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<ol class="chapter"><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_0.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Update</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_1.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Introduction</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_2.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Who am I?</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_3.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Writing Rust in Easy English</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_4.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Rust Playground</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_5.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> 🚧 and ⚠️</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_6.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Comments</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_7.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Types</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_8.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Type inference</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_9.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Printing 'hello, world!'</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_10.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Display and debug</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_11.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> Mutability (changing)</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_12.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> The stack, the heap, and pointers</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_13.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> More about printing</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_14.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> Strings</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_15.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> const and static</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_16.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> More on references</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_17.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Mutable references</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_18.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> Giving references to functions</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_19.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> Copy types</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_20.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> Collection types</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_21.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">22.</strong> Vectors</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_22.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">23.</strong> Tuples</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_23.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">24.</strong> Control flow</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_24.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">25.</strong> Structs</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_25.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">26.</strong> Enums</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_26.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">27.</strong> Loops</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_27.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">28.</strong> Implementing structs and enums</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_28.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">29.</strong> Destructuring</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_29.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">30.</strong> References and the dot operator</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_30.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">31.</strong> Generics</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_31.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">32.</strong> Option and Result</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_32.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">33.</strong> Other collections</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_33.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">34.</strong> The ? operator</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_34.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">35.</strong> Traits</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_35.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">36.</strong> Chaining methods</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_36.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">37.</strong> Iterators</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_37.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">38.</strong> Closures</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_38.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">39.</strong> The dbg! macro and .inspect</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_39.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">40.</strong> Types of &amp;str</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_40.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">41.</strong> Lifetimes</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_41.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">42.</strong> Interior mutability</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_42.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">43.</strong> Cow</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_43.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">44.</strong> Type aliases</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_44.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">45.</strong> The todo! macro</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_45.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">46.</strong> Rc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_46.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">47.</strong> Multiple threads</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_47.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">48.</strong> Closures in functions</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_48.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">49.</strong> impl Trait</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_49.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">50.</strong> Arc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_50.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">51.</strong> Channels</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_51.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">52.</strong> Reading Rust documentation</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_52.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">53.</strong> Attributes</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_53.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">54.</strong> Box</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_54.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">55.</strong> Box around traits</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_55.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">56.</strong> Default and the builder pattern</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_56.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">57.</strong> Deref and DerefMut</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_57.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">58.</strong> Crates and modules</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_58.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">59.</strong> Testing</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_59.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">60.</strong> External crates</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_60.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">61.</strong> A tour of the standard library</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_61.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">62.</strong> Writing macros</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_62.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">63.</strong> cargo</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_63.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">64.</strong> Taking user input</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_64.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">65.</strong> Using files</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_65.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">66.</strong> cargo doc</a></li><li class="chapter-item expanded "><a href="Chapter_66.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">67.</strong> The end?</a></li></ol>
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<h2 id="enums"><a class="header" href="#enums">Enums</a></h2>
<p><strong>See this chapter on YouTube: <a href="https://youtu.be/SRnqNTJUgjs">Part 1</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/F_EcbWM63lk">Part 2</a>, <a href="https://youtu.be/2uh64U9JesA">Part 3</a> and <a href="https://youtu.be/LOHVUYTc5Us">Part 4</a></strong></p>
<p>An <code>enum</code> is short for enumerations. They look very similar to a struct, but are different. Here is the difference:</p>
<ul>
<li>Use a <code>struct</code> when you want one thing <strong>AND</strong> another thing.</li>
<li>Use an <code>enum</code> when you want one thing <strong>OR</strong> another thing.</li>
</ul>
<p>So structs are for <strong>many things</strong> together, while enums are for <strong>many choices</strong> together.</p>
<p>To declare an enum, write <code>enum</code> and use a code block with the options, separated by commas. Just like a <code>struct</code>, the last part can have a comma or not. We will create an enum called <code>ThingsInTheSky</code>:</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum ThingsInTheSky {
Sun,
Stars,
}
fn main() {}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This is an enum because you can either see the sun, <strong>or</strong> the stars: you have to choose one. These are called <strong>variants</strong>.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">// create the enum with two choices
enum ThingsInTheSky {
Sun,
Stars,
}
// With this function we can use an i32 to create ThingsInTheSky.
fn create_skystate(time: i32) -&gt; ThingsInTheSky {
match time {
6..=18 =&gt; ThingsInTheSky::Sun, // Between 6 and 18 hours we can see the sun
_ =&gt; ThingsInTheSky::Stars, // Otherwise, we can see stars
}
}
// With this function we can match against the two choices in ThingsInTheSky.
fn check_skystate(state: &amp;ThingsInTheSky) {
match state {
ThingsInTheSky::Sun =&gt; println!(&quot;I can see the sun!&quot;),
ThingsInTheSky::Stars =&gt; println!(&quot;I can see the stars!&quot;)
}
}
fn main() {
let time = 8; // it's 8 o'clock
let skystate = create_skystate(time); // create_skystate returns a ThingsInTheSky
check_skystate(&amp;skystate); // Give it a reference so it can read the variable skystate
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This prints <code>I can see the sun!</code>.</p>
<p>You can add data to an enum too.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum ThingsInTheSky {
Sun(String), // Now each variant has a string
Stars(String),
}
fn create_skystate(time: i32) -&gt; ThingsInTheSky {
match time {
6..=18 =&gt; ThingsInTheSky::Sun(String::from(&quot;I can see the sun!&quot;)), // Write the strings here
_ =&gt; ThingsInTheSky::Stars(String::from(&quot;I can see the stars!&quot;)),
}
}
fn check_skystate(state: &amp;ThingsInTheSky) {
match state {
ThingsInTheSky::Sun(description) =&gt; println!(&quot;{}&quot;, description), // Give the string the name description so we can use it
ThingsInTheSky::Stars(n) =&gt; println!(&quot;{}&quot;, n), // Or you can name it n. Or anything else - it doesn't matter
}
}
fn main() {
let time = 8; // it's 8 o'clock
let skystate = create_skystate(time); // create_skystate returns a ThingsInTheSky
check_skystate(&amp;skystate); // Give it a reference so it can read the variable skystate
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This prints the same thing: <code>I can see the sun!</code></p>
<p>You can also &quot;import&quot; an enum so you don't have to type so much. Here's an example where we have to type <code>Mood::</code> every time we match on our mood:</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Mood {
Happy,
Sleepy,
NotBad,
Angry,
}
fn match_mood(mood: &amp;Mood) -&gt; i32 {
let happiness_level = match mood {
Mood::Happy =&gt; 10, // Here we type Mood:: every time
Mood::Sleepy =&gt; 6,
Mood::NotBad =&gt; 7,
Mood::Angry =&gt; 2,
};
happiness_level
}
fn main() {
let my_mood = Mood::NotBad;
let happiness_level = match_mood(&amp;my_mood);
println!(&quot;Out of 1 to 10, my happiness is {}&quot;, happiness_level);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>It prints <code>Out of 1 to 10, my happiness is 7</code>. Let's import so we can type less. To import everything, write <code>*</code>. Note: it's the same key as <code>*</code> for dereferencing but is completely different.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Mood {
Happy,
Sleepy,
NotBad,
Angry,
}
fn match_mood(mood: &amp;Mood) -&gt; i32 {
use Mood::*; // We imported everything in Mood. Now we can just write Happy, Sleepy, etc.
let happiness_level = match mood {
Happy =&gt; 10, // We don't have to write Mood:: anymore
Sleepy =&gt; 6,
NotBad =&gt; 7,
Angry =&gt; 2,
};
happiness_level
}
fn main() {
let my_mood = Mood::Happy;
let happiness_level = match_mood(&amp;my_mood);
println!(&quot;Out of 1 to 10, my happiness is {}&quot;, happiness_level);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>Parts of an <code>enum</code> can also be turned into an integer. That's because Rust gives each arm of an <code>enum</code> a number that starts with 0 for its own use. You can do things with it if your enum doesn't have any other data in it.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Season {
Spring, // If this was Spring(String) or something it wouldn't work
Summer,
Autumn,
Winter,
}
fn main() {
use Season::*;
let four_seasons = vec![Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter];
for season in four_seasons {
println!(&quot;{}&quot;, season as u32);
}
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This prints:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">0
1
2
3
</code></pre>
<p>Though you can give it a different number, if you want - Rust doesn't care and can use it in the same way. Just add an <code>=</code> and your number to the variant that you want to have a number. You don't have to give all of them a number. But if you don't, Rust will just add 1 from the arm before to give it a number.</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Star {
BrownDwarf = 10,
RedDwarf = 50,
YellowStar = 100,
RedGiant = 1000,
DeadStar, // Think about this one. What number will it have?
}
fn main() {
use Star::*;
let starvec = vec![BrownDwarf, RedDwarf, YellowStar, RedGiant];
for star in starvec {
match star as u32 {
size if size &lt;= 80 =&gt; println!(&quot;Not the biggest star.&quot;), // Remember: size doesn't mean anything. It's just a name we chose so we can print it
size if size &gt;= 80 =&gt; println!(&quot;This is a good-sized star.&quot;),
_ =&gt; println!(&quot;That star is pretty big!&quot;),
}
}
println!(&quot;What about DeadStar? It's the number {}.&quot;, DeadStar as u32);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This prints:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">Not the biggest star.
Not the biggest star.
This is a good-sized star.
This is a good-sized star.
What about DeadStar? It's the number 1001.
</code></pre>
<p><code>DeadStar</code> would have been number 4, but now it's 1001.</p>
<h3 id="enums-to-use-multiple-types"><a class="header" href="#enums-to-use-multiple-types">Enums to use multiple types</a></h3>
<p>You know that items in a <code>Vec</code>, array, etc. all need the same type (only tuples are different). But you can actually use an enum to put different types in. Imagine we want to have a <code>Vec</code> with <code>u32</code>s or <code>i32</code>s. Of course, you can make a <code>Vec&lt;(u32, i32)&gt;</code> (a vec with <code>(u32, i32)</code> tuples) but we only want one each time. So here you can use an enum. Here is a simple example:</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Number {
U32(u32),
I32(i32),
}
fn main() {}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>So there are two variants: the <code>U32</code> variant with a <code>u32</code> inside, and the <code>I32</code> variant with <code>i32</code> inside. <code>U32</code> and <code>I32</code> are just names we made. They could have been <code>UThirtyTwo</code> or <code>IThirtyTwo</code> or anything else.</p>
<p>Now, if we put them into a <code>Vec</code> we just have a <code>Vec&lt;Number&gt;</code>, and the compiler is happy because it's all the same type. The compiler doesn't care that we have either <code>u32</code> or <code>i32</code> because they are all inside a single type called <code>Number</code>. And because it's an enum, you have to pick one, which is what we want. We will use the <code>.is_positive()</code> method to pick. If it's <code>true</code> then we will choose <code>U32</code>, and if it's <code>false</code> then we will choose <code>I32</code>.</p>
<p>Now the code looks like this:</p>
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust">enum Number {
U32(u32),
I32(i32),
}
fn get_number(input: i32) -&gt; Number {
let number = match input.is_positive() {
true =&gt; Number::U32(input as u32), // change it to u32 if it's positive
false =&gt; Number::I32(input), // otherwise just give the number because it's already i32
};
number
}
fn main() {
let my_vec = vec![get_number(-800), get_number(8)];
for item in my_vec {
match item {
Number::U32(number) =&gt; println!(&quot;It's a u32 with the value {}&quot;, number),
Number::I32(number) =&gt; println!(&quot;It's an i32 with the value {}&quot;, number),
}
}
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This prints what we wanted to see:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">It's an i32 with the value -800
It's a u32 with the value 8
</code></pre>
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