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<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en-us" data-reactroot=""><head><title>Hacking, Cryptography, and the Countdown to Quantum Computing | The New Yorker</title><meta charset="utf-8"><meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" value="IE=edge"><meta name="msapplication-tap-highlight" value="no"><meta name="viewport" value="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"><meta name="author" value="Alex Hutchinson"><meta name="copyright" value="Copyright (c) Condé Nast 2021"><meta name="description" value="Alex Hutchinson reports on a workshop in Toronto that explored how information-security experts will prepare for the advent of quantum computing."><meta name="id" value="5924f12d9d80dc1acda75fce"><meta name="keywords" value="annals of technology,cryptography,quantum computing,yahoo,security,web"><meta name="news_keywords" value="annals of technology,cryptography,quantum computing,yahoo,security,web"><meta name="robots" value="index, follow, max-image-preview:large"><meta name="content-type" value="article"><meta name="parsely-post-id" value="5924f12d9d80dc1acda75fce"><meta name="parsely-metadata" value="{"description":"Alex Hutchinson reports on a workshop in Toronto that explored how information-security experts will prepare for the advent of quantum computing.","image-16-9":"https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/16:9/w_1000,c_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg","image-1-1":"https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/1:1/w_1000,c_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg"}"><meta value="In a decade, events like the recent data breach at Yahoo could become much more common, driven by a new kind of machine." name="og:description"><meta value="https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/16:9/w_1280,c_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg" name="og:image"><meta value="The New Yorker" name="og:site_name"><meta value="Schrödinger’s Hack" name="og:title"><meta value="article" name="og:type"><meta value="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/hacking-cryptography-and-the-countdown-to-quantum-computing" name="og:url"><meta value="metered" name="article:content_tier"><meta value="false" name="article:opinion"><meta http-equiv="content-language" value="en-us"><meta value="summary_large_image" name="twitter:card"><meta value="@NewYorker" name="twitter:creator"><meta value="In a decade, events like the recent data breach at Yahoo could become much more common, driven by a new kind of machine." name="twitter:description"><meta value="https://www.newyorker.com" name="twitter:domain"><meta value="https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/16:9/w_1280,c_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg?mbid=social_retweet" name="twitter:image:src"><meta value="@NewYorker" name="twitter:site"><meta value="Schrödinger’s Hack" name="twitter:title"><meta value="1147169538698836" name="fb:app_id"><meta value="9258148868" name="fb:pages"><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/hacking-cryptography-and-the-countdown-to-quantum-computing"><link rel="stylesheet" href="https://www.newyorker.com/verso/static/the-new-yorker/styles.min.css"><link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://www.newyorker.com/verso/static/the-new-yorker/assets/favicon.ico" type="image/x-icon"><link rel="amphtml" href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/hacking-cryptography-and-the-countdown-to-quantum-computing/amp"><link rel="preload" href="https://cdn.cookielaw.org/scripttemplates/otSDKStub.js" as="script"><link rel="preload" href="https://cdn.cookielaw.org/opt-out/otCCPAiab.js" as="script">
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class="page__main-content"><article class="article main-content"><div class="lede-background"><header class="content-header content-header--align-left content-header--media-smallrule content-header--position-above content-header__nav-spacing--padding-top-xs article__content-header content-header__caption-style--default content-header--publish-date-bottom"><div class="content-header__container content-header__container-theme-standard"><div class="content-header__row content-header__title-block"><div class="content-header__rubric-block" data-testid="ContentHeaderRubric"><div class="content-header__rubric-date-block"><div class="sc-gIvpCV fHEinq rubric content-header__rubric content-header__rubric--with-no-padding"><a class="sc-dFRpvv eTInXE rubric__link" href="https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology"><span class="sc-csTaMs dugqNO">Annals of Technology</span></a></div></div></div><h1 class="content-header__row content-header__hed" data-testid="ContentHeaderHed">Hacking, Cryptography, and the Countdown to Quantum Computing</h1></div><div class="content-header__row content-header__accreditation content-header__accreditation-without-dek content-header__accreditation--without-lede content-header__row--with-bottom-border"><div class="content-header__row content-header__byline"><div class="content-header__byline__content"><div data-testid="BylinesWrapper" class="sc-iCoHVE sc-Gvgqn inZljn fvMmpR bylines content-header__bylines content-header__bylines--with-publish-date"><p class="sc-dsXyEt kKGUrs byline bylines__byline byline--author" data-testid="BylineWrapper" itemprop="author" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"><span class="sc-iCoHVE sc-fujyUd sc-jQAyEw inZljn hErgeG cBUwUx byline__preamble">By </span><span itemprop="name" class="sc-fcmNTy eXNXqu"><span class="sc-daBvwG jOzHBa byline__name"><a class="sc-iCoHVE sc-fujyUd sc-pNWxx sc-jUfxsr inZljn YjvgJ hJIyPe iwBsUM byline__name-link" href="https://www.newyorker.com/contributors/alex-hutchinson">Alex 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sc-fKgIGh jChTxA iyFXyq cAkOVh"><div>Save this story for later.</div></div></div></ul></div></div><div class="sc-kYQaHc gQtfxQ"></div></div></aside></header></div><div class="content-background content-padding-top-large" data-attribute-verso-pattern="article-body"><div class=""><div class="article__chunks article__chunks--without-top-spacing-content-well article__chunks--hr-style-thin"><div class="grid grid-margins grid-items-2 grid-layout--adrail narrow wide-adrail"><div class="grid--item body body__container article__body grid-layout__content"><inline-embed name="dropcap" attrs="[object Object]" childtypes=""><p class="has-dropcap has-dropcap__lead-standard-heading">Given the recent ubiquity of cyber-scandals—Colin Powell’s stolen e-mails, Simone Biles’s leaked medical records, half a billion <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/a-hack-to-yahoos-shrunken-reputation">plundered Yahoo accounts</a>—you might get the impression that hackers can already break into just about any computer they want. But the situation could be a lot worse. The encryption methods that protect everything from online shopping to diplomatic communications remain effectively impregnable when properly implemented, even if, in practice, there are frequent breaches—<a href="http://www.newyorker.com/news/john-cassidy/its-time-to-let-edward-snowden-come-home">whistle-blowers</a>, careless clicks, and so on. This relatively happy state of affairs will not, however, endure. Scientists around the world are inching toward the development of a fully functioning quantum computer, a new type of machine that would, on its first day of operation, be capable of cracking the Internet’s most widely used codes. Precisely when that day will arrive is unclear, but it could be in as little as ten years. Experts call the countdown Y2Q: “years to quantum.”</p></inline-embed><div class="callout callout--inset-right callout--has-top-border callout--content-type--asset-embed callout--content-type--image inset-embedded-lede"><figure class="asset-embed"><div class="asset-embed__asset-container"><span class="responsive-asset asset-embed__responsive-asset responsive-asset--invisible"><picture class="asset-embed__responsive-asset responsive-image"><noscript><img alt="In a laboratory in Shanghai researchers work on developing a quantum computera new kind of machine that could make..." class="responsive-image__image" src="https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_2560%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg%202560w,%20https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_1280%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg%201280w,%20https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_1280%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg%201280w,%20https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_1024%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg%201024w,%20https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_360%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg%20360w" srcset="https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_2560%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg 2560w, https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_1280%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg 1280w, https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_1024%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg 1024w, https://media.newyorker.com/photos/59097a5e8b51cf59fc4239f5/master/w_360%2Cc_limit/Hutchinson-Quantum-Computing.jpg 360w" sizes="100vw"></noscript></picture></span></div><figcaption class="sc-iCoHVE sc-bkbjAj inZljn iROmkh caption asset-embed__caption"><span class="sc-iCoHVE sc-fujyUd sc-iemXMA inZljn hIIqRy gILDrK caption__text">In a laboratory in Shanghai, researchers work on developing a quantum computer—a new kind of machine that could make hacking much more common.</span><span class="sc-iCoHVE sc-fujyUd sc-dIvqjp inZljn gCqeRK kbWtWO caption__credit">Zhejiang Daily / AP</span></figcaption></figure></div><p>This looming but uncertain deadline hovered in the air at the Hilton Toronto last week, where government officials, cyber-security researchers, and representatives from companies like Amazon, Microsoft, and Intel gathered for <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.etsi.org/news-events/events/1072-ws-on-quantumsafe-2016"}" href="http://www.etsi.org/news-events/events/1072-ws-on-quantumsafe-2016" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">an international workshop</a> on “quantum-safe cryptography.” Michele Mosca, a professor at the University of Waterloo’s Institute for Quantum Computing and the co-host of the workshop, pegged the odds of reaching Y2Q by 2026 at one in seven, rising to one in two by 2031. But the exact date doesn’t really matter, because the time needed to invent, battle-test, standardize, and roll out new security algorithms Internet-wide might be just as long. Brian LaMacchia, the head of security and cryptography at Microsoft Research, has a working estimate of 2030. “The people who try to build quantum computers, who sit on the floor upstairs from me, said fifteen years last year,” he told me. “So I said, O.K., let’s work backwards from that. And I’m out of time.”</p><p>Classical computers encode information as a series of bits, which can be either 0 or 1, and then manipulate those bits according to simple rules. A quantum computer isn’t just a faster or better classical computer; it’s fundamentally different. Instead of bits, it stores information as qubits, which can be 0, 1, or both at once. That’s a consequence of the quantum-mechanical property of <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.physics.org/article-questions.asp?id=124"}" href="http://www.physics.org/article-questions.asp?id=124" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">superposition</a>, which allows physical objects to exist in multiple states, or even be in different places, at one time. Thus, two qubits can represent four states simultaneously (00, 01, 10, 11), and a hundred qubits can represent 1.3 quadrillion quadrillion. This quantum peculiarity allows the computer to find patterns in huge data sets very quickly—to get detailed information about a forest without looking at all the trees, as Mosca put it. The main mathematical challenge in breaking current codes is factoring very large numbers, which for classical computers is the equivalent of trying combination after combination to see if it opens a lock. As the keys get longer, the locks get tougher. It took about two years on hundreds of computers to unlock a single instance of the RSA-768 algorithm, which, as its name suggests, requires a key that is seven hundred and sixty-eight bits long. Doing the same for its more secure cousin, RSA-1024, would take about a thousand times longer, and RSA-4096 is effectively out of reach. A quantum computer, on the other hand, would tackle such problems effortlessly.</p><div class="ad ad--in-content"><div class="ad__slot ad__slot--in-content"></div></div><p>When quantum computing was first proposed, in the nineteen-eighties, it was mostly a theoretical curiosity. That changed in 1994, when Peter Shor, then at A.T. & T.’s Bell Labs, demonstrated how it could apply to cryptography. Once the significance of Shor’s work became clear, the race to actually build a quantum computer became one of the hottest tickets in physics. Among the biggest players was the U.S. government, which by 2007 was spending about <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://walrusmagazine.com/articles/2007.09--quantum-computing/"}" href="http://walrusmagazine.com/articles/2007.09--quantum-computing/" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">sixty million dollars a year</a> on quantum-computing research. It didn’t just want to build one; it also needed to know whether anyone else was getting close. After all, top-secret messages sent today could still be embarrassing or dangerous if they were intercepted and stored, then decrypted by a device built a decade from now.</p><div class="cne-interlude-embed"></div><p>So far, the best quantum computers have just a handful of qubits—<a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/49661.wss"}" href="https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/49661.wss" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">five</a>, for example, in a system that I.B.M. announced earlier this year. The company expects to scale up to between fifty and a hundred qubits within the next decade, which would be powerful but still short of the thousand or so that LaMacchia estimates would represent a serious cryptographic threat. (D-Wave Systems, a Canadian company that caused a stir when it <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.dwavesys.com/press-releases/d-wave-systems-announces-general-availability-1000-qubit-d-wave-2x-quantum-computer"}" href="http://www.dwavesys.com/press-releases/d-wave-systems-announces-general-availability-1000-qubit-d-wave-2x-quantum-computer" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">announced</a> a thousand-qubit computer last year, uses an alternative approach to quantum computing that isn’t suitable for code-breaking.) This may sound like painfully modest progress after two decades, but it has been steady enough in the past few years to shift the underlying question from if to when.</p><div class="consumer-marketing-unit consumer-marketing-unit--article-mid-content consumer-marketing-unit--no-failsafe" role="presentation" aria-hidden="true"><div class="consumer-marketing-unit__slot consumer-marketing-unit__slot--article-mid-content consumer-marketing-unit__slot--in-content"></div><div class="journey-unit"></div></div><p>The “Y2Q” handle makes explicit the parallels between the quantum threat and the <a href="http://archives.newyorker.com/?i=1999-12-13#folio=086">Y2K bug</a>, which, at the turn of the millennium, was supposed to make the world’s computers think it was 1900 again, bringing civilization to a grinding halt. In the popular imagination, Y2K has become a punch line, a prophecy of doom unfulfilled, like the Maya calendar turned out to be in 2012. But for many of the people at the cryptography workshop—those responsible for establishing international standards for safe computing or signing off on data-security protocols for hundred-billion-dollar companies—Y2K was a relatively minor event only because the hysteria that preceded it mobilized <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/features/2009/apocalypse_then/was_y2k_a_waste.html"}" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/features/2009/apocalypse_then/was_y2k_a_waste.html" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">an estimated three hundred to five hundred billion dollars</a> in preventive action by governments and corporations. So far, Y2Q has failed to generate quite that level of interest.</p><p>One big difference is that it was clear, if inconvenient, what needed to be done to avoid Y2K. The best way to ward off a quantum attack, on the other hand, is still very much up for debate. The simplest approach is basically mathematical: come up with new encryption algorithms that quantum computers can’t break. That doesn’t require big changes in technology, but it’s very hard to know for sure which algorithms will be resistant, until they fail. The other approach is to directly harness the weirdness of quantum mechanics; since the mere act of observing a quantum system freezes it in one state, you can construct sophisticated communications links where it’s impossible, even in theory, to eavesdrop on the message without destroying it or betraying your presence. This approach sounds great, but is far harder (and more expensive) to implement.</p><p>Both approaches have been making progress in the real world over the past few months. China, for instance, has <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2016-08/26/content_26628045.htm"}" href="http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2016-08/26/content_26628045.htm" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">nearly completed</a> a twelve-hundred-mile fibre-optic “quantum backbone” that will link Shanghai and Beijing, allowing signals to travel from one end to the other without losing their quantum properties. And the world’s first quantum satellite, <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-latest-leap-forward-isnt-just-greatits-quantum-1471269555"}" href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-latest-leap-forward-isnt-just-greatits-quantum-1471269555" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">launched from the Gobi Desert</a> in August, will allow the country to send fully quantum-encrypted messages over much longer distances. For most of the companies and other governments represented at the workshop, though, quantum-resistant algorithms remain the focus. In July, Google <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"https://security.googleblog.com/2016/07/experimenting-with-post-quantum.html"}" href="https://security.googleblog.com/2016/07/experimenting-with-post-quantum.html" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">announced</a> that it would test a candidate algorithm dubbed New Hope in a small fraction of Chrome browsers. Soon afterward, the National Institute of Standards and Technology <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/post-quantum-crypto/"}" href="http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/post-quantum-crypto/" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">put out a public call</a> for input on how it should evaluate such algorithms in the future. The organization may be ready to issue standards in draft form, a <em class="small">NIST</em> cryptographer at the workshop estimated, by 2022 or 2023. Some members of the crowd reacted with audible consternation.</p><p>In a sense, then, the fundamental question isn’t whether we should do something to prepare for Y2Q. It’s how we balance the seeming necessity of doing something right now with the inconvenient fact that we don’t yet know what to do. The most persuasive answer to this dilemma came from Vadim Makarov, an exuberantly bearded, Hagrid-like figure who heads the University of Waterloo’s Quantum Hacking Lab. He and his colleagues work with companies to test their quantum-cryptography systems before they go public, and have demonstrated that even “theoretically perfect” setups can be hacked when they’re actually implemented—for example, by <a class="external-link" data-event-click="{"element":"ExternalLink","outgoingURL":"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100829/full/news.2010.436.html"}" href="http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100829/full/news.2010.436.html" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank">blinding</a> the receiving device with a bright laser that makes it unable to distinguish between quantum and classical signals. Such vulnerabilities may suggest that quantum-safe systems aren’t yet ready for prime time, but Makarov, during a panel discussion, drew the opposite conclusion. “It’s a bit of chicken-and-an-egg problem,” he said in a thick Russian accent. It will be impossible to know which systems can resist attacks until they’re out there, in the real world, inviting attacks. Waiting for a perfect solution just brings the arrival of a quantum computer closer and closer, at which point it will be too late to fix things. “So, folks, please deploy more,” Makarov said. “We want real hackers, not the toy ones like me and my students.” He smiled, not quite reassuringly.</p></div><div class="grid--item split-ad-rail grid-layout__aside"><aside class="sc-jhGSUB bMSaMd persistent-aside" style="position:absolute;top:auto;height:auto"><div class="sc-eHEFXm cLceKM sticky-box"><div class="sc-hzUJqN lkiIWD sticky-box__primary"><div class="split-ad-rail-content"><div class="split-ad-rail-top"><div class="sc-eHEFXm cLceKM sticky-box"><div class="sc-hzUJqN lkiIWD sticky-box__primary"><div class="ad ad--rail"><div class="ad__slot ad__slot--rail"></div></div><div class="consumer-marketing-unit consumer-marketing-unit--display-rail consumer-marketing-unit--no-failsafe" role="presentation" aria-hidden="true"><div class="consumer-marketing-unit__slot 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