynne, American actress - November 6 – Sandy Robson, Canadian actor - November 17 – Bernd Schneider, German footballer - November 30 – Kate Fischer, Australian actress and model - December 3 – Holly Marie Combs, American actress - -Deaths - January 22 – Lyndon Johnson, 36th President of the United States (b. 1908) - April 8 – Pablo Picasso, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1881) - April 21 – Arthur Fadden, 13th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1894) - April 25 – Frank Jack Fletcher, US Navy admiral during World War II (b. 1885) - May 6 – Ernest MacMillan, Canadian conductor (b. 1893) - June 13 – Viriato Clemente da Cruz, Angolan poet and politician (b. 1928) - July 20 – Bruce Lee, Chinese-American actor and martial artist (b. 1940) - August 4 – Eddie Condon, American jazz guitarist (b. 1904) - August 6 – Fulgencio Batista, President of Cuba (b. 1901) - September 2 – J.R.R. Tolkien, English writer (b. 1892) - September 11 – Salvador Allende, President of Chile (b. 1908) - September 15 – Víctor Jara, Chilean singer (b. 1932) - September 23 – Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet (b. 1904) - September 29 – W. H. Auden, English-American poet (b. 1907) - October 2 – Paavo Nurmi, Finnish athlete (b. 1897) - December 1 – David Ben-Gurion, Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1886) - December 20 – Bobby Darin, American singer (b. 1936) - -Movies released - American Graffiti - Enter the Dragon - Magnum Force - Last Tango in Paris - Papilon - The Exorcist - The Sting - -Hit songs - ""Killing Me Softly with His Song"" – Roberta Flack - ""Radar Love"" – Golden Earring - ""Smoke on the Water"" – Deep Purple - ""You're So Vain"" – Carly Simon - ""Bad Bad Leroy Brown"" – Jim Croce - ""Crocodile Rock"" – Elton John - ""Delta Dawn"" – Helen Reddy - ""D'yer Mak'er"" – Led Zeppelin - ""Frankenstein"" – The Edgar Winter Group - ""Goodbye Yellow Brick Road"" – Elton John - ""Half Breed"" – Cher - ""Higher Ground"" – Stevie Wonder - ""Keep On Truckin' "" – Eddie Kendricks - ""Kodachrome"" – Paul Simon - ""Let's Get It On"" – Marvin Gaye - ""Live and Let Die"" – Paul McCartney and Wings - ""Love Isn't Easy (But It Sure Is Hard Enough)"" – ABBA - ""Loves Me Like a Rock"" – Paul Simon (with The Dixie Hummingbirds) - ""Me and Mrs. Jones"" – Billy Paul - ""Midnight Train to Georgia"" – Gladys Knight - ""Morning After""- Maureen McGovern - ""My Love"" – Paul McCartney and Wings - ""The Night The Lights Went Out in Georgia"" – Vicki Lawrence - ""Over the Hills and Far Away"" – Led Zeppelin - ""Photograph"" – Ringo Starr - ""Ramblin' Man"" – Allman Brothers Band - ""Ring Ring"" – ABBA - ""Saturday Night's All Right for Fighting"" – Elton John - ""Superstition"" – Stevie Wonder - ""Take Me to the Mardi Gras"" – Paul Simon - ""The Entertainer"" by Scott Joplin - ""Tie a Yellow Ribbon around the Old Oak Tree"" – Tony Orlando & Dawn - ""Top of the World"" – Carpenters - ""Touch Me in the Morning"" – Diana Ross - ""Why Me"" – Kris Kristofferson - ""Will It Go Around in Circles"" – Billy Preston" -2935,9252,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity,Relativity,"The word relativity usually means two things in physics: - - The principle of relativity, which was originally thought up by Galileo Galilei, and later used by Albert Einstein as one of the important postulates (like rules) of the theory of relativity. - The theory of relativity itself, which has two parts: special relativity and general relativity." -7,14,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alanis%20Morissette,Alanis Morissette,"Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world. - -As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, You Can't Do That on Television. Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990. - -Her first international album was Jagged Little Pill, released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. Jagged has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie, was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include Under Rug Swept, So-Called Chaos and Flavors of Entanglement. Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide. - -She also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's Dogma, where she played God. - -About her life -Alanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany. - -Morissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still Canadian citizen. - -On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario ""MC Souleye"" Treadway. - -Jagged Little Pill -Morissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album Jagged Little Pill became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. The album Jagged Little Pill touched many people. - -On the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include: -love (in the song ""Head Over Feet"") -life (in the songs ""Ironic"" and ""You Learn"") -her feelings (in the songs ""Hand In My Pocket"" and ""All I Really Want"") -sadness (in the song ""Mary Jane"") -anger (in the song ""You Oughta Know"") -frustration (in the songs ""Not the Doctor"" and ""Wake Up"") - -Discography - -Albums -Alanis (Canada-only, 1991) -Now Is the Time (Canada-only, 1992) -Jagged Little Pill (1995) -Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie (1998) -Alanis Unplugged (1999) -Under Rug Swept (2002) -Feast on Scraps (CD/DVD, 2002) -So-Called Chaos (2004) -Jagged Little Pill Acoustic (2005) -Alanis Morissette: The Collection (2005) -Flavors of Entanglement (2008) -Havoc and Bright Lights (2012) - -Selected songs -Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are: -""You Oughta Know"" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman. -""Ironic"" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on airplanes. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes. -""You Learn"" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life. -""Uninvited"" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not. -""Thank U"" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks India, a country she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself. -""Hands Clean"" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years. - -References - -Other websites - - Official website - -1974 births -Living people - -American child actors -American movie actors -American pop musicians -American rock singers -American singer-songwriters -American television actors -Canadian movie actors -Canadian pop singers -Canadian rock singers -Canadian singer-songwriters -Canadian television actors -Grammy Award winners -People from Ottawa -Singers from Ontario -Twin people from Canada" -13530,49769,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brontosaurus,Brontosaurus,"Brontosaurus is a genus of sauropod dinosaur. - -Brontosaurus was originally named by its discoverer Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879. Brontosaurus had long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus. Its only species was reclassified as A. excelsus in 1903. - -However, an extensive study published in 2015 concluded that Brontosaurus was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus. - -Brontosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including Diplodocus, Supersaurus, and Barosaurus. Brontosaurus is closely related to Apatosaurus in the subfamily Apatosaurinae. - -References - -Sauropods" -14857,55998,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work%20%28physics%29,Work (physics),"In physics, a force does work when it acts on a body and there is a displacement of the point of application in the direction of the force. - -The work done by a force acting on a body is the force along the direction of the displacement multiplied by the displacement of the point of application. - -It is the force that does the work, not the agent that created the force. Motion is a requirement of work. - -Like energy, it is a scalar quantity, with SI units of joules. Heat conduction is not considered to be a form of work, since there is no macroscopically measurable force, only microscopic forces occurring in atomic collisions. The term work was created in the 1830s by the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. - -According to the work-energy theorem if an external force acts upon a rigid object, causing its kinetic energy to change from Ek1 to Ek2, then the mechanical work (W) is given by: - -where m is the mass of the object and v is the object's velocity. - -If a constant force F acts on an object while the object is displaced a distance d, and the force and displacement are parallel to each other, the work done on the object is the product of F and d: - -If the force and the displacement are in the same direction, the work is positive. If the force and the displacement are in opposite directions the work is negative. For example, the work done by the weight on a book being lifted is negative. This is because the downward weight is in the opposite direction to the upward displacement. - -References - -Other websites - Work - a chapter from an online textbook - Work, Power, Kinetic Energy on Project PHYSNET - -Mechanics -Energy" -1878,6293,https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable,Syllable,"A syllable is a unit of pronunciation uttered without interruption, loosely, a single sound. All words are made from at least one syllable. - -Monosyllables are words that have only one vowel sound; polysyllables have more than one. If a syllable ends with a consonant, it is called a closed syllable. If a syllable ends with a vowel, it is called an open syllable. Patterns of syllables can be shown with C and V (C for 'consonant', V for 'vowel'). Closed syllables are often shown as CVC (such as got), and open syllables as CV (such as go). Some languages like English have many kinds of closed syllables. Other languages, like Japanese, have few kinds of closed syllables. Other languages still, like Hawaiian and Swahili, have no closed syllables. - -Notice that the consonant (C) and vowel (V) notation does NOT match the letters of English spelling in a one-to-one relationship (e.g. 'th' is one sound), but rather individual sounds. - -There are many words in English that have only one syllable. - -IPA has been added in slashes. - He /hi/ (CV) - open - The /ði/ (CV) - open - Like /lɑɪk/ (CVC) - closed - Run /ɹʌn/ (CVC) - closed - Cat /kæt/ (CVC) - closed - House /hoʊs/ (CVC) - closed - It (VC) /ɪt/ - closed - On (VC) /ɑn/ - closed - -However, in several languages, such as English, syllables can have consonant clusters (having multiple consonants next to each other), which easily allow for words to have much more complicated syllables, such as: - Crow /cɹow/ (CCV) - open - Through /θruw/ (CCV) - open - Spray /spɹej/ (CCCV) - open - Ports /pɔɹts/ (CVCCC) - closed - Sports /spɔɹts/ (CCVCCC) - closed - Trip /tɹɪp/ (CCVC) - closed - Dent /dεnt/ (CVCC) - closed - Plant /plænt/ (CCVCC) - closed - Sprint /spɹɪnt/ (CCCVCC) - closed - Splints /splɪnts/ (CCCVCCC) - closed - Strengths /stɹeŋθs/ (CCCVCCC) - closed - Angsts /eɪŋsts/ (VCCCC) - closed -There are many more words that have two or more syllables. - Basket /bæs.kεt/ (2 Bas-ket; CVC-CVC) - Doctor /dɔc.tɔr/ (2 Doc-tor; CVC-CVC) - Happy /ha.pi/ (2 Ha-ppy; CV-CV) - Friendly /frεnd.li/ (2 Friend-ly; CCVCC-CV) - Greenland /grin.lænd/ (2 Green-land; CCVC-CVCC) - Computer /cəm.pju.tər/ (3 Com-pu-ter; CVC-CCV-CVC) [-pu- is pronounced ""pyuu' or CCV] - Merciful /mər.ci.fəl/ (3 Mer-ci-ful; CVC-CV-CVC) - Pronunciation /prə.nən.ci.eɪ.ʃən/ (5 Pro-nun-ci-a-tion; CCV-CVC-CV-V-CVC) - -Some languages do not use an alphabet with letters. Instead, each sign may stand for a syllable. For example: Japanese can be written using Kana. A writing system based on syllables is called a syllabary. Since words in languages like English can have many different complex syllables (well over 10,000 can be produced in English), writing such languages using a syllabary would be completely impractical, thus alphabets are much better suited to write languages with complex syllable structures. However, since words in Japanese can be made with just a few simple syllables (around 90), writing such languages are well suited for the type of language. - -References - -Grammar" diff --git a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb index b5a8ec5f..6662407b 100644 --- a/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb +++ b/apps/enterprise-knowledge-retrieval/enterprise_knowledge_retrieval.ipynb @@ -75,33 +75,42 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": null, + "execution_count": 2, "id": "c79535f1", "metadata": {}, - "outputs": [], + "outputs": [ + { + "name": "stdout", + "output_type": "stream", + "text": [ + "Requirement already satisfied: redis in /opt/homebrew/lib/python3.11/site-packages (4.5.5)\r\n" + ] + } + ], "source": [ "!pip install redis" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 4, + "execution_count": 3, "id": "cd8e3d30", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "from ast import literal_eval\n", + "import concurrent\n", "import openai\n", "import os\n", "import numpy as np\n", "from numpy import array, average\n", "import pandas as pd\n", - "from typing import Iterator\n", + "from tenacity import retry, wait_random_exponential, stop_after_attempt\n", "import tiktoken\n", - "from tqdm.auto import tqdm\n", + "from tqdm import tqdm\n", + "from typing import List, Iterator\n", "import wget\n", "\n", - "\n", "# Redis imports\n", "from redis import Redis as r\n", "from redis.commands.search.query import Query\n", @@ -124,7 +133,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 5, + "execution_count": 4, "id": "53641bc5", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -134,7 +143,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 101, + "execution_count": 5, "id": "6fbde85b", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -142,6 +151,560 @@ "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ + "\r", + " 0% [ ] 0 / 4470649\r", + " 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"execute_result" } @@ -271,7 +834,7 @@ } ], "source": [ - "article_df = pd.read_csv('./data/wikipedia_articles_2000.csv')\n", + "article_df = pd.read_csv('./wikipedia_articles_2000.csv')\n", "article_df.head()" ] }, @@ -309,7 +872,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 103, + "execution_count": 7, "id": "fecba6de", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -318,7 +881,7 @@ "\n", "\n", "REDIS_HOST = 'localhost'\n", - "REDIS_PORT = '6380'\n", + "REDIS_PORT = '6379'\n", "REDIS_DB = '0'\n", "\n", "redis_client = r(host=REDIS_HOST, port=REDIS_PORT, db=REDIS_DB,decode_responses=False)\n", @@ -332,7 +895,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 104, + "execution_count": 8, "id": "4cb5247d", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -342,7 +905,7 @@ "True" ] }, - "execution_count": 104, + "execution_count": 8, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -377,27 +940,6 @@ "redis_client.ping()" ] }, - { - "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 126, - "id": "266b8aee", - "metadata": {}, - "outputs": [ - { - "data": { - "text/plain": [ - "True" - ] - }, - "execution_count": 126, - "metadata": {}, - "output_type": "execute_result" - } - ], - "source": [ - "redis_client.flushall()" - ] - }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "33c07f00", @@ -414,7 +956,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 127, + "execution_count": 9, "id": "08f30b56", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -471,7 +1013,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 128, + "execution_count": 10, "id": "948225f7", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -483,23 +1025,12 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 129, + "execution_count": 11, "id": "31004582", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ - "# Create embeddings for a text using a tokenizer and an OpenAI engine\n", - "\n", - "def create_embeddings_for_text(text, tokenizer):\n", - " \"\"\"Return a list of tuples (text_chunk, embedding) and an average embedding for a text.\"\"\"\n", - " token_chunks = list(chunks(text, TEXT_EMBEDDING_CHUNK_SIZE, tokenizer))\n", - " text_chunks = [tokenizer.decode(chunk) for chunk in token_chunks]\n", - "\n", - " embeddings_response = openai.Embedding.create(input=text_chunks, model=EMBEDDINGS_MODEL)\n", - " embeddings = [embedding[\"embedding\"] for embedding in embeddings_response]\n", - " text_embeddings = list(zip(text_chunks, embeddings))\n", - "\n", - " return text_embeddings\n", + "## Chunking Logic\n", "\n", "# Split a text into smaller chunks of size n, preferably ending at the end of a sentence\n", "def chunks(text, n, tokenizer):\n", @@ -524,39 +1055,98 @@ "def get_unique_id_for_file_chunk(title, chunk_index):\n", " return str(title+\"-!\"+str(chunk_index))\n", "\n", - "def process_file(x,vector_list):\n", + "def chunk_text(x,text_list):\n", " url = x['url']\n", " title = x['title']\n", " file_body_string = x['text']\n", - "\n", - " # Clean up the file string by replacing newlines and double spaces and semi-colons\n", - " clean_file_body_string = file_body_string.replace(\" \", \" \").replace(\"\\n\", \"; \").replace(';',' ')\n", - " # \n", " \n", - " \"\"\"Return a list of tuples (text_chunk, embedding) and an average embedding for a text.\"\"\"\n", - " token_chunks = list(chunks(clean_file_body_string, TEXT_EMBEDDING_CHUNK_SIZE, tokenizer))\n", + " \"\"\"Return a list of tuples (text_chunk, embedding) for a text.\"\"\"\n", + " token_chunks = list(chunks(file_body_string, TEXT_EMBEDDING_CHUNK_SIZE, tokenizer))\n", " text_chunks = [f'Title: {title};\\n'+ tokenizer.decode(chunk) for chunk in token_chunks]\n", " \n", - " embeddings_response = openai.Embedding.create(input=text_chunks, model=EMBEDDINGS_MODEL)\n", + " #embeddings_response = openai.Embedding.create(input=text_chunks, model=EMBEDDINGS_MODEL)\n", "\n", - " embeddings = [embedding[\"embedding\"] for embedding in embeddings_response['data']]\n", - " text_embeddings = list(zip(text_chunks, embeddings))\n", + " #embeddings = [embedding[\"embedding\"] for embedding in embeddings_response['data']]\n", + " #text_embeddings = list(zip(text_chunks, embeddings))\n", "\n", " # Get the vectors array of triples: file_chunk_id, embedding, metadata for each embedding\n", " # Metadata is a dict with keys: filename, file_chunk_index\n", " \n", - " for i, (text_chunk, embedding) in enumerate(text_embeddings):\n", + " for i, text_chunk in enumerate(text_chunks):\n", " id = get_unique_id_for_file_chunk(title, i)\n", - " vector_list.append(({'id': id\n", - " , \"vector\": embedding, 'metadata': {\"url\": x['url']\n", - " ,\"title\": title\n", - " , \"content\": text_chunk\n", - " , \"file_chunk_index\": i}}))" + " text_list.append(({'id': id\n", + " , 'metadata': {\"url\": x['url']\n", + " ,\"title\": title\n", + " , \"content\": text_chunk\n", + " , \"file_chunk_index\": i}}))" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 130, + "execution_count": 12, + "id": "ca7e7eb1", + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "## Batch Embedding Logic\n", + "\n", + "# Simple function to take in a list of text objects and return them as a list of embeddings\n", + "def get_embeddings(input: List):\n", + " response = openai.Embedding.create(\n", + " input=input,\n", + " model=EMBEDDINGS_MODEL,\n", + " )[\"data\"]\n", + " return [data[\"embedding\"] for data in response]\n", + "\n", + "def batchify(iterable, n=1):\n", + " l = len(iterable)\n", + " for ndx in range(0, l, n):\n", + " yield iterable[ndx : min(ndx + n, l)]\n", + "\n", + "# Function for batching and parallel processing the embeddings\n", + "def embed_corpus(\n", + " corpus: List[str],\n", + " batch_size=64,\n", + " num_workers=8,\n", + " max_context_len=8191,\n", + "):\n", + "\n", + " # Encode the corpus, truncating to max_context_len\n", + " encoding = tiktoken.get_encoding(\"cl100k_base\")\n", + " encoded_corpus = [\n", + " encoded_article[:max_context_len] for encoded_article in encoding.encode_batch(corpus)\n", + " ]\n", + "\n", + " # Calculate corpus statistics: the number of inputs, the total number of tokens, and the estimated cost to embed\n", + " num_tokens = sum(len(article) for article in encoded_corpus)\n", + " cost_to_embed_tokens = num_tokens / 1_000 * 0.0004\n", + " print(\n", + " f\"num_articles={len(encoded_corpus)}, num_tokens={num_tokens}, est_embedding_cost={cost_to_embed_tokens:.2f} USD\"\n", + " )\n", + "\n", + " # Embed the corpus\n", + " with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=num_workers) as executor:\n", + " \n", + " futures = [\n", + " executor.submit(get_embeddings, text_batch)\n", + " for text_batch in batchify(encoded_corpus, batch_size)\n", + " ]\n", + "\n", + " with tqdm(total=len(encoded_corpus)) as pbar:\n", + " for _ in concurrent.futures.as_completed(futures):\n", + " pbar.update(batch_size)\n", + "\n", + " embeddings = []\n", + " for future in futures:\n", + " data = future.result()\n", + " embeddings.extend(data)\n", + "\n", + " return embeddings" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": 13, "id": "dfeff174", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -564,8 +1154,8 @@ "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ - "CPU times: user 12.5 s, sys: 2.48 s, total: 15 s\n", - "Wall time: 11min 47s\n" + "CPU times: user 1.08 s, sys: 135 ms, total: 1.21 s\n", + "Wall time: 1.3 s\n" ] }, { @@ -585,7 +1175,7 @@ "Length: 2000, dtype: object" ] }, - "execution_count": 130, + "execution_count": 13, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -598,50 +1188,1105 @@ "tokenizer = tiktoken.get_encoding(\"cl100k_base\")\n", "\n", "# List to hold vectors\n", - "vector_list = []\n", + "text_list = []\n", "\n", "# Process each PDF file and prepare for embedding\n", - "article_df.apply(lambda x: process_file(x, vector_list),axis = 1)" + "article_df.apply(lambda x: chunk_text(x, text_list),axis = 1)" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": 14, + "id": "9e49c881", + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [ + { + "data": { + "text/plain": [ + "{'id': 'Photon-!0',\n", + " 'metadata': {'url': 'https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon',\n", + " 'title': 'Photon',\n", + " 'content': 'Title: Photon;\\nPhotons (from Greek φως, meaning light), in many atomic models in physics, are particles which transmit light. In other words, light is carried over space by photons. Photon is an elementary particle that is its own antiparticle. In quantum mechanics each photon has a characteristic quantum of energy that depends on frequency: A photon associated with light at a higher frequency will have more energy (and be associated with light at a shorter wavelength).\\n\\nPhotons have a rest mass of 0 (zero). However, Einstein\\'s theory of relativity says that they do have a certain amount of momentum. Before the photon got its name, Einstein revived the proposal that light is separate pieces of energy (particles). These particles came to be known as photons. \\n\\nA photon is usually given the symbol γ (gamma),\\n\\nProperties \\n\\nPhotons are fundamental particles. Although they can be created and destroyed, their lifetime is infinite.\\n\\nIn a vacuum, all photons move at the speed of light, c, which is equal to 299,792,458 meters (approximately 300,000 kilometers) per second.\\n\\nA photon has a given frequency, which determines its color. Radio technology makes great use of frequency. Beyond the visible range, frequency is less discussed, for example it is little used in distinguishing between X-Ray photons and infrared. Frequency is equivalent to the quantum energy of the photon, as related by the Planck constant equation,\\n\\n,\\n\\nwhere is the photon\\'s energy, is the Plank constant, and is the frequency of the light associated with the photon. This frequency, , is typically measured in cycles per second, or equivalently, in Hz. The quantum energy of different photons is often used in cameras, and other machines that use visible and higher than visible radiation. This because these photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms. \\n\\nAnother property of a photon is its wavelength. The frequency , wavelength , and speed of light are related by the equation,\\n\\n,\\n\\nwhere (lambda) is the wavelength, or length of the wave (typically measured in meters.)\\n\\nAnother important property of a photon is its polarity. If you saw a giant photon coming straight at you, it could appear as a swath whipping vertically, horizontally, or somewhere in between. Polarized sunglasses stop photons swinging up and down from passing. This is how they reduce glare as light bouncing off of surfaces tend to fly that way. Liquid crystal displays also use polarity to control which light passes through. Some animals can see light polarization. \\n\\nFinally, a photon has a property called spin. Spin is related to light\\'s circular polarization.\\n\\nPhoton interactions with matter\\nLight is often created or absorbed when an electron gains or loses energy. This energy can be in the form of heat, kinetic energy, or other form. For example, an incandescent light bulb uses heat. The increase of energy can push an electron up one level in a shell called a \"valence\". This makes it unstable, and like everything, it wants to be in the lowest energy state. (If being in the lowest energy state is confusing, pick up a pencil and drop it. Once on the ground, the pencil will be in a lower energy state). When the electron drops back down to a lower energy state, it needs to release the energy that hit it, and it must obey the conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor destroyed). Electrons release this energy as photons, and at higher intensities, this photon can be seen as visible light.\\n\\nPhotons and the electromagnetic force\\nIn particle physics, photons are responsible for electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism is an idea that combines electricity with magnetism. One common way that we experience electromagnetism in our daily lives is light, which is caused by electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is also responsible for charge, which is the reason that you can not push your hand through a table. Since photons are the force-carrying particle of electromagnetism, they are also gauge bosons. Some matter–called dark matter–is not believed to be affected by electromagnetism. This would mean that dark matter does not have a charge, and does not give off light.\\n\\nRelated pages\\n Particle physics\\n\\nBasic physics ideas\\nElectromagnetism\\nLight\\n',\n", + " 'file_chunk_index': 0}}" + ] + }, + "execution_count": 14, + "metadata": {}, + "output_type": "execute_result" + } + ], + "source": [ + "text_list[0]" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 131, - "id": "0352283a", + "execution_count": 15, + "id": "2e6ff2f4", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ - "Title: Photon;\n", - "Photons (from Greek φως, meaning light), in many atomic models in physics, are particles which transmit light. In other words, light is carried over space by photons. Photon is an elementary particle that is its own antiparticle. In quantum mechanics each photon has a characteristic quantum of energy that depends on frequency: A photon associated with light at a higher frequency will have more energy (and be associated with light at a shorter wavelength). Photons have a rest mass of 0 (zero). However, Einstein's theory of relativity says that they do have a certain amount of momentum. Before the photon got its name, Einstein revived the proposal that light is separate pieces of energy (particles). These particles came to be known as photons. A photon is usually given the symbol γ (gamma), Properties Photons are fundamental particles. Although they can be created and destroyed, their lifetime is infinite. In a vacuum, all photons move at the speed of light, c, which is equal to 299,792,458 meters (approximately 300,000 kilometers) per second. A photon has a given frequency, which determines its color. Radio technology makes great use of frequency. Beyond the visible range, frequency is less discussed, for example it is little used in distinguishing between X-Ray photons and infrared. Frequency is equivalent to the quantum energy of the photon, as related by the Planck constant equation, , where is the photon's energy, is the Plank constant, and is the frequency of the light associated with the photon. This frequency, , is typically measured in cycles per second, or equivalently, in Hz. The quantum energy of different photons is often used in cameras, and other machines that use visible and higher than visible radiation. This because these photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms. Another property of a photon is its wavelength. The frequency , wavelength , and speed of light are related by the equation, , where (lambda) is the wavelength, or length of the wave (typically measured in meters.) Another important property of a photon is its polarity. If you saw a giant photon coming straight at you, it could appear as a swath whipping vertically, horizontally, or somewhere in between. Polarized sunglasses stop photons swinging up and down from passing. This is how they reduce glare as light bouncing off of surfaces tend to fly that way. Liquid crystal displays also use polarity to control which light passes through. Some animals can see light polarization. Finally, a photon has a property called spin. Spin is related to light's circular polarization. Photon interactions with matter Light is often created or absorbed when an electron gains or loses energy. This energy can be in the form of heat, kinetic energy, or other form. For example, an incandescent light bulb uses heat. The increase of energy can push an electron up one level in a shell called a \"valence\". This makes it unstable, and like everything, it wants to be in the lowest energy state. (If being in the lowest energy state is confusing, pick up a pencil and drop it. Once on the ground, the pencil will be in a lower energy state). When the electron drops back down to a lower energy state, it needs to release the energy that hit it, and it must obey the conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor destroyed). Electrons release this energy as photons, and at higher intensities, this photon can be seen as visible light. Photons and the electromagnetic force In particle physics, photons are responsible for electromagnetic force. Electromagnetism is an idea that combines electricity with magnetism. One common way that we experience electromagnetism in our daily lives is light, which is caused by electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is also responsible for charge, which is the reason that you can not push your hand through a table. Since photons are the force-carrying particle of electromagnetism, they are also gauge bosons. Some matter–called dark matter–is not believed to be affected by electromagnetism. This would mean that dark matter does not have a charge, and does not give off light.\n" + "num_articles=2693, num_tokens=1046988, est_embedding_cost=0.42 USD\n" + ] + }, + { + "name": "stderr", + "output_type": "stream", + "text": [ + "2752it [00:11, 244.58it/s] \n" ] } ], "source": [ - "print(vector_list[0]['metadata']['content'])" + "# Batch embed our chunked text\n", + "embeddings = embed_corpus([text[\"metadata\"]['content'] for text in text_list])" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 132, - "id": "b218a207", + "execution_count": 16, + "id": "963170f9", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { - "application/vnd.jupyter.widget-view+json": { - "model_id": "c92d6f1199f24eaa8bd6a78fd40009f9", - "version_major": 2, - "version_minor": 0 - }, "text/plain": [ - " 0%| | 0/27 [00:000\n", " https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Dolby\n", " Thomas Dolby\n", - " Title: Thomas Dolby;\\nThomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson 14 October 1958) is a British musican and computer designer. He is probably most famous for his 1982 hit, \"She Blinded me with Science\". He married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988. The couple have three children together. Discography Singles A Track did not chart in North America until 1983, after the success of \"She Blinded Me With Science\". Albums Studio albums EPs References English musicians Living people 1958 births New wave musicians Warner Bros. Records artists\n", - " 0.127933084965\n", + " Title: Thomas Dolby;\\nThomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson; 14 October 1958) is a British musican and computer designer. He is probably most famous for his 1982 hit, \"She Blinded me with Science\".\\n\\nHe married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988. The couple have three children together.\\n\\nDiscography\\n\\nSingles\\n\\nA Track did not chart in North America until 1983, after the success of \"She Blinded Me With Science\".\\n\\nAlbums\\n\\nStudio albums\\n\\nEPs\\n\\nReferences\\n\\nEnglish musicians\\nLiving people\\n1958 births\\nNew wave musicians\\nWarner Bros. Records artists\n", + " 0.132752358913\n", " \n", " \n", " 1\n", " 1\n", - " https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Darin\n", - " Bobby Darin\n", - " Title: Bobby Darin;\\nWalden Robert Cassotto (May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973), better known as Bobby Darin, was an American pop singer, most famous during the 1950s. His hits included \"Mack the Knife\", \"Dream Lover\", \"If I Were a Carpenter\", \"Splish Splash\", and \"Beyond the Sea\". He also helped Wayne Newton begin his musical career. Career Allen Klein, an accountant who became an artist manager, first came to public attention when he audited Darin's royalty payments, and discovered Darin had been underpaid. His record company paid up, and Darin split the money with Klein. Darin was married to actress Sandra Dee from 1960 to 1967. They had a son, named Dodd. Darin died late in 1973 after heart surgery. In 2004, a movie, Beyond the Sea, was made about Darin's life and career. Actor Kevin Spacey, a longtime Darin fan, produced and starred in the movie, with Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee. Other websites Hear Bobby Darin on the Pop Chronicles Singers from New York City Deaths from surgical complications 1936 births 1973 deaths People from the Bronx\n", - " 0.25524866581\n", + " https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer\n", + " Synthesizer\n", + " Title: Synthesizer;\\nAudio technology\n", + " 0.223150134087\n", " \n", " \n", "\n", @@ -871,18 +2516,18 @@ "text/plain": [ " id url title \\\n", "0 0 https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Dolby Thomas Dolby \n", - "1 1 https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby%20Darin Bobby Darin \n", + "1 1 https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer Synthesizer \n", "\n", - " result \\\n", - "0 Title: Thomas Dolby;\\nThomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson 14 October 1958) is a British musican and computer designer. He is probably most famous for his 1982 hit, \"She Blinded me with Science\". He married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988. The couple have three children together. Discography Singles A Track did not chart in North America until 1983, after the success of \"She Blinded Me With Science\". Albums Studio albums EPs References English musicians Living people 1958 births New wave musicians Warner Bros. Records artists \n", - "1 Title: Bobby Darin;\\nWalden Robert Cassotto (May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973), better known as Bobby Darin, was an American pop singer, most famous during the 1950s. His hits included \"Mack the Knife\", \"Dream Lover\", \"If I Were a Carpenter\", \"Splish Splash\", and \"Beyond the Sea\". He also helped Wayne Newton begin his musical career. Career Allen Klein, an accountant who became an artist manager, first came to public attention when he audited Darin's royalty payments, and discovered Darin had been underpaid. His record company paid up, and Darin split the money with Klein. Darin was married to actress Sandra Dee from 1960 to 1967. They had a son, named Dodd. Darin died late in 1973 after heart surgery. In 2004, a movie, Beyond the Sea, was made about Darin's life and career. Actor Kevin Spacey, a longtime Darin fan, produced and starred in the movie, with Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee. Other websites Hear Bobby Darin on the Pop Chronicles Singers from New York City Deaths from surgical complications 1936 births 1973 deaths People from the Bronx \n", + " result \\\n", + "0 Title: Thomas Dolby;\\nThomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson; 14 October 1958) is a British musican and computer designer. He is probably most famous for his 1982 hit, \"She Blinded me with Science\".\\n\\nHe married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988. The couple have three children together.\\n\\nDiscography\\n\\nSingles\\n\\nA Track did not chart in North America until 1983, after the success of \"She Blinded Me With Science\".\\n\\nAlbums\\n\\nStudio albums\\n\\nEPs\\n\\nReferences\\n\\nEnglish musicians\\nLiving people\\n1958 births\\nNew wave musicians\\nWarner Bros. Records artists \n", + "1 Title: Synthesizer;\\nAudio technology \n", "\n", " certainty \n", - "0 0.127933084965 \n", - "1 0.25524866581 " + "0 0.132752358913 \n", + "1 0.223150134087 " ] }, - "execution_count": 114, + "execution_count": 20, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -898,13 +2543,13 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 115, + "execution_count": 21, "id": "48d136b0", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "# Build a prompt to provide the original query, the result and ask to summarise for the user\n", - "retrieval_prompt = '''Use the content to answer the search query the customer has sent. Provide the source for your answer.\n", + "retrieval_prompt = '''Use the content to answer the search query the customer has sent.\n", "If you can't answer the user's question, say \"Sorry, I am unable to answer the question with the content\". Do not guess.\n", "\n", "Search query: \n", @@ -931,7 +2576,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 116, + "execution_count": 22, "id": "06f6e6ed", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -939,7 +2584,7 @@ "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ - "Thomas Dolby is known for his 1982 hit \"She Blinded me with Science\" as well as being a British musician and computer designer. He has released multiple studio albums and singles. (Source: Content provided)\n" + "Thomas Dolby is known for being a British musician and computer designer. He is most famous for his 1982 hit, \"She Blinded me with Science\".\n" ] } ], @@ -986,7 +2631,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 117, + "execution_count": 23, "id": "0ccca3da", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1003,7 +2648,19 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 118, + "execution_count": 24, + "id": "c1b5fad4", + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "def ask_gpt(query):\n", + " response = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model=CHAT_MODEL,messages=[{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":\"Please answer my question.\\nQuestion: {}\".format(query)}],temperature=0)\n", + " return response['choices'][0]['message']['content']" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": 25, "id": "68a0b8dd", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1014,19 +2671,24 @@ " name = \"Search\",\n", " func=answer_user_question,\n", " description=\"Useful for when you need to answer general knowledge questions. Input should be a fully formed question.\"\n", + " ),\n", + " Tool(\n", + " name = \"Knowledge\",\n", + " func = ask_gpt,\n", + " description = \"Useful for any other questions. Input should be a fully formed question.\"\n", " )\n", "]" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 119, + "execution_count": 26, "id": "39e101ee", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "# Set up the base template\n", - "template = \"\"\"You are WikiGPT, a helpful bot who has access to a database of Wikipedia data to answer questions.\n", + "template = \"\"\"You are WikiGPT, a helpful bot who answers question using your tools or your own knowledge.\n", "You have access to the following tools::\n", "\n", "{tools}\n", @@ -1042,7 +2704,7 @@ "Thought: I now know the final answer\n", "Final Answer: the final answer to the original input question\n", "\n", - "Begin! Remember to give detailed, informative answers\n", + "Begin!\n", "\n", "Previous conversation history:\n", "{history}\n", @@ -1053,7 +2715,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 120, + "execution_count": 27, "id": "a2b9f271", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1107,7 +2769,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 121, + "execution_count": 28, "id": "454c3ca9", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1127,14 +2789,14 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 122, + "execution_count": 29, "id": "34de07d2", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "output_parser = CustomOutputParser()\n", "\n", - "llm = ChatOpenAI(temperature=0,openai_organization='org-l89177bnhkme4a44292n5r3j')\n", + "llm = ChatOpenAI(temperature=0)\n", "\n", "# LLM chain consisting of the LLM and a prompt\n", "llm_chain = LLMChain(llm=llm, prompt=prompt)\n", @@ -1150,7 +2812,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 123, + "execution_count": 30, "id": "d3603d58", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1160,7 +2822,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 124, + "execution_count": 31, "id": "6bfb594b", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -1171,12 +2833,12 @@ "\n", "\n", "\u001b[1m> Entering new AgentExecutor chain...\u001b[0m\n", - "\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mThought: I should use the Search tool to find information about Thomas Dolby\n", + "\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mThought: I'm not sure who Thomas Dolby is, I should probably search for more information.\n", "Action: Search\n", "Action Input: \"What is Thomas Dolby known for?\"\u001b[0m\n", "\n", - "Observation:\u001b[36;1m\u001b[1;3mThomas Dolby is known for his 1982 hit \"She Blinded Me With Science\" and his career as a British musician and computer designer. He has also released several studio albums and EPs. Source: Thomas Dolby Wikipedia page.\u001b[0m\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mI now know what Thomas Dolby is known for.\n", - "Final Answer: Thomas Dolby is known for his hit song \"She Blinded Me With Science\" and his career as a British musician and computer designer.\u001b[0m\n", + "Observation:\u001b[36;1m\u001b[1;3mThomas Dolby is known for his music career as a British musician and his hit song \"She Blinded me with Science\". He is also a computer designer and has released several albums and singles over the years.\u001b[0m\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mNow I have a better understanding of who Thomas Dolby is and what he is known for.\n", + "Final Answer: Thomas Dolby is known for his music career as a British musician and his hit song \"She Blinded me with Science\", as well as being a computer designer and releasing several albums and singles over the years.\u001b[0m\n", "\n", "\u001b[1m> Finished chain.\u001b[0m\n" ] @@ -1184,21 +2846,21 @@ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "'Thomas Dolby is known for his hit song \"She Blinded Me With Science\" and his career as a British musician and computer designer.'" + "'Thomas Dolby is known for his music career as a British musician and his hit song \"She Blinded me with Science\", as well as being a computer designer and releasing several albums and singles over the years.'" ] }, - "execution_count": 124, + "execution_count": 31, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } ], "source": [ - "agent_executor.run(f1_query)" + "agent_executor.run(wiki_query)" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 125, + "execution_count": 32, "id": "ba65b7e3", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ @@ -1209,12 +2871,12 @@ "\n", "\n", "\u001b[1m> Entering new AgentExecutor chain...\u001b[0m\n", - "\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mThought: I got the answer from my database of Wikipedia data.\n", - "Action: Search\n", - "Action Input: \"Thomas Dolby Wikipedia\"\u001b[0m\n", + "\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mThought: This is a simple math question.\n", + "Action: Knowledge\n", + "Action Input: What is the sum of 5 and 5?\u001b[0m\n", "\n", - "Observation:\u001b[36;1m\u001b[1;3mThomas Dolby is a British musician and computer designer who is best known for his 1982 hit \"She Blinded me with Science\". He was born as Thomas Morgan Robertson on October 14, 1958. He has released studio albums, EPs, and singles. He married actress Kathleen Beller in 1988 and they have three children together. (Source: Wikipedia)\u001b[0m\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mI have found the source of my previous answer.\n", - "Final Answer: The source of my previous answer was the Wikipedia page for Thomas Dolby.\u001b[0m\n", + "Observation:\u001b[33;1m\u001b[1;3mThe sum of 5 and 5 is 10.\u001b[0m\u001b[32;1m\u001b[1;3mI now know the final answer.\n", + "Final Answer: The sum of 5 and 5 is 10.\u001b[0m\n", "\n", "\u001b[1m> Finished chain.\u001b[0m\n" ] @@ -1222,16 +2884,16 @@ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "'The source of my previous answer was the Wikipedia page for Thomas Dolby.'" + "'The sum of 5 and 5 is 10.'" ] }, - "execution_count": 125, + "execution_count": 32, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } ], "source": [ - "agent_executor.run('What source did you get that answer from?')" + "agent_executor.run('What is 5 + 5')" ] }, { @@ -1260,7 +2922,7 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 83, + "execution_count": 33, "id": "b8314f7b", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1268,99 +2930,62 @@ "import time\n", "\n", "# Build a prompt to provide the original query, the result and ask to summarise for the user\n", - "evaluation_question_prompt = '''You are a helpful Wikipedia assistant who generates creative general knowledge questions.\n", + "evaluation_question_prompt = '''You are a helpful Wikipedia assistant who will generate a list of 10 creative general knowledge questions in markdown format.\n", "\n", - "Examples:\n", + "Example:\n", "- Explain how photons work\n", "- What is Thomas Dolby known for?\n", "- What are some key events of the 20th century?\n", "\n", "Begin!\n", + "'''\n", "\n", - "Question:'''\n", - "\n", - "evaluation_questions = []\n", - "\n", - "for i in range(0,10):\n", - " try:\n", - " question = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model='gpt-4-0314',messages=[{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":evaluation_question_prompt}],temperature=0.9)\n", - " evaluation_questions.append(question['choices'][0]['message']['content'])\n", - " except Exception as e:\n", - " print(e)\n", - " print('Retrying')\n", - " try:\n", - " time.sleep(10)\n", - " question = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model='gpt-4-0314',messages=[{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":evaluation_question_prompt}],temperature=0.9)\n", - " evaluation_questions.append(question['choices'][0]['message']['content'])\n", - " except Exception as e:\n", - " print(e)\n" - ] - }, - { - "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 84, - "id": "9807f4f6", - "metadata": {}, - "outputs": [], - "source": [ - "# Clean up our lists of questions and append to one giant list\n", - "all_questions = []\n", - "for question in evaluation_questions:\n", - " question_list = question.replace('\\n\\n','\\n').split('\\n')\n", - " [all_questions.append(x) for x in question_list]" - ] - }, - { - "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 85, - "id": "ca64afd0", - "metadata": {}, - "outputs": [], - "source": [ - "question_answer_pairs = []" + "try:\n", + " # We'll use our model to generate 10 hypothetical questions to evaluate\n", + " question = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model=CHAT_MODEL\n", + " ,messages=[{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":evaluation_question_prompt}]\n", + " ,temperature=0.9)\n", + " evaluation_questions = question['choices'][0]['message']['content']\n", + "except Exception as e:\n", + " print(e)\n" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 86, - "id": "4446041c", + "execution_count": 34, + "id": "99072e4c", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ - "- Can you describe the evolution of transportation throughout human history?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Based on my searches, the history of transportation technology is a complex and multifaceted topic that requires a more specific question to provide a comprehensive answer. However, it can be inferred that transportation technology has evolved from simple tools and methods of travel to more advanced and efficient systems such as high-speed trains like the TGV and Maglev trains.`\n", - "- What factors contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `There are multiple factors that contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire, including barbarian invasions, economic troubles, and political instability. It's important to note that the fall of the Roman Empire was a complex process that took place over several centuries, and there is no single cause that can be attributed to its decline.`\n", - "- How has currency evolved throughout history and what is the future of money?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Based on my searches, I was unable to find a comprehensive answer to the original question. It may be helpful to consult additional sources or conduct more specific searches on related topics.`\n", - "- How do convergent and divergent boundaries affect plate tectonics?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `So convergent boundaries result in subduction and the formation of mountains and volcanoes, while divergent boundaries create new land and earthquakes. \n", - "Action: None`\n", - "- What factors led to the rise of the European Renaissance?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Based on the information I found, it seems that the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman art and culture, as well as advancements in various fields, were key factors in the rise of the European Renaissance.\n", - "Action: None`\n", - "- Describe the impact of the Green Revolution on global food production and the environment.\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Based on the information I found, the Green Revolution had both positive and negative impacts on global food production and the environment. I should summarize these impacts for the final answer.\n", - "Action: None`\n", - "- How did the phenomenon of globalization impact the world economy?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `India is an example of a country that has benefited from globalization in terms of their economy, according to the content.`\n", - "- What roles do neurotransmitters play in the human brain?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Neurotransmitters are important for many brain functions, including memory and emotions. Alzheimer's disease affects the brain's ability to handle signals for memory and movement.\n", - "Action: None`\n", - "- What role did Marie Curie play in the discovery of radioactivity?\n", - "Could not parse LLM output: `Marie Curie's contributions to the discovery of radioactivity were significant and groundbreaking.\n", - "Action: None`\n" + "['1. What is the difference between a virus and a bacteria?', '2. Who composed the musical Cats?', '3. How does the digestive system work?', '4. What are some major constellations visible in the night sky?', '5. Who discovered penicillin?', '6. What is the difference between climate and weather?', '7. Who invented the World Wide Web?', '8. What is the significance of the Mona Lisa painting?', '9. What is the tallest mountain in the world?', '10. Who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2020?']\n" ] } ], "source": [ - "for question in all_questions:\n", + "cleaned_questions = evaluation_questions.split('\\n')\n", + "print(cleaned_questions)" + ] + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": 35, + "id": "4446041c", + "metadata": {}, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# We'll use our agent to answer the generated questions to simulate users interacting with the system\n", + "question_answer_pairs = []\n", + "\n", + "for question in cleaned_questions:\n", " memory = ConversationBufferWindowMemory(k=2)\n", - " time.sleep(5)\n", - " agent_executor = AgentExecutor.from_agent_and_tools(agent=agent, tools=tools, verbose=False,memory=memory)\n", + " \n", + " agent_executor = AgentExecutor.from_agent_and_tools(agent=agent\n", + " , tools=tools\n", + " , verbose=False\n", + " ,memory=memory)\n", " try:\n", " \n", " answer = agent_executor.run(question)\n", @@ -1368,224 +2993,49 @@ " print(question)\n", " print(e)\n", " answer = 'Unable to answer question'\n", - " question_answer_pairs.append((question,answer))" + " question_answer_pairs.append((question,answer))\n", + " time.sleep(2)" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 87, - "id": "94194df9", - "metadata": {}, - "outputs": [ - { - "data": { - "text/plain": [ - "[('- How do tsunamis form and what are their impacts?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What are the primary functions of the United Nations?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Can you describe the evolution of transportation throughout human history?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- What role did the printing press play in the spread of knowledge and ideas?',\n", - " 'The printing press played a significant role in the spread of knowledge and ideas by making it easier and faster to produce books and other printed materials. This led to an increase in literacy and the dissemination of new ideas and information, ultimately contributing to the development of modern society.'),\n", - " ('- What are the origins and cultural significance of the Olympic Games?',\n", - " 'The Olympic Games were first held in Ancient Greece and were revived in 1896 with the first international Olympic Games in Athens, Greece. The cultural significance of the games lies in their ability to bring together people from all over the world in a spirit of international unity, cooperation, and sporting excellence. The games are a symbol of the human spirit and the pursuit of excellence, and they continue to be an important cultural event in modern times.'),\n", - " ('- How did the invention of the internet change the way we communicate and access information?',\n", - " 'The invention of the internet has had a significant impact on communication and information access, including the rise of email as a primary communication tool and the increased access to information through search engines and online databases. Social media has also significantly changed the way we communicate and access information, making it easier for people to share and disseminate their views and opinions to a broader audience and facilitating direct communication between individuals and groups who may not have previously had access to one another. Additionally, social media has become a valuable tool for political expression and organization.'),\n", - " ('- What are the major artistic movements and their main characteristics?',\n", - " 'The major artistic movements and their main characteristics include Realism, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism. Realism focuses on depicting everyday life and society as it truly exists, while Impressionism captures the fleeting effects of light and atmosphere. Post-Impressionism emphasizes individual expression and subjective experience, while Cubism uses geometric shapes and fragmentation of the subject. Surrealism explores the subconscious mind through dream imagery and symbolism, and Abstract Expressionism emphasizes the physical act of creating art with large canvases and gestural brushstrokes.'),\n", - " (\"- How do the Earth's tectonic plates affect its geological features and processes?\",\n", - " \"Tectonic plates affect Earth's geological features and processes by creating movements that can lead to earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation along plate boundaries. The movement of plates varies and can create divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform fault boundaries. There are two types of tectonic plates: oceanic and continental, and their thickness and composition differ.\"),\n", - " ('- What factors contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- How has currency evolved throughout history and what is the future of money?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- How do convergent and divergent boundaries affect plate tectonics?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- What role do neurotransmitters play in the human nervous system?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Describe the influence of the Harlem Renaissance on American culture and arts.',\n", - " 'The Harlem Renaissance had a significant impact on American culture and arts, particularly in literature and music. It provided a platform for African American writers, poets, and musicians to celebrate their heritage and culture, challenge stereotypes and discrimination, and become prominent figures in American culture.'),\n", - " ('- What factors led to the collapse of the Soviet Union?',\n", - " \"The factors that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union include the spread of communism becoming less popular, the country's inability to promote economic growth as well as Western states, and political reform allowing freedom of speech for everybody. Additionally, Gorbachev's decision to not force the countries of the Eastern bloc to stick to communism played a significant role in the collapse of the Soviet Union.\"),\n", - " (\"- How does photosynthesis contribute to the Earth's oxygen supply?\",\n", - " \"Photosynthesis contributes to the Earth's oxygen supply by producing oxygen as a by-product when plants create glucose through the process of using sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water.\"),\n", - " ('- In what ways did the Industrial Revolution transform society and the economy?',\n", - " 'The Industrial Revolution had a significant impact on society and the economy, leading to new inventions, mass production, and urbanization. It improved the standard of living and created new job opportunities, but also led to social and economic inequalities, unsustainable resource consumption, and environmental problems.'),\n", - " ('- How has the internet impacted globalization and communication?',\n", - " 'The internet has had a significant impact on globalization and communication. While it has allowed for efficient and effective communication between people from all over the world, it has also led to issues such as spamming. However, overall, the internet has helped to break down barriers between countries and cultures, making it easier for people to learn about and engage with one another, which has opened up new opportunities for businesses and individuals.'),\n", - " ('- What are the primary differences between presidential and parliamentary systems of government?',\n", - " 'The primary differences between presidential and parliamentary systems of government are that presidential systems have a clear separation of powers between the executive and legislative branches, while parliamentary systems have a fusion of powers between the executive (led by a Prime Minister) and legislative branches. In a parliamentary system, the executive is accountable to the legislature and can be removed by a vote of no confidence, while in a presidential system the executive is elected separately and cannot be removed by the legislature.'),\n", - " ('- Describe the role of mitochondria in cellular respiration.',\n", - " 'The role of mitochondria in cellular respiration is to convert the energy from the breakdown of glucose into ATP that the cell can use for energy.'),\n", - " ('- How did the discovery of penicillin revolutionize medicine?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What were the major causes and consequences of the French Revolution?',\n", - " 'The major causes of the French Revolution were social inequalities, financial crisis, political unrest, and the rise of the bourgeoisie. The Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the Reign of Terror. The consequences of the French Revolution included the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the spread of revolutionary ideals throughout Europe, and the Restoration period in France, which attempted to restore the pre-revolutionary order but ultimately failed to completely erase the impact of the French Revolution and its ideals.'),\n", - " ('- What are the main components and functions of the human circulatory system?',\n", - " \"The main components of the human circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The system functions to transport blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout the body's tissues and organs.\"),\n", - " ('- How did the Scientific Revolution challenge traditional beliefs and catalyze progress in various fields?',\n", - " 'The Scientific Revolution challenged traditional beliefs and catalyzed progress in various fields by promoting the use of reason and observation to understand the natural world, leading to advancements in astronomy, physics, mathematics, and biology. It challenged the traditional belief in the geocentric model of the universe and established the heliocentric model. It also led to the development of the scientific method, allowing for more systematic and accurate experimentation.'),\n", - " ('- Describe the unique features and characteristics of the Galapagos Islands and their impact on the study of evolution.',\n", - " \"The Galapagos Islands are known for their unique features and characteristics that have impacted the study of evolution, including the giant tortoises and their variations between islands, as well as their role in Darwin's observations.\"),\n", - " ('- What factors contributed to the rise of the Roman Empire, and how did it ultimately fall?',\n", - " 'The factors contributing to the rise and fall of the Roman Empire include expansion through wars against other nations and assimilation of their culture, split into East and West, invasion and attacks from barbarians, and internal division. The western part collapsed due to internal problems, while the eastern part declined due to invasion and attacks from external forces. The Roman Empire ended in 1453 when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople.'),\n", - " ('- How did the invention of the printing press impact society?',\n", - " 'The invention of the printing press impacted society by allowing for mass production of books, increased literacy rates, and access to knowledge. It also played a role in the scientific revolution, the Enlightenment, and the Reformation.'),\n", - " ('- What factors contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire?',\n", - " 'The fall of the Roman Empire was caused by several factors, including attacks by barbarians, the split of the empire into East and West, and internal political instability. These factors led to the decline and eventual collapse of the western empire, while the eastern empire faced threats from the Sassanid Empire and the rise of Islam. However, the fall of Rome also led to the rise of new civilizations in Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, including the Islamic Golden Age and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. The Renaissance marked a rebirth of culture and advancements in Europe.'),\n", - " ('- What role does the greenhouse effect play in climate change?',\n", - " \"The greenhouse effect plays a significant role in climate change by trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere through the emission of greenhouse gases, primarily produced by human activities like agriculture. Implementing sustainable farming practices and reducing the use of fossil fuels can help to mitigate the impact of these emissions.\"),\n", - " ('- Who were some influential artists during the Harlem Renaissance?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " (\"- What are the primary functions of the human brain's amygdala?\",\n", - " \"The primary functions of the human brain's amygdala are to process emotions such as fear and aggression, and to play a role in the formation of memories associated with emotional events.\"),\n", - " ('- How do bees communicate with each other through the waggle dance?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What is the significance of Machu Picchu in Incan history?',\n", - " 'Machu Picchu was a significant site in Incan history as it was believed to be a royal estate or sacred religious site for the Incan emperor Pachacuti. It was also a symbol of Incan engineering and architecture, showcasing their ability to build structures on steep and rugged terrain. The site was abandoned during the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and was rediscovered in 1911 by Hiram Bingham, leading to increased interest in Incan history and culture. Today, Machu Picchu is a popular tourist destination and a UNESCO World Heritage site.'),\n", - " ('- What are some major milestones in the development of artificial intelligence?',\n", - " 'The major milestones in the development of artificial intelligence can be found on the \"History of artificial intelligence\" page on Wikipedia. Some of the key milestones include the development of the first electronic computer, the creation of the first AI program, the development of expert systems, and the emergence of machine learning and neural networks.'),\n", - " ('- How do tectonic plate movements cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?',\n", - " 'Tectonic plate movements can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions through different mechanisms depending on the type of plate boundary. Collisions between plates can cause volcanic activity, while sliding past each other at transform fault boundaries can cause earthquakes.'),\n", - " ('- What role did the Silk Road play in the exchange of goods and ideas between different cultures?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What factors led to the rise of the European Renaissance?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- How did the Industrial Revolution transform societies globally?',\n", - " 'The Industrial Revolution impacted the economy by leading to the development of new machinery and mass production methods, which increased productivity and led to economic growth. This period saw the rise of capitalist economies and the expansion of industry and manufacturing.'),\n", - " ('- What are the major components of a typical ecosystem?',\n", - " 'The major components of a typical ecosystem are living and nonliving things, including the community of organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) and the nonliving components such as air, water, soil, and minerals.'),\n", - " ('- Can you describe the structure of a Shakespearean sonnet?',\n", - " 'A Shakespearean sonnet has 14 lines and follows the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. The structure also follows a specific meter involving arrangements of stressed and unstressed syllables within a line.'),\n", - " ('- Explain the significance of the Rosetta Stone in understanding ancient languages.',\n", - " 'The capital of Australia is Canberra.'),\n", - " ('- Who were the key figures in the development of modern dance, and what were their contributions?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What are some major milestones in the history of space exploration, and how have they impacted our understanding of the universe?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Can you compare and contrast the artistic styles of the Renaissance and Baroque periods?',\n", - " 'The Renaissance and Baroque periods were characterized by different artistic styles. The Renaissance focused on classical Greco-Roman art and a revival of perspective and realism in painting and sculpture, while the Baroque period was marked by dramatic and extravagant art styles and was known for religious themes. Some famous Renaissance artists include Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, while some famous Baroque artists include Caravaggio, Rembrandt, and Bernini.'),\n", - " (\"- What role did Gutenberg's printing press play in the spread of knowledge and ideas during the 15th century?\",\n", - " 'The Gutenberg printing press played a significant role in the spread of knowledge and ideas during the 15th century by allowing for the mass production of books, which made knowledge more widely available to people beyond the wealthy and educated classes. This helped to promote the dissemination of new ideas and innovations, which in turn helped to drive the Renaissance in art, science, philosophy, and literature.'),\n", - " ('- Discuss the origins and cultural significance of jazz music in the United States.',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What were the primary causes and consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " (\"- How did the women's suffrage movement contribute to women's rights worldwide?\",\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What are some notable examples of ancient architecture and how do they reflect the societies that created them?',\n", - " \"Ancient architecture reflects the technological, religious, and societal characteristics of the time period. Notable examples of ancient architecture include the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, the Colosseum in Rome, Italy, and St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. These landmarks are significant for their historical and cultural importance.\"),\n", - " (\"- Explain the process of the water cycle and its importance to Earth's climate.\",\n", - " \"The water cycle is an important process for Earth's climate as it helps regulate the temperature through the process of condensation and evaporation. Condensation is when water changes from a gas to a liquid or crystal shape and is exothermic, causing a temperature increase. Evaporation causes a temperature loss. The water cycle redistributes heat and helps regulate the Earth's climate.\"),\n", - " ('- Who were the main players in the Scientific Revolution, and what were their discoveries and innovations?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Describe the impact of the Green Revolution on global food production and the environment.',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- What factors contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire?',\n", - " \"The fall of the Roman Empire was caused by a combination of political, economic, and military factors. The empire's vastness made it difficult to defend against invasions and internal rebellions. The split of the empire into East and West, the invasion of barbarians in the western part, and the threat from the Sassanid Empire in the eastern part were also contributing factors. Additionally, the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of Islam played a role in the fall of the Roman Empire.\"),\n", - " ('- How does the process of photosynthesis occur in plants?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Name some of the most innovative inventions of the 21st century',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What are the primary differences between classical and Keynesian economics?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " (\"- How do the Earth's tectonic plates affect geological events and natural disasters?\",\n", - " 'Tectonic plates affect geological events and natural disasters by creating earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation along plate boundaries. The type of plate and its location also affect the severity of natural disasters. Examples of natural disasters caused by tectonic plates include the Andes mountain range in South America, the Japanese island arc, and the Pacific Ring of Fire.'),\n", - " ('- What role did music play in the civil rights movement of the 1960s?',\n", - " 'Music played a significant role in the civil rights movement of the 1960s. It was used to inspire and motivate protesters and spread awareness about racial inequality. Music genres like gospel, soul, and folk were particularly popular during this time. Famous singers like Ray Charles, Nina Simone, and Sam Cooke released songs that addressed civil rights issues. Music was also an integral part of events like the March on Washington and the Selma to Montgomery marches.'),\n", - " ('- Describe the formation and significance of the European Union',\n", - " 'The European Union was formed through various treaties and agreements, with the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 establishing EU citizenship. The EU is significant in promoting peace and stability, creating a single market, increasing economic cooperation, and providing a platform for member states to work together on common issues and challenges. It also has an impact on international law and governance.'),\n", - " ('- What are some of the most enduring and influential works of modernist literature?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- How do vaccines function and contribute to public health?',\n", - " \"Vaccines function by teaching the body's immune system to recognize and fight against specific harmful viruses or bacteria, ultimately contributing to public health by preventing the spread of infectious diseases. They are important for protecting against harmful diseases and have been proven to be safe and effective in preventing infectious diseases, saving millions of lives worldwide.\"),\n", - " ('- What were the major conflicts and power struggles during the Cold War?',\n", - " 'The major conflicts and power struggles during the Cold War were between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies, with each country promoting their type of government. This tension led to fears of a potential nuclear war, and communism eventually became less popular as Western states offered better economic growth opportunities and freedoms.'),\n", - " ('What is the significance of the Rosetta Stone in understanding ancient languages?',\n", - " 'The Rosetta Stone was significant in deciphering ancient languages because it contained inscriptions in three scripts - Greek, hieroglyphic and demotic - which were used to decode ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. This allowed scholars to gain a better understanding of ancient Egyptian culture and history.'),\n", - " ('- Can you describe the process of photosynthesis?',\n", - " 'Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide and water to create glucose and oxygen. This process takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells.'),\n", - " ('- How did the phenomenon of globalization impact the world economy?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- Who were the key figures of the American Civil Rights movement?',\n", - " 'Martin Luther King Jr., Muhammad Ali, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, and Jimi Hendrix were key figures of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s.'),\n", - " ('- What are the differences between comets, asteroids, and meteoroids?',\n", - " \"Comets are mostly ice and have long tails that point away from the sun, while asteroids are rocky or metallic and have orbits closer to the ecliptic. Meteoroids are small debris that enter Earth's atmosphere and are observed as meteors or shooting stars.\"),\n", - " ('- Which discoveries led to the development of the internet?',\n", - " 'The key discoveries that led to the development of the internet include the creation of the IP address system, the development of TCP/IP protocols for network communication, packet switching, and the development of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.'),\n", - " (\"- How do tectonic plates interact and influence Earth's geography?\",\n", - " \"Tectonic plates interact and influence Earth's geography through movement at plate boundaries, creating mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridges, and oceanic trenches. The movement of plates is driven by heat from the mantle, which creates convection currents in the asthenosphere that transfer heat to the surface. Plate tectonics is a theory of geology that explains the movement of the Earth's lithosphere, which is divided into plates. There are seven major plates and many minor plates. Continental and oceanic plates differ in thickness and composition.\"),\n", - " ('- What factors contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire?',\n", - " 'The fall of the Roman Empire was caused by various factors such as the split of the empire into eastern and western parts, invasion by barbarians, political instability, and economic troubles. Other factors that contributed to the fall of the Roman empire are the rise of Islam, the Black Death, and better farming technology.'),\n", - " ('- Can you list some of the most notable inventions of the Renaissance period?',\n", - " 'Notable inventions and inventors of the Renaissance period include the Gutenberg printing press, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Thomas More, Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.'),\n", - " ('- What are the basic principles of the theory of relativity?',\n", - " 'The basic principles of the theory of relativity are that the laws of physics are the same for all observers, the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum, and the principle of equivalence, which states that gravitational acceleration and acceleration due to motion are indistinguishable from each other. These principles form the basis for the idea of space-time, which combines space and time into a single four-dimensional entity.'),\n", - " ('- How did the Industrial Revolution change society and the economy?',\n", - " 'The Industrial Revolution changed society and the economy by introducing new manufacturing processes, machinery, and technologies that transformed the way goods were produced and distributed. It led to the growth of cities, the rise of industrial capitalists, and the expansion of markets. It also brought about significant changes in social and working conditions, including the rise of the labor movement and the emergence of new social classes. Overall, the Industrial Revolution created a new way of life and set the stage for modern industrial economies.'),\n", - " ('- What roles do neurotransmitters play in the human brain?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- Who were the leaders of the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers during World War II?',\n", - " 'The leaders of the Axis Powers during World War II were Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany, Benito Mussolini of the Kingdom of Italy, and Emperor Hirohito of the Empire of Japan. The leaders of the Allied Powers during World War II varied by country, but some of the key leaders included President Franklin D. Roosevelt and later President Harry S. Truman of the United States, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United Kingdom, Premier Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek of China, Charles de Gaulle of France, and Władysław Sikorski of Poland.'),\n", - " ('- What are the main characteristics of Gothic architecture?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- Can you trace the evolution of the modern Olympic Games?',\n", - " \"The modern Olympic Games were first held in Athens, Greece in 1896 with the largest international participation in any sporting event to that date. The International Olympic Committee was also instituted during this congress. The idea for a multi-national and multi-sport event was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin, who put together a group at the Sorbonne in Paris to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries. After the proposal's acceptance by the congress, a date for the first modern Olympic Games was chosen for 1896, with Athens as the host city. The opening ceremony had an estimated 80,000 spectators and the athletics events had the most international field of any of the sports, with the marathon being held for the first time in international competition.\"),\n", - " ('- What were the major accomplishments of the ancient Egyptian civilization?',\n", - " 'The major accomplishments of the ancient Egyptian civilization include developing a society that relied on the Nile River for irrigation and agriculture, creating a system of writing in hieroglyphs, building famous pyramids and other monumental architecture, making significant advancements in military technology, and developing a religion that encouraged respect for their rulers and their past.'),\n", - " ('What is the significance of the double helix structure in DNA?',\n", - " 'The double helix structure in DNA is significant because it allows for accurate replication through semi-conservative replication and DNA polymerases, as well as DNA repair through various mechanisms in cells.'),\n", - " (\"- How do tectonic plates influence the Earth's geography?\",\n", - " \"Tectonic plates influence Earth's geography by creating mountains, earthquakes, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches depending on the way the plates are moving.\"),\n", - " ('- Can you describe the process of photosynthesis in plants?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What role did Marie Curie play in the discovery of radioactivity?',\n", - " 'Unable to answer question'),\n", - " ('- How did the Space Race impact advancements in technology?',\n", - " 'Agent stopped due to iteration limit or time limit.'),\n", - " ('- What are the primary differences between the Baroque and Classical music periods?',\n", - " 'The Baroque period was characterized by a more ornate and complex style, while the Classical period was known for its simplicity and symmetry. Classical musicians focused on musical analysis and harmony and counterpoint. The greatest composers of the Baroque period include Claudio Monteverdi, Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Sebastian Bach, and George Frideric Handel, while the greatest composers of the Classical period include Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven.')]" - ] - }, - "execution_count": 87, - "metadata": {}, - "output_type": "execute_result" - } - ], - "source": [ - "question_answer_pairs" - ] - }, - { - "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 88, + "execution_count": 36, "id": "b8ea3f6a", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "83" + "(10,\n", + " [('1. What is the difference between a virus and a bacteria?',\n", + " 'A virus is a small infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of other organisms, while bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can reproduce on their own and can survive in a variety of environments.'),\n", + " ('2. Who composed the musical Cats?',\n", + " 'Andrew Lloyd Webber composed the musical Cats.'),\n", + " ('3. How does the digestive system work?',\n", + " 'The digestive system works by breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body, starting in the mouth and ending with elimination of waste through the rectum and anus.'),\n", + " ('4. What are some major constellations visible in the night sky?',\n", + " 'Some major constellations that can be seen in the night sky include Orion, Ursa Major (also known as the Big Dipper), Cassiopeia, Leo, Scorpius, and Taurus.'),\n", + " ('5. Who discovered penicillin?',\n", + " 'Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.')])" ] }, - "execution_count": 88, + "execution_count": 36, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } ], "source": [ - "len(question_answer_pairs)" + "len(question_answer_pairs), question_answer_pairs[:5]" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 93, + "execution_count": 37, "id": "1cf3c9e1", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ - "# Build a prompt to provide the original query, the result and ask to summarise for the user\n", + "# Build a prompt to provide the original query, the result and ask to evaluate for the user\n", "gpt_evaluator_system = '''You are WikiGPT, a helpful Wikipedia expert.\n", "You will be presented with general knowledge questions our users have asked.\n", "\n", @@ -1597,7 +3047,7 @@ " - If the answer was provided but was incorrect, you will say \"Incorrect\" \n", "- If none of these rules are met, say \"Unable to evaluate\"\n", "\n", - "Evaluation can only be \"Correct\", \"Incorrect\", and \"Unable to evaluate\"\n", + "Evaluation can only be \"Correct\", \"Incorrect\", \"Unable to answer\", and \"Unable to evaluate\"\n", "\n", "Example 1:\n", "\n", @@ -1617,17 +3067,18 @@ "\n", "Begin!'''\n", "\n", + "# We'll provide our evaluator the questions and answers we've generated and get it to evaluate them as one of our four evaluation categories.\n", "gpt_evaluator_message = '''\n", - "Question: QUESTION_HERE\n", + "Question: {question}\n", "\n", - "Answer: ANSWER_HERE\n", + "Answer: {answer}\n", "\n", "Evaluation:'''" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 94, + "execution_count": 38, "id": "8a351793", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], @@ -1637,27 +3088,34 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 95, + "execution_count": 39, "id": "3b286e5f", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "for pair in question_answer_pairs:\n", " \n", - " message = gpt_evaluator_message.replace('QUESTION_HERE',pair[0]).replace('ANSWER_HERE',pair[1])\n", - " evaluation = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model='gpt-3.5-turbo',messages=[{\"role\":\"system\",\"content\":gpt_evaluator_system},{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":message}],temperature=0)\n", - " #print(evaluation)\n", + " message = gpt_evaluator_message.format(question=pair[0]\n", + " ,answer=pair[1])\n", + " evaluation = openai.ChatCompletion.create(model=CHAT_MODEL\n", + " ,messages=[{\"role\":\"system\",\"content\":gpt_evaluator_system}\n", + " ,{\"role\":\"user\",\"content\":message}]\n", + " ,temperature=0)\n", " \n", - " evaluation_output.append((pair[0],pair[1],evaluation['choices'][0]['message']['content']))" + " evaluation_output.append((pair[0]\n", + " ,pair[1]\n", + " ,evaluation['choices'][0]['message']['content']))" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 97, + "execution_count": 40, "id": "f18678e0", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ + "# We'll smooth the results for a simpler evaluation matrix\n", + "# In a real scenario we would take time and tune our prompt/add few shot examples to ensure consistent output from the evaluation step\n", "def collate_results(x):\n", " text = x.lower()\n", " \n", @@ -1671,20 +3129,19 @@ }, { "cell_type": "code", - "execution_count": 98, + "execution_count": 41, "id": "cd29fc90", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ - "correct 50\n", - "unable to answer 28\n", - "incorrect 5 \n", + "correct 9\n", + "unable to answer 1\n", "Name: evaluation, dtype: int64" ] }, - "execution_count": 98, + "execution_count": 41, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } @@ -1704,11 +3161,11 @@ "source": [ "#### Analysis\n", "\n", - "We ended up with a 60% first hit rate, which isn't great, but we've got a baseline to work from.\n", + "Depending on how GPT did here you may have actually gotten some good responses, but in all likelihood in the real world you'll end up with incorrect or unable to answer results, and will need to tune your search, LLM or another aspect of the pipeline.\n", "\n", - "Our remediation plan could be as follows:\n", + "Your remediation plan could be as follows:\n", "- **Incorrect answers:** Either prompt engineering to help the model work out how to answer better (maybe even a bigger model like GPT-4), or search optimisation to return more relevant chunks. Chunking/embedding changes may help this as well - larger chunks may give more context, allowing the model to formulate a better answer.\n", - "- **Unable to answer:** This is either a retrieval problem, or the data doesn't exist in our knowledge base. We can prompt engineer to classify questions that are \"out-of-bounds\", or we can tune our search so the relevant data is returned.\n", + "- **Unable to answer:** This is either a retrieval problem, or the data doesn't exist in our knowledge base. We can prompt engineer to classify questions that are \"out-of-bounds\" and give the user a stock reply, or we can tune our search so the relevant data is returned.\n", "\n", "This is the framework we'll build on to get our knowledge retrieval solution to production - again, log everything and store each run down to a question level so you can track regressions and iterate towards your production solution." ] @@ -1720,9 +3177,7 @@ "source": [ "## Conclusion\n", "\n", - "This concludes our Enterprise Knowledge Retrieval walkthrough. We hope you've found it useful, and that you're now in a position to scale your knowledge retrieval solutions into production confidently.\n", - "\n", - "Let us know what you think, and if you have any questions that you'd like answered then please sign up for the Q&A webinar [here](link TBD)." + "This concludes our Enterprise Knowledge Retrieval walkthrough. We hope you've found it useful, and that you're now in a position to build enterprise knowledge retrieval solutions, and have a few tricks to start you down the road of putting them into production." ] } ],